Animal Physiology PDF

Biyani's Think Tank
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Animal Physiology
&
Biochemistry
(B.Sc. Part-II)
Abhilasha
Shikha Mathur
Lecturer
Deptt. of Science
Biyani Girls College, Jaipur
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Published by :
Think Tanks
Biyani Group of Colleges
Concept & Copyright :

Biyani Shikshan Samiti
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Edition : 2012
While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any
mistake or omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of
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any kind arising to anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.
Leaser Type Setted by :

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Animal Physiology and Biochemistry 3
Preface
I am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs

of the students. The book has been written keeping in mind the general
weakness in understanding the fundamental concepts of the topics. The
book is self-explanatory and adopts the “Teach Yourself” style. It is based on
question-answer pattern. The language of book is quite easy and understandable
based on scientific approach.
Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections,
omission and inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the
readers for which the author shall be obliged.
I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chairman & Dr. Sanjay
Biyani, Director (Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who are the backbones and
main concept provider and also have been constant source of motivation
throughout this Endeavour. They played an active role in coordinating the various
stages of this Endeavour and spearheaded the publishing work.
I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various
educational institutions, other faculty members and students for improvement of
the quality of the book. The reader may feel free to send in their comments and
suggestions to the under mentioned address.
Author
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Contents
S. No Chapter Name
1 Osmoregulation
2 Digestion ,Nervous system and Excretion
3 Circulation and Endocrinal glands
4 Respiration
5 Muscle Contraction
6 Biochemistry
7 Glossary
8 MCQ
9 Case study
10 Previous question paper
Syllabus
Section-A
Animal Physiology with special reference to mammals
1. Osmoregulation, membrane permeability : active and passive transport across

membrane.
2. Physiology of Digestion : Nature of food-stuff, various types of digestive
enzymes and their digestive action in the alimentary canal.
3. Physiology of Circulation : Composition : Composition and function of blood :
mechanism of blood clotting : heating beat : cardiac cycle : blood pressure: body
temperature regulation
4. Physiology of respiration : Mechanism of breathing : exchanges of gases :
transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood: regulation of respiration.
5. Physiology of Excretion : Kinds of nitrogeneous excretory endproducts
(ammonotelic uricotelic and ureotelic) : role of liver in the formation of these end
prodcuts. Functional architecture of mammaliam kidney tubule and formation of
urine : hormonal regulation of water and electrolyte balance.
Section-B
Regulatory aspect of animals Physiology
1. Physiology of Nerve Impulse and Reflex Action : Functional architecture of a

neuron, origin and propagation of nerve impulse, synaptic transmission : spinal
reflex arc : central control of reflex action.
2. Physiology of Muscle contraction : Functional architecture of skeletal muscle;
chemical and biophysical events during contraction and relaxation of muscle
fibres.
3. Types of Endocrine Glands. Their secretions and Functions : Pituitary, adrenal,
thyroid, islets of Langerhans, testis and overy.
4. Hormonla control of male and female reproduction and iomplantation parturition
and lactations in mammals.
5. Preliminary idea of neurosecretion : Hypothalmic control of pituitary function,
neuroendocrine and endocrine mechanism of Insects.
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Section-C
Biochemistry
1. Carbohydrate : Structure, function and significance.

2. Carbohydrates : Oxidation of glucose through glycolysis. Krebs cycle and
oxidative phosphorylation; elementray knowledge of interconversion of glycogen
and glucose in liver. Role of insulin.
3. Protein : Structure, function and significance.
4. Proteins : Essential and non-essential amino acids, trasnformation of amina acids,
deamintion, transmination, decarboyxlation synthesis of enzymatic protein and
urea, fate of ammonia (Ornithine cycle) : fate of carbon skeleton.
5. Lipids : Structure, function and significance.
1.1 Lipids : beta-oxidative pathway of fatty acid; brief account of

biosynthesis of triglycerides. Cholesterol and its metabolism.
6. Catabolsim and Biosynthesis of nucleic acid.

7. Mineral Metabolism : Ionine Iron Calcium and Zinc
Chapter-1
Osmoregulation
Q-1 What is osmoregulation?

Ans. Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of an
organism's fluids to maintain the homeostasis of the organism's water
content; that is it keeps the organism's fluids from becoming too diluted or
too concentrated. Osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of water
to move into one solution from another by osmosis. The higher the
osmotic pressure of a solution the more water wants to move into the
solution. Pressure must be exerted on the hypertonic side of a selectively
permeable membrane to prevent diffusion of water by osmosis from the
side containing pure water.
Organisms in both aquatic and terrestrial environments must maintain the

right concentration of solute and amount of water in their body fluids; this
involves excretion (getting rid of metabolic wastes and other substances
such as hormones that would be toxic if allowed to accumulate in the
blood via organs such as the skin and the kidneys; keeping the amount of
water and dissolved solutes in balance is referred to as osmoregulation.
Q-2 Describe the adaptations involved in osmoregulation in animals.
Ans- Osmoregulation in protists and animals

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Protist Paramecium aurelia with contractile vacuoles.
Amoeba make use of contractile vacuoles to collect excretory waste, such

as ammonia, from the intracellular fluid by both diffusion and active
transport. As osmotic action pushes water from the environment into the
cytoplasm, the vacuole moves to the surface and disposes the contents
into the environment.
Kidneys play a very large role in human osmoregulation, regulating the

amount of water in urine waste. With the help of hormones such as
antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and angiotensin II, the human body
can increase the permeability of the collecting ducts in the kidney to
reabsorb water and prevent it from being excreted.
A major way animals have evolved to osmoregulate is by controlling the

amount of water excreted through the excretory system.
Vertebrate excretory systems
Waste products of nitrogen metabolism

Ammonia is a toxic by-product of protein metabolism and is generally
converted to less toxic substances after it is produced then excreted;
mammals convert ammonia to urea, whereas birds and reptiles form uric
acid to be excreted with other wastes via their cloacas.
Achieving osmoregulation in vertebrates
Four processes occur:
filtration - fluid portion of blood (plasma) is filtered from a nephron

(functional unit of vertebrate kidney) structure known as the glomerulus
into Bowman's capsule or glomerular capsule (in the kidney's cortex) and
flows down the proximal convoluted tubule to a "u-turn" called the Loop
of Henle (loop of the nephron) in the medulla portion of the kidney.
reabsorption - most of the viscous glomerular filtrate is returned to blood
vessels that surround the convoluted tubules.
secretion - the remaining fluid becomes urine, which travels down

collecting ducts to the medullary region of the kidney.
excretion - the urine (in mammals) is stored in the urinary bladder and
exits via the urethra; in other vertebrates, the urine mixes with other
wastes in the cloaca before leaving the body (frogs also have a urinary
bladder).
Q-3 Write an essay on various factors which control the osmoregulation.

Ans- Osmoregulation is the control of the levels of water and mineral salts in
the blood. It is a homeostatic mechanism. There are three important
homeostatic mechanisms: osmoregulation, thermoregulation and
regulation of blood sugar levels. Homeostasis is important because it
results in our cells being bathed in tissue fluid which has the correct
amount of water, mineral salts, glucose and temperature.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal conditions. My cells

are bathed in a liquid (tissue fluid) which has constant conditions. My
body temperature is always 36 ºC, I am a mammal and I am virtually
never ill. We call this thermoregulation. The amount of glucose in my
blood is constant; my body achieves this using hormones such as insulin,
adrenalin and glucocorticoids; there is no special name for this
mechanism, it is referred to as control or regulation of blood sugar level.
The amounts of water and various mineral salts is also held constant; this
is osmoregulation.
Osmoregulation is very important: our tissues do not lose or gain water by

osmosis because the concentrations of water and salts is the same inside
and outside the cells. The osmotic strength of our blood obviously
depends upon how much glucose and mineral salts it contains as well as
how much water is present; however if we just think about the water and
assume that the amounts of sugar and salts are correct, we will be able to
understand how the brain and kidneys osmoregulate.
1. Dehydration
The hypothalamus detects changes in the amount of water present in the
blood. If there is too little water (the blood is too concentrated) it tells the
pituitary gland to secrete ADH. This hormone has an effect on the kidney;
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ADH makes the kidney re-absorb water from the ultra-filtrate. Higher
levels of ADH make the kidney work harder to reabsorb more and more
water. This results in the production of very small quantities of very
concentrated urine. The result of reabsorbing water is to reduce the
concentration of the blood. By negative feedback the pituitary makes less
ADH.
Summary:
 Too little water in the blood, detected by the hypothalamus.
 More ADH produced by the pituitary gland.
 More water reabsorbed by the kidneys, caused by ADH.
 Blood becomes less concentrated.
 Negative feedback; hypothalamus detects change in blood concentration.
 Pituitary produces less ADH.
 Blood returns to correct osmotic concentration.
2. Waterlogging
The hypothalamus detects that there is too much water in the blood. If the
blood is too dilute, our cells will absorb water by osmosis and become
"waterlogged". Animal cells are in danger of swelling and bursting if they
are placed in a solution which is too dilute. It is very important that the
blood does not become so dilute that our cells are stressed by
waterlogging.
When the blood becomes too dilute, our pituitary glands stop making
ADH. The kidney stops reabsorbing water. Large volumes of very dilute
urine are formed. So you just sit or stand there for a long time when you
need to urinate!!! This is just the opposite of what happens when your
blood is too concentrated. When the concentration of the blood starts to
rise, the pituitary gland starts to make ADH again. This is negative
feedback again. Eventually the concentration of the blood will return to
normal.
Summary:
 Less ADH produced by the pituitary gland.

 Less water reabsorbed by the kidneys, caused by ADH.
 Blood becomes more concentrated.

 Negative feedback; hypothalamus detects change in blood concentration.
 Pituitary produces more ADH.
 Blood returns to correct osmotic concentration.
3. What happens if you drink too much beer?

Beer contains alcohol which is a diuretic. Tea also contains a diuretic.
Diuretics are the opposite of anti-diuretics. The alcohol in your beer makes
you produce lots of urine and this results in your blood becoming very
concentrated. You are likely to end up with a "hangover" if you drink too
much alcohol. The nasty feeling in your head is caused by the effect of the
very concentrated blood on your brain cells. You can stop yourself from
becoming too dehydrated by drinking lots of water. If you know that you
have had too much beer, drink lots of water before you go to bed. You will
have to get up in the middle of the night to get rid of all this extra water;
after you have been to the "loo", drink some more water. Yes, you will
have to get up again but you are less likely to end up dehydrated and
might not feel so bad in the morning.
If you are really clever, you will not drink too much beer in the first place!
4. Water gain:
There are three ways in which your body gets water:
Drinking.
Water content of food.
Tissue respiration.
If your body is dehydrated you will feel thirsty. Your hypothalamus has
detected that your blood is too concentrated: as well as stimulating the
pituitary gland to make ADH, it will stimulate you to drink. However,
you will not be able to drink exactly the right amount of water to get you
blood back to the exact concentration.
How much water you get out of your food depends upon what it is that
you eat and how much you eat. You might end up very fat if you ate
something every time that you felt thirsty. So the water content of you
food does not help you to control your water content. Marine mammals
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cannot drink seawater to replace the water lost in their urine. They rely on
the water in the food they eat; even so they do not eat more to get their
water balance right.
When your cells respire glucose they produce water. How much water is
produced depends upon how active you are. This does not help you to
balance you water content. Camels can get water out of the fat in their
humps by tissue respiration; however this is only temporary. A
dehydrated camel will have a floppy hump. It will replace its water by
drinking as soon as it can.
5. Water loss:
There are several ways in which your body can lose water:
In exhaled air.
By evaporation through moist surfaces like the cornea (eye).
In sweat.
In faeces.
By lactation.
In vomit.
Spitting.
Urination.
Mammals are terrestrial animals and they must conserve water.

Unfortunately we lose water in some rather uncontrolled ways. We cannot
stop breathing even in the desert when it may kill us. Every time we
breathe out we lose water. In a cold climate you can see this happening as
the water vapour in our breath condenses. Water also evaporates through
our skin, we are not 100% waterproof. When we get too hot we start to
sweat, as the water in the sweat evaporates, we cool down. We do not do
this to get rid of excess water.
The colon does not remove all the water from our faeces, so when we
defaecate we lose some water. This is a problem when the colon is infected
by some nasty bacterium. Dysentery is a killer disease, so much water is
lost in the faeces that the body becomes dehydrated.
Some diseases make us vomit. Even if you drink water, because it all come
up again none is absorbed and the body becomes dehydrated. Water is
also lost if you spit.
Where do babies get all their water from? Well, they drink milk. If a
woman breast feeds her baby, she must replace all the water she loses in
her milk, but this does not help her to control her water content. A
lactating woman cannot give her baby more or less milk to help her
control how much water is in her body.
So it all comes down to how much water is lost in the urine. This can be
controlled exactly. You never have to think about it. The hypothalamus
detects the amount of water in the blood, it controls how much ADH is
secreted by the pituitary gland. ADH controls how much water is excreted
by the kidney.
At the beginning we decided to forget about what happens to the sugar

and mineral salts. Other hormones control how much sugar and salts
remain in the blood. If there is too much glucose it can be converted into
glycogen by the liver; if there is too little glucose the liver can convert
glycogen back into glucose. If there are excess salts they can be excreted
by the kidney. The control mechanisms work in just the same way but
usinfg different hormones.
6. Glossary:
Hypothalamus: a region of the brain which monitors the conditions of the
blood; i.e. how much glucose, mineral salts and water are present. It
controls the pituitary gland.
Pituitary Gland: an endocrine gland at the base of the brain, just

underneath the hypothalamus. This gland is sometimes called the master
endocrine gland because it controls all the other endocrine organs in the
body.
Anti-Diuretic Hormone: a hormone (chemical messenger) produced by
the pituitary gland. ADH stimulates the kidney to reabsorb water. The
more ADH there is in the blood the harder the kidney works to reabsorb
water.
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Negative feedback: a control process. When a hormone has had an effect

on its target organ the process of negative feedback can switch the
endocrine organ off. Here is a simple analogy to help you understand
negative feedback.
Positive feedback is the reverse of negative feedback. When we are

having an arguement, we do not really listen to each other. If I raise my
voice to make you listen to me, you react by raising your voice. eventually
we are both shouting at each other. We still don't listen. We start to get
angry. I throw a pot at you and you throw one back. If we are unlucky
positive feedback results in a death. One of us has a heart attack, or we
start hitting each other and one gets killed. Positive feedback always
makes matters worse. Suppose one of us starts to cry, this is a signal to
stop. The other one realises that matters have gone too far and stops
shouting. Then we start to talk instead of shouting. Now it is possible to
listen properly. Instead of killing each other, we listen and things get back
to normal. The crying had a negative feedback effect.
Q-4 Describe the mechanism of primary and secondary active transport.

