Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 553

Conflicts at Creation: Genesis 1–3 in Dialogue with

the Psalter
HULISANI RAMANTSWANA (UNISA)
ABSTRACT
Gunkel in his “Creation and Chaos in the Primeval Era and the
Eschaton” argued that the Chaoskampf motif which had its origin
in the Babylonian account of creation Enuma Elish is found in two
groups of texts: those dealing with the dragon and those dealing
with the primal sea. Scholars have since tended to regard the OT as
portraying the creation of the universe as the result of a cosmic
conflict between God and Chaos. The aim in this paper is not so
much to challenge Gunkel’s thesis, which others have already done,
but to analyse the OT’s multiple and diverse voices regarding the
protological events. This paper suggests that the relationship
between creation and conflict is not that creation occurs through
conflict; rather, conflict comes through the process of creation. That
is, the fundamental conflict between God and his creatures is evi-
denced by two conflicts: conflict at sea with Leviathan/Rahab (Pss
74:12–17; 89:9–14), and conflict on land with the serpent and
humankind (Gen 2:4b–3:24).

A INTRODUCTION
The positive evaluation of creation in the Gen 1:1–2:4a creation narrative is
usually regarded as implying that creation in its original state was in an ideal
state of perfection.1 The tendency to regard creation in its original state as per-

1
For Wenham the refrain in Gen 1:31 emphasises the perfection of the final work
by modifying the previous formulas (vv. 4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25) in three ways: (1) it is
applied to the whole creation; (2) the use of ‫ והנה‬instead of ‫ כי‬suggest God’s
enthusiasm as he completed his work; (3) the whole finished work is said to be “very
good” not merely “good.” See Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 1–15 (WBC 1; Waco:
Word Books, 1987), 34. Atkinson states, “Before anything is said about evil, or pain,
or sin, or disorder, we need first to hear this note of excited pleasure. What God made
is good.” See David Atkinson, The Message of Genesis 1–11 (Downers Grove: Inter–
Varsity Press, 1990), 42. According to von Rad, “No evil was laid upon the world by
God’s hand, neither was his omnipotence limited by any kind of opposing power
whatever. When faith speaks of creation, and in so doing directs its eye toward God,
then it can only say that God created the world perfect.” See Gerhard von Rad,
Genesis: A Commentary (trans. J. Marks; rev. ed.; OTL; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1972),
61. Childs asserts, “God pronounced his workmanship good and blessed it. The
creation rested in its perfection; no further work was needed.” See Brevard S. Childs,
Biblical Theology of the Old Testament and New Testaments: Theological Reflection
on the Christian Bible (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 385. Sarna states, “The formula
554 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

fect is intended to avoid a metaphysical dualism of creation, that is, a creation

in which good and evil coexisted in its original state, thereby making God the
author of both good and evil. In such readings evil is regarded as the conse-
quence of the human fall and so outside of the scope of the protological act of
creation. The problem with such a reading of Gen 1:1–2:4a is that this creation
narrative is given the status of a canon within the canon, thereby becoming a
yardstick by which other creation narratives are to be judged. The OT is not
single voiced in its description of the protological act of creation; rather, it
exhibits a plurality of voices which all stand in a dialogic relationship with each
other; in this relationship they are mutually enriched. The fact that Gen 1:1–
2:4a is strategically located at the beginning of the OT, as Hoffman notes, does
not imply that this narrative had canonical status for other biblical authors, as
evidence by the lack of citations and allusions from other canonical books.2
The plural voices in the OT all have equal rights. It is, however, the duty of an
interpreter to orchestrate dialogue between these plural voices, thereby bringing
the ideas and worldviews within the OT into a dialogue with each other. The
OT, to use Bakhtin’s term, is a “polyphonic” text which brings worldviews,
ideas, and perspectives into a dialogic relationship with each other in which
they are mutually enriched.3 For Bakhtin the chief characteristic of a poly-
phonic text is “a plurality of independent and unmerged voices and conscious-
ness.”4 Newsom observes, “No one voice can speak the whole truth. Rather, the

of divine approbation, ‘God saw that [it] was good,’ affirms the consummate
perfection of God’s creation, an idea that has important consequences for the religion
of Israel. Reality is imbued with God’s goodness. The pagan notion of inherent,
primordial evil is banished. Henceforth, evil is to be apprehended on the moral and
not the mythological plane.” See Nahum M. Sarna, Genesis: The JPS Torah
Commentary (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 7. Regarding
God’s completed work, Cassuto writes, “For both in detail and in its entirety it had
emerged perfect from his hand.” See Umberto Cassuto, From Adam to Noah (vol. 1 of
Commentary on Genesis; Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1961), 59.
2
Yair Hoffman, “The First Creation Story: Canonical and Diachronical Aspects,”
in Creation in Jewish and Christian Tradition (ed. Henning G. Reventlow and Yair
Hoffman; JSOTSup 319; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 32–53.
3
For Bakhtin a polyphonic text is “dialogic through and through” (Mikhail M.
Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics [ed. and trans. by Caryl Emerson; Minne-
apolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984], 40). Bakhtin writes regarding Dostoev-
sky, “We consider Dostoevsky one of the greatest innovators in the realm of artistic
form. He created, in our opinion, a completely new type of artistic thinking, which we
have provisionally called polyphonic. This type of artistic thinking found its expres-
sion in Dostoevsky’s novels, but its significance extends far beyond the limits of the
novel alone and touches upon several basic principles of European aesthetics. It could
even be said that Dostoevsky created something like a new artistic model of the
world, one in which many basic aspects of old artistic form were subjected to a radical
restructuring” (Bakhtin, Problems, 3).
4
Bakhtin, Problems, 6–7.
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 555

truth about piety, human suffering, the nature of God, and the moral order of
the cosmos can be adequately addressed only by a plurality of unmerged con-
sciousnesses engaging one another in open–ended dialogue.”5
The focus in this paper is on the conflict motif as it relates to the proto-
logical act of creation. The conflict motif with regard to the creation has since
the publication of Gunkel’s Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeith: Eine
religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung über Gen. 1 and Ap. Jon 12 (1895)6
attained an esteemed position by being classified among the different models of
creation: creation through action (Tatbericht), creation through the word
(Wortbericht), and creation through conflict (Chaoskampf). In this paper Gen
1–3 is read in dialogue with Pss 74 and 89, which to some extent both deal with
the protological act of creation. I will argue that the conflict motif with regard
to the creation act points not to the causal effect—the origination of creation
through conflict; rather, it points to the conflicts that occurred within the crea-
tion process between the creator God and his creatures exemplified by a con-
flict in the sea with the sea serpent, Leviathan, and by a conflict on land with
the land serpent and humankind, thereby suggesting that rather than speaking
of “creation through conflict” it would be more proper to speak of conflict(s)
within the creation process.
B CREATION THROUGH CONFLICT
Gunkel argued that in the ANE creation was generally thought to have emerged
from primordial chaos—conflict between the creator god and another god or
the sea or a dragon/monster representing the forces of chaos.7 For Gunkel the
Chaoskampf motif had its origin in the Babylonian account of creation Enuma
Elish. He saw this motif lying behind the construction of Gen 1 and in two
5
Carol A. Newsom, The Book of Job: A Contest of Moral Imaginations (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2003), 24. Similarly Vanhoozer writes, “[T]he essence of
[canonical] drama is dialogic action. The question of propositionalism, then, is
whether its monologic conception of truth does not end up losing the very dialogic
quality that makes the drama, and the canonical script, what it is. Dialogic form can-
not be reduced to monologic substance.” See Kevin Vanhoozer, Drama of Doctrine:
A Canonical Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster
John Knox Press, 2005), 270.
6
Originally published in German: Hermann Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos in
Urzeit und Endzeith: Eine religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung über Gen. 1 and Ap.
Jon 12 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1895). The English Translation was
published as Hermann Gunkel, Creation and Chaos in the Primeval Era and the
Eschaton: A Religio–Historical Study of Genesis 1 and Revelation 12 (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2006). See also the condensed version: Hermann Gunkel, “The Influence
of Babylonian Mythology Upon the Biblical Creation Story,” in Creation in the Old
Testament (IRT 6; ed. Bernhard W. Anderson; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984),
25–52.
7
Gunkel, Creation and Chaos.
556 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

