Formation of the universe: rotating gas cloud or nebula of extremely hot gas.

When the gas cooled, the nebula began to shrink, and

Big bang theory
as it became smaller, it rotated faster, forming a disk
 According to this theory, the universe was once very like shape. The angular momentum from the nebula’s
small and very hot, and then it expanded over time rotation and the gravitational force from the mass of
until it reached its peak around 13.7 billion years ago. the nebula formed the rings of gas outside. As the
 Asserts that seconds after the explosion, the nebula continued to shrink, these rings condensed
surroundings were at a high temperature of about 10 into various densities of planets and their satellites.
billion degrees Fahrenheit with aggregates of The remaining part of the nebula, which had the most
fundamental particles such as neutrons, electrons and mass, formed the sun.
protons The Planetesimal and Tidal Theory
 As the universe cooled in later phases, these particles
either combined with each other or decayed. The  Developed by Thomas Chamberlin and Forest
universe was also said to expand over the next 13 Moulton during the early 20th century, and James
billion years until the present. Jeans and Harold Jeffreys in 191, respectively.
 In both theories, a star supposedly passed close to the
Steady state theory sun. The gravitational pull of the passing star raised
 This theory states that the universe is always tides found on the surface of the sun.
expanding in constant average density.  Some of the smaller masses quickly cooled to
 Matter is continuously created to form cosmic or become solid bodies called planetesimals. Other grew
celestial bodies such as stars and galaxies. in size because of collision with passing objects in
 Claims that the universe has no beginning or end in space, eventually forming larger clumps and
time, and even though it is expanding, its appearance gathering more and more matter.
remains the same over time.  In both theories, the formation of planets was
explained. There are 4 inner planets ( Mercury,
Cosmic inflation theory Venus, Earth and Mars). They are called terrestrial
planets because they have solid surfaces and are
• Proposed by physicists Alan Guth and Andrei Linde mostly of silicate rocks and metals.
in the 1980’s.  The 4 outer planets are called gas planets ( Jupiter,
• The term “inflation” refers to the rapid expansion of Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Made up of only
space time. primary materials ( helium and hydrogen) that make
• According to this theory, the early universe was up the sun.
rapidly expanding bubble of pure vacuum energy. It Advancement and discoveries on the solar system
did not have any matter or radiation.
• After the expansion and cooling arising from this  Pluto was considered the outermost planet in the solar
inflation, the potential energy converted into kinetic system. In 2006, it was observed to belong to a
energy of matter and radiation. Then, a big bang different region, the Kuiper belt. Pluto is composed
occurred because of the extremely hot, dense of ice and rocks . Hence Pluto was reclassified by the
condition of matter. International Astronomical Union as Dwarf Planet
• This theory becomes an accepted hypothesis because instead as the 9th planet of the solar system.
it answered many “puzzling” observations that arose  Mars may have had prehistoric living form. The
in the big bang theory. NASA has been obtaining data on Mars through their
1. Homogeneity of objects in space space rover. Some findings point to potential life
2. Appearance of flatness or smoothness during the primitive years of Mars. One evidence
3. Formation of star and star system in later years. found on the lakebed on Mars are sedimentary rocks
Formation of star system: are shaped by microbes that are found on Earth.
Another evidence is the presence of elements such as
Nebular Hypothesis C, H, O, S, P, and organic compounds known to be
 Developed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre-Simon “building blocks” or basic elements that can support
Laplace in the 18th century life.
 Model used to explain the formation and evolution of
the solar system. It presupposes that around 4.6  The expansion of the universe is accelerating. In
billion years ago, a star system was formed from a 1998, two independent projects the Supernova
 Cosmology Project and the High Z Supernova Search • During the formative phases of the earth, there was
Team, had observed that the expansion of the no protective layer of atmosphere that could prevent
universe is not slowing down or even constant, but is planetary objects from entering the planet
inexplicably accelerating at an increasing rate. • Meteors were assumed to have randomly bombarded
 The farthest interstellar travel is outside the solar earth with ice that melted to liquid water. The lower
system. The U.S. spacecraft Voyager 1 was launched elevations or low lying surfaces of earth would
in 1977 and had been in space travelling for nearly 35 collect water and eventually form ocean basins.
years. In 2012, NASA announced that the same • Continuous outgassing of volcanoes gradually
spacecraft has already left the solar system, making it formed the primordial atmosphere which was devoid
for the vey first spacecraft to have reached the of oxygen and made up of mostly of toxic gases. It
farthest realms of space. The Voyager 1 has enabled was believed later on that the formation of the very
humans to take samples and images of various first inhabitants of earth led to the production of
celestial bodies. oxygen and other gases that comprise the present
atmosphere.
• Continuous evolution of the earth for another
significant period of time led to the formation of
materials and substances vital to life.