Ans- Active transport
Active transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration

gradient (from low to high concentration). In all cells, this is usually
concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the
cell needs, such as ions, glucose, and amino acids. If the process uses
chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed
primary active transpot. Secondary active transport involves the use of an
electrochemical gradient. Active transport uses energy, unlike passive
transpot, which does not use any type of energy. Active transport is a
good example of a process for which cells require energy. Examples of
active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans
and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants.
Specialized trans-membrane proteins recognize the substance and allows

it access (or, in the case of secondary transport, expend energy on forcing
it) to cross the membrane when it otherwise would not, either because it is
one to which the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane is impermeable or
because it is moved in the direction of the concentration gradient. The last
case, known as primary active transport, and the proteins involved in it as
pumps, normally uses the chemical energy of ATP. The other cases, which
usually derive their energy through exploitation of an electrochemical
gradient, are known as secondary active transport and involve pore-
forming proteins that form channels through the cell membrane.
Sometimes the system transports one substance in one direction at the

same time as cotransporting another substance in the other direction. This
is called antiport.Symport is the name if two substrates are being
transported in the same direction across the membrane. Antiport and
symport are associated with secondary active transport, meaning that one
of the two substances are transported in the direction of their
concentration gradient utilizing the energy derived from the transport of
the second substance (mostly Na+, K+ or H+) down its concentration
gradient.
Particles moving from areas of low concentration to areas of high

concentration[ (i.e., in the opposite direction as the concentration gradient)
require specific trans-membrane carrier proteins. These proteins have
receptors that bind to specific molecules (e.g., glucose) and thus transport
them into the cell. Because energy is required for this process, it is known
as 'active' transport. Examples of active transport include the
transportation of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the
sodium-potassium pump. Active transport often takes place in the
internal lining of the small intestine.
Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the soil, but these salts exist in
very dilute solution. Active transport enables these cells to take up salts
from this dilute solution against the direction of the concentration
gradient.
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Primary active transport
Example of primary active transport
Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses
energy to transport molecules across a membrane.
Most of the enzymes that perform this type of transport are

transmembrane ATPases. A primary ATPase universal to all alien life is
the sodium-potassium pump, which helps to maintain the cell potential.
Other sources of energy for Primary active transport are redox energy and
photon energy (light). An example of primary active transport using
Redox energy is the mitochondrial electron transport chain that uses the
reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the inner
mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An
example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins
involved in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a
proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and also to create
reduction power in the form of NADPH.
ATP utilizing Primary active transport types
(1) P-type ATPase : Sodium potassium pump, Calcium pump, Proton

pump
(2) F-ATPase : mitochondrial ATP synthase, Chloroplast ATP synthase
(3) V-ATPase : vacuolar ATPase

(4) ABC (ATP Binding Cassette) transporter : MDR, CFTR, etc.
Secondary active transport
Secondary active transport
In secondary active transport or co-transport, uses energy to transport

molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active
transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead, the electrochemical
potential difference created by pumping ions out of the cell is used. [4]
The two main forms of this are antiport and symport.
Antiport
In antiport two species of ion or other solutes are pumped in opposite
directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow
from high to low concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive
the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high
one. An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger or antiporter, which
allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out.
Many cells also possess a calcium ATPase, which can operate at lower
intracellular concentrations of calcium and sets the normal or resting
concentration of this important second messenger. But the ATPase exports
calcium ions more slowly: only 30 per second versus 2000 per second by
the exchanger. The exchanger comes into service when the calcium
concentration rises steeply or "spikes" and enables rapid recovery. This
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shows that a single type of ion can be transported by several enzymes,

which need not be active all the time (constitutively), but may exist to
meet specific, intermittent needs.
Symport
Symport uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to
low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low
concentration to high concentration (against its electrochemical gradient).
An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which co-transports one

glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it
imports into the cell. This symporter is located in the small intestines,
trachea, heart, brain, testis, and prostate. It is also located in the S3
segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys [5]. Its
mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy and defects in
SGLT1 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing familial renal
glucosuria[6].
Q-5 Describe the various functions of Plasma membrane.

Ans- Functions of the Plasma Membrane
"Cell Transport"
The cell's plasma membrane does not simply form a "sack" in

which to keep all the cytoplasm and other cellular organelles. The plasma
membrane is a very important structure which functions to allow certain
substances to enter or leave the cell. It can "pump" other substance into the
cell against the concentration gradient or pump other "wastes" etc. out of
the cell.
Some of the transport process happens "passively" without the cell

needing to expend any energy to make them happen. These processes are
called "passive transport processes".
Other transport processes require energy from the cell's reserves to

"power" them. These processes are called "active transport processes".
Passive Transport Processes

a) Diffusion: definition - is the movement of ions or molecules from

regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. (Down
a concentration gradient)
Diffusion and The Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane will allow certain substances to cross it but not
others! Such a membrane is referred to as "selective permeable" (or
"semipermeable"). The plasma membrane's permeability depends on a
large part on its makeup.
Both the protein portion and the phospholipid portion of the membrane
are involved in the permeability.
Molecules that pass through the phospholipid bilayer easily...

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Hydrophobic
O2, N2
molecules (oil soluble)
Nonpolar benzene
Small uncharged H2O, Urea, glycerol,
Polar molecules CO2
Molecules that don’t pass through the phospholipid bilayer easily...
Large uncharged Glucose

Polar molecules Sucrose
H+ , Na+ , HCO3 ,
Ions (charged)
K+Ca2+ , Cl- , Mg2+
Therefore the three characteristics of a molecule that determine the

permeability of the membrane to that species are . . .
1) polarity - (Hydrophobic vs Hydrophylic)
2) charge - (charged vs uncharged)
3) size - (large vs small)
However: some molecules which we would think (from the above) should
(or should not) cross the plasma membrane do - (or don't) because of the
presence of the membrane proteins.
We shall see that these proteins in the membrane are involved in both
passive and active transport.
Osmosis: A special case - the diffusion of water through a cell membrane.
Definition: Osmosis is the movement of water from a region of high

water concentration to a region of lower water concentration through a
semi permeable membrane.
Animal Cells
Imagine we take a Red Blood Cell (RBC) which has an internal solute
concentration of approximately 0.9% salt (equivalent) and place it in
various solutions of varying salt and concentrations.
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One can now describe the above cases using comparative terms:
"Isotonic"
"Hypertonic"
'Hypotonic"
Definition: the solution that loses the water is "Hypotonic" that solution
that gains the water is "Hypertonic".
NB: One solution is always compared ti the other solution.
i.e. the inside of the cell is "Hyptonic" to the outside if the cell (is cell
shrinks). Or: the outside of the cell is "Hypertonic" to the inside (i.e. cell
shrinks). etc.
Isotonic: Special equilibrium case where there is no net movement of

water.
Plant Cell: "Turgor Pressure"
Plant cells have one extra structure surrounding it, that animal cells lack
the 'cell wall".
If plant cells are exposed to the same conditions as the RBC's the osmotic
reactions are the same but the cell wall prevents swelling and rupture.
Facilitated Diffusion
This is similar to simple diffusion in the sense that it is diffusion (across a

membrane) from a high concentration to a lower concentration. However,
this time the rte of diffusion is greatly accelerated by the action membrane
proteins that act as carrier molecules and aid in diffusion.
These "carrier proteins" are known as "Permeases".

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Protein Channels
Simple diffusion can also be accomplished by the passage of solutes

through "tunnel-like" transmembrane proteins called channel proteins.
Active Transport
These are cell membrane processes that require energy. These processes
are also (as far as we can tell) mediated by membrane carrier molecule.
(Proteins)
"Active Transport" "pumps" materials across the membrane against the

concentration gradient. I.e. from low concentration to high concentration
therefore requires energy.
Other Energy Requiring Process
A. Endocytosis: Large materials transported into the cell.
Endocytosis includes three slightly different processes.

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B. Exocytosis: Material (wastes etc.) are expelled from the cell (recall golgi
vesicles).
Q-6 What is phagocytosis?

Ans- A mechanism by which single cells of the animal kingdom, such as
smaller protozoa, engulf and carry particles into the cytoplasm. It differs
from endocytosis primarily in the size of the particle rather than in the
mechanism; as particles approach the dimensions and solubility of
macromolecules, cells take them up by the process of endocytosis.
Cells such as the free-living amebas or the wandering cells of the metazoa
often can ―sense‖ the direction of a potential food source and move
toward it (chemotaxis). If, when the cell contacts the particle, the particle
has the appropriate chemical composition, or surface charge, it adheres to
the cell. The cell responds by forming a hollow, conelike cytoplasmic
process around the particle, eventually surrounding it completely.
Although the particle is internalized by this sequence of events, it is still
enclosed in a portion of the cell's surface membrane and thus isolated
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from the cell's cytoplasm. The combined particle and membrane package
is referred to as a food or phagocytic vacuole. See also Vacuole.
Ameboid cells of the metazoa also selectively remove foreign particles,

bacteria, and other pathogens by phagocytosis. After the foreign particle
or microorganism is trapped in a vacuole inside the macrophage, it is
usually digested. To accomplish this, small packets (lysosomes) of lytic
proenzymes are introduced into the phagocytic vacuole, where the
enzymes are then dissolved and activated. See also Lysosome.
Chapter-2
Digestion
Q-1 Define food and its components.

Ans. Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the
body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential
nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The
substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's
cells in an effort to produce energy, maintain life, and/or stimulate
growth.
Shows the three food groups and their source

Food group Food containing the
Major nutrient
according to function nutrient
Cereals like rice and
wheat
carbohydrate and
Energy giving Starches like potato.
Fat
Fat-ghee and oil
Sugar
Milk
Meat-Mutton, chiken, fish
Body building Protein Egg white
Pulses, like
dals,gram,soya bean peas
Vegetables specially
green leafy
vegetables like spinach,
Protective Minerals,Vitamins cabbage
and Dietry fibre such as
brinjal,
beans and fruits
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Q.2 How different are intracellular and extracellular digestion? What is the
evolutionary advantage of extracellular digestion?
Ans Intracellular digestion is that in which the breaking down of
macromolecules takes place within the cell. Extracellular digestion is that
in which macromolecules are broken down in places outside the cell (in
the extracellular space, in the surrounds, in the lumen of digestive tubes,
etc.)
The advent of extracellular digestion in evolution allowed organisms to

benefit from a greater variety of food. The breaking down of larger
molecules into smaller ones outside the cell permitted the use of other
foods than those that, due the size of their molecules, could not be
interiorized by diffusion, phagocytosis or pinocytosis.
Q.3 What is the location of the salivary glands in humans?

Ans. There are 6 major salivary glands and they are located one in each parotid
gland, two beneath the mandibles (submandibular) and two in the base of
the tongue (sublingual). More than 700 other minor salivary glands exist
dispersed on the lip mucosa, gingiva, palate and pharynx.
Q-4. What are the digestive functions of the liver?

Ans Besides making bile for release in the duodenum, the liver has other
digestive functions.
The venous network that absorbs nutrients from the guts, called
mesenteric circulation, drains its blood content almost entirely to the
hepatic portal vein. This vein irrigates the liver with absorbed material
from the digestion. So the liver has the functions of storing, processing
and inactivating nutrients.
Glucose is polymerized into glycogen in the liver; this organ also stores
many vitamins and the iron absorbed in the intestine. Some important
metabolic molecules, like albumin and clotting factors, are made in the
liver from amino acids of the diet. In the liver ingested toxic substances,
like alcohol and drugs, are inactivated too.
Q-5 Define salivary glands with labeled diagram.

