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Classification of Dental Ceramics

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Continuing education restorative

Classification of Dental Ceramics Learning Objectives

An understanding of dental ceramic classifications enables the clinician to • Identify the different classifications
provide the optimum in strength and esthetics of ceramic materials.
• Describe the differences between
By Gregg A. Helvey, DDS ceramics and porcelains.
• Discuss the methods by which ce-
ramic restorations are fabricated.
ABSTRACT • Explain the compositions of various
There are numerous ceramic systems available to the clinician for all types of indirect ceramic materials.
restorations. It can be difficult to decide which system works best for the given clini-
To receive up to 2 credits
cal situation. Having a better understanding of the different classifications of ceram- for this article, log on to
ic restoratives can be helpful not only to the clinician but also the dental technician. www.insidedentistryCE.com
Manufacturers constantly introduce newer ceramic materials and improve on their ex- to take the quiz.
isting systems. This has resulted in an increase in all-ceramic restorations. Laboratories
report the fabrication of fewer porcelain-to-metal restorations today than in previous (PFM) in the late 1950s.3 In 1965, there was a
years. For the most part, the classification of ceramic materials remains constant, but resurgence of all-ceramic restorations with
is subject to change based on newer materials and formulations. The classifications of the addition of industrial aluminous porcelain

T
ceramics are described using several different methods. (> 50%) to the feldspathic porcelain. McLean
and Hughes developed a new version of the
porcelain jacket crown with an inner core of
he terms ceramic and por- lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, tin, aluminous porcelain that contained 40% to
celain are often used inter- titanium, zirconium) and nonmetallic ele- 50% alumina crystals.4 Despite having twice
changeably in dentistry. ments (eg, silicon, fluorine, boron, oxygen), the strength of a PFM, this bilayered all-ce-
Ceramic comes from the whereas porcelain is a ceramic consisting of ramic restoration was only used in the anterior
Greek term keramos and a glass matrix phase and one or more crys- region because of its lower strength. Its higher
means potter, referring to talline phases (eg, leucite). All porcelains opacity was also a major drawback.5
one’s ability to heat clay to are ceramics, but not all ceramics are por- Some dental ceramic systems have come
form pottery.1 The word porcelain is said to celains. For example, an all-zirconia crown full circle with the elimination of bilayered, ve-
have been invented by Marco Polo in the 13th is referred to as a high-strength ceramic but neered copings and the “rebirth” of the mono-
century from the Italian word porcellana, or it does not have a glass matrix; therefore, it lithic all-ceramic restoration. Others have vast-
cowrie shell. Polo used the cowrie shell to de- is not a porcelain. For the purposes of this ly improved the esthetics and strength. The
scribe Chinese porcelain because it was simi- article, the term ceramic is used to include ceramics used in dentistry today have evolved
larly strong and hard while remaining thin all metal-free restorations. into complicated systems that can be difficult
and translucent. A ceramic is a compound The use of ceramics in dentistry dates back to grasp. Classifying ceramic materials may
of metallic elements (eg, aluminum, calcium, to Charles H. Land. In 1889, he patented the help dentists and dental technicians better un-
all-porcelain crown called the “jacket” crown.2 derstand the different compositions, how they
A tooth was restored by placing a porcelain are processed, and where they should be used.
Gregg A. Helvey, DDS
Adjunct Associate Professor
covering or “jacket” around it. Improvements
Virginia Commonwealth University were made to the material and it was used Classifications of Dental Ceramics
School of Dentistry quite extensively up to the 1950s. Internal mi- Dental ceramics can be classified in a number
Richmond, Virginia crocracking during cooling was a major prob- of different ways, including by their composi-
Private Practice lem with this porcelain system. To reduce this tion, processing method, fusing temperature,
Middleburg, Virginia microcracking risk, Dr. Abraham Weinstein microstructure, translucency, fracture resis-
developed the porcelain-fused-to-metal crown tance, and abrasiveness.1

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 Inside continuing education