groups of texts within the OT—those dealing with the dragon, otherwise known
as Rahab (Isa 51:9–10; Ps 89:10–14; Job 26:12–13; 9:13; Ps 87:4; Isa 30:7; Ps
40:5), Leviathan (Ps 74:12–19; Isa 27:1; Job 40:25–41:26; Job 3:8), Behemoth
(Job 40:19–24; 1 En 60:7–9; 4 Ezra 6:49–52; Isa 30:6–33; Ps 68:31); those
dealing with the dragon in the sea (Job 7:12; Ps 44:20; Ezek 29:3–6a; 32:2–7;
Jer 51:34, 46, 42; Pss Sol 2:28b–34), the serpent (Amos 9:2–3); and those
dealing with the primal sea at primeval times (Ps 104:5–9; Job 38:8–11; Prov
8:22–31; Jer 5:22b; Jer 31:35; Ps 33:6–8; Ps 65:7–8; Sir 43:23; Pr Man 2–4)
and at the end times (Ps 46; Isa 17:12–14; Hab 3:8; Nah 1:4; Ps 18:16–18; Ps
93:3–4; Ps 106:9; Isa 59:15–20).
Gunkel, noting the parallels between the Tiamat–Marduk conflict and
Gen 1 argued that Gen 1 is not a free construction of the Priestly source; rather,
it goes back to the Babylonian creation myth.8 Gunkel regarded the Babylonian
Tiamat as corresponding with the primordial sea, tĕhôm, and he further associ-
ated the tĕhôm with other Hebrew monsters: Rahab, Leviathan, Behemoth, the
dragon, and the serpent, which he regarded as variants of Marduk’s battle with
Tiamat. By the turn of the nineteenth century scholars generally agreed that
Gen 1 was dependent on the Babylonian creation myth.9
Gunkel’s argument for etymological relationship between tĕhôm and
Tiamat has not gone unchallenged.10 Day suggests that the background for both
the term tĕhôm and the term Tiamat is a divine name in the Canaanite dragon
myth, which in Gen 1 is depersonified, whereas in Enuma Elish it is personi-
fied.11 In contrast to Day, Tsumura argues that there is no reason to believe that
8
Gunkel, Creation and Chaos, 76.
9
Following Gunkel, Anderson writes, “As in the Enuma Elish myth, Genesis 1
begins by portraying a precreation condition of watery chaos. Indeed, the Hebrew
word for deep (Gen. 1:2: Tehom) appears here without the definite article (elsewhere
it is in the feminine gender), as though it were a distant echo of the mythical battle
with Tiamat, the female personification of the powers of chaos.” See Bernhard W.
Anderson, Creation versus Chaos: The Reinterpretation of Mythical Symbolism in the
Bible (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967/1987, reprint with postscript), 39–40; see
also Mary K. Wakeman, God’s Battle with the Monster: A Study in Biblical Imagery
(Leiden: Brill, 1973), 86.
10
See Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis: Chapters 1–17 (NICOT; Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 110–111. For detailed arguments see David Tsumura,
Creation and Destruction: A Reappraisal of the Chaoskampf Theory in the Old
Testament (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 42–49.
11
John Day, God’s Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea: Echoes of a Canaanite
Myth in the Old Testament (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 50–51.
See also John Day, Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan (JSOTSup 265;
Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 98–107; John C. L. Gibson, “The
Theology of the Ugaritic Baal Cycle,” Or 53 (1984): 202–219; CTA 3.3.33–44; CTA
5.1.1–5; Otto Kaiser, Die mythische Bedeutung des Meeres in Ägypten, Ugarit und
Israel (BZAW 78; Berlin: Verlag Alfred Topelmann, 1962), 74–75; Yechezkel
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 557

the “nonpersonified uses of the Ugaritic thm(t) are the result of depersonifica-
tion of an original proper noun,” considering that thm(t) commonly appears
without personification with two exceptions: it is used in one instance without
the ending t as a part of the compound divine name Heaven–and–Ocean šmm–
w–thm, and in the other instance as the divine name Ocean for the goddess
Thm(t), the latter not appearing in conflict scenes.12
Those who regard the Canaanite mythology as background for the Gen 1
creation account also regard the Baal–Yamm conflict as a parallel of the Bab-
ylonian story of Marduk’s victory over Tiamat. This is so because the name of
Baal’s antagonist, Yam (Sea), is viewed as recalling Tiamat of Babylon.13 In
addition Yamm is associated with the Sea monster, variously called Lotan, the
dragon, and the crooked serpent.14 For Day, the Canaanites associated Baal’s
victory over the Sea and the dragon with the creation of the universe.15 Fisher
and Clifford, on the other hand, argue that the Baal cycle, although not neces-
sarily concerned with the origination of the world, is nonetheless a true cos-
mogony concerned with the establishment of human society and its continua-
tion.16
The Baal cycle, however, does not appear to have creation overtones:
First, it does not deal with the creation in the cosmic sense but with the mainte-
nance of the created order in the face of threats of chaos. Second, in Canaanite
mythology El is the creator god; Baal is not. As Tsumura observes, “it is prob-
ably wise to limit the meaning of ‘creation’ to El’s activities in the ancient
Ugaritic and to distinguish Chaoskampf myths with a creation motif, such as

Kaufmann, The Religion of Israel: From Its Beginning to the Babylonian Exile (trans.
M. Greenberg; Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1960), 62; Hans–Joachim Kraus,
Psalmen (BKAT 15/1; Neukirchen: Neukirchener Verlag, 1960), 518.
12
Tsumura, Creation and Destruction, 44–45, 53–55.
13
Alberto R. W. Green, The Storm–God in the Ancient Near East (BibJS 8; Winona
Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 186.
14
Mary K. Wakeman, “God’s Battle with the Monster: A Study in Biblical
Imagery,” (Ph.D. diss., Brandeis University, 1969), 163.
15
Day, God’s Conflict, 17–18. Note also J. H. Grønback, “Baal’s Battle with Yam:
A Canaanite Creation Fight,” JSOT 33 (1985): 27–44; Wakeman, God’s Battle, 149–
64.
16
Loren R. Fisher, “Creation at Ugarit and in the Old Testament,” VT 15 (1965):
313–24; Richard J. Clifford, “Cosmogonies in the Ugaritic Texts and in the Bible,” Or
53 (1984): 183–201. Pace Fisher and Clifford, the Baal cycle does not appear to have
any concern with the ordering of human society. The main focus of the Baal cycle,
unlike that of Enuma Elish and Atrahasis, which do have a concern with the ordering
of society, is on the activities of the gods. See Mark S. Smith, The Ugaritic Baal
Cycle: Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.1–1.2 (vol. 1;
VTSup 55; Leiden: Brill, 1994), 82. As Smith argues, in the Baal cycle, “the accent
falls entirely on Baal’s conflict with his enemies Yamm and Mot, and his kingship in
the cosmos” (Smith, The Ugaritic Baal Cycle 1, 1:84).
558 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

Enuma Elish, from Chaoskampf myths without a creation motif, such as the
Baal cycle.”17 Third, in the Baal cycle the existence of the earth is assumed
prior to Baal’s battle with Yamm.18 Fourth, the existence of humankind is
assumed prior to Baal’s battle with Mot.19 Therefore, Saggs’ conclusion that
the theme of divine combat has no essential connection with creation seems to
hold water.20 Furthermore, there are several other combat myths which evince
no linkage between combat and creation: the myth of Nergal/Labbu, the myth
of Tishpa/Lion Serpent, the myth of Ninurta and Asag, and the myth of Anzu.