Ans
Histology
The gland is internally divided into lobules. Blood vessels and nerves
enter the glands at the hilum and gradually branch out into the lobules.
Ducts
In the duct system, the lumina are formed by intercalated ducts, which in
turn join to form striated ducts. These drain into ducts situated between
the lobes of the gland (called interlobar ducts or secretory ducts).
All of the human salivary glands terminate in the mouth, where the saliva
proceeds to aid in digestion. The saliva that salivary glands release is
quickly inactivated in the stomach by the acid that is present there.
Anatomy
The salivary glands are situated at the entrance to the gastrointestinal
system to help begin the process of digestion.
Parotid glands
32
The parotid gland is the largest salivary gland and is found wrapped
around the mandibular ramus. The secretion produced is mainly serous in
nature and enters the oral cavity via Stensen's duct.
Submandibular glands
The submandibular glands are a pair of glands located beneath the lower
jaws, superior to the digastric muscles. The secretion produced is a
mixture of both serous fluid and mucus, and enters the oral cavity via
Wharton's ducts. Approximately 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is
produced by the submandibular glands, even though they are much
smaller than the parotid glands.
Sublingual gland
The sublingual glands are a pair of glands located beneath the tongue,
anterior to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is mainly
mucous in nature, however it is categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the
other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands do not
have striated ducts, and exit from 8-20 excretory ducts. Approximately 5%
of saliva entering the oral cavity come from these glands.
Minor salivary glands

There are over 600 minor salivary glands located throughout the oral
cavity within the submucosa of the oral mucosa. They are 1-2mm in
diameter and unlike the other glands, they are not encapsulated by
connective tissue only surrounded by it. The gland is usually a number of
acini connected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a
common excretory duct with another gland, or may have its own
excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature (except for Von
Ebner's glands) and have many functions such as coating the oral cavity
with saliva. Problems with dentures are usually associated with minor
salivary glands.
Q-6 Describe the composition of saliva and role of its components in

digestion.
Ans-
Saliva is produced in human body in quantity of 1000 to 1500 ml per day.
pH of saliva is 6.35 – 6.85. It is composed of 99.5% water and 0.5% of
solutes.
0.5% solutes in saliva are divided further as described below:
Ions:
o Sodium
o Potassium
o Chloride
o Bicarbonates
o Phosphates
Organic substances
o Urea
o Uric acid
o Mucin
o Globulin
o Serum Albumin
o Lysozyme
o Salivary amylase.
Functions-
The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to
create a food bolus, so it can be swallowed easily. Saliva contains the
enzyme amylase (also called ptyalin) that breaks up starch into sugar. This
is why the white, popped part of a kernel of popcorn (which consists of
starch) seems to melt on the tongue and taste sweet. Thus, digestion of
food begins in the mouth. Salivary glands also secrete salivary lipase (a
more potent form of lipase) to start fat digestion. Salivary lipase plays a
large role in fat digestion in new-born as their pancreatic lipase still has
some time to develop.It also has a protective function, helping to prevent
bacterial build-up on the teeth and washing away adhered food particles.
34
Q7. Make digestive tract labeled digram?

Ans.
Q-8 Explain physiology of digestion?

Ans. The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that
processes food. In order to use the food we eat, our body has to break the
food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to excrete
waste.
Most of the digestive organs (like the stomach and intestines) are tube-like
and contain the food as it makes its way through the body. The digestive
system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the mouth to the
anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or
store digestive chemicals.
The Digestive Process:
The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the
mouth. Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the
chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the
salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules).
On the way to the stomach: the esophagus - After being chewed and
swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube
that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like
muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into
the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink
even when we're upside-down.
In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the
food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach
that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.
In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the
duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum
and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small
intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder),
pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner
wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.
In the large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food
passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and
electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. Many
microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli,
and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first
part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to
the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food
travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the
36
other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the
sigmoid colon.
The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is
excreted via the anus.
Q-9 Explain anatomy of stomach.

Ans-
The stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the alimentary canal

which functions as an important organ of the digestive tract in some
animals, including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects (mid-gut), and
molluscs. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following
mastication (chewing).
The stomach is located between the esophagus and the small intestine. It
secretes protein-digesting enzymes and strong acids to aid in food
digestion, (sent to it via oesophageal peristalsis) through smooth muscular
contortions (called segmentation) before sending partially digested food
(chyme) to the small intestines.
Anatomy of the stomach
The stomach lies between the oesophagus and the duodenum (the first
part of the small intestine). It is on the left upper part of the abdominal
cavity. The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm. Lying behind
the stomach is the pancreas. The greater omentum hangs down from the
greater curvature.
Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained. They are the
esophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region, not an anatomical
sphincter) dividing the tract above, and the Pyloric sphincter dividing the
stomach from the small intestine.
The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and

orthosympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and
nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and
myenteric), which regulate both the secretions activity and the motor
(motion) activity of its muscles.
The stomach is divided into four sections, each of which has different cells
and functions. The sections are:
Cardia Where the contents of the oesophagus empty into the stomach.
Fundus Formed by the upper curvature of the organ.
Body or The main, central region.
Corpus
Pylorus The lower section of the organ that facilitates emptying the
contents into the small intestine.
Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the stomach walls are
made of the following layers, from inside to outside:
mucosa The first main layer. This consists of the epithelium and the lamina
propria (composed of loose connective tissue), with a thin layer of
smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae separating it from
the submucosa beneath.
38
submucosa This layer lies over the mucosa and consists of fibrous connective
tissue, separating the mucosa from the next layer. The Meissner's
plexus is in this layer.
musculari Over the submucosa, the muscularis externa in the stomach differs
externa from that of other GI organs in that it has three layers of smooth
muscle instead of two.
inner oblique layer: This layer is responsible for creating the

motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. It
is the only layer of the three which is not seen in other parts
of the digestive system. The antrum has thicker skin cells in
its walls and performs more forceful contractions than the
fundus.
middle circular layer: At this layer, the pylorus is surrounded
by a thick circular muscular wall which is normally
tonically constricted forming a functional (if not
anatomically discrete) pyloric sphincter, which controls the
movement of chyme into the duodenum. This layer is
concentric to the longitudinal axis of the stomach.
outer longitudinal layer: Auerbach's plexus is found between
this layer and the middle circular layer.
serosa This layer is over the muscularis externa, consisting of layers of

connective tissue continuous with the peritoneum.
Glands
The epithelium of the stomach forms deep pits. The glands at these
locations are named for the corresponding part of the stomach:
Cardiac glands Pyloric glands Fundic glands
(at cardia) (at pylorus) (at fundus)
Q-10 Explain different digestive enzymes.

Ans- Digestive enzymes are enzymes that break down polymeric
macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate
their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the
digestive tract of animals (including humans) where they aid in the
digestion of food as well as inside the cells, especially in their lysosomes
where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes are
diverse and are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the
stomach secreted by cells lining the stomach, in the pancreatic juice
secreted by pancreatic exocrine cells, and in the intestinal (small and large)
secretions, or as part of the lining of the gastrointestinal tract.
Oral cavity
Complex food substances that are taken by animals and humans must be
broken down into simple, soluble, and diffusible substances before they
can be absorbed. In the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete an array of
40
enzymes and substances that aid in digestion and also disinfection. They
include the following:
Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3): The major role of bicarbonate is

to neutralize acidity mainly in an attempt to preserve the dentin
and tooth enamel and also to neutralize bacterial toxins.
Bicarbonate also prevents acid damage to the esophageal lining
before food enters the stomach.
lingual lipase: Lipid digestion initiates in the mouth. Lingual lipase
starts the digestion of the lipids/fats.
amylase: Carbohydrate digestion also initiates in the mouth.
Amylase produced by the salivary glands breaks complex
carbohydrates to smaller chains, or even simple sugars. It is
sometimes referred to as ptyalin.
Mucin: Mucin functions to make food more pliable and also covers
it facilitating its transfer in the esophagus to the stomach, by
lubricating the content.
lysozyme: Considering that food contains more than just the
essential nutrients and bacteria or viruses, the lysozome offers a
limited and non-specific, yet beneficial antiseptic function in
digestion.
IgA: This is a dimeric form of antibodies produced by the body.
Gastrointestinal tract produces only IgA mainly to battle bacterial
toxins, and also to tag certain recognizable molecular patterns in
viruses and bacteria. IgA-coated pathogens are digested by white
cells lining the gastrointestinal tract.
Haptocorrin (also known as R-factor): Helps with the absorption of
Vitamin B12. After Vitamin B12 is released from its original carrier
protein in the stomach, it gets bound to Haptocorrin. Haptocorrin
protects it from acidic conditions of the stomach but is cleaved in
the duodenum by pancreatic proteases. Vitamin B12 can then bind
to intrinsic factor (IF) that has been produced by parietal cells.
Finally, the IF-Vitamin B12 complex is taken up by in ileum via the
cubam receptor.
Of note is the diversity of the salivary glands. There are two types of
salivary glands:
serous glands: These glands produce a secretion rich in water,

electrolytes, and enzymes. A great example of a serous oral gland is
the parotid gland.
Mixed glands: These glands have both serous cells and mucous
cells, and include sublingual and submandibular glands. Their
secretion is mucinous and high in viscosity.
In addition, all salivary secretions are hypotonic with respect to the

plasma concentration. This is because the duct cells of salivary cells are
impermeable to water, yet there is a continuous abstraction of electrolytes
such as sodium (Na) and potassium (K) from the initially secreted juice,
causing it to be very dilute (hypotonic) by the time it is released into the
mouth.
Stomach
The enzymes that are secreted in the stomach are called gastric enzymes.
The stomach plays a major role in digestion, both in a mechanical sense by
mixing and crushing the food, and also in an enzymatic sense, by
digesting it. The following are the enzymes produced by the stomach and
their respective function:
Pepsinogen is the main gastric enzyme. It is produced by the

stomach cells called "chief cells" in its inactive form pepsinogen,
which is a zymogen. Pepsinogen is then activated by the stomach
acid into its active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down the protein in
the food into smaller particles, such as peptide fragments and
amino acids. Protein digestion, therefore, first starts in the stomach,
unlike carbohydrate and lipids, which start their digestion in the
mouth.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl): This is in essence positively charged
hydrogen atoms (H), or in lay-terms stomach acid, and is produced
by the cells of the stomach called parietal cells. HCl mainly
functions to denature the proteins ingested, to destroy any bacteria
or virus that remains in the food, and also to activate pepsinogen
into pepsin.
Intrinsic factor (IF): Intrinsic factor is produced by the parietal cells
of the stomach. Vitamin B12 (Vit. B12) is an important vitamin that
42
requires assistance for absorption in terminal ileum. Initially in the

saliva, haptocorrin secreted by salivary glands binds Vit. B, creating
a Vit B12-Haptocorrin complex. The purpose of this complex is to
protect Vitamin B12 from hydrochoric acid produced in the
stomach. Once the stomach content exits the stomach into the
duodenum, haptocorrin is cleaved with pancreatic enzymes,
releasing the intact vitamin B12. Intrinsic factor (IF) produced by
the parietal cells then binds Vitamin B12, creating a Vit. B12-IF
complex. This complex is then absorbed at the terminal portion of
the ileum.
Mucin: The stomach has a priority to destroy the bacteria and
viruses using its highly acidic environment but also has a duty to
protect its own lining from its acid. The way that the stomach
achieves this is by secreting mucin and bicarbonate via its mucous
cells, and also by having a rapid cell turn-over.
Gastrin: This is an important hormone produced by the "G cells" of
the stomach. G cells produce gastrin in response to stomach
stretching occurring after food enters it, and also after stomach
exposure to protein. Gastrin is an endocrine hormone and therefore
enters the bloodstream and eventually returns to the stomach
where it stimulates parietal cells to produce hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and Intrinsic factor (IF).
Of note is the division of function between the cells covering the stomach.
There are four types of cells in the stomach:
Parietal cells: Produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.

Gastric chief cells: Produce pepsinogen. Chief cells are mainly
found in the body of stomach, which is the middle or superior
anatomic portion of the stomach.
Goblet cells: Produce mucin and bicarbonate to create a "neutral
zone" to protect the stomach lining from the acid or irritants in the
stomach chyme.
G cells: Produce the hormone gastrin in response to distention of
the stomach mucosa or protein, and stimulate parietal cells
production of their secretion. G cells are located in the antrum of
the stomach, which is the most inferior region of the stomach.
Secretion by the previous cells is controlled by the enteric nervous system.

Distention in the stomach or innervation by the vagus nerve (via the
parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system) activates the
ENS, in turn leading to the release of acetylcholine. Once present,
acetylcholine activates G cells and parietal cells.
Pancreas
Pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to
produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such
as insulin, and glucagon), to control glucose metabolism, and also to
secrete digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually
via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of
pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine
function.
Two population of cells in the pancreatic parenchyma make up its

digestive enzymes:
Ductal cells: Mainly responsible for production of bicarbonate