Generally, all-ceramic restorations have filling material (composite resins). By defini- Powder/Liquid Building
been confined to the anterior region until tion, any material that comprises different ma- Mixing ceramic powder and liquid (ie, deion-
recently with the introduction of monolithic terials is a composite; therefore, a ceramic is ized water or the manufacturer’s modeling liq-
lithium dioxide and zirconia restorations. also a composite. With composite resins, filler uid) is a conventional processing method. This
These types of restorations have no limit in particles are added to a resin matrix; greater condensation method incorporates building
terms of where they can be used in the dental filler content means greater mechanical prop- on a ceramic or metal core with a powder/liq-
arch. All other ceramic systems (when used in erties, but results in lower translucency. With uid ceramic slurry with a brush or spatula by
a monolithic form) should be limited from the ceramics, the glass is the matrix and the fillers hand. The slurry is condensed by vibration to
canine forward because of the lower flexural are crystalline particles that melt at high tem- remove excess liquid, which rises to the sur-
strength. These same ceramics can be used peratures. Nonglass-containing polycrystal- face and is blotted away by an absorbent tis-
in the posterior regions only when supported line ceramics comprise an aluminum oxide or sue. It is important to remove any voids dur-
by a high-strength core (metal or ceramic). zirconium oxide matrix and fillers that are not ing the application, but this does not always
particles but elements that alter optical prop- occur. Depending on the skill of the techni-
Classification by Composition erties. These added elements are referred to cian, some voids may remain, decreasing the
Ceramics can be divided into three catego- as dopants.6 overall strength of the restoration. At certain
ries by composition2: ceramics that are pre- Conventional dental ceramics are based on steps in the fabrication, the ceramic buildup is
dominantly composed of glass, those made a silica (SiO2) network and potash feldspar vacuum fired at a selected temperature, which
of particle-filled glass,1 and those consisting (K2O-Al2O3-6SiO2), soda feldspar (Na2O-Al2O3- removes the moisture and further condenses
of polycrystalline.6 6SiO2), or both.7 To control the coefficient of the ceramic through a process called “sinter-
Ceramics that are composed mostly of glass thermal expansion, solubility, and fusing and ing.” During the sintering process, fusion oc-
have the highest esthetics. Manufacturers sintering temperatures, different elements curs at the particles’ points of contact, which
some­times add small amounts of filler parti- are added, such as pigments (to produce the results in densification by viscous flow when
cles to control the optical effects that mimic different hues), opacifiers (white-colored ox- the ceramic or glass particles reach their firing
natural enamel and dentin. Generally, the ide to decrease translucency), and glasses. temperature.8 Typically, a restoration is over-
more filler particles that are added to a ceram- contoured by 25% to allow for densification or
ic, the greater the increase in the mechanical Classification by shrinkage during the firing cycle.
properties but the greater the decrease in its Processing Method
esthetic properties. Polycrystalline ceramics Another approach to classifying ceramics is Slip Casting
contain no glass at all. As noted earlier, these by the method by which they are processed. The slip-casting fabrication method was intro-
are not porcelains. The crystalline arrange- This includes powder/liquid building, slip duced in the 1990s. This processing technique
ment lends these ceramic materials the high- casting, hot-ceramic pressing, and additive involves the creation of a porous core by slip
est strength, but they are generally less esthet- and subtractive computer-aided design/com- casting, which is sintered and then infiltrated
ic. The principle is similar to tooth-colored puter-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM). with a lanthanum-based glass, producing two
interpenetrating continuous networks: a glassy
phase and a crystalline infrastructure. The
crystalline infrastructure could be alumina
(Al2O3), spinel (MgAl2O4), or zirconia-alumi-
na (12 Ce-TZP-Al2O3).9 Restorations produced
through this method tend to have fewer defects
from processing and have greater strength
than conventional feldspathic porcelain.10

