RESEARCH PROCESS AND METHODOLOGY

UNIT#1 – Introduction To Research and Problem Definition

RESEARCH
Research in simple terms refers to search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic search
for information on a particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific investigation.
Several social scientists have defined research in different ways.

According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge”. It is an academic activity and therefore the term should be used in a technical
sense.

Objectives Of Research
1. To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulative research
studies);
2. To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a
situation (i.e., descriptive research studies);
3. To analyse the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research
studies); and
4. To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables (i.e.,
hypothesis-testing research studies).
Research Methods Versus Methodology :
Research methods include all those techniques/methods that are adopted
for conducting research. Thus, research techniques or methods are the
methods that the researchers adopt for conducting the research studies.
On the other hand, research methodology is the way in which research
problems are solved systematically. It is a science of studying how research
is conducted scientifically. Under it, the researcher acquaints
himself/herself with the various steps generally adopted to study a
research problem, along with the underlying logic behind them. Hence, it 5
is not only important for the researcher to know the research techniques/
methods, but also the scientific approach called methodology.
10. Hypothesis- A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the
relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable
prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.
A hypothesis is used in an experiment to define the relationship
between two variables. The purpose of a hypothesis is to find the
answer to a question. A formalized hypothesis will force us to think
about what results we should look for in an experiment.

Criteria of Good Research (characteristics)

 Research is half complete, when objective or
purposes of it are clearly spelt out.

 It is necessary that every step followed in the process

of research is explained fully. This is because any other
person who wants to repeat such a work to achieve further
improvement on lest the validity of the research work should
be able to do it.

 The research design adopted for the study should be

clear and match with objectives.

 The research should be honest in reporting the facts

and revealing the flaws in the work.

 Every research work should be based on carefully

selected analytical tools.
 The research work is incomplete without
acknowledging the various data (or) facts.

 Limitations should be frankly revealed.

Types of Research
 FUNDAMENTAL (OR) BASIC RESEARCH:
Pure or Basic research is a search for broad principles
and synthesis without and immediate utilization
objectives. It is not concerned with solving any practical
problems of policy but with designing and fascinating
tools of analysis and with discovering underlying and if
possible universal laws and theories.
Eg. John Robinson‟s imperfect competition and
chamberlains monopolistic competition.
Applied (or)Action Research: Applied research also
known as action research is associated with particular
project and problem. Such research, being of practical
value may release to current activity (or) immediate
practical situation it aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problems facing a society practically all social
science research undertaken in India is of the applied
variety and more particularly of the type which helps
formulation of policy.
Descriptive Research: It is designed to describe
something such as demographic characteristics of
consumers who use the product. It is designed to
describe something, such as demographic characteristics
of consumers who use the product. It deals with
determining frequency with which something occurs or
how two variables vary together. This study is also
guided by a initial hypothesis. For example an
investigation of the trends in consumption of soft drinks
in relation to rationeconomic characteristics as age, sex,
ethnic group, family income, education level, geographic
location, and so on would be descriptive study.
 Merits:
 This approach helps to test the conclusion and findings
arrived at on the basis of laboratory studies. By using
this approach, it is possible to substantiate existing
theories and conclusions on modifying them.
 Direct contact between the researcher and the
respondent is brought about in this approach. This is
very significant because, the researcher would be able
to understand himself clearly the problem to be studied.
 With the possibility of direct contract with the
respondent, the researcher is able to elicit all the
relevant information and eliminate irrelevant facts.
Limitations:
 Unless the researcher is experienced there is every
possibility of the approach being misused. Hurried
conclusions and generalizations may be formed based
on the inaccurate field data.
 As this approach involves collection of field data
enormous time and efforts are required to plan and
execute the field survey.
 This approach also involves incurring heavy cost on data
collection.
 Unless the respondents are co-operative. It is not
possible to collect data through this approach.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH:
As the name suggests in this approach historical data is
given importance to undertake analysis and interpret
the results. Following this approach a researcher would
collect past data for his research. A scholar using this
approach has to depend on libraries for referring to the
magazines or periodicals for collecting data. Merits:
 This approach alone is relevant in certain types of
research work. For examples to understand the trend in
India‟s exports. One has to collect the export data for a
period of say 20 years and them analyze it similarly to
study the impact of the liberalizations policy one has to
collect information from 1991 till date.
 Historical approach makes research possible as it is
firmly believed that once we understand the past, out
understanding of the present and expectations of the
future could be predicted to some extent. Hence
 historical research provides the insight into the past and
facilitates looking into the future.
Limitations:
Personal bias of the people who had written about
historical events or incidents cannot be to mislead.
Researchers tend to over generalize their results using
historical approach.
Persons using this approach should be conscious of the
fact that historical data can be taken be give and
indication about the past, but formulation of solutions
on that basis and applying them in the current period is
not correct.

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH:
Most of the marketing research projects begin with
exploratory. It is conducted to explore the possibilities
of doing a particular project. The major emphasis is on
the discovery of ideas and insights. For example, a soft
drinks firm might conduct an exploratory study to
generate possible explanations. The exploratory study is
used to spilt the broad and vague problem into smaller,
more precise sub problem statements, in the form of
 specific hypothesis. An exploratory study is conducted in
the following situations.
To design a problem for investigations and to formulate
the hypothesis.
To determine the priorities for further research.
To gather data about the practical problems for carrying
out research on particular conjectural statements.
To increase the interest of the analyst towards the
problems and
To explain the basic concepts.
Exploratory study is more flexible and highly informal.
There is no formal approach in exploratory studies.
Exploratory studies do not employ detailed
questionnaire. These studies will not involve probability
sampling plans. The following are the usual methods of
conducting exploratory research
 Literature Survey
 Experience Survey
 Analysis of insight stimulating cases.