17
Tsumura, Creation and Destruction, 145. See also Carola Kloos, YHWH’s Combat
with the Sea: A Canaanite Tradition in the Religion of Ancient Israel (Leiden: E.J.
Brill, 1986), 67–74.
18
“Prior to the battle, it is proclaimed: ‘To the earth the noble will fall, And to the
dust the mighty.’ And again when Yamm is struck by Baal it is said: Kothar fashions
the weapons/And he proclaims their names: ‘Your name, yours, is Ayyarmarri:
Ayyamarri, expel Yamm/Expel Yamm from his throne, Nahar from the seat of his
dominion/May you leap from Baal’s hand, Like a raptor from his fingers/Strike the
head of Prince Yamm, Between the eyes of Judge River/May Yamm sink and fall to
the earth.’ The weapon leaps from Baal’s hand, [Like] a raptor from his fingers, It
strikes the head of Prince [Yamm], Between the eyes of Judge River/Yamm collapses
and falls to the earth, His joints shake, And his form sinks” (translation taken from
Smith, The Ugaritic Baal Cycle 1, 323, 323, emphasis mine).
19
See Bernard F. Batto, Slaying the Dragon: Mythmaking in the Biblical Tradition
(Louisville: Westmister John Knox Press, 1992), 78; Bernard F. Batto, “The Covenant
of Peace: A Neglected Ancient Near Eastern Motif,” CBQ 49 (1987):197–201, esp.
198–99.
20
Henry W. F. Saggs, The Encounter with the Divine in Mesopotamia and Israel
(London: The Athlone Press, 1978), 59. Saggs further argues against the idea that the
biblical writers considered monsters primordial or pre–existent can necessarily be
built on the basis of Mesopotamian parallels. As he points out, there are many
examples of monsters “which are neither primordial nor pre–existent, and not
necessarily opposed to the gods. In Enūma Eliš itself there are monsters which are
neither primordial nor pre–existent; such as those created by Tiamat ad hoc for the
coming fight with Marduk. There are many mythical monsters of the deep mentioned
as though still existing in historical times, fully analogous with Leviathan whom
Yahweh created to sport in the sea: ‘Shamash, your rays read down to the abyss, so
that the Lahmu of the ocean behold your light.’ Elsewhere ‘50 monsters of the sea’
are said to praise Ea, suggesting that they are Ea’s creatures and not his adversaries.
Therefore there is no reason, on the basis of Mesopotamian evidence, to seek to resist
the clear indication of several biblical passages (Isa. 27:1; Job 3:8; Ps. 104:26; 148:7
[RSV]; Amos 9:3) that the sea monsters referred to in connection with Yahweh’s
power were monsters regarded as existing in historical and not merely mythic, time,
and that, far from being pre–existent rivals of Yahweh, according to some passages
the monsters had been created by Yahweh, and were his agents.” See Saggs, The
Encounter, 60–61.
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 559

The link between creation and the combat motif, as Watson points out,
“resulted in an approach whereby divine conflict with the sea is often assumed
in [OT] passages where the presence of such allusions could hardly be supposed
on the basis of the biblical text itself.”21
C CREATION WITHOUT CONFLICT
In contrast to those who tend to regard Gen 1 as reflecting a creation through
conflict, others regard this text as displaying a creation process without con-
flict—God creates without facing opposition. Some regard Gen 1 as a demy-
thologisation of other ANE myths of creation.22 Westermann from a diachronic
perspective argued that in Gen 1
there is no sign at all of any struggle between God and ‫ תהום‬corre-
sponding with the struggle between Marduk and Tiamat . . . The
similarity between ‫ תהום‬and Tiamat would go back to a stage in the
history of the creation narrative when the story of the struggles
between the gods had not yet been linked with creation. This is sup-
ported by the fact that in so many cosmonogies the sea or the deep
or the primeval flood is there at the beginning.23

Others regard Gen 1 as a polemic against other ANE cosmogonies.

According to Hasel, the Gen 1 cosmology “represents not only a ‘complete
break’ with the ANE cosmologies but represents a parting of the spiritual ways
brought about by a conscious and deliberate antimythical polemic which meant
an undermining of the prevailing mythological cosmologies.”24 According to
Smith,
the first creation story in Genesis 1:1–2:4a points to a vision of a
holy universe, which adds to the older model of the universe as a
site of conflict. . . . With but a word, without conflict, God effects
the opening of creation. In omitting the divine conflict, Genesis 1
marks a paradigm shift in the presentation of creation.25

21
Rebecca S. Watson, Chaos Uncreated: A Reassessment of the Theme of Chaos in
the Hebrew Bible (BZAW 341; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2005), 2.
22
In this argument, what particularly differentiates Genesis from other ANE myths is
its view of God. See Brevard S. Childs, Myth and Reality in the Old Testament (SBT
1/27; London: SCM, 1960), 42–43; James Barr, “The Meaning of ‘Mythology’ in
Relation to the Old Testament,” VT 9 (1959): 7; John L. McKenzie, The Two–Edged
Sword (New York: Image Books, 1966), 101–102.
23
Claus Westermann, Genesis 1–11 (CC; trans. J. J. Scullion, S. J.; Minneapolis:
Fortress Press, 1994), 106.
24
Gerhard F. Hasel, “The Polemic Nature of the Genesis Cosmology,” EvQ 46
(1974): 81–102.
25
Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic
Background and the Ugaritic Texts (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 168.
560 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

In Gen 1 the “cosmic monsters are no longer primordial forces opposed

to the Israelite God at the beginning of creation. Instead, they are creatures like
other creatures rendered in history.”26 On day four of creation God creates “the
great dragons” (Gen 1:21). In Ps 104:26, Leviathan, which is commonly pic-
tured as an enemy of Yahweh, is pictured as a harmless sea animal that God
plays with as a pet. Ortlund claims that Leviathan is in this psalm “demytholo-
gised” and simply becomes an impressive animal—the greatest sea creature
among the “small and great” sea creatures.27 In Job 41, while Leviathan is pic-
tured as a dangerous beast, yet Yahweh has the power to tame it with ease. In
the Gen 1 creation narrative, as Walton observes, the element of theomachy is
absent, and it is furthermore not a consistent motif in other ANE cosmogonies.28
The theology underlying Gen 1 and Ps 104 may be properly summarised as
creation without conflict.29
The idea that creation is without conflict should, however, be under-
stood as a relative claim, which is true insofar as Gen 1 is treated in isolation as
a polemic against other ANE mythologies. In dealing with OT creation narra-
tives, it is necessary to make a distinction between creation through conflict,
God’s conflict with the forces of chaos that resulted in the world coming into
being, and conflict within the creation process, God’s conflict with his created
order or creatures. The former is absent in the OT, whereas the latter is attested.
D CONFLICTS AT CREATION
The following psalms have generally been treated as alluding to the Cha-
oskampf motif: Pss 24; 29; 65; 74; 89; 93; 104.30 Watson in Chaos Uncreated:
A Reassesment of the Theme of “Chaos” in the Hebrew Bible deals extensively
with most of the texts alleged to allude to the Chaoskampf. However, our
investigation will be limited to Pss 74 and 89, in which the conflict motif is
linked to the theme of creation. While the other psalms may allude to the con-
26
Smith, Origins of Biblical Monotheism, 38.
27
Eric Ortlund, “The Identity of the Leviathan and the Meaning of the Book of Job,”
TJ 34 (2013): 17–30, 22.
28
John H. Walton, “Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3 and the Ancient Near East,” CTJ 43
(2008): 48–63, 55. Walton also notes that the term Chaoskampf was used for a variety
of conflicts with the frequent assumption that theomachy, Chaoskampf, and
cosmogony are all linked. See John H. Walton, Genesis 1 as Ancient Cosmology
(Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2011), 68–74.
29
Levenson states it as follows: “In Genesis there is no active opposition to God’s
creative labor. He works on inert matter. In fact, rather than creation ex nihilo,
‘creation without opposition’ is the more accurate nutshell statement of the theology
underlying our passage.” See Jon D. Levenson, Creation and the Persistence of Evil:
The Jewish Drama of Divine Omnipotence (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1988), 122.
30
See Day, God’s Conflict, 18–37. Dennis J. McCarthy, “‘Creation’ Motifs in
Ancient Hebrew Poetry,” CBQ 29 (1967): 393–406.
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 561