Hot-Pressed Ceramic
The hot-pressed ceramic fabrication tech-
nique was introduced in the late 1980s and
fig. 1 fig. 2 allowed the dental technician to create the
restoration in wax. Then, using the lost-wax
HOT-PRESSED CERAMIC RESTORATIONS (1.) An example of hot-pressed ceramic technique, the technician was able to press
restorations still attached to the sprue after pressing plasticized ceramic into a heated
investment mold. (2.) A contoured diamond wheel can be used to shape mamelons on a plasticized ceramic ingot into a heated in-
a hot-pressed leucite-reinforced ceramic crown. vestment mold. Ceramics containing high

Continued on page 66
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 Inside continuing education

amounts of leucite glass or optimal pressable mamelons (Figure 2). This is followed by the the first all-ceramic product with a CAD/
ceramics were initially used for this process.10 application of various incisal porcelains. To CAM substructure. The core consisted of
In 2006, lithium disilicate became the second account for shrinkage (densification) dur- 99.9% alumina on which a feldspathic ce-
generation of materials to use this method.11 ing the firing cycle, the layering porcelain is ramic was layered.11
A commonly used technique involves wax- overcontoured (Figure 3 through Figure 7). The use of CAD/CAM technology expand-
ing the restoration to full contour and then ed machinable ceramic fabrication by allow-
hot pressing to yield a restoration (Figure CAD/CAM ing scanning, designing, and milling of either
1). The incisal area is then cut back to create In the mid 1990s, Nobel Biocare introduced a full-contoured restoration or a single- or

fig. 3 fig. 4 fig. 5 fig. 6 fig. 7

PORCELAIN LAYERING AND CONTOURING (3.) Leucite-reinforced incisal porcelain is placed in the incisal region. (4.) An additional amount
of incisal porcelain is applied to account for the densification that occurs during the firing cycle. (5.) Densification of the powder/liquid
porcelain results after the firing cycle. (6.) A second layer of incisal porcelain is applied in a greater amount to counter the shrinkage factor
during the firing phase. (7.) Final contour of the restoration.

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 Inside continuing education

multiple-unit framework by a computer.12 in a two-stage oven. During this firing cycle, Crown and bridge porcelains can be either
Two different CAD/CAM methods are used. there is a controlled growth of the grain size medium- or low-fusing, depending on the sys-
The first method is an additive version in (0.5 μm to 5 μm) and a conversion of metasili- tem, and ultra-low-fusing porcelain would be
which an electrodeposition of powdered ma- cate crystals to disilicate crystals. This crystal- used for porcelains and glazes. To make it less
terial is applied layer by layer to a conductive lization process not only changes the physi- complicated, some now refer to just two cat-
die through an electrical current.13 This tech- cal composition and strength but also causes egories—high- or low-fusing porcelains—with
nique is also referred to as rapid prototyping. the restoration to reach the indicated ceramic the separation designated at 800°C.16
The other (and more common) method is a shade (Figure 8 through Figure 11).15
subtractive method in which a substructure or Classification by Microstructure
full-contour restoration is milled from a solid Classification by Fusing As previously mentioned, porcelains have two
block of ceramic material. The available ma- Temperature different phases: the glass phase (responsible
terials for the subtractive CAD/CAM process- Dental porcelains are classified by their firing for the esthetics) and the crystalline phase (as-
ing include silica-based ceramics, infiltration temperatures. The categories are described as sociated with mechanical strength). In the case
ceramics, lithium-disilicate ceramics, and ox- high-fusing (1,300°C), medium-fus­ing (1,101°C of feldspathic porcelain, a crystalline mineral
ide high-performance ceramics.14 For exam- to 1,300°C), low-fusing (850°C to 1,100°C), called leucite (potassium-aluminum-silicate)
ple, lithium disilicate is actually milled as lith- and ultra-low-fusing (< 850°C).7 Denture forms when feldspar is melted. Between
ium metasilicate and then heated to 820°C teeth are an example of high-fusing porcelain. 1,150°C and 1,530°C, feldspar undergoes in-
congruent melting to form leucite crystals.
Incongruent melting is a process in which one
material does not uniformly melt and forms a
different material.7 The leucite crystalline
phase has a diffraction index similar to the
glassy matrix that, in this case, contributes to
the overall esthetics of the porcelain.17 The leu-
cite content of a porcelain is associated with
the crack propagation strength. Greater leucite
content means a greater decrease in the propa-
gation of a crack.18 This type of porcelain is re-
ferred to as leucite-reinforced. During the sin-
tering process of all-ceramic restorations,
fig. 8 fig. 9 microporosities are formed on the surface that
lead to crack initiation and propagation, ulti-
mately resulting in failure.19-21
Hot-pressed ceramics have high amounts
of leucite crystals and are considered leucite-
reinforced glass ceramics. During the heated
injection molding cycle, the sintering process
is avoided22 and the leucite crystals act as bar-
riers that counteract the increase in tensile
stresses that can lead to the formation of mi-
crocracks.21,23 This type of ceramic can be used
to press as an all-ceramic restoration or to a
metal coping (Figure 12 through Figure 15).
fig. 10 fig. 11
As previously mentioned, McLean and
Hughes developed an all-ceramic crown that
Crystallization Process (8.) Preoperative view of a gold crown requiring re-
placement as a result of secondary decay. (9.) The previous gold crown was digitally had an inner core of aluminous porcelain that
scanned before removal. The tooth was prepared, rescanned, and then a lithium- contained 40% to 50% alumina crystals.4 The
metasilicate restoration was milled. (10.) After finishing, external staining was applied. principle behind this addition was the disper-
(11.) Postoperative view. Before the crown was cemented, it had been placed in a
ceramic oven that reached a temperature of 850°C. At this temperature, crystalliza- sion of a high-strength crystal with a high-
tion of the ceramic occurs, resulting in a change of lithium metasilicate to disilicate. elastic modulus within the glassy matrix to