LITERATURE SURVEY
 The literature search in fast and economic way for
researchers to develop a better understanding of a
problem area in which othey have limited experience. In
this regard, a large volume of published and
unpublished data are collected and scanned in a
relatively small period of time. Generally sources
includes books, newspapers, Government documents
trade journals, professional journals and soon. These are
available in libraries, company records such as these
kept for accounting sales analysis purposes; reports of
previous research projects conducted problems
incompletely but will be of great help to provide a
director to further research.

EXPERIENCE SURVEYS
In this method, the persons who have expertise
knowledge and ideas about research subject may be
questioned. Generally the company executives, sales
managers, other relevant people of the company
salesman, wholesalers, retailers who handle the product
or related products and consumers are concentrated. It
does not involve scientific ally conducted statistical
survey, rather it reflects an attempt to get available
information from people who have some particular
knowledge of subject under investigation.

ANALYSIS OF INSIGHT STIMULATING CASES:(Case Study

Approach).
Case study approach to research is recent development.
In this approach the focus is on a single organization or
unit or an institution or a district or a community. As the
focus is on a single unit, it is possible to undertake an in
depth analysis of the single unit. It is basically a problem
solving approach. The following are the characteristics
of case study method. The study of the whole unit: It
this study a large variety of units are selected for study
and the size of the unit may be quite large to cover an
entire community in a word this method treats an
individual an institution or a group of persons as a
whole.
Intensive study: It aims at deep and through study of a
unit. It deals with every aspect of a unit and studies at
intensively.
The following methods are undertaken in case study;
 Determination of Factors: First of all the collection of
materials about each of the units or aspects is very
essential. The determination of factors may be of two
types,(u)particular factors and General factors.
Statement of the problem: In this process the defined
problem is studied intensively and the data are classified
into various classes.
Analysis and conclusion: After classifying and studying
the factors an analysis is made.

Advantages:
 As this approach involves a focused study there is lot of

scope for generating new ideas and suggestions.

 It may provide the basis for developing sound

hypothesis.
 As the researcher studies the problem from his own
point of view, very useful and reliable findings may be
obtained.

Limitations:
A significant limitation of this approach is that unless
the researcher is experienced he might ignore very
important aspects.
This approach also depends on the infirm furnished by
the respondents unless the infirm is accurate the
conclusions are bound to be irrelevant.
It is often said that case studies are based on the
observations of the researcher

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: This is a very scientific

approach. In this approach the researcher first
determines the problem to be studied. Then he
identifies the factors that cause the problem. The
problem to be probed is quantified and taken as the
dependent variable. The factors causing to the problem
will be taken as independent variable. Then the
researcher studies the casual relationship between the
dependent and independent variable. He is also able to
specify to what extent the dependent variable. He is
also able to specify to what extent the dependent
variable is influenced by each independent variable.
 For examples suppose food production is taken as the
problem for a research study. then the scholar would
determine the factors that will affect food production.
Viz size of the land cultivated(x) rainfall (y) quantity of
fertilizer applied (z) etc. These factors x,y and z are
called independent variable,. Food production [A] is
called dependent variable. Then by collecting data
regarding all the four [A,x,y and z]. The researcher is
able to state what percentage change in the final food
(A) is explained by x,y and z. The effect of x on A, y on A
and z on A is also studied. In this manner the researcher
is able to successfully indicate to what extent various
factors included in the study are important.

Merits of Experimental Approach (Research)

 This approach provides the social scientists a reliable
method it observe under given conditions to evaluate
various social programmes.
 This is one of the best methods of measuring the
relationship between variables.
 This approach is more logical and consistent that the
conclusions drawn but of research based on this
approach is well received.
 It helps to determine the cause – effect relationship very
precisely and clearly.
 Following this approach researchers could indicate
clearly the areas of future research
Limitations of Experimental Approach (Research)
Unless a researcher is well experienced and trained in
model building this approach can not be easily followed.
By relying more on models this approach may not add
anything significant to knowledge.
A serious limitation of this approach is that it relies on
sampling and collection of data. Unless these are
properly planned and executed. the outcome of analysis
will not be accurate.

DIAGNOSTIC STUDY; This is similar to descriptive study

but with a different focus. It is directed towards
discovering what is happening, why it is happening and
what can be done about. It aims at identifying the
causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it.
A diagnostic study may also be concerned with
discovering and testing whether certain variables are
associated. E.g., are persons having from rural areas
more suitable for manning rural branches of banks? (or)
Do more villagers than city voters vote for a particular
party.

EVALUATION STUDIES; Evaluation study is one type of

applied research it is made for assessing the
effectiveness of social or economic programmes
implemented (e.g. family planning scheme) or for
assessing he impact of developmental projects (e.g.,
irrigation project) on the development of the area.
Evaluation study may be defined as “determination of
the results attained by some activity (whether a
program me, a drug or a therapy or an approach)
designed to accomplish some valued goal or objective”.
ANALYTICAL STUDY: Analytical study is system of
procedures and techniques of analysis applied to
quantitative data. It may consist of a system of
mathematical models (or) statistical techniques
applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also known as
the statistical method.
This method is extensively used in business and other
fields in which quantitative numerical data are
generated. It is used for measuring variables, comparing
groups and examine association between factors. Data
may be collected from either primary sources or
secondary sources.