flict motif, they do not necessarily link it to cosmogony.31 The Gen 2:4b–3:24
creation narrative, which is often overlooked in discussion of the Chaoskampf,
also deserves consideration, as it also contributes to the biblical plural voices
from another perspective. In our investigation, as will be evidenced below, cre-
ation is not a result of conflict between Yahweh with the sea or some primor-
dial monsters; rather, the OT attests to conflict arising within the creation pro-
cess. The conflicts within the creation process are evidenced by two conflicts:
conflict at sea and conflict on land.
1 Conflict at Sea
In this section, focus will primarily be on two psalms, Pss 74:12–14 and 89:9–
14. The precise historical situation of the psalms cannot always be identified;
however, they do reflect concrete situations.
1a Psalm 74
Ps 74:12–17 is commonly regarded as the Chaoskampf section of this psalm.32
In this view the waters and the dragons are regarded as the enemies of the
divine warrior, Yahweh. In the Psalter, especially in the lament psalms, Yah-
weh’s ancient deeds are often evoked by the psalmists as they entreat him to act
again in the present (Pss 44:2–9; 74:12–17; 77:12–21; 80:9–12; 83:10–13;
89:2–38).33 The allusion in Ps 74 to Yahweh’s act of dividing the sea and slay-
ing the dragon alludes to two things: God’s creation–redemptive act with
regard to creation and his creation–redemptive act at Red Sea with regard to
Israel.34

• Yahweh’s Creative–Redemptive Act at the Red Sea

The shepherd motif in v. 1 is used in several other psalms in relation to the
exodus event and wilderness wanderings (Pss 77:21; 78:52–53a; 79:13; 80:2;
95:7–11; 100:1–5). The reference in v. 2 to “the assembly, which you [God]

31
See also Walton, “Creation,” 53–54.
32
Day, God’s Conflict, 21–25.
33
See, Richard J. Clifford, “Creation in the Psalms,” in Creation in Biblical
Traditions (ed. Richard J. Clifford and John J. Collins; CBQMS 24; Washington,
DC.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1992), 57–69; Richard J. Clifford,
Creation Accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible (CBQMS 26;
Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1994), 151–62; Richard
J. Clifford, “The Hebrew Scriptures and the Theology of Creation,” TS 46 (1985):
507–23.
34
Hans–Joachim Kraus, Psalms: A Commentary (vol. 2; Minneapolis: Augsburg,
1988–89), 303–304, 310; John Goldingay, Psalms (vol. 2; BCOT; Grand Rapids:
Baker, 2006), 420–37; Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 51–100 (WBC 20; Dallas: Word
Books, 1990), 239–55; James L. Mays, Psalms (IBC; Louisville: John Knox Press,
1994), 245.
562 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

acquired of old” culminating with his bringing the tribe of his possession to
Mount Zion is the same pattern that we find in the Song of the Sea, Exod 15,
especially vv. 16–18 (cf. Deut 32:6). The language of deliverance or redemp-
tion, the verb ‫גָּ ַאל‬, in v. 2, alludes to the Red Sea event, which is Yahweh’s first
great redemptive act in Israel’s history. The great redemptive act in Exod 14–
15 also evokes creational images: the light shining in the darkness all night
long (Exod 14:20), and the dividing of the waters by ‫רוּח‬ ַ (wind) so that dry
35
ground would appear (Exod 14:21; 15:8). Thus, the redemptive act of Israel at
the Red Sea is framed as a reenactment of the creative act in Gen 1.36 From a
progressive reading of the Pentateuch, the Gen 1 creation account is trans-
formed into a historical account of God’s creation of a people, Israel.37 How-
ever, as already noted, the conflict motif is absent in the Gen 1 creation.
In Ps 74, Yahweh’s redemptive act is particularly highlighted by the use
of the concept “right hand” (v. 11). The psalmist entreats Yahweh not to with-
hold his “right hand” because it is his “purchased people,” or “inheritance,” and
his dwelling place which are now threatened by the current enemies (see also
Exod 15:13). The psalmist thus calls on Yahweh to act in a way as spectacular
as at the Red Sea. Just as the divine warrior Yahweh destroyed the Egyptians at
the Red Sea through his “right hand” (Exod 15:6, 12), the psalmist now calls
upon Yahweh to deliver him from the enemies once more through his “right
hand.”
The enemy at the Red Sea was not the waters or the sea; rather, it was
the Pharaoh’s horses, chariots, and horsemen, who all perished in the sea (Exod
15:4, 19, 21). The sea was a mere instrument in Yahweh’s hand through which
and in which he destroyed the enemy. Exodus 15:4–5 reads:
Pharaoh’s chariots and his army he has hurled into the sea (‫)ביָּ ם‬.
ַ
The best of Pharaoh’s officers are drowned in the Red Sea (‫)ביַ ם־סוּף‬.
ְ
The deep waters (‫)תּהֹמֹת‬
ְ have covered them;
they sank to the depths (‫)ב ְמצוֹֹלת‬
ִ like a stone. (NIV)

The use of the terms ‫ יַ ם‬and ‫ ְתּהֹמֹת‬also recalls the primordial waters,
thereby expressing the idea that the “emergence of Israel as a people during the
exodus was due to a creative act by Yahweh equal to that of the original crea-
tion of the cosmos itself. The Egyptians, the evil force that threatens the exist-

35
See Peter Enns, Exodus (NIVAC; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 213, 230;
Bernard Och, “Creation and Redemption: Towards a Theology of Creation,” Judaism
44 (1995): 226–243, 236; Terence E. Fretheim, “The Reclamation of Creation:
Redemption and Law in Exodus,” Int 45 (1991): 358; Ronald Simkins, Creator and
Creation: Nature in the Worldview of Ancient Israel (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1994),
109–112.
36
Och, “Creation,” 236.
37
Fretheim, “Reclamation,” 358; Simkins, Creator and Creation, 109–112.
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 563

ence of this new creation, are appropriately cast into the sea to perish.”38 The
psalmist by evoking the Red Sea event presents Yahweh’s creative–redemptive
act at the Red Sea as one source from which to draw confidence that Yahweh
will equally intervene in the current crisis.
• Yahweh’s Creative–Redemptive Act
The turning point in Ps 74 is v. 12: the psalmist does not stop at the Red Sea;
rather, he looks back via the exodus to creation.39 The event at the Red Sea and
wilderness experiences may, on the one hand, be described as that point in
Israel’s history where Yahweh divided the sea and smashed the heads of the
Egyptian Leviathan, provided Israel with water, and dried up the Jordan
River.40 At the same time, however, the language in vv. 13–17 also becomes
more and more creation language. At the Red Sea, just as at creation, Yahweh
divided and separated the sea so that dry land would appear.
Psalm 74:15–17 generally refers to God’s authorship over all creation.
At creation Yahweh separated the waters so that dry land might appear; day
and light also belong to him, the heavenly luminaries as well as the seasons,
winter and summer. The language here clearly recalls Gen 1. This passage’s
use of merisms (day and night, moon and sun, winter and summer) reflects a
common notion found elsewhere in the HB (Gen 1; Gen 8:22; Isa 45:7) of the
binary structure of the cosmos.
Taking into consideration the creation language in vv. 12–17, the con-
flict between Yahweh and Leviathan has to be understood not only within the
context of the deliverance at the Red Sea, but also within the context of crea-
tion. The dragon in the water and Leviathan stand in a synonymous parallelism;
thus, the name of the many–headed dragon (‫אשׁי ַת ִנּ ִינים‬
ֵ ‫ ָ)ר‬is Leviathan. Levia-
than is also described here as many headed, as evidenced by the reference to
“heads,” although without specification of the number of heads. There is a
close affinity between the descriptions of Leviathan in Ps 74, Isa 27:1, and Job
41:1–34 and the descriptions of the dragon and/or Lotan in the Ugaritic Baal
Epic:41
Anat takes credit: Baal is credited:
What enemy has risen against Balu When you smite Lotan, the crooked ser-
(what) adversary against Cloud–Rider? pent,