68 inside dentistry | April 2013 | www.dentalaegis.com/id

 Inside continuing education

increase the strength and hardness of the approximately 360 MPa (milled version) to the less space between the particles, resulting
ceramic.24 Alumina increases the strength 400 MPa (hot-pressed version).28 in greater strength and a smoother surface.31
of feldspathic porcelain more than leucite, The increase in strength is found in the A unique characteristic of zirconia is its
which increases the fracture resistance.25 The unique microstructure of lithium disili- ability to stop crack growth, which is termed
particle size of the alumina may be respon- cate, which consists of any small interlock- “transformation toughening” (Figure 16). An
sible for the increase in the mechanical prop- ing platelike crystals that are randomly ori- ensuing crack generates tensile stresses that
erties by decreasing agglomeration.26 When ented. The lithium-disilicate crystals cause induce a change from a tetragonal configura-
ceramics are sintered, the particle size is crit- cracks to deflect, branch, or blunt, which ar- tion to a monoclinic configuration and a lo-
ical. Finer powder yields a greater reduction rests the propagation of cracks.29 calized volume increase of 3% to 5% (Figure
in surface area. Fine powders tend to form Zirconia as a pure oxide does not occur in 17). This volume increase results in a change
clusters of irregular shape and uncontrolled nature. It has been given the nickname “ce- of tensile stresses to compressive stresses
size and are referred to as “agglomerates,” ramic steel,” and the scientific term is zirco- generated around the tip of the crack. The
which hinder flow properties.27 nia dioxide. This biomaterial is widely used compressive forces counter the external ten-
As previously stated, lithium disilicate was in medicine and dentistry because of its me- sile forces and stop the further advancement
the second generation of hot-pressed ceram- chanical strength as well as its chemical and of the crack.32-34 This characteristic accounts
ic materials. These ceramic restorations are dimensional stability and elastic modulus for the material’s low susceptibility to stress
referred to as lithium-disilicate–reinforced similar to stainless steel.30 Zirconia has a nor- fatigue and high flexural strength of 900 MPa
glass ceramics. This ceramic material con- mal density of 6 g/cm2. The theoretical densi- to 1200 MPa.35,36 Zirconia dioxide can be used
tains 70% lithium-disilicate crystals, which ty (ie, 100% dense) of zirconium oxide is 6.51 as a monolithic restoration or a substructure
results in an increased flexural strength of g/cm2. The closer these two density values are, with a veneering porcelain (Figure 18).