SURVEYS RESEARCH: Survey is a fact finding study. It is a

method of research involving collection of data directly
from a population or a sample there of at particular
time. It must not confused with the more clerical
routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It requires
expertise and careful analytical knowledge. The analysis
of data may be made by using simple or complex
statistical techniques depending upon the objectives of
the study.
This type of research has the advantage of greater scope
in the sense that a larger volume of information can be
collected from a very large population
OTHER TYPES
Ex-post Facto Research; Expost Fact research is based
on observation made by inquiry in which the researcher
does not have direct control of independent variables
because their outcome have already occurred. This kind
of research based on a scientific and analytical
examination of dependent and independent variables.
The ex-post facto research findings may become riskier
by improper interpretations.
Panel Research: Generally the survey research is valid
for one time period which is known as „study period‟
and they do not reflect changes occurring time. The
consumer attitudes toward purchasing a particular
product are not static and hence changing. For example,
it is not possible to study the changes occurring in these
attitudes over a period in response to changes in the
particular products marketing min. measuring change
over time is known as longitudinal analysis which is
done by the use of panels. This methods are generally
used in sales forecasting by consumer preferences for
various products measuring audience size and
 characteristics for media programmes testing new
products.

Advantages;
It considers the changes in the time.
It provides more control
It has greater co-operation
It offers more analytical Data from respondents.
RESEARCH PROCESS
Research is a process. A process is a set of advices that are performed to
achieve a targeted outcome. That is a process involves a number of activities
which are carried out either sequentially or simultaneously. So research
process would refer to various steps and stages involved in research activity.
The various stages are listed below;

 Formulating the Research problem

 Extensive literature survey

 Developing the hypothesis

 Preparing the research design

 Determining the sample design

 Collecting the data

 Execution of the project;

 Analysis of data
 Hypothesis testing

 Generalization and interpretation

 Preparation of report

How is a research problem formulated?

Ans: Formulating the research problem and hypothesis acts as a major step
or phase in the research methodology. In research, the foremost step that
comes into play is that of defining the research problem and it becomes
almost a necessity to have the basic knowledge and understanding of most
of its elements as this would help a lot in making a correct decision. The
research problem can be said to be complete only if it is able to specify
about the unit of analysis, time and space boundaries, features that are
under study, specific environmental conditions that are present in addition
to prerequisite of the research process.

Research Process
Research process is very commonly referred to as the planning process. One
important point to be kept in mind here is to understand that the main aim
of the research process is that of improving the knowledge of the human
beings.

The research process consists of the following stages –

1. The Primary stage :– This stage includes –

a. Observation – The first step in the research process is that of the
observation, research work starts with the observation which can be
either unaided visual observation or guided and controlled
observation.It can be said that an observation leads to research, the
results obtained from research result in final observations which can
play a crucial part in carrying out further research. Deliberate and
guided observations also play an important part in this primary stage.
This method is very simple and helps a great deal in framing of the
hypothesis as it is very accurate in nature but it also has some major
limitations like some of the occurrences may not be open to the
observation and the occurrences which may be open for observation
may not be studied conveniently.

b. Interest – As studied in the above paragraph, research starts with

the observation and it leads to a curiosity to learn and gain more and
more about what has been observed. Hence it can be said that
observation results in the creation of an interest in the mind of the
researcher. The interest can be either academic in nature or it may be
a policy making interest. It may be a self interest or a group interest.
Group interest is also referred to as the social interest.

c. Crystallization – It can be defined as the process involving the

designing of the definite form of research to be used in the study of the
subject matter that has been observed. During this stage, the research
project gets a concrete shape and structure.
d. Formulating a research problem – A research problem can belong to
one of the following two categories – it can belong to the category in
which there can be relationships between various variables or it may
belong to the other category, which is based on nature. In the
beginning, it is important for a researcher to find out the general
interest or the subject matter, which he wants to study. By this the
researcher will be able to state a problem more broadly and also in a
much generalized form then the ambiguities linked to the problem can
be referred and understood. This really supports in the formulation of a
problem of a research. Although this process is not that simple and
requires many fruitful discussions in order to achieve a proper
conclusion or a decision.

e. Primary Synopsis – Before starting with the actual study work, it is

very necessary for a researcher to prepare a summary or a plan about
the activities he has to perform in connection with research operation.
This will help him a lot to get a definite idea or an understanding of
what would be written in the final report.

f. Conceptual Clarity – It is very much important for a researcher to

have in depth knowledge and understanding of the subject or the topic
he has to study as it helps a lot in achieving one’s goal and objectives in
a much easier and also a comparatively much simpler way.

g. Documentation – The documents help in providing important

information to a researcher, document is something in writing it can be
a record, files or diaries etc. may be published or unpublished in
nature. Documents can be extracted and can be used in the research
work. Various documents can be classified as –
a. Personal documents –
• Written by or on behalf of individuals.
 • May include autobiographies, biographies, diaries, memories,
letters, observations and inscriptions.
• Can be used in research activities.
b. Company documents –
• Most important type of documents compared to other
document types.
• Play an essential role in management research.
• May include balance sheets, files, records, policy statements,
resolutions, performance records etc.
c. Consultants’ reports and published materials –
• Include professional consultants’ reports, commodity boards’
records, chambers of commerce, trade union documents etc.
d. Public documents –
• Can be published or unpublished in nature.
• Consist of government records, finance commission records,
especial enquiry commission records, company law board reports,
population census reports etc.
• Can be useful only if they are reliable.
e. Literature Survey – Having complete knowledge about the literature
is almost a necessity for a researcher to be successful in his research
operation. With the help of literature survey, one is helped in having
correct concepts and also the right theories.