Earth’s subsystems
The development of earth and earth system
Geosphere
Shape of the Earth
 Is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid . Earth • The portion of the earth that includes the Internal
got its present shape specifically because of its structure, rocks and minerals, landforms and all
gravity and rotation. physical processes on land that shape Earth’s surface.
 Earth’s core is the center of gravity. This • All the continents and the ocean floor are also
gravitational force within makes planets contract and considered parts of the geosphere.
form a sphere like shape. Since the earth is also • This is the solid ground of the Earth.
rotating, the sphere is distorted by centrifugal force.as • The term geosphere covers all of the solid part of the
the earth continues to spin, the angular momentum is Earth, from its surface up to the deeper depth as
at its maximum at the equator, making this area opposed to the lithosphere that covers only the crust.
slightly bulging outward compared to the other areas Earth’s internal structure
of the sphere.
Composed of different layers, each with unique features.
History of the Earth
There are 3 main layers: crust, mantle and core.
• The age of the Earth is deemed to be one third of the
age of the universe, it is more than 4 billion years The different layers vary in density, mineral composition,
old . temperature and thickness

• Based on the theory of nebular hypothesis. Identification of materials in the interior of earth through
seismic waves. There are 2 types of waves travelling through
• Constantly bombarded by meteorites, comets and earth, the p-waves, which travel fast through both solids and
other planetary bodies. liquids, and the s-waves, which travel slower than p-waves
• Most of the parts were molten because of its collision and can travel only through solids.
with other planetary bodies, leading to extreme Crust
volcanic activity..
• Layer of the earth where we live
• Overtime, Earth cooled and formed a solid crust. The • Consists of a 5 to 70 km thick layer of oceanic and
denser materials would later on sink on the core. continental crust
Volcanic outgassing continued to form steam and • Composed of 8 elements namely, O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca,
eventually rain. Na, K, and Mg.
• Some water of the earth believed to have come from • Mohorovicic Discontinuity- above the upper mantle
space. and still part of the crust , discovered by Croatian
seismologist Andrija .
• Mohorovicic. It is now recognized as the Transitional 1. Water could be in liquid form, not just solid and gas.
Boundary that divides the crust from the mantle.
2. Water has a neutral PH.
Mantle
3. Water is good conductor of heat and energy.
• Found below the crust
4. Water has a high specific heat.
• Asthenosphere- sublayer of the mantle that explains
5. Water is a universal solvent
the occurrence of earthquakes and seismic activities.
It lies on the upper part of the mantle and directly Distribution of Waters on earth
below the crust.
• All the waters found on earth are natural but not
• It is made up of silicate rocks. everything is considered safe for drinking
• It is considered as the thickest layer of earth. It holds • 3% of the world’s waters is considered potable
almost 84% of the volume of earth.
• It is divided into two groups: surface water and
• Most of it is solid but behaves like a viscous fluid groundwater
• Gutenburg Discontinuity- serves as the transitional Surface Water
boundary between the lower mantle and the outer
core. It was named after its discovery by Beno • Water found on Earth’s Surface
Gutenburg in 1923..
• Either Marine water or Freshwater
Core
 Marine Water
• Made up of Fe and Ni.
- Has higher salt content and is found in larger bodies of water
• The Iron in the outer core is in liquid form, which is
such as oceans, seas, bays, and gulfs.
why the outer core is known to be liquid while the
inner core is solid.  Freshwater
• Iron is primarily important because this is the primary
- Those in lakes, rivers, springs, and falls which, because of
source of Earth’s magnetic field.
the lower salt content is the best source of drinking water for
• Lehman Discontinuity- a transitional boundary
all organisms. But it only accounts for about 2% of the worlds
between the inner core and outer core, was
water.
discovered in 1929 when a large earthquake occurred
in New Zealand Nitrogen – 78%

Oxygen – 20%
Hydrosphere Water – 70%
• Encompasses all the waters found on earth. This Ground water
includes water in various forms whether in ice, liquid
or vapor found on the surface, below and in the • Is the water found beneath Earth’s surface where
atmosphere of the earth. there are spaces in the soil of fractures in rocks.