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Classification by Translucency amount of unfilled glassy matrix (as in feld- When comparing the flexural strength of
Translucency is the relative amount of light spathic porcelains), the more light that can ceramic material, in descending order the
transmitted through a material.37 A natural travel through unobstructed, producing more strongest is YZ® Zirconia (Vident™, www.vi-
tooth derives most of its color as a result of the translucency. Zirconia dioxide, which is lack- dent.com), followed by In-Ceram® Zirconia
light reflectance from dentin that is altered ing a glass matrix, has the highest opacity. (Vident), Procera® Alumina (Nobel Biocare,
by absorption and scattering by the enamel.38 There are a variety of high-strength core www.nobelbiocare.com), In-Ceram Alumina
The shade of a human tooth is determined by materials, but the opacity of the core has an (Vident), lithium disilicate, In-Ceram Spinell
the shade of the dentin because the enamel is effect on the overall esthetics of the restora- (Vident), Empress® 1 (Ivoclar Vivadent, www.
more translucent. This translucency becomes tion. In their study, Heffernan and colleagues ivoclarvivadent.com), Vita Omega 900 (Vita
more apparent in the interproximal and inci- compared the translucency of six all-ceram- Zahnfabrik,www.vita-zahnfabrik.com), Vita
sal portions of the tooth because of the lack of ic system core materials at clinically appro- VM®9 (Vident), and conventional feldspathic
underlying dentin. priate thicknesses using CRs and listed their porcelain.51,52
There are several factors that affect the trans- findings in order of most translucent to most
lucency of dental ceramics. Thickness of the opaque.46 The researchers concluded that Classification by Abrasiveness
material has the greatest effect,39,40 but translu- there was a range of ceramic core translucen- Ceramic restorations have been known to
cency can also be affected by the number of fir- cy at clinically relevant core thicknesses.46,47 cause wear of opposing enamel.53 The abra-
ings,41 the shade of the substrate,42 and the type siveness of a dental ceramic is mainly deter-
of light source or illuminant.43 Because clinical Classification by mined by the smoothness of the material.54
settings can vary so widely, specimens should Fracture Resistance For wear to occur, there must be friction de-
be compared at the recommended minimum A quantitative way of expressing a ceramic’s re- veloped by mechanical interlocking between
thickness to be classified by translucency.40 sistance to brittle fracture when a crack is pres- the two wear bodies. Low-fusing porcelains
Porcelain translucency is usually measured ent is referred to as the “fracture toughness,” were developed to incorporate finer-sized
with the translucency parameter, which is de- which is the ability to resist crack growth.1 If leucite particles in lower concentrations
fined as the color difference between a uni- a material has a large value of fracture tough- with the idea of lowering the abrasiveness
form thickness of ceramic material over a ness, it will probably undergo ductile fracture. of the ceramic surface.
black and a white background44 or the con- Brittle fracture is very characteristic of ma- In their study, Elmaria and colleagues53
trast ratio (CR), which is the ratio of illumi- terials with a low fracture toughness value.48 compared the wear on opposing enamel by
nance of a ceramic material when it is placed Flexural strength (modulus of rupture or bend various restorative materials. These includ-
over a black background compared with a strength) is defined as a material’s ability to re- ed gold, glazed, and polished or glazed-only
white background.45 sist deformation under load. Flexural strength Finesse® (Dentsply International, www.dent
The chemical nature, size, and number of represents the highest stress experienced with- sply.com) (a low-leucite–containing ceram-
crystals in a ceramic matrix will determine the in the material at its moment of rupture and ic), Procera AllCeram™ (Nobel Biocare), and
amount of light that is absorbed, reflected, and is measured in terms of stress.7 For example, IPS Empress (Ivoclar Vivadent). They found
transmitted compared with the wavelength of zirconia’s reported flexural strength values that gold, glazed-and-polished Finesse, and
the source light.46 Therefore, the greater the range between 900 MPa and 1,100 MPa,49,50 glazed-and-polished AllCeram were the least
number of crystals in the glassy matrix, the and fracture has been reported between 8 MPa abrasive, whereas glazed-only IPS Empress
less translucent the ceramic. The greater the and 10 MPa.49 was the most abrasive.