2. Secondary stage: – This stage of the research consists of all the

features that are actually required to run a research project. This stage
includes the following –
a. Research project planning: – Involves selection of the future
courses of action for conducting and directing a research project. A
research project plan gives a rational approach to research by which
one is able to decide in advance about what to do, how to do, when to
do, where to do and who is to do a particular task in a specific activity.
b. Research Project formulation: – After the planning of the project
has been done the researcher follows this with a practical approach in
order to carry out the project. This step of the secondary stage
involves the systematic setting forth of the total research project, with
an aim of conducting a systematic study.
c. Data collection: – This step involves the in depth meaning for the
concepts that are to be investigated and looks forward to data
analysis, data requirement etc… Sources of understatement or
overstatement should be avoided and the data should be free from
any type of error. The data collection planning should be done or
implemented in a very careful manner, with the help of specialist
researchers. The data should be good and meaningful in nature should
not only be a collection of words but should provide meaningful
information.
d. Classification and tabulation – Classification can be defined as the
arrangement of the data into groups and classes depending on the
resemblance and the similarities. By classification, the data can be
condensed in a very elegant way by which the various important
features can be easily noticed i.e. one can easily highlight the various
salient features of the data at a glance. Tabulation of the data can be
defined as the orderly arrangement of the data in columns and the
rows this step also helps a great deal in the condensation of the data
and also in the analysation of the relations, trends etc.
e. Data Analysis – In this step, the collected data is arranged according
to some pattern or a particular format and this analysation of the data
is done mainly to provide the data with a meaning. It is actually the
 computing of the some of the measures supported by the search for
the relationship patterns, existing among the group of the data.
f. Testing of a hypothesis: – This step of testing acts as the back bone
of the data analysis. Various tests like “t” test, “z” test. Chi square test
are used by the statisticians for the testing of the hypothesis.
g. Interpretation of results: – It is very important that the results are
interpreted into action recommendations and the results should be
able to refer to a decision i.e. should help in drawing a conclusion.

2. Final Stage :- This stage involves –

a. Conclusions and recommendations – This act as the crux of the research

project work. Recommendations are based on the conclusions obtained and
further these conclusions are based on the interpretation of the results of
data analysis. But a major point to be kept in mind here is that all these
conclusions and the recommendations should be linked to the research
hypothesis stated.
b. Report Writing - For the researcher as well as the reader, report writing
is very crucial as it acts as the best way for communication between the
two. Report written must be very simple in nature with easy language, high
clarity. Report writing cannot be done by everyone and requires an especial
skilled person for this purpose.

Research problem
A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement]
about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a
difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in
scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points
to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation. A research problem does not state how to do
something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value
question.
– Alan Byrman[1]
Follow These 5 Steps To Formulate Your Research
Problem

STEP 1. SPECIFY THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

A clear statement defining your objectives will help you develop
effective research.
It will help the decision makers evaluate the research questions your
project should answer as well as the research methods your project
will use to answer those questions. It’s critical that you have
manageable objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep
your research project focused and relevant.)

STEP 2. REVIEW THE ENVIRONMENT OR CONTEXT OF THE

RESEARCH PROBLEM
 As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with your team of
researchers in defining and testing environmental variables. This will
help you determine whether the findings of your project will produce
enough information to be worth the cost.
In order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables
that will affect the research project and begin formulating different
methods to control these variables.

STEP 3. EXPLORE THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

Research problems range from simple to complex, depending on
the number of variables and the nature of their relationship.
Sometimes the relationship between two variables is directly related
to a problem or questions, and other times the relationship is entirely
unimportant.
If you understand the nature of the research problem as a
researcher, you will be able to better develop a solution to the
problem.
To help you understand all dimensions, you might want to consider
focus groups of consumers, salespeople, managers, or professionals
to provide what is sometimes much-needed insight into a particular
set of questions or problems.

STEP 4. DEFINE THE VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS

Marketing plans often focus on creating a sequence of behaviors that
occur over time, as in the adoption of a new package design, or the
introduction of a new product.
Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral
pattern or method in the future.
Studying such a process involves:
 Determining which variables affect the solution to the research
problem.
 Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled and
used for the purposes of the company.
 Determining the functional relationships between the variables and
which variables are critical to the solution of the research problem.
During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate
and consider as many courses of action and variable relationships as
possible.

STEP 5. THE CONSEQUENCES OF ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF

ACTION
There are always consequences to any course of action used in one
or more projects. Anticipating and communicating the possible
outcomes of various courses of action is a primary responsibility in
the research process.