38
Batto, Slaying the Dragon, 116.
39
See also Goldingay, Psalms 2, 430.
40
See Goldingay, Psalms 2, 431; Mays, Psalms, 245.
41
Green notes, “There is no indication, however, that either Lotan, the ‘Crooked
Serpent,’ or Yam is of the same form, nor do the names Yam and Lotan ever appear in
parallelism. In the one recorded instance in which they do appear together in the Anat
text above, they represent two creatures, each of which is successively conquered by
the goddess” (Green, Storm–God, 184, emphasis in original).
564 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

I have smitten Illu’s beloved, Yammu, and made an end to the twisting serpent,
Have finished off the great god Naharu. The tyrant with seven heads,
I have bound the dragon’s [tnn (cf. Heb. The heavens will grow hot and droop,
tannîn)] jaws, have destroyed it, I will crush you to pieces and I will eat
have smitten the twisting serpent, you.
the close–coiled one with seven heads.42 You will descend into the throat of Mot
the Son of El.43

Leviathan, as already observed, is also a many–headed creature, pre-

sumably seven headed, as is the dragon/Lotan in the Baal cycle. As Dahood
observes, the seven heads of Leviathan/Lotan presumably correspond with the
sevenfold “you are the one who. . . ” in Ps 74. In Isa 27:1, Leviathan is
described as a “fleeting serpent” (‫ )נָ ָחשׁ ָבּ ִר ַח‬and as a “twisting serpent” ( ‫נָ ָחשׁ‬
ֲ 44 In Job 41:1–8, 18–21 Leviathan is described as a terrifying, power-
‫)ע ַק ָלּתוֹן‬.
ful, fearless crocodile–like creature with an astonishing nose snorting out
flashes of light and breathing out firebrands through its mouth.
For the psalmist, Yahweh’s cosmic battle with Leviathan in primordial
times is another symbolic representation that Yahweh can act again to redeem
his people in their current history. Thus, in this perspective, the creation pro-
cess also includes the redemptive aspect.45 The cosmic framework sets Yahweh
as the ultimate divine warrior, who brings order and stability in creation. The
conflict between Yahweh and Leviathan, as Tate argues, points to “struggle for
cosmic power and divine kingship.”46 Leviathan is an anticreational force, just
as the Egyptians at the Red Sea attempted to abort Yahweh’s creation of Israel
and the contemporary enemy is destroying Yahweh’s people and the temple.
Thus in Ps 74, Yahweh’s defeat of the primordial opponent is viewed as an act
that had a salvific function, which is ground for hope that Yahweh will again
defeat the contemporary political and military enemies to restore stability.47

42
Dennis Pardee, “The Baʿlu Myth,” COS 1.86.92., p. 252. CTA 3.iii.32–iv.51.
43
Translation of CTA 5, taken from Green, Storm–God, 197; compare with COS,
265.
44
Mitchell Dahood, 51–100 (vol. 2 of Psalms; AB 17; Garden City: New York,
1995), 205.
45
See John Goldingay, Israel’s Gospel (vol. 1 of Old Testament Theology; Downers
Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 288–89.
46
Tate, Psalms 51–100, 251.
47
Middleton notes, “Particularly interesting, although only implicit in the psalm [Ps
74], is the connection between the combat myth and temple–building. Just as the
conclusion of Baal’s battles with his opponents (in the Ugaritic myth) results in the
construction of his temple/palace, presumably if YHWH once more defeated the forces
of Chaos, thus enacting the primordial battle in history, the culmination of the victory
would be God’s coming to rest in his royal sanctuary Zion. The implied outcome of
the new battle would be a new temple. Israel’s sacred historical cosmos would once
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 565

1b Psalm 89
Verses 9–14 are commonly regarded as the Chaoskampf section of Ps 89. In
this psalm, Yahweh is presented as in conflict with a sea creature called Rahab:
9
You rule the raging of the sea;
when its waves rise, you still them.
10
You crushed Rahab like one of the slain;
with your strong arm you scattered your enemies.
11
The heavens are yours, and yours also the earth;
you founded the world and all that is in it.
12
You created the north and the south;
Tabor and Hermon sing for joy at your name.
13
Your arm is endued with power;
your hand is strong, your right hand exalted (Ps 89:9–14).

Venter regards the Chaoskampf section of Ps 89 as the focus of the

48
psalm. In this section of the psalm, the conflict theme is used to express,
using Levenson’s term, God’s “cosmic mastery”—God’s rule and might over
creation through which order is established.49 As Venter notes, three tier view
of the cosmos is depicted in vv. 9–11: sea (vv. 9–10), heaven (v. 11), and
earth/dry land (v. 11). Thus, Yahweh’s mastery extends over all cosmic space.

• Yahweh’s Mastery of the Sea

In vv. 9–10, Yahweh’s mastery is evidence by his ability to bring order and
stability on the waters. In these verses, the sea is not destroyed; rather, it is
stilled. In Israel’s view, the ordered primordial waters require Yahweh to con-
tinually exercise his rule over them. The ordered waters if unchecked pose a
threat of reversing creation to its non–functional state. The danger of the pri-
mordial waters is perhaps reflected by the absence of the evaluation formula on
day two of creation in the Gen 1 creation narrative. Furthermore, in Genesis the
danger of the primordial waters is realised in the flood narrative in Gen 6–9. In
Genesis, hope is derived from the divine promise not to destroy creation by the
“floodwaters” (‫)מַ בּוּל‬, thereby stilling the primordial fears of heaven closing in
on the earth through the reunification of the waters above and the waters below
(see Gen 9:11–12). For Israel, while Yahweh is the one who set the boundaries
for the primordial waters (Prov 8:29; Job 38:8; Pss 33:7), he also had the cos-
mic responsibility of ensuring that they do not again cover the earth (Pss 89:9;
104:9).

again be secure.” See J. Richard Middleton, The Liberating Image: The Imago Dei in
Genesis 1 (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2005), 247.
48
Pieter M. Venter, “The Translation of Psalm 89:13 and Its Implications,” HvTSt
61 (2005): 531–544, 537.
49
Levenson, Creation, 6–7.
566 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

The fear of the primordial waters is also reflected in other ANE cosmolo-
gies. In Egyptian cosmology, creation begins with the primeval waters, Atum,
from which evolved Shu, the god of air, and Tefnut, the goddess of moisture.
Shu and Tefnut in turn gave birth to Geb, earth, and Nut, heaven. Nut and Geb,
heaven and earth, are separated from each other by Shu, who is often depicted
as standing with his arms raised supporting Nut. Shu, inasmuch as he stands as
a separator between Nut and Geb, heaven and earth, “also ensures contact
between them.”50 The depiction of Shu as supporting Nut also “is the
personification of the archaic fear that the celestial vault will collapse and fall
upon the earth.”51 In Enuma Elish Table IV, lines 137–139, we read:
[Marduk] split her into two, like a fish for drying,
Half of her he set up and made as a cover, heaven
He stretched out the hide and assigned watchmen,
And ordered them not to let her waters escape,
He crossed heaven and inspected (its) firmament,
He made a counterpart to Apsu, the dwelling of Nudimmud.
He founded the Great sanctuary, the likeness of Essharra
(In) the Great Sanctuary, (in) Esharra, which he built, (and in)
heaven,
He made Ea, Enlil, and Anu dwell in their holy places.52

Marduk, having ordered creation by slaying Tiamat and making the

cover of heaven with half her body, assigned watchmen (gods) to see to it that
Tiamat’s waters do not escape. The escape of the primordial waters would
imply the undoing of Marduk’s great achievements.
Thus in the OT and in other ANE cosmogonies, the primordial waters had
to be kept under check lest the ordered creation be in the danger of reverting to
its primordial state of singularity. For Israel only Yahweh had the power to
keep the primordial waters in their positions.