(HCO3), which acts to neutralize the acidity of the stomach chyme
entering duodenum through the pylorus. Ductal cells of the
pancreas are stimulated by the hormone secretin to produce their
bicarbonate-rich secretions, in what is in essence a bio-feedback
mechanism; highly acidic stomach chyme entering the duodenum
stimulates duodenal cells called "S cells" to prouduce the hormone
secretin and release it to the bloodstream. Secretin having entered
the blood eventually comes into contact with the pancreatic ductal
cells, stimulating them to produce their bicarbonate-rich juice. It is
interesting to note that secretin also inhibits production of gastrin
by "G cells", and also stimulates acinar cells of the pancreas to
produce their pancreatic enzyme.
Acinar cells: Mainly responsible for production of the inactivate
pancreatic enzymes (zymogens) that, once present in the small
bowel, become activated and perform their major digestive
functions by breaking down proteins, fat, and DNA/RNA. Acinar
cells are stimulated by cholecystokinin(CCK), which is a
hormone/neurotransmitter produced by the duodenal cells called
44
the "I cells." CCK stimulates production of the pancreatic

zymogens.
Pancreatic juice, composed of the secretions of both ductal and acinar

cells, is made up of the following digestive enzymes:[2]
Trypsinogen, which is an inactive(zymogenic) protease that, once

activated in the duodenum, into trypsin, breaks down proteins at
the basic amino acids. Trypsinogen is activated via the duodenal
enzyme enterokinase into its active form trypsin.
Chymotrypsinogen, which is a inactive(zymogenic) protease that,
once activated by duodenal enterokinase, breaks down proteins at
their aromatic amino acids. Chymotrypsiongen can also be
activated by trypsin.
Carboxypeptidase, which is a protease that takes off the terminal
amino acid group from a protein
Several elastases that degrade the protein elastin and some other
proteins.
Pancreatic lipase that degrades triglycerides into fatty acids and
glycerol.
Cholesterol esterase
Phospholipase
Several nucleases that degrade nucleic acids, like DNAase and
RNAase
Pancreatic amylase that breaks down, besides starch and glycogen,
most other carbohydrates. Humans lack the enzyme to digest the
carbohydrate cellulose, mainly due to its special hydrogen-bonding
structure.
Pancreas's exocrine function owes part of its immaculate function to bio-

feedback mechanisms controlling secretion of its juice. The following
significant pancreatic bio-feedback mechanisms are essential to the
maintenance of pancreatic juice balance/production:[3]
Secretin, a hormone produced by the duodenal "S cells" in response

to the stomach chyme containing high hydrogen atom
concentration (high acidicity), is released into the blood stream;
upon return to the digestive tract, secretion decreases gastric

emptying, increases secretion of the pancreatic ductal cells, as well
as stimulating pancreatic acinar cells to release their zymogenic
juice.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a unique peptide released by the
duodenal "I cells" in response to chyme containing high fat or
protein content. Unlike secretin, which is an endocrine hormone,
CCK actually works via stimulation of a neuronal circuit, the end-
result of which is stimulation of the acinar cells to release their
content. CCK also increases gallbladder contraction, resulting in
bile squeezed into the cystic duct, common bile duct and eventually
the duodenum. Bile of course helps absorption of the fat by
emulsifying it, increasing its absorptive surface. Bile is made by the
liver, but is stored in the gallbladder.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) is produced by the mucosal
duodenal cells in response to chyme containing high amounts of
carbohydrate, proteins, and fatty acids. Main function of GIP is to
decrease gastric emptying.
Somatostatin is a hormone produced by the mucosal cells of the
duodenum and also the "delta cells" of the pancreas. Somatostatin
has a major inhibitory effect, including on pancreatic juice
production.
Small Intestine
The small intestine is traditionally divided into three anatomic sections
defined from their distance from the pyloric sphincter:
duodenum: It is the first portion of the small bowel that is itself

divided into four distinct anatomic positions called first, second,
third, and fourth sections of duodenum. Duodenum is the only
portion of the small bowel that is partially retroperitoneal, and
peritoneal. Duodenum is a secretary portion of the small intestine.
jejunum: This is the section of the small intestine that begins
immediately from the insertion point of the ligament of Treitz, and
is the longest of the three sections. Jejunum is an absorptive surface.
46
ileum This is the terminal portion of the small intestine and as such
has a limited but vital role in absorption. Vitamin B12 and bile are
absorbed at this portion.
The following enzymes/hormones are produced in the duodenum:
secretin: This is an endocrine hormone produced by the duodenal

"S cells" in response to the acidity of the gastric chyme.
Cholecystokinin (CCK): This is not by definition a hormone; there
is new evidence suggesting that CCK works by a very complex
neuronal bi-directional pathway.[4] Regardless of its pathway, its
eventual role is to increase secretion of acinar cells and increased
production of pancreatic juice. CCK also increases gallbladder
contraction, causing release of pre-stored bile into the cystic duct,
and eventually into the common bile duct and via the ampulla of
Vater into the second anatomic position of the duodenum. CCK
also decreases the tone of the sphincter of Oddi, which is the
sphincter that regulates flow through the ampula of Vater. CCK
also decreases gastric activity and decreases gastric emptying,
thereby giving more time to the pancreatic juices to neutralize the
acidity of the gastric chyme.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): This peptide decreases gastric
motility and is produced by duodenal mucosal cells.
motilin: This substance increases gastro-intestinal motility via
specialized receptors called "motilin receptors."
somatostatin: This hormone is produced by duodenal mucosa and
also by the delta cells of the pancreas. Its main function is to inhibit
a variety of secretory mechanisms.
Throughout the lining of the small intestine there are numerous "brush
border" enzymes whose function is to further cleave the already-broken-
down products of digestion into absorbable particles. Some of these
enzymes include:
Sucrase
Lactase: This is a significant brush border enzyme in that a majority
of Middleastern and Asian population lack this enzyme and also
this enzyme decreases with age, and as such lactose intolerance is

often a common abdominal complaint in the Middleastern, Asian,
and older population, manifesting with bloating, abdominal pain,
and osmotic diarrhea.
Maltase
Other disaccharidases
Large Intestine (Colon)
The colon is the main reservoir for feces (mainly in rectum) before its
defecation. It is also where the liquid stool becomes solid, by losing its
water, and electrolytes. The colon also actively secretes bicarbonate and
potassium, which explains why severe diarrhea can cause metabolic
acidosis as well as hypokalemia.[5] The colon also houses symbiotic
bacteria that produce vitamin by-products and are essential to the human
health and homeostasis.
Q-11 Explain structure and function of kidney

Ans- The kidneys, organs with several functions, serve essential regulatory
roles in most animals, including vertebrates and some invertebrates. They
are essential in the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions
such as the regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acid-base balance,
and regulation of blood pressure (via maintaining salt and water balance).
They serve the body as a natural filter of the blood, and remove wastes
which are diverted to the urinary bladder. In producing urine, the kidneys
excrete wastes such as urea and ammonium; the kidneys also are
responsible for the reabsorption of water, glucose, and amino acids. The
kidneys also produce hormones including calcitriol, erythropoietin, and
the enzyme renin.
Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneum, the

kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries, and drain into the
paired renal veins. Each kidney excretes urine into a ureter, itself a paired
structure that empties into the urinary bladder.
48
Structure
The kidney has a bean-shaped structure; each kidney has a convex and
concave surface. The concave surface, the renal hilum, is the point at
which the renal artery enters the organ, and the renal vein and ureter
leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the renal capsule,
which is itself surrounded by perinephric fat, renal fascia (of Gerota) and
paranephric fat. The anterior (front) border of these tissues is the
peritoneum, while the posterior (rear) border is the transversalis fascia.
The superior border of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver; and the
spleen, for the left kidney. Therefore, both move down on inhalation.
The kidney is approximately 11–14 cm in length, 6 cm wide and 4 cm

thick.
The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major

structures: superficial is the renal cortex and deep is the renal medulla.
Grossly, these structures take the shape of 8 to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes,
each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a
renal pyramid (of Malpighi).[5] Between the renal pyramids are projections
of cortex called renal columns (of Bertin). Nephrons, the urine-producing
functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The
initial filtering portion of a nephron is the renal corpuscle, located in the
cortex, which is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the cortex
deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary
ray is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single collecting duct.
The tip, or papilla, of each pyramid empties urine into a minor calyx;
minor calyces empty into major calyces, and major calyces empty into the
renal pelvis, which becomes the ureter.
Histology
Renal histology studies the structure of the kidney as viewed under a
microscope. Various distinct cell types occur in the kidney, including:
Kidney glomerulus parietal cell

Kidney glomerulus podocyte
Kidney proximal tubule brush border cell
Loop of Henle thin segment cell
Thick ascending limb cell
Kidney distal tubule cell
Kidney collecting duct cell
Interstitial kidney cells
Innervation
The kidney and nervous system communicate via the renal plexus, whose
fibers course along the renal arteries to reach the kidney. [7] Input from the
sympathetic nervous system triggers vasoconstriction in the kidney,
thereby reducing renal blood flow. The kidney is not thought to receive
input from the parasympathetic nervous system. Sensory input from the
50
kidney travels to the T10-11 levels of the spinal cord and is sensed in the
corresponding dermatome. Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred
from the kidney.[7]
Functions
The kidney participates in whole-body homeostasis, regulating acid-base
balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and
regulation of blood pressure. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic
functions both independently and in concert with other organs,
particularly those of the endocrine system. Various endocrine hormones
coordinate these endocrine functions; these include renin, angiotensin II,
aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide, among
others.
Many of the kidney's functions are accomplished by relatively simple

mechanisms of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, which take place in
the nephron. Filtration, which takes place at the renal corpuscle, is the
process by which cells and large proteins are filtered from the blood to
make an ultrafiltrate that eventually becomes urine. The kidney generates
180 liters of filtrate a day, while reabsorbing a large percentage, allowing
for the generation of only approximately 2 liters of urine. Reabsorption is
the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the blood.
Secretion is the reverse process, in which molecules are transported in the
opposite direction, from the blood into the urine.
Excretion of wastes
The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism.
These include the nitrogenous wastes called "urea", from protein
catabolism, as well as uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism. Formation
of urine is also the function of the kidney.
Acid-base homeostasis
Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid-base
homeostasis, which is the maintenance of pH around a relatively stable
value. The lungs contribute to acid-base homeostasis by regulating
bicarbonate (HCO3-) concentration. The kidneys have two very important
roles in maintaining the acid-base balance: to reabsorb bicarbonate from

urine, and to excrete hydrogen ions into urine
Osmolality regulation
Any significant rise in plasma osmolality is detected by the hypothalamus,
which communicates directly with the posterior pituitary gland. An
increase in osmolality causes the gland to secrete antidiuretic hormone
(ADH), resulting in water reabsorption by the kidney and an increase in
urine concentration. The two factors work together to return the plasma
osmolality to its normal levels.
ADH binds to principal cells in the collecting duct that translocate

aquaporins to the membrane, allowing water to leave the normally
impermeable membrane and be reabsorbed into the body by the vasa
recta, thus increasing the plasma volume of the body.
There are two systems that create a hyperosmotic medulla and thus
increase the body plasma volume: Urea recycling and the 'single effect.'
Urea is usually excreted as a waste product from the kidneys. However,

when plasma blood volume is low and ADH is released the aquaporins
that are opened are also permeable to urea. This allows urea to leave the
collecting duct into the medulla creating a hyperosmotic solution that
'attracts' water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or
recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not.
The 'Single effect' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the
loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to NaCl. This
allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla
becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an
osmotic gradient for water to follow should the aquaporins of the
collecting duct be opened by ADH.
Blood pressure regulation

Main articles: Blood pressure regulation and Renin-angiotensin system
Long-term regulation of blood pressure predominantly depends upon the

kidney. This primarily occurs through maintenance of the extracellular
52
fluid compartment, the size of which depends on the plasma sodium

concentration. Although the kidney cannot directly sense blood pressure,
changes in the delivery of sodium and chloride to the distal part of the
nephron alter the kidney's secretion of the enzyme renin. When the
extracellular fluid compartment is expanded and blood pressure is high,
the delivery of these ions is increased and renin secretion is decreased.
Similarly, when the extracellular fluid compartment is contracted and
blood pressure is low, sodium and chloride delivery is decreased and
renin secretion is increased in response.
Renin is the first in a series of important chemical messengers that

comprise the renin-angiotensin system. Changes in renin ultimately alter
the output of this system, principally the hormones angiotensin II and
aldosterone. Each hormone acts via multiple mechanisms, but both
increase the kidney's absorption of sodium chloride, thereby expanding
the extracellular fluid compartment and raising blood pressure. When
renin levels are elevated, the concentrations of angiotensin II and
aldosterone increase, leading to increased sodium chloride reabsorption,
expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment, and an increase in blood
pressure. Conversely, when renin levels are low, angiotensin II and
aldosterone levels decrease, contracting the extracellular fluid
compartment, and decreasing blood pressure.
Hormone secretion
The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin, and
the enzyme renin. Erythropoietin is released in response to hypoxia (low
levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates
erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone marrow.
Calcitriol, the activated form of vitamin D, promotes intestinal absorption
of calcium and the renal reabsorption of phosphate. Part of the renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system, renin is an enzyme involved in the
regulation of aldosterone levels.
Q-12 Explain anatomy of neuron.

Ans A neuron is a special type of cell found in the bodies of most animals (all
members of the group Eumetazoa). Only sponges and a few other simpler
animals have no neurons. The features that define a neuron are electrical
excitability and the presence of synapses, which are complex membrane

junctions that transmit signals to other cells. The body's neurons, plus the
glial cells that give them structural and metabolic support, together
constitute the nervous system. In vertebrates, the majority of neurons
belong to the central nervous system, but some reside in peripheral
ganglia, and many sensory neurons are situated in sensory organs such as
the retina and cochlea.
Neurons are highly specialized for the processing and transmission of

cellular signals. Given the diversity of functions performed by neurons in
different parts of the nervous system, there is, as expected, a wide variety
in the shape, size, and electrochemical properties of neurons. For instance,
the soma of a neuron can vary from 4 to 100 micrometers in diameter.[3]
The soma is the central part of the neuron. It contains the nucleus of
the cell, and therefore is where most protein synthesis occurs. The
nucleus ranges from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter.[4]
The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many

branches, and metaphorically this overall shape and structure is
54
referred to as a dendritic tree. This is where the majority of input to

the neuron occurs.
The axon is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens,

hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the
soma in length. The axon carries nerve signals away from the soma
(and also carries some types of information back to it). Many
neurons have only one axon, but this axon may—and usually
will—undergo extensive branching, enabling communication with
many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the
soma is called the axon hillock. Besides being an anatomical
structure, the axon hillock is also the part of the neuron that has the
greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes
it the most easily-excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation
zone for the axon: in electrophysiological terms it has the most
negative action potential threshold. While the axon and axon
hillock are generally involved in information outflow, this region
can also receive input from other neurons.
The axon terminal contains synapses, specialized structures where

neurotransmitter chemicals are released to communicate with
target neurons.
Although the canonical view of the neuron attributes dedicated functions

to its various anatomical components, dendrites and axons often act in
ways contrary to their so-called main function.
Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system are typically only
about one micrometer thick, while some in the peripheral nervous system
are much thicker. The soma is usually about 10–25 micrometers in
diameter and often is not much larger than the cell nucleus it contains.
The longest axon of a human motoneuron can be over a meter long,
reaching from the base of the spine to the toes. Sensory neurons have
axons that run from the toes to the dorsal columns, over 1.5 meters in
adults. Giraffes have single axons several meters in length running along
the entire length of their necks. Much of what is known about axonal
function comes from studying the squid giant axon, an ideal experimental
preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.5–1 millimeters thick,

several centimeters long).
Fully differentiated neurons are permanently amitotic., however, recent

research shows that additional neurons throughout the brain can originate
from neural stem cells found throughout the brain but in particularly high
concentrations in the subventricular zone and subgranular zone through
the process of neurogenesis.
Q-13 Explain origin and propagation of nerve impulse.