Formulating the Research Problem;

In research process the first and foremost step is selecting and defining a
research problem. A researcher should at first find the problem. Then he
should formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to research. To define a
problem correctly, a researcher must know what a problem is? What is a
Research problem a problem can be called a research problem if it satisfies
the following condition;
 It must be worth studying
 The study of the problem must be socially useful
 It should be a problem untouched by other researchers or even if touched
must be in need of further research possibility.
 A research problem should come out with solutions to the issue.
 It should be up to date and relevant to the current social happenings.
 All the special terms that are used in the statement of the problem should
be clearly defined.

In selection of the problem the researcher should take into

consideration of the following factors:
 Researchers‟ Interest
 Topic of significance
 Researcher‟s resource
 Time availability
 Availability of data
 Feasibility of the study
 Benefits of the research
Step 1: Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research
question. The research problem may be something the agency identifies as
a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by the agency,
or the desire to identify aRecreation trend nationally. In the example in
table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity,
which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as
the focus of the study.
Step 2: Review the Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more
about the topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review
the literature related to the research problem. This step provides
foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature
also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in
the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the
problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the
programmer to discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term
effects of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death rates, and
projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles
and information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that
describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The information
discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand the
magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity,
and identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is
too large or broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies
the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done
after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the
review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the
research project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood
obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is very
broad and could be studied based on genetics, family environment, diet,
exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or health issues. All of these
areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and
purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has
decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000
steps a day for three days a week will improve the individual’s health. This
purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original
problem. Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts Terms and concepts
are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they
apply to the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions
depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what
the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them
for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of ―individual’s health‖ can
be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or
spiritual health. For this study, the individual’s health is defined as physical
health. The concept of physical health may also be defined and measured
in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more narrowly
define ―individual health‖ to refer to the areas of weight, percentage of
body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more
narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the programmer,
making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes
the concepts more understandable to the reader.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park
development, employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing
efforts, or the integration of technology into the operations. For example, if
a researcher wants to examine a specific group of people in the
community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or
females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic
group. Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to
specifically identify the group to study. The research problem and the
purpose of the study assist the researcher in identifying the group to
involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the study is
always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher
in several ways. First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large
population to one that is manageable. Second, the population identifies the
group that the researcher’s efforts will be focused on within the study. This
helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study.
Finally, by defining the population, the researcher identifies the group that
the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example in
table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as
children ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population makes the study
more manageable in terms of time and resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The
instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study,
specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data
will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of
numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of
this text. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the
children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of
participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the
population specified for the study. The study cannot possibly include every
10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used to
represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the walking
program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data
will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be
analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be
completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully
thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step
plan to be followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with
the collection of data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing
the information needed to answer the research question. Every study
includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from the
literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be
collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through
observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers
will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body
fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of
10,000 steps during the class. The researcher collects these data at the first
session and at the last session of the program. These two sets of data are
necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body
fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the
researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the
data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the
research process culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data
to analyze so that the research question can be answered. In the
instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be
analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The
results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner
directly related to the research questions. In the obesity study, the
researcher compares the measurements of weight, percentage of body fat,
and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to the
measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These
two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference
between the first measurement and the second measurement for each
individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if
the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically
significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study.
The results of the study also provide valuable information about one
strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community. As you have
probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the
scientific research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the
planning process. You cannot conduct a study using the scientific research
process when time is limited or the study is done at the last minute.
Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false
conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.
 Steps involved in Research Process in Research Methodology
At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be
undertaken.If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the
early stages, serious difficulties may arise which may even prevent the
completion of the study. One should remember that the various steps involved
in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are separate and
distinct.

They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the
researcher has to be constantly anticipating at each step in the research
process the requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following
order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:

 Formulating the research problem.

 Extensive literature survey.
 Developing the hypothesis.
 Preparing the research design.
 Determining sample design.
 Collecting the data.
 Execution of the project.
 Analysis of data.
 Hypothesis testing.
 Generalizations and interpretation, and
 Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal writ
up of conclusions reached.

1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of

research problems, vi., those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At thievery outset the researcher
must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general
area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into.
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a
particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific
research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.
Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, vi.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a
brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research
worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write synopsis of the topic and
submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.At
this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem.

For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any,
which are similar to the study in and should be carefully studied. A good library
will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature

survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner
in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since
they provide the focal point for research. 
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having
been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a
research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which
 research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates
research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.

In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection
of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But
how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, vi.,

 Exploration,
 Description,
 Diagnosis, and
 Experimentation

5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in

any field of inquiry constitute ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete
enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known asa census inquiry. It
can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no
element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this
may not be true.

Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger
as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of
checking the element of bias or its extent except through are survey or use of
sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time,
money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice
under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on
sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe
for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically
called sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is

popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a
definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200
drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be
either probability samples or non-probability samples.

With probability samples each element has a known probability of being

included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the
researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based
on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling,
 cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on
convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.

6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often
found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to
collect data that are appropriate. There are severing always of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If

the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative
measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth
contained in his hypothesis.

7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very

important step in the research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of
structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a
situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data
are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for
proper selection and training of the interviewers. 
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the
researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a
number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis.
Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through
which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the
researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated
earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?
This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses
.Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use
of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of
research inquiry. Hypothesis -testing will result in either accepting the
 hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses
to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and
upheld several times, it maybe possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact,the real value of
research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher
had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the
basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead
to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to
prepare the report of what has been done.