• Yahweh’s Conflict with Rahab

The sea in v. 9, as argued above, is not depicted as an enemy of Yahweh; how-
ever, in v. 10, Yahweh is depicted as in conflict with a sea creature. The sea
creature in this instance is called Rahab. The slaying of Rahab is presented as
part of an exercise of Yahweh’s royal function. In this psalm, the creation pro-
cess is viewed from a royal perspective, as an exercise of rule and might (Ps
89:8, 9, 10, 13). It is Yahweh’s exercise of his rule and might that guarantees

50
Jeremy Naydler, Temple of the Cosmos: The Ancient Egyptian Experience of the
Sacred (Rochester: Inner Traditions International, 1996), 21.
51
Dirk L. Couprie, Heaven and Earth in Ancient Greek Cosmology: From Thales to
Heraclides Ponticus (New York: Springer, 2011), 9.
52
Benjamin R. Foster, trans., “Epic of Creation (Enuma Elish)” COS, 1.111, 398.
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 567

the stability and functionality of creation. Furthermore, this psalm through the
conflict theme elevates the Davidic king. As Levenson points out,
It is now the Davidic throne that guarantees cosmic stability, the
continuation of order established through primeval combat. In Psalm
89, as in the Enuma Elish, the bond between the exaltation of the
deity and the imperial politics of his earthly seat of power is
patent.53

Rahab is described in terms similar to those used to describe Leviathan

in Ps 74 and Isa 27:1. Like Leviathan, Rahab’s crushing by Yahweh is placed
within the context of the “sea” (cf. Isa 51:9–10). In Isa 51:9–10 Rahab, like
Leviathan a dragon (‫)תּ ִנּין‬
ַ and a sea creature, is slain. Furthermore, the slaying
of Rahab is set in the context of the deliverance of Israel from Egypt, when
Yahweh made a road in the depths of the sea for the Israelites to cross over.
The mythic descriptions of Leviathan and Rahab make them indistinguisha-
ble.54 In the book of Job, wherein both names are found, Rahab and Leviathan
do not appear together.55 However, as Watson argues,
the motifs of the slaying of Rahab and Leviathan were [probably]
not regarded as concerning independent events which might be pre-
sented sequentially, but rather that they existed as separate traditions
which had, at least in part, acquired the same content and which
were regarded as alternative of the presentations of the same event.56

Leviathan and Rahab are equated in the OT, and should, therefore, be
viewed as one and the same creature under different names.
Rebellion forms part of the fabric of the heavenly pantheon in Atrahasis,
Enuma Elish, and the Baal Cycle. In Atrahasis the rebellion of the junior gods
leads to the creation of humans, whereas in Enuma Elish the conflict between
Marduk and Tiamat forms the basis for the creation of the cosmos.57 In the Baal
cycle the focus is on the cyclical events of nature: Baal’s kingship was not for-
ever intact. Baal was in a continuous struggle with the two primordial antago-
nists, Yamm and Mot. “The Canaanites could explain the change from one sea-
son to another and the differences between good and bad years only by believ-
ing that sometimes Baal was weak, sick, or even dead.”58 The OT, with its
53
Levenson, Creation, 22–23.
54
Watson, Chaos Uncreated, 304.
55
Watson, Chaos Uncreated, 304.
56
Watson, Chaos Uncreated, 304–305.
57
Goldingay, Israel’s Gospel, 65.
58
Martin J. Mulder, “Baal,” TDOT 2:200. As Gibson points out, “The battle is not
once for all (as in the cases of Marduk and Yahweh and perhaps El Elyon of Jerusalm
and for all we know, at one time, El of Ugarit) in order to make creation possible, but
has to be fought anew every year in order to guarantee the continuance of life and
fertility on earth. The kingship which Baal wins and has to keep winning that the
568 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

monotheism, unlike other ANE mythologies, does not entertain the idea of gods
rebelling against Yahweh at creation; rather, the focus turns out to be on rebel-
lion by Yahweh’s sea creature. The battle between Yahweh and the dragon is
depicted as an earthly one, not a heavenly one. Yahweh’s defeat of the dragon
at creation is regarded as the basis of faith that Yahweh will defeat the current
enemies.
Yahweh’s victory over the ‫ ַתּ ִנּין‬is not presented in an unqualified way of
an absolute and an unconditional victory in the primordial times.59 Elsewhere
in the OT Yahweh’s conflict with the ‫ ַתּ ִנּין‬is often historicised or reenacted in
Israel’s own history.60 Yahweh victory over the sea dragon at creation is
extended to other enemies of God and his people in creation.61 Pharaoh or
Egypt is regarded as a ‫( ַתּ ִנּין‬Ezek 29:1–5; 32:2–8) and as Rahab (Isa 30:7; 51:9–
11, Ps 87:4);62 the Babylonian king is regarded as the ‫( ַתּ ִנּין‬Jer 51:34); it is
unclear whether Leviathan in Isa 27:1 represents Egypt, Babylon, or Persia;63
and for Job Leviathan is the dreadful creature that if roused can cause great
destruction for humanity (Job 3:8; 41:1–34). The dragon had become for Israel
a symbol for those powers that threaten God’s people.
In Isa 27 Yahweh’s conflict with the ‫ ַתּ ִנּין‬is eschatologised.64 This text
forms part of an Isaianic apocalypse (Isa 24–27). Leviathan in Isa 27:1 inas-
much as it was a symbol of an imminent historical enemy65 is also a symbol of
the anti–creational force that keeps on reinventing itself again and again.66 The
repetitive call upon Yahweh to act against the ‫ ַתּ ִנּין‬is indicative of the continual
threat posed by the anti–creational force.

dangers of the flood and drought might be kept at bay is therefore a delegated
kingship, the victor being called King because he is in effect El’s regent or
executive—the god who does and acts while El from his central office, as it were,
thinks and plans.” See John C. L. Gibson, “The Kingship of Yahweh Against its
Canaanite Background,” in Ugarit and the Bible: Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Ugarit and the Bible Manchester, September 1992 (ed. George J.
Brooke, Adrian H. W. Curtis and John F. Healey; UBL 11; Münster: Ugarit–Verlag,
1994), 105.
59
Levenson, Creation, 14–50, esp. 16–18, 26–31.
60
See Day, God’s Conflict, 88–140.
61
Leland Ryken, James C. Wilhoit, Tremper Longman III, Dictionary of Biblical
Imagery: An Encylopedic Exploration of the Images, Symbols, Motifs, Metaphors,
Figures of Speech and Literary Patterns of the Bible (Downers Grove: InterVarsity
Press, 1998), 564.
62
Psalm 87:4, as Day points out, mentions Rahab alongside Babylon, Philistia, Tyre,
and Ethiopia, probably having Egypt in view, as Egypt is also called by this name
elsewhere (cf. Isa 30:7; 51:9). See Day, God’s Conflict, 90.
63
Day, God’s Conflict, 112–13.
64
See Levenson, Creation, 48.
65
Levenson, Creation, 48.
66
Levenson, Creation, 28.
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 569