Ans- Neurones send messages electrochemically; this means that chemicals
(ions) cause an electrical impulse. Neurones and muscle cells are
electrically excitable cells, which means that they can transmit electrical
nerve impulses. These impulses are due to events in the cell membrane, so
to understand the nerve impulse we need to revise some properties of cell
membranes.
56
By a change in polarity as sodium ions enter the cell and potassium ions
exit the cell, forming a wave of depolarization that travels along the axon
until it reaches the axon terminal releases the neurotransmitters into the
synaptic gap.
By an action potential, which is a depolarization of the nerve cell

membrane, the neurolemma.
A nerve impulse gets transmitted along an axon in 5 steps:
1) Stimulus opens Sodium ion (Na+) channels at Resting Potential
_ Must reach threshold to get Action Potential (A.P)
2) Voltage sensitive Na+ channels open
_ Na+ crosses into Intracellular fluid (ICF)
_ Depolarize the cell (which is call "Depolarization")
_ Reach +30 mV (mili voltage)
3) Na+ channels close
4) Voltage sensitive Potassium ion (K+) channels open
_ K+ crosses out to ECF (extracellular fluid)
_ Repolarize the cell (aka: repolarization)
_ Reach -90 mV
+ a hyperpolarization
_ K+ channels close
5) Na+/K+ (Sodium/ Potassium) pump restores concentrations

_ Potential goes back to -70 mV: Returning to Resting Potential
"All-or-none" principle
The amplitude of an action potential is independent of the amount of
current that produced it. In other words, larger currents do not create
larger action potentials. Therefore action potentials are said to be all-or-
none (or boolean), since they either occur fully or they do not occur at all.
Instead, the frequency of action potentials is what encodes for the
intensity of a stimulus. This is in contrast to receptor potentials, whose
amplitudes are dependent on the intensity of a stimulus.
58
Chapter 4
Circulatory system
Q –1 Made ladelleld digram of circulatory system.

Ans.
Q.2 Explain Structure of Heart with labeled diagram t?

Ans. The human heart has a mass of between 250 and 350 grams and is about
the size of a fist. It is located anterior to the vertebral column and posterior
to the sternum.
It is enclosed in a double-walled sac called the pericardium. The

superficial part of this sac is called the fibrous pericardium. This sac
protects the heart, anchors its surrounding structures, and prevents

overfilling of the heart with blood.
The outer wall of the human heart is composed of three layers. The outer
layer is called the epicardium, or visceral pericardium since it is also the
inner wall of the pericardium. The middle layer is called the myocardium
and is composed of muscle which contracts. The inner layer is called the
endocardium and is in contact with the blood that the heart pumps. Also,
it merges with the inner lining (endothelium) of blood vessels and covers
heart valves.
The human heart has four chambers, two superior atria and two inferior
ventricles. The atria are the receiving chambers and the ventricles are the
discharging chambers. The pathway of blood through the human heart
consists of a pulmonary circuit and a systemic circuit. Deoxygenated
blood flows through the heart in one direction, entering through the
superior vena cava into the right atrium and is pumped through the
tricuspid valve into the right ventricle before being pumped out through
the pulmonary valve to the pulmonary arteries into the lungs. It returns
from the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium where it is
pumped through the mitral valve into the left ventricle before leaving
through the aortic valve to the aorta
60
Q –3 Explain function and composition of blood?

Ans .
Blood
Approximately 8% of an adult's body weight is made up of blood

Females have around 4-5 litres, while males have around 5-6 litres. This
difference is mainly due to the differences in body size between men and
women.
Its mean temperature is 38 degrees Celcius.
It has a pH of 7.35-7.45, making it slightly basic (less than 7 is considered
acidic).
Whole blood is about 4.5-5.5 times as viscous as water, indicating that it is
more resistant to flow than water. This viscosity is vital to the function of
blood because if blood flows too easily or with too much resistance, it can
strain the heart and lead to severe cardiovascular problems.
Blood in the arteries is a brighter red than blood in the veins because of
the higher levels of oxygen found in the arteries.
An artificial substitute for human blood has not been found.
Functions of blood
Blood has three main functions: transport, protection and regulation.
Transport
Blood transports the following substances:
Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs
and rest of the body
Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the body
Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneys
Hormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target cells
Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature
Protection
Blood has several roles in inflammation:
Leukocytes, or white blood cells, destroy invading microorganisms and

cancer cells
Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substances

Platelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimise blood loss
Regulation
Blood helps regulate:
pH by interacting with acids and bases

Water balance by transferring water to and from tissues
62
Blood is classified as a connective tissue and consists of two main

components:
1. Plasma, which is a clear extracellular fluid

2. Formed elements, which are made up of the blood cells and
platelets
The formed elements are so named because they are enclosed in a plasma
membrane and have a definite structure and shape. All formed elements
are cells except for the platelets, which tiny fragments of bone marrow
cells.
Formed elements are:
Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs)

Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs)
Platelets
Leukocytes are further classified into two subcategories called

granulocytes which consist of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils; and
agranulocytes which consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.
The formed elements can be separated from plasma by centrifuge, where a

blood sample is spun for a few minutes in a tube to separate its
components according to their densities. RBCs are denser than plasma,
and so become packed into the bottom of the tube to make up 45% of total
volume. This volume is known as the haematocrit. WBCs and platelets
form a narrow cream-coloured coat known as the buffy coat immediately
above the RBCs. Finally, the plasma makes up the top of the tube, which is
a pale yellow colour and contains just under 55% of the total volume.
Blood plasma
Blood plasma is a mixture of proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes,
hormones and gases. The specific composition and function of its
components are as follows:
Proteins
These are the most abundant substance in plasma by weight and play a
part in a variety of roles including clotting, defence and transport.
Collectively, they serve several functions:
They are an important reserve supply of amino acids for cell

nutrition. Cells called macrophages in the liver, gut, spleen, lungs
and lymphatic tissue can break down plasma proteins so as to
release their amino acids. These amino acids are used by other cells
to synthesise new products.
Plasma proteins also serve as carriers for other molecules. Many
types of small molecules bind to specific plasma proteins and are
transported from the organs that absorb these proteins to other
tissues for utilisation. The proteins also help to keep the blood
slightly basic at a stable pH. They do this by functioning as weak
bases themselves to bind excess H+ ions. By doing so, they remove
excess H+ from the blood which keeps it slightly basic.
The plasma proteins interact in specific ways to cause the blood to
coagulate, which is part of the body's response to injury to the
blood vessels (also known as vascular injury), and helps protect
against the loss of blood and invasion by foreign microorganisms
and viruses.
Plasma proteins govern the distribution of water between the blood
and tissue fluid by producing what is known as a colloid osmotic
pressure.
There are three major categories of plasma proteins, and each individual
type of proteins has its own specific properties and functions in addition
to their overall collective role:
1. Albumins, which are the smallest and most abundant plasma

proteins. Reductions in plasma albumin content can result in a loss
of fluid from the blood and a gain of fluid in the interstitial space
(space within the tissue), which may occur in nutritional, liver and
64
kidney disease. Albumin also helps many substances dissolve in

the plasma by binding to them, hence playing an important role in
plasma transport of substances such as drugs, hormones and fatty
acids.
2. Globulins, which can be subdivided into three classes from
smallest to largest in molecular weight into alpha, beta and gamma
globulins. The globulins include high density lipoproteins (HDL),
an alpha-1 globulin, and low density lipoproteins (LDL), a beta-1
globulin. HDL functions in lipid transport carrying fats to cells for
use in energy metabolism, membrane reconstruction and hormone
function. HDLs also appear to prevent cholesterol from invading
and settling in the walls of arteries. LDL carries cholesterol and fats
to tissues for use in manufacturing steroid hormones and building
cell membranes, but it also favours the deposition of cholesterol in
arterial walls and thus appears to play a role in disease of the blood
vessels and heart. HDL and LDL therefore play important parts in
the regulation of cholesterol and hence have a large impact on
cardiovascular disease.
3. Fibrinogen, which is a soluble precursor of a sticky protein called
fibrin, which forms the framework of blood clot. Fibrin plays a key
role in coagulation of blood, which is discussed later in this article
under Platelets.
Amino acids
These are formed from the break down of tissue proteins or from the
digestion of digested proteins.
Nitrogenous waste
Being toxic end products of the break down of substances in the body,
these are usually cleared from the bloodstream and are excreted by the
kidneys at a rate that balances their production.
Nutrients
Those absorbed by the digestive tract are transported in the blood plasma.
These include glucose, amino acids, fats, cholesterol, phospholipids,
vitamins and minerals.
Gases
Some oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by plasma. Plasma also
contains a substantial amount of dissolved nitrogen.
Electrolytes
The most abundant of these are sodium ions, which account for more of
the blood's osmolarity than any other solute.
Red blood cells

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, have two main
functions:
1. To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues

elsewhere
2. To pick up carbon dioxide from other tissues and unload it in the
lungs
An erythrocyte is a disc-shaped cell with a thick rim and a thin sunken

centre. The plasma membrane of a mature RBC has glycoproteins and
glycolipids that determine a person's blood type. On its inner surface are
two proteins called spectrin and actin that give the membrane resilience
and durability. This allows the RBCs to stretch, bend and fold as they
squeeze through small blood vessels, and to spring back to their original
shape as they pass through larger vessels.
RBCs are incapable of aerobic respiration, preventing them from

consuming the oxygen they transport because they lose nearly all their
inner cellular components during maturation. The inner cellular
components lost include their mitochondria, which normally provide
energy to a cell, and their nucleus, which contains the genetic material of
the cell and enable it to repair itself. The lack of a nucleus means that
RBCs are unable to repair themselves. However, the resulting biconcave
shape is that the cell has a greater ratio of surface area to volume, enabling
O2 and CO2 to diffuse quickly to and from Hb.
66
The cytoplasm of a RBC consists mainly of a 33% solution of haemoglobin

(Hb), which gives RBCs their red colour. Haemoglobin carries most of the
oxygen and some of the carbon dioxide transported by the blood.
Circulating erythrocytes live for about 120 days. As a RBC ages, its
membrane grows increasingly fragile. Without key organelles such as a
nucleus or ribosomes, RBCs cannot repair themselves. Many RBCs die in
the spleen, where they become trapped in narrow channels, broken up
and destroyed. Haemolysis refers to the rupture of RBCs, where
haemoglobin is released leaving empty plasma membranes which are
easily digested by cells known as macrophages in the liver and spleen.
The Hb is then further broken down into its different components and
either recycled in the body for further use or disposed of.
White blood cells

White blood cells (WBCs) are also known as leukocytes. They can be
divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes. The former have cytoplasms
that contain organelles that appear as coloured granules through light
microscopy, hence their name. Granulocytes consist of neutrophils,
eosinophils and basophils. In contrast, agranulocytes do not contain
granules. They consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.
Granulocytes
1. Neutrophils: These contain very fine cytoplasmic granules that can
be seen under a light microscope. Neutrophils are also called
polymorphonuclear (PMN) because they have a variety of nuclear
shapes. They play roles in the destruction of bacteria and the
release of chemicals that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
2. Eosinophils: These have large granules and a prominent nucleus
that is divided into two lobes. They function in the destruction of
allergens and inflammatory chemicals, and release enzymes that
disable parasites.
3. Basophils: They have a pale nucleus that is usually hidden by
granules. They secrete histamine which increases tissue blood flow
via dilating the blood vessels, and also secrete heparin which is an
anticoagulant that promotes mobility of other WBCs by preventing

clotting.
Agranulocytes
1. Lymphocytes: These are usually classified as small, medium or
large. Medium and large lymphocytes are generally seen mainly in
fibrous connective tissue and only occasionally in the circulation
bloodstream. Lymphocytes function in destroying cancer cells, cells
infected by viruses, and foreign invading cells. In addition, they
present antigens to activate other cells of the immune system. They
also coordinate the actions of other immune cells, secrete antibodies
and serve in immune memory.
2. Monocytes: They are the largest of the formed elements. Their
cytoplasm tends to be abundant and relatively clear. They function
in differentiating into macrophages, which are large phagocytic
cells, and digest pathogens, dead neutrophils, and the debris of
dead cells. Like lymphocytes, they also present antigens to activate
other immune cells.
Platelets
Platelets are small fragments of bone marrow
cells and are therefore not really classified as
cells themselves.
Platelets have the following functions:
1. Secrete vasoconstrictors which constrict blood vessels, causing

vascular spasms in broken blood vessels
2. Form temporary platelet plugs to stop bleeding
3. Secrete procoagulants (clotting factors) to promote blood clotting
4. Dissolve blood clots when they are no longer needed
5. Digest and destroy bacteria
6. Secrete chemicals that attract neutrophils and monocytes to sites of
inflammation
68
7. Secrete growth factors to maintain the linings of blood vessels
The first three functions listed above refer to important haemostatic

mechanisms in which platelets play a role in during bleeding: vascular
spasms, platelet plug formation and blood clotting (coagulation).
Vascular spasm
This is a prompt constriction of the broken blood vessel and is the most
immediate protection against blood loss. Injury stimulates pain receptors.
Some of these receptors directly innervate nearby blood vessels and cause
them to constrict. After a few minutes, other mechanisms take over. Injury
to the smooth muscle of the blood vessel itself causes a longer-lasting
vasoconstriction where platelets release a chemical vasoconstrictor called
serotonin. This maintains vascular spasm long enough for the other
haemostatic mechanisms to come into play.
Platelet plug formation

Under normal conditions, platelets do not usually adhere to the wall of
undamaged blood vessels, since the vessel lining tends to be smooth and
coated with a platelet repellent. When a vessel is broken, platelets put out
long spiny extensions to adhere to the vessel wall as well as to other
platelets. These extensions then contract and draw the walls of the vessel
together. The mass of platelets formed is known as a platelet plug, and can
reduce or stop minor bleeding.
Coagulation
This is the last and most effective defence against bleeding. During
bleeding, it is important for the blood to clot quickly to minimise blood
loss, but it is equally important for blood not to clot in undamaged
vessels. Coagulation is a very complex process aimed at clotting the blood
at appropriate amounts. The objective of coagulation is to convert plasma
protein fibrinogen into fibrin, which is a sticky protein that adheres to the
walls of a vessel. Blood cells and platelets become stuck to fibrin, and the
resulting mass helps to seal the break in the blood vessel. The forming of
fibrin is what makes coagulation so complicated, as it involved numerous
chemicals reactions and many coagulation factors.
Q -4 Describe blood clotting.