• Water covers about 70% of earth’s surface and most  Aquifer

of it is water that makes up the oceans.
- underground later of water-bearing
Importance of water
- acts as a reservoir for groundwater and may contain
• Associated with the existence of life. large amounts of minerals such as magnesium,
calcium, etc.
• Substance that is necessary for the sustenance of life
on earth Atmosphere

• Critical components of most organisms, so drying up Composition of the Atmosphere

would also mean dying
- It is composed of 78% nitrogen and 20% oxygen; the rest is
• Among the properties of water that make it vital are of other gases such as CO2, Ar, and water vapor.
the following:
Layers of the Atmosphere
Composed of various which differ in thickness, temperature, • Ionosphere- lower part of the thermosphere where
and density particles of oxygen and nitrogen go back to their
neutral state, they release photons which cause the
These layers protect Earth from many external threats in
spectacular display of colorful lights in the sky called
space, such as planetary debris, impacts from celestial bodies,
“aurora”. The solar winds influences the rate of the
and radiation.
intensity of aurora.
Troposphere
• Aurora borealis or Northern Lights
• Considered to be the densest among the other layers
• Aurora Australis or Southern Lights
• Temperature drops with altitude, warm air on the
Biosphere
surface of Earth rises readily. Air molecules travel up
and then back down causing the formation of clouds • Makes up all the living components on Earth,
and eventually rain from the moisture in the air. including those which have not yet been identified

• These variations give rise to weather • Life exists in all the subsystem on Earth- on land, in
water and in air
• Tropopause – thin buffer zone above the troposphere
The origin of the biosphere
Stratosphere
• The theory of the Primordial Soup
• The air in this layer has strong, steady horizontal
• It states that life began from non living matter such as
winds which is advantageous to long distance flights.
simple organic compounds.
• Its upper region is the Ozone layer which contains a • It was believed that the primitive Earth contained
high concentration of ozone. chemicals such as CH4, H2O, NH3, and hydrogen
gas that accumulate in a soup at certain areas viable
• The ozone layer plays a very important role in for energy transformation.
absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. In Deep Sea Vent
the past decades, the ozone layer has been observed • Thus theory presupposes that life began not on the
to be thinning. surface of Earth but deep down in the sea in areas
known as marine hydrothermal vents.
• ODS (Ozone-Depleting Substances)
• Hydrothermal vents release boiling hot fluids mixed
• Stratopause- thin buffer zone exist before the next with toxic chemicals and heavy metals. Hydrogen
layer above the stratosphere. sulphide is the main compound spewed out from
cracks or fissures on the ocean floor.
Mesosphere
• Certain bacteria or primitive microbes grow around
• The layer above the stratosphere the vents. The bacteria absorb hydrogen sulphide that
streams from the vents to create simple sugar for their
• The temperature reaches a minimum of -90° C and is food in a process known as chemosynthesis.
considered as the coldest layer.
Panspermia
• Important in protecting Earth from planetary debris
• This hypothesis proposes that life began
• Mesopause- thin buffer zone above the actually somewhere in the universe.
mesosphere, and actually the coldest region of the • Life forms could have been carried by
atmosphere. meteorites, asteroids or comets as they made
cosmic impact on Earth
Thermosphere
• The types of organisms believed to be
• It is the hottest layer because of the absorption of present during that time could survive the
highly energetic solar heat. effects of space and were dormant for a long
period of time because they were trapped in
• This extreme heat causes the atmospheric particles to planetary debris.
become electrically charged, making it possible for
radio waves to bounce off and to be received beyond
the horizon.
 Stanley Miller was a Jewish- American chemist and Harold
Urey was an American chemist who both conducted an
experiment in 1952 to test the hypothesis of Oparin’s
primordial soup theory.
Scientists with significant contributions to our
Earth Minerals
knowledge of earth:
James hutton MINERALS
• Founder of Modern Geology
• Scottish Naturalist and farmer  Are naturally occurring inorganic soilds. They are
• Believed that the earth is endlessly changing considered because they are derived from natural
and that by studying the geological geological processes.
processes such as erosion and sedimentation,  Minerals, have crystalline structures (the atoms of
it is possible to learn the history of the Earth. which are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern.)
And definite composition (the elements of which
Charles Darwin have specific proportions).
• English Naturalist known for the Theory of Evolution
 These are thousands of mineralsidentifed on earth.
• He developed a revolutionary theory on the origin of
 A common example of a mineral is salt
the species that was contrary to the popular views of
 Other common rocking-forming minerals are sulfur,
naturalists during that time.
quartz,graphite.
• Shared his views on natural selection