Psalms 74 and 89 exhibit that there was conflict during the creation pro-
cess. The spatial location of such conflict is in the sea. The conflict model of
creation is considered by scholars to be earlier and so dominant over the view
of creation without conflict in Gen 1.67 Whether one motif is predominant over
the other is immaterial for us; the conflict motif remains one voice among other
voices, and the predominance does not necessarily elevate it over the other
voices.
2 Conflict on Land
The Gen 1 creation narrative has received more attention with regard to the
conflict motif than the Gen 2:4b–3:24 creation narrative. For Gunkel the ser-
pent in Gen 3 did not warrant attention, as it was derived from a different tradi-
tion from that of Tiamat in the Babylonian Enuma Elish, which is reflected in
Gen 1.68 In the traditional reading of Gen 2:4a–3:24, ch. 3 is commonly
regarded as narrating events subsequent to God’s good creation. However, Gen
2:4b–3:24 in toto has to be viewed as a creation narrative, not just Gen 2:4b–
25; thus events narrated in Gen 3 are part of the creation process.69
It is true that in the first creation narrative in Gen 1:1–2:4a God creates
without opposition. The first creation narrative is not, however, absolute, nor-
mative, or quintessential, nor is it the final word; it is just one perspective from
which the creation process is described. Genesis 2:4b–3:24 stands in a dialogic
relationship with the Gen 1:1–2:4a creation narrative; they mutually enrich
each other. While the Gen 1:1–2:4a creation narrative does not exhibit conflict
within the creation process, it is dialogically expanded by Gen 2:4b–3:24,
which attests to conflict between God and his creatures within the creation pro-
cess. As Ramantswana has argued elsewhere by tapping into the absence of the

67
See Levenson, Creation, 6–7; Smith, Origins of Biblical Monotheism, 168. Smith
elsewhere writes, “The presentation in Genesis 1 carries an especially powerful force
for an audience that knows and presumes the traditional stories of its warrior–god’s
victories over the ancient cosmic enemies. Such a presentation assumes that the
audience knows how such stories convey God’s mastery over the universe. Genesis 1
plays on this knowledge and thereby extends the picture of divine mastery.” See Mark
S. Smith, The Memoirs of God: History, Memory, and the Experience of the Divine in
Ancient Israel (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004), 98.
68
Hermann Gunkel, Genesis (trans. M. E. Biddle; Macon: Mercer University Press,
1997), 16.
69
Hulisani Ramantswana, “Humanity Not Pronounced Good: Humanity’s Death
within the Scope of God’s Very Good Creation in Light of Genesis 2–3” OTE 26/3
(2013): 804–818; Hulisani Ramantswana, “From Bad to Good: A Dialogic Reading of
Genesis 1” JSem 21/2 (2012): 237–268.
570 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

evaluation formula with regard to humanity, Gen 2:4b–3:24 is a resumption of

the sixth day of creation.70
The serpent in Gen 3, as some scholars argue, should be viewed posi-
tively as an animal of life and wisdom. For Vreizen, the serpent is seen in the
ANE—Canaan, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Babylonia—as an animal
of fertility and wisdom, not a symbol of death (1 Kgs 18:4; Num 21:9).71 For
Westermann, the serpent is a creature of God that merely plays its part in the
transgression and punishment story.72 For Joines, Landy, and van Wolde the
serpent has a combination of positive and negative elements: on the one hand,
it is a symbol of life and wisdom, and on the other hand, a symbol of chaos.73
Genesis 3 may also be understood as evincing a conflict model of crea-
tion within God’s creation process. This has to be distinguished from the Cha-
oskampf thesis, wherein the creator deity triumphs over the watery deity as an
initial act of origination of the cosmos. Genesis 3 rather points to conflicts
arising within the creation process between the creator God and the creatures:
the serpent and humanity. In this case, unlike in the conflict with the watery
serpent called Leviathan or Rahab which occurs in the sea, the spatial location
of the conflict is the “dry land” (‫)א ָד ָמה‬.
ֲ Thus in this case it is the land creatures
that are in conflict with the creator. Both rebellious creatures are to some extent
tied to the dust of the dry land as a symbol of humiliation and defeat.
2a The Rebellion: Serpent and Humanity
The Gen 2:4b–3:24 creation narrative is designed in such a way that it reaches
its climax with God in conflict with the serpent and humanity, leading to the
undoing of all the negatives in 2:5.74 The serpent’s conflict is exhibited by its
attempt to reverse and invalidate God’s words:
Concerning the trees in the garden:
God “You may freely eat from all the trees in the garden” (Gen 2:16).
Serpent “Did God say, ‘you shall not eat from any tree in the garden?’” (Gen 3:1b).
Concerning the eating from tree of knowledge of good and bad:
God “You will surely die” (Gen 2:17).

70
Hulisani Ramantswana, “Humanity not Pronounced Good: A Re–Reading of
Genesis 1:26–31 in Dialogue with Genesis 2–3,” OTE 26/2 (2013): 425–444.
71
Theodore C. Vriezen, Onderzoek naar de paradijsvoorstelling bij de oude
semietische volken (Wageningen: H. Veenman & Zonen, 1937), 173–180.
72
Westermann, Genesis 1-11, 237–239.
73
Karen R. Joines, Serpent Symbolism in the Old Testament (Haddonfield, N.J.:
Haddonfield House, 1974), 1–11; Karen R. Joines, “The Serpent in Gen. 3,” ZAW 87
(1975): 1–11; Francis Landy, Paradoxes of Paradise: Identity and Difference in the
Song of Songs (BLS 7; Sheffield: Almond, 1983), 228–246; Ellen van Wolde, Words
become Worlds: Semantic Studies of Genesis 1–11 (Leiden: Brill 1994), 3–12.
74
Ramantswana, “Humanity Not Pronounced Good: Humanity’s Death,” 804–818.
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 571

Serpent “You will not surely die” (Gen 3:4).

God “...for dust you are and to dust you will return” (Gen 3:18–19).
Concerning humanity’s likeness to God
Serpent “God knows that when you eat of it your eyes will be opened, and you will
be like God, knowing good and evil” (Gen 3:5).
God “Behold, the man has become like one of us, knowing good and evil; and
now, lest he put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and
live for ever” (Gen 3:22 RSV).

The serpent, though praised as the craftiest of all animals, turns out to be
a conflicting force in opposition to God, twisting the command by which God
gave humanity the freedom to eat of every tree in the garden by rhetorically
making it sound like a command of bondage that leaves humanity without free-
dom. Thereupon the antagonist goes in for the kill: God’s curse, “You shall
surely die,” with regard to the tree of knowledge of good and bad, is turned into
a blessing: “You shall not surely die.” The serpent’s motivation is that human-
ity “will become like God, knowing good and bad.” It should be noted, how-
ever, that it is this conflict between God and the serpent with humanity in the
middle of the two opposing forces, which occasions the further creation pro-
cess.
LaCocque argues that “the serpent has the distinct advantage of moving
on the ground while coming from the sea (under the form of Leviathan). It is at
any rate an infernal creature that ends up eating dust, a symbol of sterility and
lifelessness, there where Adam returns after death (Gen 3:14).”75 LaCocque,
however, is of the opinion that the later symbolists and apocalyptists – Job
26:18 and Isa 27:1 – equate the sea serpent and the land serpent.76 Because the
equation of the two is found only in subsequent literature (Apoc. Ab. 23:7; 3
Bar. 4:8 Odes Sol. 22:5; T. Ash. 7:3; Rev 12:9), it is better, pace LaCocque, to
conclude that in the OT, the sea serpent and the land serpent are separate enti-
ties who rebelled against God at creation.
Genesis 3 not only depicts the serpent as rebellious towards God, it also
depicts the serpent’s seduction of humanity to rebel against God. Humanity
succumbs to the serpent’s seduction, thereby rebelling against God by doing
what God commanded the first human being not to do. The desire to be like
God becomes humanity’s act of rebellion. In the rest of the biblical narrative,
the desire to be like God becomes an archetypal evil/sin (cf. Gen 11:1–9; Isa
14:13–14). The desire to be like God is equated with wisdom and the
knowledge of good and evil (Gen 3:5, 6, 22). While the Gen 3 narrative does
not make apparent the motive behind the serpent’s seduction of humanity, what