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND DEFINITION

The first stage is to develop a clear and precise understanding of the research
problem, to permit effective conduct of the research process. It is very
important to analyse the problems to conduct the research effectively. In this
scenario, a veteran market researcher wants to enter into the business of
operating a coffee shop and the problem is to identify the potential market and
to find the appropriate outlet and product mix for the products and services of
the business. The determination of product line and the price to be charged
for the product is the identified problem. At the same time, the business is
also facing problems with the positioning of the shop in the relevant market.

UNIT#2 – Research Design

Research Design
Research design is defined as a framework of methods and
techniques chosen by a researcher to combine various components
of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research
problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to
conduct research using a particular methodology.
The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to
integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and
logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the
research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data.
Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which
include:
1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
A good research design should possess the folly features.
However the qualities of a good research would differ from
study to study:
 It should be flexible
 It should help to minimize bias at every stage
 It should facilitate collection and analysis
 It should be closely linked with objectives of the study
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and type of inform relevant
to the research problem.
 It should specifically mention the type of approach to the study
 It should also include the time and cost budget since most
studies are suffered by these two constraints
In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research
design may be divided into the following (Kothari 1988):

Sampling design: all the details connected with the sampling

process from the determination of sample size down to the collection
of data, would be spelt out.
Observational design: If the study makes use of observational
technique then what type of observation technique would be used,
conditions under which the observations are to be made.
Statistical design: This part of research design would spell out the
type of analysis that would be carried out.
Operational design: This design would lay down the steps that
would be taken at each stage as the design is executed.
Research design may be classified as:
 Exploratory Research design
 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
 Experimental Research design
 Conclusive Research Design

Research Design Classification

 
Reasearch Design Methods After we could define our research
problems clearly, the next step we will do is formulating research design.
This step is ultimately important as research design actually will be our
detail guideline in conducting research project. Research design
contains all required procedures in gaining information needed
toanswer our problems. If research approach is research guideline in a
brief, thus research design will be our procedures in detail form
to answer research problems.
In general, there are two main forms of research design: exploratory
research design and conclusive research design. Conclusive research
design is familiar known as quantitative research approach, while
exploratory is known as qualitative research.
A. Exploratory Research Design
Exploratory research design is mainly aimed to explore or to gain a new
or deeper understanding about particular problem. It is inappropriate to
examine correlation between observed variables, since the variables in
exploratory research commonly have not yet been defined. And, in
exploratory researchers usually use more flexible and using unstructured
questions in the measurement tools.
When should we use exploratory research?
Researchers usually use this research design for several purposes:
 To help define research problems more clearly
Many companies sometimes want to research their products, but
they have no idea what should be measured from their products.
They still are unable to cover what problems inherit their products.
However, to be able to get the best solution we must understand
what problems we face, so that they need to conduct a qualitative
research in order to figure out any problems they are facing now.
They can hold a focus group discussion or in-depth interview with
some customers to gain all information from their point of view.
 To help identify all possible alternative answers.
Assume that your company is facing two alternative decisions for
your promotion and marketing programs. You need to decide
whether the program will be focused on above the line or below the
line events. To choose the right decision you may need to conduct
interview with some experts or your respondents. From that activity
you can gain any opinions to be considered for your decision.
 To help researchers build a deeper hypothesis.
Hypotheses are temporary allegation of the answer for research
 questions. A good hypothesis should consider various factors that
affect on the observed variables. However, in fact we sometimes
face a condition where the available theoretical framework is not
enough to answer all the questions. As consequence, we need to
conduct a prior exploratory research before doing the actual research
to determine the factors that could be expected as the causes of
certain event can happen.
Exploratory Research as A Qualitative Research
From the purposes of exploratory research as I have explained before,
you might think that exploratory research design is no different with
qualitative research. You are not wrong. When we are talking about the
research design we use the term of exploratory research, but when we
discuss research approach you can consider qualitative research to
describe any attempts to explore something. We can consider them as
the same method because both of they are aimed to explore a deeper
understanding about particular material by using unstructured questions.
In general, there are two procedures for collecting data in this research
design, directly and indirectly. The directmethod means that the
researcher directly meets the respondents, letting the respondents know
his/her identity as interviewer and collecting data from them. This
direct method includes face-to-face interview and focus group
discussion. Then, the indirect method is conducted by disguising
your identity because if the respondents know that you are a researcher
who are observing them, some of them may manipulate their answers.
B. Conclusive Research Design
In contrast with exploratory research design, conclusive research uses
more formal and structured questions to test the correlation between
variables or to test the truth from underpinning hypothesis. In conclusive
research design we will be required to use some
quantitative calculations.
When should we use conclusive research design?
There are two circumtances when researcher needs to use conclusive
research:
 As conclusive research is the best suit research design for research
with many statistical equations and it can provide you a
fix number about particular material, so that it is commonly used in
helping you make a decision based on an absolute number, which in
this setting we cannot use exploratory research design because it
cannot provide you a fix number.
  When your research is related to market study (such as to measure
market share, market size, distributor available, and consumers’
profile), sales (e.g, a study to measure the effect of packaging on the
consumers’ intention to buy), and to market test.
What are included in conclusive research designed?
Conclusive research design is divided to causal research and descriptive
research.
1. Causal Research
It is used to prove that there is a relationship between observed
variables. Commonly, there are two purposes of causal research. First, it
helps researcher to figure out the nature of that relationship – which
factor becomes the cause and the effect. Second, researcher can use
this design to observe respondents even they who have never
experienced the phenomena being researched by conducting
an experiment. For more understanding you can read illustration below.
A manufacturer is intending to launch a new form of mosquito repellent
products. This product has not been available in the market before. To
test whether the new form will be preferred by consumers or not, the
manufacturer tested through an experimentation. The cause variable
(independent variable) is the new form of repellent. And, the effect
variable (dependent variable) is the ease in use and the level
of consumer complaints. Respondents were given samples of both the
old products and the new form products to see how respondents
response to the new one.
2. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is a type of research design which main purpose is
to describe phenomena. Basic assumption in this research design is the
researchers have already figured out the problem, they are able to define
the observed variables, and they can classify the population being
measured. A researcher cannot describe Iphone based on the answers
gained from a survey on respondents who have never known the Iphone.
Based on how data are collected from respondents, descriptive research
is split to:
a. Cross-sectional research
It is a descriptive research design where data is taken only once in a
given time. Data can be taken from a group of respondents (single cross-
sectional design), and can also be taken from several different groups of
respondent (multiple cross-sectional design).
b. Longitudinal research
In this design, data are captured during a certain time interval from the
same group of respondents. This research aims to see whether there are
changes in the behavior of the respondents for a period of time. For
example, researchers want to know howconsumer of an airline will
behave during the holiday season.
The major limitation of longitudinal research is it is difficult to maintain
the level of data consistency along the time interval because some
factors may affect the respondents such as death, respondents were out
of the deal, and the limited ability of the company to provide research
facilities for long periods of time.
Cross-sectional research versus Longitudinal research
The table below presents you some relative advantages and
disadvantages for both cross-sectional and longitudinal design. A plus
(+) symbolize that the design has a comparative advantage compared to
another one, and a minus (-) means it has comparative disadvantage.