Physical Properties Of minerals

Andrija mohorovicic
 The physical properties of minerals can be used to
easily identified a mineral. In some cases, same
• Croatian Meteorologist and Seismologist who
minerals may be found in different places and in
suggested that there lies a boundary between the crust
different forms but their fundamental physical
and the mantle because of the difference in the
properties remain the same. Some useful physical
behavior of the seismic waves.
properties for identifying minerals are color, streak ,
• This boundary is later named as Mohorovicic
hardness, cleavage. Crystalline Structure,
discontinuity or the Moho.
transparency, magnetism, Tenacity luster, odor, and
• Founder of Modern Seismology
specific gravity.
Beno gutenberg
 Color – is usually the proper used to identify
• German Seismologist who discovered the Gutenberg
minerals easily. It is a result of the way mineral
boundary that lies between the solid silicate mantle
absorb light. However this property may not be used
and the liquid iron-nickel core of the Earth.
in identifying minerals in them. Therefore, Color is
considered the least reliable means of identifying
Inge Lehmann
minerals.
• Danish Seismologist who in 1936, asserted that the
Earth’s core is not just a single molten sphere but it
 Streak – is the color of the mineral in powder form.
comes with a solid inner core
In cases when the color of minerals appear different
• Discovered a seismic discontinuity, the Lehmann
because of trace particles inside them, scientists
discontinuity that separates the outer core from the
would pulverize them to get their true color. In case,
inner core.
the color of the minerals become more visible and
clear. However, pulverizing minerals is tedious and
makes the minerals is tedious and makes the minerals
lose their integrity.
Alexander Oparin
 Hardness – refers to the measure of the mineral’s
Soviet Biochemist who proposed the primordial soup theory in resistance to scratching. To measure the relative
1924 to explain the origin of life on Earth hardness of minerals, the mohs scale is used, The
harder the mineral, the greater is its resistance to
Stanley miller and harold urey
scratching. The mohs scale of hardness was
 developed in 1812 by a German mineralogist named  silicates are the most widespread of the minerals
Fredrick Mohs (1773 -1839). .they are made up of oxygen and silicon the number
one and number two most abundant elements
 Cleavage and Fracture are used to describe how  -In the earth’s crust.by themselves they make up
minerals break into pieces. Minerals are crystalline over 90% of the weight of the earth’s crust.most
structures and breakage may take place in weak parts rocks are composed mainly of this class of minerals.
of the structures. The Breakage along the crystalline
structure where a mineral is likely to break smoothly Carbonate class
is known as cleavage. A mineral fractures when it  Is mostly found in marine environments. Minerals
breaks in a direction where there is no cleavage. belonging to this group are formed the shells of dead
plankton and other marine organisms.
 Crystalline Structure or the crystal lattice tells
how mineral’s crystals are arranged. A hand lens is a  come from the combination of carbon,oxygen,and a
necessary tool in checking for crystalline structure metal or semimetal elements.this group of minerals is
soft and easily dissolved by even mild acids.some of
 A crystal solid is said to form regular repeating these minerals from by the acidic action of air and
three-dimensional crystal lattice, while an amorphous rain.
solid forms aggregates that have no particular order
or arrangement.
Sulphate class
 Transparency or diaphaneity – indicates the extent
 Forms in areas with high evaporation rates and
of light that can pass through the mineral. Hence, the
where salty slowly evaporate.
degree of transparency may depend on the thickness
 this class of minerals tends to be evaporates or forms
of mineral.
from volcanically heated water.as a group they are
soft and pale in color and sometimes transparent or
 Magnetism indicates the ability of a mineral to
translucent.
attract or repel other minerals.
Halide class
 Tenacity is the level of resistance or reaction of
minerals to stress such as crushing, bending,  Contains natural salts and includes fluorite ,halite,