fig. 12 fig. 13 fig. 14 fig. 15

HOT-PRESSED CERAMIC USES (12.) An example of a gold-plated metal coping that is used with the hot-pressed-to-metal technique.
(13.) An opaque layer is applied to the metal. (14.) A full-contour wax crown is applied to the metal coping. (15.) View after hot-pressing
plasticized ceramic to the metal coping.

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 Inside continuing education

Because there are two different scenarios, ground and the polished Procera AllCeram can be introduced. Clinicians should be cog-
strictly classifying ceramics by their abra- or In-Ceram Alumina specimens. Smoother nizant of changes in material selection and
siveness can present a problem when mea- surfaces were found on Denzir, IPS Empress continue to base their choices on the clini-
suring surface roughness. One scenario is 2, and In-Ceram Zirconia after polishing the cal needs of the patient in terms of esthetics
the surface roughness after fabrication and ground surface, whereas the polishing effect and strength.
the type of finishing process (glazed only or on Procera AllCeram and In-Ceram Alumina
glazed and polished). The other scenario is was ineffective. References
measuring the surface roughness after any Heintze and colleagues56 evaluated 20 in 1. Mclaren EA, Cao PT. Ceramics in dentistry—part
adjustments are made intraorally. Kou and vitro studies in which a material and the an- I: classes of materials. Inside Dentistry. 2009;5(9):
colleagues55 evaluated the surface roughness tagonist wear of the same material were stud- 94-105.
of five different dental ceramic core materi- ied. They found that the results were incon- 2. Taylor JA. History of Dentistry: A Practical Treatise
als after grinding and polishing. The sam- sistent, mainly because of the fact that the for the Use of Dental Students and Practitioners. New
ples included Vita In-Ceram® Alumina, Vita test parameters differed widely. The test pa- York, NY: Lea and Febiger; 1922:142-156.
In-Ceram® Zirconia, IPS Empress 2 (Ivoclar rameters differed in the amount of force, the 3. Asgar K. Casting metals in dentistry: past-present-
Vivadent), Procera AllCeram, and Denzir number of cycles, the frequency of cycles, and future. Adv Dent Res. 1988;2(1):33-43.
(Denzir, www.denzir.com). A reference ma- the number of specimens. They concluded, as 4. Kelly JR, Nishimura I, Campbell SD. Ceramics in
terial was also included (Vita Mark II®, now far as consistency and correlation with clini- dentistry: historical roots and current perspectives. J
Vitablocs® Mark II, Vident). Using a profilom- cal studies is concerned, that the set-up of the Prosth Dent. 1996;75(1):18-32.
eter, the surface roughness (Ra value [μm]) unprepared enamel of molar cusps against 5. Leinfelder KF, Kurdziolek SM. Contemporary
was noted. The measurements were made be- glazed crowns seems to be the most appro- CAD/CAM technologies: the evolution of re-
fore and after grinding with diamond rotary priate method to evaluate a ceramic mate- storative systems. Pract Proced Aesthet Dent.
cutting instruments and after polishing with rial with regard to antagonist wear. However, 2004;16(3):224-231.
the Sof-Lex™ system (3M ESPE, www.3mespe. because of the high variability of the results, 6. Kelly JR. Dental ceramics: what is this stuff any-
com). Before grinding, Procera AllCeram and large sample sizes are necessary to differenti- way? J Am Dent Assoc. 2008;139(suppl):S4-S7.
Denzir had the smoothest surfaces, whereas ate between materials, which calls the whole 7. Anusavice KJ. Phillips’ Science of Dental Materials.
IPS Empress 2 had the coarsest. After grind- in vitro approach into question. 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 1996.
ing, all materials except IPS Empress 2 be- 8. Powers JM, Sakaguichi RL. Craig’s Restorative
came coarser. Polishing with Sof-Lex provid- Conclusion Dental Materials. 12th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby
ed no significant differences between Denzir, There are a variety of ways to classify ceram- Elsevier: 2006:445.
Vita Mark II, and IPS Empress 2 or between ic materials. As manufacturers continue to 9. Denry I, Holloway JA. Ceramics for dental applica-
Procera AllCeram and In-Ceram Zirconia. No introduce new materials and formulations, tions: a review. Materials. 2010;3(1):351-368.
significant difference was found between the classifications can change or new categories 10. Powers JM, Sakaguichi RL. Craig’s Restorative