Ans
Table of coagulation factors

The table lists 12 of 20 different coagulation factors involved in the
coagulation cascade that are vital to normal blood clotting.
Factor Name
I Fibrinogen
II Prothrombin
III Tissue factor or thromboplastin
IV Calcium
V Proaccelerin (Labile factor)
VII Proconvertin (Stable factor)
Antihaemophilic factor A,
VIII
Antihaemophilic globulin
Antihaemophilic factor B,
IX Plasma thromboplastin component,
Christmas factor
X Stuart-Prower factor
Plasma thromboplastin antecedent,
XI Haemophilia C,
Rosenthal syndrome
XII Hageman factor
Fibrin stabilising factor,
XIII
Laki-Lorand factor
70
Q5 Describe pituitary gland briefly.

Ans.
In vertebrate anatomy the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine

gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 g (0.02 oz.), in humans. It is
a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain,
and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold
(diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the
hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the
infundibular stem (Pituitary Stalk). The pituitary fossa, in which the
pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial
fossa at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones
that regulate homeostasis.
Anterior pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes the following important
endocrine hormones:
Somatotropins:
Growth hormone (also referred to as 'Human Growth Hormone',
'HGH' or 'GH' or somatotropin), released under influence of
hypothalamic Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH);
inhibited by hypothalamic Somatostatin
Thyrotropins:
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), released under influence of
hypothalamic Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)
72
Corticotropins:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), released under influence of
hypothalamic Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)
Beta-endorphin, released under influence of hypothalamic
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)[4]
Lactotropins:
Prolactin (PRL), also known as 'Luteotropic' hormone (LTH), released
under influence of multiple hypothalamic Prolactin-Releasing Factors
(PRH) including dopamine, estrogen, progesterone and thyrotropin-
releasing hormone.
Gonadotropins:
Luteinizing hormone (also referred to as 'Lutropin' or 'LH' or, in males,
'Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone' (ICSH))
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), both released under influence of
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
Melanotrophins
Melanocyte–stimulating hormones (MSHs) or "intermedins," as these
are released by the pars intermedia, which is "the middle part";
adjacent to the posterior pituitary lobe, pars intermedia is a specific
part developed from the anterior pituitary lobe.
These hormones are released from the anterior pituitary under the
influence of the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic hormones are secreted
to the anterior lobe by way of a special capillary system, called the
hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system.
The anterior pituitary is divided into anatomical regions known as the pars
tuberalis, pars intermedia, and pars distalis. It develops from a depression in
the dorsal wall of the pharynx (stomodial part) known as Rathke's pouch.
Posterior pituitary (Neurohypophysis)

The posterior pituitary stores and secretes the following important endocrine
hormones:
Magnocellular Neurons:
Oxytocin, most of which is released from the paraventricular nucleus
in the hypothalamus
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin and AVP,
arginine vasopressin), the majority of which is released from the
supraoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus
Oxytocin is one of the few hormones to create a positive feedback loop. For
example, uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin from the
posterior pituitary, which, in turn, increases uterine contractions. This
positive feedback loop continues throughout labor.
Functions
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control the following body
processes:
Growth (Excess of HGH can lead to gigantism and acromegaly.)

Blood pressure
Some aspects of pregnancy and childbirth including stimulation of
uterine contractions during childbirth
Breast milk production
Sex organ functions in both men and women
Thyroid gland function
The conversion of food into energy (metabolism)
Water and osmolarity regulation in the body
Water balance via the control of reabsorption of water by the kidneys
Temperature regulation
Pituitary gland also makes endorphin to relieve pain and alter mood
Q-6 Explain adrenal gland

Ans-
In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are
endocrine glands that sit atop the kidneys; in humans, the right
suprarenal gland is triangular shaped, while the left suprarenal gland is
semilunar shaped. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones in
response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol
74
and catecholamines such as epinephrine. The adrenal glands affect kidney

function through the secretion of aldosterone, a hormone involved in
regulating the osmolarity of blood plasma.
Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomically, the adrenal glands are located in the retroperitoneum
situated atop the kidneys, one on each side. They are surrounded by an
adipose capsule and renal fascia. In humans, the adrenal glands are found
at the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra. Each adrenal gland has two
distinct structures, the adrenal cortex and the medulla, both of which
produce hormones. The cortex mainly produces cortisol, aldosterone and
androgens, while the medulla chiefly produces epinephrine and
norepinephrine. The combined weight of the adrenal glands in an adult
human ranges from 7 to 10 grams.
A CT scan in which the Adrenals are shown as the triangular-shaped

organs on top of the kidneys
Cortex
The adrenal cortex is devoted to the synthesis of corticosteroid
hormones. Specific cortical cells produce particular hormones including
cortisol, corticosterone, androgens such as testosterone, and aldosterone.
Under normal unstressed conditions, the human adrenal glands produce
the equivalent of 35–40 mg of cortisone acetate per day.[2] In contrast to the
direct innervation of the medulla, the cortex is regulated by

neuroendocrine hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and
hypothalamus, as well as by the renin-angiotensin system.
The adrenal cortex comprises three zones, or layers. This anatomic zonation
can be appreciated at the microscopic level, where each zone can be
recognized and distinguished from one another based on structural and
anatomic characteristics.[3] The adrenal cortex exhibits functional zonation
as well: by virtue of the characteristic enzymes present in each zone, the
zones produce and secrete distinct hormones.[3]
Zona glomerulosa (outer)

The outermost layer, the zona glomerulosa is the main site for
production of mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone, which is
largely responsible for the long-term regulation of blood pressure.
Zona fasciculata
Situated between the glomerulosa and reticularis, the zona
fasciculata is responsible for producing glucocorticoids, chiefly
cortisol in humans. The zona fasciculata secretes a basal level of
cortisol but can also produce bursts of the hormone in response to
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary.
Zona reticularis
The inner most cortical layer, the zona reticularis produces
androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and DHEA
sulfate (DHEA-S) in humans.
Medulla
The adrenal medulla is the core of the adrenal gland, and is surrounded
by the adrenal cortex. The chromaffin cells of the medulla, named for their
characteristic brown staining with chromic acid salts, are the body's main
source of the circulating catecholamines adrenaline (epinephrine) and
noradrenaline (norepinephrine). Derived from the amino acid tyrosine,
these water-soluble hormones are major hormones underlying the fight-
or-flight response.
To carry out its part of this response, the adrenal medulla receives input
from the sympathetic nervous system through preganglionic fibers
76
originating in the thoracic spinal cord from T5–T11.[4] Because it is

innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be
considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion.[4] Unlike other
sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses
and releases its secretions directly into the blood.
Cortisol also promotes epinephrine synthesis in the medulla. Produced in

the cortex, cortisol reaches the adrenal medulla and at high levels, the
hormone can promote the upregulation of phenylethanolamine N-
methyltransferase (PNMT), thereby increasing epinephrine synthesis and
secretion.[3]
Chapter-6
Respiration
Q –1 Explain respiratory system of mammals brifly?

Ans. The respiratory system is the anatomical system of an organism that
introduces respiratory gases to the interior and performs gas exchange. In
humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory
system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles. Molecules of
oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion,
between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This exchange
process occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs.
78
Inhalation
Inhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external
intercostal muscles Normal resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per
minute, with a time period of 2 seconds. During vigorous inhalation (at
rates exceeding 35 breaths per minute), or in approaching respiratory
failure, accessory muscles of respiration are recruited for support. These
consist of sternocleidomastoid, platysma, and the scalene muscles of the
neck. Pectoral muscles and latissimus dorsi are also accessory muscles.
Under normal conditions, the diaphragm is the primary driver of

inhalation. When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage expands and the
contents of the abdomen are moved downward. This results in a larger
thoracic volume and negative pressure (with respect to atmospheric
pressure) inside the thorax. As the pressure in the chest falls, air moves
into the conducting zone. Here, the air is filtered, warmed, and
humidified as it flows to the lungs.
During forced inhalation, as when taking a deep breath, the external

intercostal muscles and accessory muscles aid in further expanding the
thoracic cavity. During inhalation the diaphragm contracts.
Exhalation
Exhalation is generally a passive process; however, active or forced
exhalation is achieved by the abdominal and the internal intercostal
muscles. During this process air is forced or exhaled out.
The lungs have a natural elasticity: as they recoil from the stretch of
inhalation, air flows back out until the pressures in the chest and the
atmosphere reach equilibrium.
During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory

muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal
muscles, generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out
of the lungs. Gas exchange
The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange between the
external environment and an organism's circulatory system. In humans
and mammals, this exchange facilitates oxygenation of the blood with a
concomitant removal of carbon dioxide and other gaseous metabolic

wastes from the circulation. As gas exchange occurs, the acid-base balance
of the body is maintained as part of homeostasis. If proper ventilation is
not maintained, two opposing conditions could occur: respiratory
acidosis, a life threatening condition, and respiratory alkalosis.
Upon inhalation, gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which
are the basic functional component of the lungs. The alveolar walls are
extremely thin (approx. 0.2 micrometres). These walls are composed of a
single layer of epithelial cells (type I and type II epithelial cells) close to
the pulmonary capillaries which are composed of a single layer of
endothelial cells. The close proximity of these two cell types allows
permeability to gases and, hence, gas exchange. This whole mechanism of
gas exchange is carried by the simple phenomenon of pressure difference.
When the atmospheric pressure is low outside, the air from lungs flow
out. When the air pressure is low inside, then the vice versa.
Q-2 Explain respiration .

Ans- The system of organs involved in the acquisition of oxygen and the
elimination of carbon dioxide by an organism. The lungs and gills are the
two most important structures of vertebrates involved in the phase known
as external respiration, or gaseous exchanges, between the blood and
environment. Internal respiration refers to the gaseous exchanges which
occur between the blood and cells. Certain other structures in some
species of vertebrates serve as respiratory organs; among these are the
integument or skin of fishes and amphibians. The moist, highly vascular
skin of anuran amphibians is important in respiration. Certain species of
fish have a vascular rectum which is utilized as a respiratory structure,
water being taken in and ejected regularly by the animal. Saclike cloacal
structures occur in some aquatic species of turtles. These are vascular and
are intermittently filled with, and emptied of, water. It is thought that they
may function in respiration. During embryonic life the yolk sac and
allantois are important respiratory organs in certain vertebrates. See also
Allantois Yolk sac.
Structurally, respiratory organs usually present a vascular surface that is

sufficiently extensive to provide an adequate area of absorption for
80
gaseous exchange. This surface is moist and thin enough to allow for the
passage of gases.
The shape and volume of the lung, because of its pliability, conforms
almost completely to that of its cavity. The lungs are conical; each has an
apex and a base, two surfaces, two borders, and a hilum. The apex extends
into the superior limit of the thoracic cavity. The base is the diaphragmatic
surface. The costal surface may show bulgings into the intercostal spaces.
The medial surface has a part lying in the space beside the vertebral
column and a part imprinted by the form of structures bulging outward
beneath the mediastinal pleura. The cardiac impression is deeper on the
left lung because of the position of the heart.
For convenience the lung may be divided into anatomical areas. The
bronchial tree branches mainly by dichotomy. The ultimate generations,
that is, the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli constitute
all of the respiratory portion of the lung. The trachea and extrapulmonary
bronchi are kept open by C-shaped bars of hyaline cartilage. When in their
branching the bronchi and bronchioles are reduced to a diameter of 1 mm
or less, they are then free of cartilage and are called terminal bronchioles.
One of the terminal bronchioles enters the apex of a secondary lobule of
the lung. These secondary lobules are anatomic units of the lung, whose
hexagonal bases rest on the pleura or next to a bronchiole or blood vessel.
Finer lines divide the bases of the secondary lobules into smaller areas.
These are the bases of primary lobules, each served by a respiratory
bronchiole.
The blood supply to the lung is provided by the pulmonary and the
bronchial arteries. The nerves which supply the lung are branches of the
vagus and of the thoracic sympathetic ganglia 2, 3, and 4. Efferent vagal
fibers are bronchoconstrictor and secretory, whereas the afferents are part
of the arc for the breathing reflex. Efferent sympathetic fibers are
bronchodilators; hence, the use of adrenalin for relief of bronchial spasm
resulting from asthma.
82
Chapter-7
Muscle contraction
Q –1 Explain structure of muscles with diagram?
Ans. Muscle is a contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the
mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain
contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the
cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their
function is to produce force and cause motion. Muscles can cause either
locomotion of the organism itself or movement of internal organs. Cardiac
and smooth muscle contraction occurs without conscious thought and is
necessary for survival. Examples are the contraction of the heart and
peristalsis which pushes food through the digestive system. Voluntary
contraction of the skeletal muscles is used to move the body and can be
finely controlled. Examples are movements of the eye, or gross
movements like the quadriceps muscle of the thigh. There are two broad
types of voluntary muscle fibers: slow twitch and fast twitch. Slow twitch
fibers contract for long periods of time but with little force while fast
twitch fibers contract quickly and powerfully but fatigue very rapidly.
Muscles are predominately powered by the oxidation of fats and

carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used, particularly
by fast twitch fibers. These chemical reactions produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of
the myosin heads.
A closer look at muscle anatomy shows that each muscle belly is made
up of muscle cells or fibres. Muscle fibres are grouped into bundles (of
up to 150 fibres) called fasciculi. Each fasiculus or bundle is
surrounded by connective tissue called perimysium. Fibres within each
bundle are surrounded by more connective tissue called endomysium.
Each individual fibre consists of a membrane (sarcolemma) and can be

further broken down into hundreds or even thousands of myofibrils.
Myofibrils are surrounded by sarcoplasm and together they make up the
contractile components of a muscle. See the diagram below:
Sarcoplasm contains glycogen, fat particles, enzymes and the

mitochondria. The myofibrils it encases consist of two types of protien
filaments or myofilaments. They are actin and myosin.
Myosin and actin filaments run in parallel to each other along the
length of the muscle fibre. Myosin has tiny globular heads protruding
from it at regular intervals. These are called cross bridges and play a
pivotal role in muscle action. Each myofibril is organized into sections
along its length. Each section is called a sarcomere and they are
repeated right along the length of a muscle fibre. It's similar to how a
meter ruler is split into centimeters and millimeters. Just as the
84
millimeter is the smallest function of a ruler, the sarcomere is the

smallest contractile portion of a muscle fibre.
The sarcomere is often divided up into different zones to show how it
behaves during muscle action. See the diagram below:
The Z-line seperates each sarcomere. The H-zone is the center of the
sarcomere and the M-line is where adjacent myosin filaments anchor on
to each other. On the diagram above the darker A-bands are where
myosin filaments align and the lighter I-bands are where actin filaments
align. When muscle contracts the H-zone and I-band both decrease as
the z-lines are pulled towards each other. See the diagram below:
86
Types
Types of muscle (shown at different magnifications)
There are three types of muscle:
Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is anchored by tendons (or

by aponeuroses at a few places) to bone and is used to effect
skeletal movement such as locomotion and in maintaining posture.
Though this postural control is generally maintained as a
subconscious reflex, the muscles responsible react to conscious
control like non-postural muscles. An average adult male is made
up of 42% of skeletal muscle and an average adult female is made
up of 36% (as a percentage of body mass).
Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" is found within the walls
of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines,
bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector
pili in the skin (in which it controls erection of body hair). Unlike
skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is not under conscious control.
Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle" but is more akin in
structure to skeletal muscle, and is found only in the heart.
Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated" in that they contain sarcomeres
and are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; smooth
muscle has neither. While skeletal muscles are arranged in regular,
parallel bundles, cardiac muscle connects at branching, irregular angles
(called intercalated discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short,
intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-
permanent contractions.
Skeletal muscle is further divided into several subtypes:

88
Type I, slow oxidative, slow twitch, or "red" muscle is dense with

capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the
muscle tissue its characteristic red color. It can carry more oxygen
and sustain aerobic activity.
Type II, fast twitch muscle, has three major kinds that are, in order
of increasing contractile speed:
o Type IIa, which, like slow muscle, is aerobic, rich in
mitochondria and capillaries and appears red.
o Type IIx (also known as type IId), which is less dense in
mitochondria and myoglobin. This is the fastest muscle type
in humans. It can contract more quickly and with a greater
amount of force than oxidative muscle, but can sustain only
short, anaerobic bursts of activity before muscle contraction
becomes painful (often incorrectly attributed to a build-up of
lactic acid). N.B. in some books and articles this muscle in
humans was, confusingly, called type IIB.
o Type IIb, which is anaerobic, glycolytic, "white" muscle that
is even less dense in mitochondria and myoglobin. In small
animals like rodents this is the major fast muscle type,
explaining the pale color of their flesh.
Q-2 Explain excitation contraction coupling of muscles in detail

Sketal muscles:-
method of excitation contraction coupling relies on the ryanodine receptor

being activated by a domain spanning the space between the T tubules
90
and the sarcoplasmic reticulum to produce the calcium transient

responsible for allowing contraction.
1. The alpha motor neuron produces an action potential that propagates

down its axon to the neuromuscular junction.
2. The action potential is sensed by a voltage-dependent calcium channel
which causes an influx of Ca2+ ions which causes exocytosis of synaptic
vesicles containing acetylcholine.
3. Acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse and binds to nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors on the myocyte, which causes an influx of Na+
and an efflux of K+ and generation of an end-plate potential.
4. The end-plate potential propagates throughout the myocyte's
sarcolemma and into the T-tubule system.
5. The T-tubule contains dihydropyridine receptors which are voltage-
dependent calcium channels and are activated by the action potential.
6. The dihydropyridine receptors transmit the voltage-mediated signal
through a mechanical linkage to the ryanodine receptors in the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
7. Ryanodine receptors undergo a conformational change that opens their
channel.
8. Opening of the Ryanodine receptors causes and flow of Ca2+ from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm. In this release, Ca2+ unbinds
from the calcium-binding protein called calsequestrin.
9. Ca2+ released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum binds to Troponin C on
actin filaments, which subsequently leads to the troponin complex
being physically moved aside to uncover cross-bridge binding sites on
the actin filament.
10. By hydrolyzing ATP, myosin forms a cross bridges with the actin
filaments, and pulls the actin toward the center of the sarcomere
resulting in contraction of the sarcomere.
11. Activation of the cross-bridge cycling may induce a shortening of the
sarcomeres and the muscle as a whole, but not if the tension is
insufficient to overcome the load imparted on the muscle.
12. Simultaneously, the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase actively
pumps Ca2+ back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum where Ca2+ rebinds to
calsequestrin.
13. With Ca2+ no longer bound to troponin C, the troponin complex slips
back to its blocking position over the binding sites on actin.
14. Since cross-bridge cycling is ceasing then the load on the muscle causes
the inactive sarcomeres to lengthen.
Cardiac muscle
In cardiac muscle, the method is dependent on a phenomenon called
calcium-induced calcium release, which involves the conduction of
calcium ions into the cell triggering further release of ions into the
cytoplasm (about 75% of calcium present in the cytoplasm during
contraction is release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum).
1. An action potential is induced by pacemaker cells in the Sinoatrial

node or Atrioventricular node and conducted from non-contractile
cardiac myocytes to contractile cells through gap junctions.
2. The action potential triggers L-type calcium channels during the
plateau phase of the cardiac action potential, causing a net flux of
calcium ions into the cardiac myocyte.
3. The increase in intracellular calcium ions is detected by ryanodine
receptors in the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum which
transport calcium out into the cytosol in a positive feedback
physiological response.
4. The cytoplasmic calcium binds to Troponin C, moving the troponin
complex off the actin binding site allowing the myosin head to bind to
the actin filament.
5. Using ATP hydrolysis the myosin head pulls the actin filament to the
centre of the sarcomere.
6. Intracellular calcium is taken up by the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum
ATPase pump into the sarcoplasm, or ejected from the cell by the
sodium-calcium exchanger or the plasma membrane calcium ATPase.
7. Intracellular calcium concentration drops and troponin complex
returns over the active site of the actin filament, ending contract
92
Q-3 Describe the sliding filament theory of muscles.

Ans- The sliding filament theory
Process of movement
Depiction of the contraction of a muscle through the overlap of thick and
thin filament fiber
Myosin is a molecular motor that acts like an active ratchet. Chains of

actin proteins form high tensile passive 'thin' filaments that transmit the
force generated by myosin to the ends of the muscle. Myosin also forms
'thick' filaments. Each myosin 'paddles' along an actin filament repeatedly
binding, ratcheting and letting go, sliding the thick filament over the thin
filament. Calcium ions are released. This calcium bonds to troponin,
allowing the myosin head to bind with the binding site.
1. Myosin heads bind to the passive actin filaments at the myosin

binding sites.
2. Upon strong binding, myosin and actin undergo an isomerization
(myosin rotates at the myosin-actin interface) extending an
extensible region in the neck of the myosin head.
3. Shortening occurs when the extensible region pulls the filaments
across each other (like the shortening of a spring). Myosin remains
attached to the actin.
4. The binding of ATP allows myosin to detach from actin. While
detached, ATP hydrolysis occurs "recharging" the myosin head. If
the actin binding sites are still available, myosin can bind actin
again.
5. The collective bending of numerous myosin heads (all in the same
direction), combine to move the actin filament relative to the
myosin filament. This results in muscle contraction.
All muscle cells are composed of a number of actin and myosin filaments
in series. The basic unit of organisation of these contractile proteins in
striated muscle cells (i.e., the cells that compose cardiac and skeletal
muscle, but not in smooth muscle tissue) is called the sarcomere. It
consists of a central bidirectional thick filament flanked by two actin
filaments, orientated in opposite directions. When each end of the myosin
thick filament ratchets along the actin filament with which it overlaps, the
two actin filaments are drawn closer together. Thus, the ends of the
sarcomere are drawn in and the sarcomere shortens. Sarcomeres are
connected together by so-called 'Z lines', which anchor the ends of actin
filaments in such a way that the filaments on each side of the Z line point
in opposite directions (with reversed polarity). By this means, sarcomeres
are arranged in series. When a muscle fiber contracts, all sarcomeres
contract simultaneously so that force is transmitted to the fiber ends.
Physiologically, this contraction is not uniform across the sarcomere; the

central position of the thick filaments becomes unstable and can shift
during contraction. However the actions of elastic proteins such as Titin
are hypothesised to maintain uniform tension across the sarcomere and
pull the thick filament into a central position.
Pre-process of movement
If the process of movement were to continue constantly, all muscles would

constantly be contracted. Therefore, the body needs a way to control the
94
ability of myosin to bind to the actin. This is accomplished by the

introduction of calcium into the cytoplasm of the muscle cell.
1. When the muscle does not need to contract (is in a resting state),
thin strands of a protein called tropomyosin are wrapped around
the actin filaments, blocking the myosin binding sites. This inhibits
the myosin from binding to actin, and therefore causes a chain of
events leading to muscle relaxation.
2. Molecules called troponin are attached to the tropomyosin.
3. When calcium is introduced into the muscle cell (fiber), calcium
ions bind to troponin molecules.
4. Calcium binding changes the shape of troponin, causing
tropomyosin to be moved deeper into the groove of the actin
dimer, therefore causing the myosin binding sites on the actin to be
exposed.
5. Myosin binds to the now-exposed binding sites, and muscles
contract via the sliding-filament mechanism.
Nerve impulses affect the way in which calcium bonds to the troponin.
.
Chapter-8
Biochemistry
Q-1 Draw the diagram of citric acid cycle.
Ans
Citric acid cycle

96
Q-2 Draw the diagram of ornithine cycle?
Ans-
Ornithine cycle
Glossary
Accelerator center:- One of two control centers in the brain which transmits
nits impulse along the sympathetic nerves to the pacemaker of the heart,
causing heart beat rate to increase.
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) Hormone secreted by the anterior
pituitary which induces the adrenal cortex to produce corticoids.
Active transport: - A process, occurring at the cell membrane, in which a cell
expends energy to move a particle or ion through the membrane often
against a concentration gradient.
Blood:- A liquid connective issue consisting of erythrocytes, leucocytes, and
platelets suspended in a liquid mantrix, the plasma.
Blood pressure:- Force exerted against artery walls by blood being pumped
from the heart.
Bowman’s Capsule:- Cup-like body where wastes, salts and fluid are filtered
from the blood by the kidney.
CAMP (Cyclic adenosine monophosphate):- Nucleotide which may
serve as a messenger within cells, receiving hormonal messages and then
stimulating cellular activities.
Catalyst: - A substance that increases the rate at which other substances react
but is itself not altered by the reaction.
98
Central nervous system (CNS):- In vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord,
containing the cell bodies and most of the neurons, and exerting a great deal
of control over the rest of the nervous system.
Cerebellum:- An expansion of the dorsal side of the brain near its hind end;
it is a coordinating center for proprioceptive stimuli and complex muscular
movements.
Conditioned reflex:-A learned, automatic response to a given stimulus.
Countercurrent flow:- Mechanism that accounts for efficient gas exchange in
gills; the flow of water is in the opposite direction to the flow of blood in the
capillaries.
Diabetes insipidus: - A disease in which kidneys do not reabsorb water
normally so urine is highly diluted; can be caused by tumor in posterior
pituitary gland.
Diabetes mellitus:- Disease caused by inadequate insulin secretion in which
sugar is improperly metabolized; high bold sugar, weakness, frequent
urination and some times death are the result.
Diastole:- Relaxation period after contraction of the heart.
Digestion:-The Process in which food is broken down by enzymes in the
digestion system into molecules which may be absorbed and utilized by
cells.
Erythropoietin:- Hormone formed in the blood by the action of an enzyme
produced in the kidney on a serum factor produced in the liver. The
hormone stimulates the production of red blood cells and bone marrow,
particularly during conditions of oxygen deficiency.
Feedback: - A regulatory process in which the output returns to the original

system as input, for instance when the concentration of an end product of a
reaction serves to inhibit or stimulate the rate.
Glucogenesis :- Formation of glucose from carbohydrates.
Homeostasis:-The maintenance of optimal internal living conditions through
continuous adjustment of life processes.
Hypertonic:- Containing more non-penetrating particles on one side of semi
permeable membrane than on the other side and thus exerting more
osmotic pull.
Hypotonic:- containing fewer non-penetrating particles on one side of a semi
permeable membrane than on the other side and thus exerting less osmotic
pull.
Intracellular digestion:- The breakdown of food particles whic occurs within
a cell, a method generally employed by unicellular organism like the
amoeba. Food is surrounded and drawns into cells in a food vacuole and
then broken down by enzyme secreted into the vacuole by the cells.
Isotonic: - Containing equal amounts of non-penetrating particles
Lymph:- Clear tissue fluid resembling blood plasma. Consists of fluids
which filter through the walls of the blood capillaries.
Nucleotide:- Consisting of a nitrogen- Containing base (a Purine or
pyrimidine), a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and a phosphate, this class of
molecule is involved in the transfer of energy within the cell and the
formation of nucleic acids.
Osmosis:-The diffusion of water molecules through a semi permeable
membrane.The water molecules move from an area of
100
Higher concentration to an area of lower concentration of water.