breaking, or tearing. It can tell if a mineral is brittle sylvie and salammoniac components. These minerals
malleable elastic, etc. usually from in ponds and other landlocked seas such
as dead sea and Great salt lake.
 Luster refers to the reaction of a mineral to light. It  In this class have relatively low hardness may be
determines how brilliant or dull the mineral is. transparent, have good cleavage, have low specific
gravities and poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Odor is a distinct smell of a mineral that is usually
OXIDE class
released from a chemical reaction when subjected to
water, heat,air , or friction. The strength of this smell  Is a diverse class, Metallic minerals such as hemitate
increases when the mineral is heated or struck giving and gemstones such as chrysoberyl and spinel belong
off an odor similar to rotten eggs. to this class.
 These minerals are important as they carry histories
 Specific Gravity is a measure of the density of a of changes in earth’s magnetic field. They are formed
mineral. It determines how heavy the mineral is by its as precipitates close to earth’s surface or as oxidation
weight to water. Is used especially when two products of minerals during the process of
minerals have the same size or the same color. The weathering.
specific gravity of each mineral can distinguish them  With oxygen and hydrogen , this is a large group of
apart. minerals that occurs in most geological
environments and rock types. they span a wide range
Chemical properties of minerals of characteristics from common metal ores to
precious gems.
 Silicate class is the largest and most abundant group
Sulfide class
containing silicon and oxygen with some aluminum,
magnesium, iron, and calcium.
  Has important metals such as copper, lead, and preexisting rocks or pieces of dead organisms that
silver, which are considered economically have been “lithfied” or cemented together by natural
significant. These are found in electrical wires, processes. They show distinct layering or bedding on
industrial materials, and other things that are needed the surface.
in construction. 3. Metamorphic rocks ( Meta means” change” and
morph means “ form” ) are rocks that derive from
Phosphate Class igneous or sedimentary rocks that were exposed to
the high pressure, high temperature or a combination
 Minerals with phosphorus. The phosphate class is of both, deep below the surface of earth. because of
considered an important biological mineral found in this exposure, some of the minerals in these rocks
the teeth and bones of many animals. undergo chemical and physical changes.
 the phosphate minerals contain phosphorus and
oxygen in a 1:4 ratio.
the most common use of phosphate minerals is for Rock cycle
fertilizer. It is also used as a supplemental animal
feed, food preservative, fungicide and cosmetics.

Native element class

 Contains metals and intermetallic elements (Gold,
silver copper), Semimetals, nonmetals ( Antimony
bismuth, graphite, Sulphur )
Or natural alloys and constituents of a few rare
meteorites.
 Is the category of the pure. most minerals are made
of combinations of chemical elements.

 some elements are plentiful like iron, lead, and

graphite. other elements are rare like golds, silver
,and platinum. rare Abundant we have found uses
for most of the native elements.
 Is the category of the pure. most minerals are made
of combinations of chemical elements.

Rocks

 Are natural substance consisting of aggregate

minerals clumped together with other earth minerals
through natural processes. Rocks, like some
materials, are product of a natural cyclic process.

Classification of rocks

There are 3 basic types of rocks: igneous sedimentary and

metamorphic rocks.

1. Igneous Rocks (derived from the latin word ignis

meaning “fire”) are crystallized from magma or
molten or partially molten volcanic materials that
came from within the earth. Magma rises from the
atmosphere or at the base crust of through volcanoes
or any cracks and fissures on earth’s surface. When it
reaches the surface of the earth, the molthen volcanic
material is called lava.
2. Sedimentary rocks ( from the root word sediments
which means “remaining particle “) are rocks that
have formed from the depositions of different
materials on earth’s surface. They come from