fig. 16 fig. 17 fig. 18

Particles changing from tetragonal
to monoclinic

crack

Monoclinic phase particle

Tetragonal phase particle

ZIRCONIA CHARACTERISTICS & USES (16.) Zirconia has the ability to phase change from a tetragonal phase to a monoclinic phase to
stop ensuing cracks, which is referred to as “transformation toughening.” (17.) During phase change, there is approximately 3% to 5%
volume increase from the tetragonal phase to the monoclinic phase. (18.) A coat of shade base stain is applied to the zirconia substruc-
ture and fired before applying the veneering porcelain.

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Accuracy of mechanical digitizing with a CAD/CAM Fracture behavior of Lithia disilicate and leucite parameter of colorants for maxillofacial prostheses.
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Classification of Dental Ceramics

By Gregg A. Helvey, DDS

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An all-zirconia crown is referred to as a high-strength ceramic Denture teeth are an example of:
but it does not have a glass matrix; therefore, it: A. high-fusing porcelain.
A. contains leucite. B. medium-fusing porcelain.
B. is also referred to as a porcelain. C. low-fusing porcelain.
C. has a crystalline phase. D. ultra-low-fusing porcelain.
D. is not a porcelain.
Fine powders that tend to form clusters of irregular shape and
When did Charles H. Land patent the all-porcelain crown uncontrolled size are referred to as:
called the “jacket” crown? A. microporosities.
A. In the 13th century B. subcritical cracks.
B. 1889 C. agglomerates.
C. 1950 D. hypocalcifications.
D. 1965
Porcelain translucency is usually measured with:
Ceramics can be classified in a number of different ways, A. the translucency parameter.
including by their composition, processing method, and: B. the contrast ratio.
A. cost. C. a Vickers indentation test.
B. size. D. both a and b
C. fusing temperature.
D. weight. Flexural strength is defined as:
A. the ability to resist crack growth.
Generally, the more filler particles that are added to a ceramic: B. the amount of light that can pass through a material.
A. the greater the increase in esthetic properties but the C. the amount of friction a material causes on opposing enamel.
greater the decrease in mechanical properties. D. a material’s ability to resist deformation under load.
B. the greater the increase in mechanical properties but
the greater the decrease in esthetic properties. Zirconia’s reported flexural strength values range between:
C. the more both esthetic and mechanical properties decrease. A. 8 MPa and 10 MPa.
D. the more both esthetic and mechanical properties increase. B. 100 MPa and 350 MPa.
C. 900 MPa and 1,100 MPa.
Ceramic buildup is vacuum fired at a selected temperature to D. 1,500 MPa and 1,700 MPa.

remove moisture and condense the ceramic through a process called:

A. computer-aided manufacturing.
B. hot-ceramic pressing.
C. slip casting.
D. sintering.

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Classification of Dental Ceramics

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