Pacemaker:- Tissue in the muscles of the heart which controls heartbeat
rate.
Phagocytosis:- The process by which large particles are enveloped in a
vacuole and drown into the cell.
Pinocytosis:- The process conducted by a cell in which liquid or small
particles are enveloped in a vacuole and brought into the cell.
Placenta: - A temporary reproductive organ of most mammals, by which
the embryo is attached to the wall of the uterus and through which
homeostatic exchange takes place between the mother and embryo.
Portal system:- Vascular pathways with capillaries at both ends; for
instance, the hepatic portal system from intestines to liver.
Reflex:- A response to a specific stimulus. A reflex may be simple or
complex, unconditioned or conditioned.
Reflex arc:- A series of neurons transmitting an excitation from a receptor
through the central nervous system to an effectors. The simplest are is
monosynaptic, since only two neurons are involved a sensory and a motor
neurons. Arcs increase in complexity with the number and type of
interneuron between the receptor and motor neurons.
Refractory Period:- Period of approximately one millisecondduring which
a neuron is incapable of responding to another stimulus regardless of its
strength.
Respiration: - The processes by which a cell releases the energy In glucose,
producing ATP. These processes include aerobic respiration glycolysis,
Krebs cycle and electron and hydrogen transport; and anaerobic
respiration, or fermentation. Also refers to the intake of O2 and release

of CO2 in breathing.
Simple reflex:- Innate automatic response involving stimulus to a single
reflex arc.
Synapse:- The region of contact between two succession neurons.
Synapsis:- The intertwining of the Chromatids of paired
chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.
Threshold:- The quantitative value that must be exceeded if a cell is to
generate an action potential in response to a stimulus.
Tissue:- Sheets or aggregates of specialized cells that are similar in
structure and function.
Ultra filtration :- A renal process by which the fluid component of the
blood with its salts, wastes and other chemical constituents, but not the
larger protein components are filtered into the nephoron by the hydrostatic
pressure in the glomerules.
Vitamin : -An organic compound essential in the diet in small amounts. A
vitamin by definition cannot be synthesized by the organism which
requires it.
102
Objective type Question(MCQ)
1- Secretion and cholecystokirin are two hormones involved in digestion. They

are secreted by:
(1) Oesophagus (2) Stomach
(2) Duodenum (4)Ileum (3)
2- A person deficient in the visual pigment rhodopsim should be advised to take

more of:-
(1) Apple and grapes
(2) Carrot and papaya (2)
(3) Mango and Potato
(4) Guava and banana
3- Ph of gastric juice in stomach is:-

(1) 1.5-3.0 (1)
(2) 5-6.8
(3) 7.0-9.0
(4) 6 -8.0
4- Which is incorrectly matched?

(1) Rennin-Liver
(2)Ptyalin-Mouth (1)
(3)Pepsin-Stomach
(4)Trypsin-Intestine
5- Pepsinogen is secreted by
(1) Oxyntic cells
(2)Zymogene cells (2)
(3)Mucous neck cells
(4)Argentaffin cells
6- Kupffer cells are found in:-

(1)Liver (2)Pancreas
(3)Small intestine (4)Large intestine (1)
7- Haemocyanin Occurs in:-

(1)Annelid (2)Insects
(3)Mollusca (4)Echinodermats (3)
8- Vital capacity of lung in equal to:-

(1)IRV+ERV+TV (2)IRV+ERV+TV-RV
(3)IRV+ERV+TV+RV (4)IRV+ERV (1)
9- Hiccup is due to the activity of:-

(1) Intercostals muscles
(2) Food in air tract
(3) Diaphragm
(4) Inadequate oxygen in environment (3)
10- Cardiac cycle in man is competed in:-

(1)0.5sec. (2)1.0 sec
(3)1.2sec (4)0.8 sec (4)
11- Pulmonary artery drains the deoxygenated blood from:-

(1)Right atrium (2)Right Ventricle
(3)Left atrium (4)Left ventricle (2)
12- The absence of which clotting factor leads to haemophilia –A:-

(1)Factor VII (2)Factor VIII
(3)Factor IX (4)Factor X (2)
13- Distal Convoluted Tubule is permeable to:-

(1)Na+ (2)K+ (3)Cl_ (4)All of these (4)
14- In kidney, glucose is reabsorbed mainly by :-

(1) Bowman’s Capsule (2)Loop of Henle
(3)PCT (4)DCT (3)
104
15- Number of cervical vertebrae in mammals is:-

(1) 5 (2)6 (3)7 (4)11 (3)
16-Knee joint is :-
(1) Synovial joint (2)Cartilaginous joint
(3) Hyaline joint (4)Fibrous joint (1)
17- What Connects muscle to bone :-

(1) Ligament (2) Cartilage
(3)Tendon (4) Sarcomere (4)
18-The main function of cerebellum is:-

(1) Vision (2)Hearing
(3)Balancing (4)Memory (3)
19- Which one is not a reflex action:-

(1) Yawning (2)Weeping
(3)Coughing (4)Sneezing (1)
20- During emergency situations the increase in heart rate, cardiac output,
blood pressure and blood sugar level is due to action of hormone called:-
(1) Oxytocin (2) Aldosterone
(3)Nor epinephrine (4)ADH (3)
21 Glomerular area of adrenal cortex is responsible for:-

(1) Water and electrolyte balance
(2) Carbohydrate Metabolism
(3) Steroid hormone secretion
(4)Blood pressure (1)
22 Osmoregulation is the function of

(1) Prolactin (2)Oxytocin
(3)Vasopressin (4)None of these (3)
23 Which enzyme converts glucose into alcohol:-

(1) Zymase (2) Diastase
(3) Invertase (4)Lipase (1)
24 The net gain of ATP molecules in glycolysis is :-

(1) 8 (2) 2
(3) 4 (4) 0 (2)
25 How many ATP molecules could maximally be generated from one

molecule of glucose. If the Complete Oxidation of one mole of
glucose to CO2 and the yields 686 Kcal and the useful chemical energy
available in the high energy phosphate bond of one mole of ATP is 12
kcal ?
(1) Two (2) Thirty
(3) Fifty seven (4)One (2)
26 Sucrose, a common table sugar, is composed of :-

(1) Glucose +Fructose (2) Glucose + Galactose
(3) Fructose + Galactose (4) None of these (1)
27 Kwashiorkor disease occurs due to deficiency of :-

(1) Proteins (2) Fats
(3)Sugars (4) Hormone (1)
28 Heart of heart of:-

(1) SA node (2) AV node
(3) Bundle of His (4) Purkinje fibers. (1)
29 In adult man normal blood pressure is

(1)100/80 mm Hg (2)120/80 mm Hg
(3)100/120 mm Hg (4)80/120mmHg (2)
30 Respiratory Quotient is defined as:

(1) Volume of Co2 formed (2) Volume of Co2 formed
Volume of Co2 used Volume of O2 used
(3) Volume of O2 formed (4) Volume of O2 formed

Volume of Co2 used Volume of N2 used (2)
106
31 Chloride shift occurs in respond to :-

(1) HCO3- (2) K+ (3) H+ (4) Na+ (1)
32 Amount of oxygen absorbed by one gram of hemoglobin is:-
(1) 1.34 ml (2) 13.4 ml (3) 20ml (4) 134ml (3)
33 Cobalt is essential for the synthesis of vitamin :-

(1) C (2)B1 (3) B6 (4)B12 (4)
(34) Gastrin hormone is secreted by :-

(1) Liver (2) Pancreas (3) Stomach (4) Intestine s(3)
(35) During activation of nerve, the impulse is conducted in a fiber by :

(1) More movement of Na+ toward inside and K+ outside
(2) Less Na+ Coming out and more K+ coming in
(3) Equal movement of both Na+ and K+ ions
(3) More Movement of K+ inward and Na+ outwards.
(1)
108
Case study
Removal of the posterior pituitary has only a minor effect on the release of the hormone
oxytocin and vasopressin. However removal of the anterior pituitary cancels completely
the production of its hormones why?
Ans. Oxytocin and vasopressin are produce in the posterior pituitary along nerve cells
that originate in the hypothalamus and are release units the capillaries that surround
this gland. Thus removal of the posterior pituitary will not impair oxytocin and
vasopressin secretion. Its contrast, the anterior pituitary hormones are produced by
pituitary cells in response to stimulation by the hypothalamus. Hence the loss of the
anterior pituitary cancels hormone secretion.
B.Sc. Part-II Examination, 2012

Zoology
Second Paper(Animal physiology and biochemistry)
Time allowed: 3hour – MM:33
(1) No supplementary answer book will be given to any candidate. Hence the
candidate should write the answer precisely in the main answer book only:-
(2) All the parts of the questions should be answered at one place in the answer-
book. One complete question should not be answered at different places in the
answer book.
Question No. 1 in part I compulsory Attempt four questions from part II, selecting at
least one question from each section. All question carry equal marks.
Part I
1. Answer the following question in two or three lines (maximum 25 words)-
(a) How does bite juice help in digestion of fats ?

(b) What do you mean by neurogenic and myogenic heart?
(c) Explain the function of transverse tubules (T- tubules) in skeletal muscle
fibers.
(d) What are the functions of ATP in metabolism?
(e) Explain the role of hypothalamus hypophyseal postal systems.
(f) Compare and contrast the functions of insulin and glucagon hormones.
(g) What is resting membrane potential?
(h) Mention high threshold substances present in the glomerular filtrate?
(i) Write functions of neutrophils.
Part II
Section A
2. Describe the structure of nephron and explain the physiology of urine formation
in mammals.
110
3. Explain the mechanism of the transportation of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) by blood.
4. Write short notes on the following –

(1) Osmoregulation
(2) Heart beat
(3) Role of pancreas in digestion.
Section – B
5. Explain the structure, chemical composition of striated, muscle fibres and briefly
describe the mechanism of muscle contraction?
6. Write an account of the structure of adrenal gland and discuss the physiological
function of its hormones?
7. Write the short notes on two of the followings –

(j) Synaptic transmission
(ii) Hormonal control of testicular function
(iii) Lactation
Section C
8. Describe the enzymatic reactions of Krebs’ cycle and add a note on its
importance.
9. Write an account of transamination and deamination process and explain
their importance.
10. Write short notes on any two of the following:
(1) Biosynthesis of triglycerides
(2) Iron metabolism in body
(3) Biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics are covered in the syllabus?

What topics are covered in the syllabus?

Biyani's Think Tank

Concept based notes

Concept & Copyright :

Leaser Type Setted by :

I am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs

2 Digestion ,Nervous system and Excretion

3 Circulation and Endocrinal glands

1. Osmoregulation, membrane permeability : active and passive transport across

Regulatory aspect of animals Physiology

1. Physiology of Nerve Impulse and Reflex Action : Functional architecture of a

1. Carbohydrate : Structure, function and significance.

1.1 Lipids : beta-oxidative pathway of fatty acid; brief account of

6. Catabolsim and Biosynthesis of nucleic acid.

Q-1 What is osmoregulation?

Organisms in both aquatic and terrestrial environments must maintain the

Q-2 Describe the adaptations involved in osmoregulation in animals.

Ans- Osmoregulation in protists and animals

Protist Paramecium aurelia with contractile vacuoles.

Amoeba make use of contractile vacuoles to collect excretory waste, such

Kidneys play a very large role in human osmoregulation, regulating the

A major way animals have evolved to osmoregulate is by controlling the

Vertebrate excretory systems

Waste products of nitrogen metabolism

Achieving osmoregulation in vertebrates

Four processes occur:

filtration - fluid portion of blood (plasma) is filtered from a nephron

secretion - the remaining fluid becomes urine, which travels down

Q-3 Write an essay on various factors which control the osmoregulation.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal conditions. My cells

Osmoregulation is very important: our tissues do not lose or gain water by

 Less ADH produced by the pituitary gland.

 Blood becomes more concentrated.

3. What happens if you drink too much beer?

Mammals are terrestrial animals and they must conserve water.

At the beginning we decided to forget about what happens to the sugar

Pituitary Gland: an endocrine gland at the base of the brain, just

Negative feedback: a control process. When a hormone has had an effect

Positive feedback is the reverse of negative feedback. When we are

Q-4 Describe the mechanism of primary and secondary active transport.

Active transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration

Specialized trans-membrane proteins recognize the substance and allows

Sometimes the system transports one substance in one direction at the

Particles moving from areas of low concentration to areas of high

Primary active transport

Example of primary active transport

Most of the enzymes that perform this type of transport are

ATP utilizing Primary active transport types

(1) P-type ATPase : Sodium potassium pump, Calcium pump, Proton

(2) F-ATPase : mitochondrial ATP synthase, Chloroplast ATP synthase

(3) V-ATPase : vacuolar ATPase

(4) ABC (ATP Binding Cassette) transporter : MDR, CFTR, etc.

Secondary active transport

Secondary active transport

In secondary active transport or co-transport, uses energy to transport

The two main forms of this are antiport and symport.