What are the characteristics of good research design?

Ans: Characteristics of good research design are as follows:

The type of experimental design used for an experiment depends on

many factors. However, there are good experimental designs and bad
experimental designs. There are many basic designs used for
experiments, depending on the objective. These designs all take
important design features into account. Many of these designs minimize
error and are based on statistical sampling methods.

Sampling: A sample is the number or items, objects or people that are

used as the measurement of a specific population. An important part of
experimental deign is the type of sampling that is used. Proper sampling
means that the measurements are representative of that population.
Measuring the entire population is very difficult as many populations are
just too large, some populations may be inaccessible, the observation
may be destructive, and sampling can actually be a more accurate way
to take measurements then sampling a population as a whole. It is
important to design the sampling method to minimize any error or
response bias. You will need to determine the size of the necessary
sample and type of sample needed for the study.

Treatments: An important part of the design is determining the

treatments that are being tested. The treatments are the feature that is
being tested or is different between the groups. An example of a
treatment is looking at the growth habit of plants. The main difference
between the plants is the amount of light that each plant is given every
day. It is best to only change one factor as problems can arise if you
change the light and water supply. If a difference does occur, then you
do not know if it is a result of the light source or the quantity of water.

Control: All experiments must have a control. The control is the sample
that all the treatments are compared against. For example, the control of
plant growth would be a plant that receives light for a normal day, about
eight hours. All the other light treatments are then compared to this
control. The results will show which treatment produces a different result
as some treatments may not differ from the control while others will.

Randomization: Randomizing the sampling is the main way to eliminate

any bias within the design. Individuals and objects are randomly
assigned to the experimental group, creating a homogeneous group.
Designs can be completely randomized or use a randomized block
design. A block design first splits the subjects into homogenous blocks
and then randomly assigns the treatment to each block. A block design
uses a control within the randomization.
Replication: Replication is necessary to ensure that the result from the
experiment is actually true. If a treatment is completely effective then the
result will be the same for all replication. If the treatment is not effective,
then the replication results will not be the same. Most research uses
triplicate samples or treatments. This way, if one result is different from
the first, then the third sample will show which result is true and which
result may be a fluke. Replication increases the significance of results.
These significant results can then be used to compose conclusions
based on the experiment.

Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the

reliability of the data collected and analyzed. The design which gives the
smallest experimental error is reported to be the best design in scientific
investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum information and
provides a opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is
considered to be the most appropriate efficient design . Thus the
question of a good design is related to the purpose or objective of the
research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.
A good research design should satisfy the following four conditions
namely objectivity, reliability, validity and generalization of the findings.
 Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data
collection and scoring of the responses. The research design
should permit the measuring instrument which are fairly objective in
which every observer or judge scoring the performance must
precisely give the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the
procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the
final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one
independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected
data which shall be capable of analysis and drawing
generalizations.

 Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency through out a series of

measurements. For eg: if a respondent gives out a response to a
particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that
item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response
to the same item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher
should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it
provides consistency or reliability.

 Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid

when it measures what it is expected to measure. For eg: an
intelligence test concucted for measuring the I.Q should measure
only the intelligence and nothing else, and the questionnaire shall
be framed accordingly.

 Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the

samples can be utilized for drawing certain generalisations
applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a
research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings
provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting
the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. while
preparing the research design.