75
André LaCocque, “Cracks in the Wall,” in Thinking Biblically: Exegetical and
Hermeneutical Studies (André LaCocque and Paul Ricoeur; Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1998), 14.
76
LaCocque, “Cracks,” 14.
572 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

is apparent is the reason humanity rebelled. Consequently, both the serpent and
humankind are judged for their rebellion.
By falling for the seduction of the serpent, humanity missed the oppor-
tunity to slay the enemy of God. Humanity’s encounter with the serpent was an
opportunity for the human couple to help each other exercise their royal func-
tion in the garden. The human couple had the responsibility to ‫ ָע ַבד‬and ‫ ָשׁ ַמר‬the
Garden (Gen 2:15). We do not necessarily have to conceive the first human
couple as ill–equipped guards. The verb ‫שׁ ַמר‬, ָ which is used to describe human-
ity’s role in the garden, is also used to describe the role of the cherubim. The
human couple, instead of helping each other in fulfilling their royal or redemp-
tive function, rebelled against God. If the human couple had successfully ful-
filled their responsibility, their victory over the land serpent would have been a
type of Yahweh’s victory over the sea serpent; however, it was not to be so, as
humanity also rebelled against God.
2b The Defeat
The judgment scene in Gen 3 points to the defeat of the rebellious creatures.
The land serpent, unlike the sea serpent which is slain, is not cut to pieces. The
defeat of the land serpent is in three respects: first, it is brought low, from being
praised as the craftiest of all animals of the field to being cursed of all animals,
both domesticated and wild—cattle and beasts of the field (see v. 1 and v. 14).
Second, it is humiliated; the eating of dust for the serpent is a symbol of
humiliation and defeat (cf. Mic 7:17).77 Third, while it is still given room to
exist, the serpent will no longer do so in a cozy relationship with humanity, but
in enmity; the declared enmity between humanity and the serpent is one that
will end up in the crushing of the head of the serpent. Thus, the fate of the land
serpent will be no different from that of the sea serpent—it will be slain. How-
ever, the honour of slaying the land serpent—unlike the sea serpent, whom
Yahweh slays himself—will belong to humanity.78

77
Bruce K. Waltke, The Dance between God and Humanity: Reading the Bible
Today as the People of God (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2013), 275; Gregory A. Boyd,
God at War: The Bible and Spiritual Conflict (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997),
157.
78
The missed opportunity to crush the land serpent at the beginning was deferred to
the future: “And I will put enmity between you [the serpent] and the woman [Eve],
and between your offspring [the serpent’s] and hers [Eve’s]; he [her seed] will crush
your head [the serpent’s], and you will strike his heel [that of the woman’s seed]”
(Gen 3:15). See Daniel P. Fuller, The Unity of the Bible: Unfolding of God’s Plan for
Humanity (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 223. It should be noted that the enmity is
not between the serpent’s seed and the woman’s seed, but between the serpent and the
woman’s seed. It seems to me that there is a sense of particularity when it comes to
the serpent. Reference is not to any serpent; rather this particular cursed serpent would
be crushed.
 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578 573

The defeat of humanity is evidenced in the following respects: first,

there will be the increase of pain in childbearing and skewed relationships, and
of suffering as the cursed ground produces thorns and thistles that require
humanity to put forth more effort to make a living. Second, there will be
enmity between humanity and the serpent. Third, the fate of humanity is
death—“for you are dust, and to dust you will return” (Gen 3:19). Just as the
eating of dust by the snake is a symbol of humiliation and defeat, so is the
return to dust for humanity. Consequently humanity was thrown out of the
Garden, away from the tree of life. Adam becomes the archetypal human–king
who was raised from dust to a position of authority in the garden and returned
to dust.79
The conflict with humanity is also heightened by the setting of the cher-
ubim to guard the entrance of the garden against humanity’s encroachment.
The cherubim in Gen 3:24 are said to have “flaming swords,” a clear allusion to
conflict between God and his creatures. In Ezekiel the cherubim are described
as birdlike creatures with four faces: “One face was that of a cherub, the second
the face of a man, the third the face of a lion, and the fourth the face of an ea-
gle” (Ezek 1:4–28; 10:1–22). The cherubim also recall the multi–headed sea
serpent, Leviathan. However, the cherubim are servants of God, whereas Levi-
athan is an enemy of God. If humans were to attempt to enter the garden, they
would be cut to pieces, just as anyone entering unlawfully into the Most Holy
Place of the tabernacle/temple that was guarded by the cherubim would have
been put to death.80 Thus humanity was demoted from being servants and
guards of the archetypal temple to being servants of the land outside, thereby
losing the chance for immortality.
E CONCLUSION
If we take the conflict motif seriously, “we must acknowledge that, at the very
foundation of creation and in the cosmic environment of the earth, something
rebelled against God and threatened the world.”81 In the OT, the rebellious
something was serpentine (vx'n")—the rebellious sea serpent, !AtL'q;[] vx'n" !t'y"w>li l[;w>
x:rIB' vx'n" !t'y"w>li (“Leviathan the fleeing serpent, Leviathan the twisting serpent,”
Isa 27:1) and the land serpent, tY:x; … vx'N"h;w> hd<F'h; (“the serpent . . . beast of the
field”). The sea serpent is presented as a rebellious creature slaughtered by God
at creation. The land serpent, on the other hand, is cursed but not slaughtered;

79
Walter Brueggemann, “From Dust to Kingship,” ZAW 84 (1972): 1–18.
80
Gordon J. Wenham, “Sanctuary Symbolism in the Garden of Eden Story” in I
Studied Inscriptions from Before the Flood: Ancient Near Eastern, Literary and Lin-
guistic Approaches to Genesis 1–11 (ed. Richard S. Hess and David T. Tsumura;
SBTS 4; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1994), 399–404; Terje Stordalen, Echoes of
Eden: Genesis 2–3 and Symbolism of the Eden Garden in Biblical Hebrew Literature
(CBET 25; Leuven: Peeters, 2000), 410–417.
81
Boyd, God at War, 99.
574 Ramantswana, “Conflicts at Creation,” OTE 27/2 (2014): 553-578

one may perhaps say that the serpent was weakened but still given room to
continue to operate within the created order. Thus it is probable that the ser-
pentine language is metaphorical, representing the enemy of God whom
humankind as guard of the Garden of Eden initially failed to recognise and
counter. God’s enemy is humankind’s enemy as well.
One thing binds the sea serpent and the land serpent—they are both
rebellious serpents. What differentiates these two is their sphere of operation;
one operates in the sea, whereas the other operates on land. The OT does not
seem to equate these two creatures.
Considering the canonical shape of the OT the land serpent “was the first
to raise an explicit challenge to God in Bible, and this happened in Genesis
3.”82 This, however, does not make Gen 3 a canon within the canon; rather, it is
and remains one voice among many other voices on the subject of creation
within the OT. Genesis 3 falls among the voices that exhibit God’s cosmic
mastery—not, in this case, through slaying his enemies, but through humilia-
tion, as the enemies are demoted from glory to the dust. This forms part of the
creation process, as God brings order to creation through blessing and curses
(cf. Gen 1:22, 28, 2:3 and Gen 3:14, 17).
During the protological act of creation, conflicts arose between Yahweh
and the creatures—the sea serpent, land serpent, and humanity; consequently,
conflict between the land serpent and humanity arose. Creation is functionally
“very good,” however, because it is moving towards the resolution of the pri-
mordial yet ongoing conflict between Yahweh and the anticreational forces,
between human beings and their primordial enemy.

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Dr. Hulisani Ramantswana, University of South Africa, Department of Biblical

and Ancient Studies, P O Box 392, UNISA, 0003, E-mail: [email protected]