Thus a good research design is one which is methodologically

prepared and should ensure that:
a) The measuring instrument can yield objective, reliable and valid data.
b) The population is clearly defined.
c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection is used to form an
appropriate sample.
d) Appropriate statical analysis has been carried out, and
e) The findings of the study is capable of generalizations.

LITERATURE SURVEY
‘
10 Qualities of a Good Literature Review
In simple terms, aliterature reviewcan be defined as
gathering relevant information on a particular
subject of subject.
 It must strike a balance between sources
supporting and opposing a particular aspect or
argument.
 It should be wide enough to cover or provide
enough information required on the subject.
 It must be narrow enough to eliminate irrelevant
information from your research
 It must be conducted from reliable sources-
students must give books and journals the first
priority when doing a literature review. In the
event you they are using articles written by other
researchers, the articles must be peer-reviewed.
 The writer must follow the stipulated formatting
style
 The sources must be relevant and authoritative
 It should not necessarily be organized logically,
organizing a literature based on the weight of
points presented gives it more weight.
 It must clearly address the research question and
the theoretical framework
 It must identify studies and models that support
your topic
 It should define key term, terminology and
definitions. It should also state the meaning of
acronyms.
 It must lay a strong foundation for your research
topic

How to conduct a literature review

  Scan through the abstract or introduction to
check the mention of your topic.
 Evaluate the source for relevance and quality
noting that a long list of sources does not
necessarily translate to high quality literature
review

Types of Literature Reviews

Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support
or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or
philosophical problem already established in the literature.
The purpose is to develop a body of literature that
establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden
nature of some social science research [e.g., educational
reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to
analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important
form of discourse. However, note that they can also
introduce problems of bias when they are used to make
summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see
below].
Integrative Review
Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and
synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an
integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives
on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all
studies that address related or identical hypotheses or
research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the
same standards as primary research in regard to clarity,
rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of
review in the social sciences.
Historical Review
Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent.
Historical literature reviews focus on examining research
throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time
an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the
literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of
a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical
context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art
developments and to identify the likely directions for future
research.
Methodological Review
A review does not always focus on what someone said
[findings], but how they came about saying what they say
[method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides
a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of
theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data
collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw
upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the
conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in
the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration,
quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling,
interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This
approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be
aware of and consider as you go through your own study.
Systematic Review
This form consists of an overview of existing evidence
pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which
uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and
critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report,
and analyze data from the studies that are included in the
review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically
evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research
about a clearly defined research problem. Typically it focuses
on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-
and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute
to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to
examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and
allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the
social sciences.
Theoretical Review
The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory
that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory,
phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to
establish what theories already exist, the relationships
between them, to what degree the existing theories have
been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be
tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of
appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are
inadequate for explaining new or emerging research
problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical
concept or a whole theory or framework.
UNIT#3 – Data Collection
Data are individual units of information. Data as a general concept refers to
the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded
in some form suitable for better usage or processing.
Data refes the information to the facts and statistics collected together for
reference, analyzing, calculating, reasoning or planning.
Data refers to information of facts often researchers understand by data only
numerical figure. It also includes facts non-numerical information qualitative
and quantitative information in a research of the data are available the
research is half-complete.

Data Collection- Data collection is a process of collecting information

from all the relevant sources to find answers to the research problem,
test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes.

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring

information on variables of interest, in an established systematic
fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
Secondary Sources : Focus groups
Oral histories
Data Collection Methods
Quantitative data collection methods
1. Closed-ended Surveys and Online Quizzes

Closed-ended surveys and online quizzes are based on questions that give

respondents predefined answer options to opt for. There are two main types of closed-
ended surveys – those based on categorical and those based on interval/ratio
questions.

Categorical survey questions can be further classified into dichotomous (‘yes/no’),

multiple-choice questions, or checkbox questions and can be answered with a simple
“yes” or “no” or a specific piece of predefined information.

Interval/ratio questions, on the other hand, can consist of rating-scale, Likert-scale, or

matrix questions and involve a set of predefined values to choose from on a fixed
scale. You can learn more about the different types of closed-ended survey
questions here.

Once again, these types of data collection methods are a great choice when looking to
get a simple and easily analyzable counts, such as “85% of respondents said surveys
are an effective means of data collection” or “56% of men and 61% of women have
taken a survey this year” (disclaimer: made-up stats).

Qualitative data collection methods

2. Open-Ended Surveys and Questionnaires

Opposite to closed-ended are open-ended surveys and questionnaires. The main

difference between the two is the fact that closed-ended surveys offer predefined
answer options the respondent must choose from, whereas open-ended surveys allow
the respondents much more freedom and flexibility when providing their answers.

Here’s an example that best illustrates the difference:

When creating an open-ended survey, keep in mind the length of your survey and the
number and complexity of questions. You need to carefully determine the optimal
number of question, as answering open-ended questions can be time-consuming and
demanding, and you don’t want to overwhelm your respondents.

Compared to closed-ended surveys, one of the quantitative data collection methods,

the findings of open-ended surveys are more difficult to compile and analyze due to
the fact that there are no uniform answer options to choose from.

3. 1-on-1 Interviews

One-on-one (or face-to-face) interviews are one of the most common types of data
collection methods in qualitative research. Here, the interviewer collects data directly
from the interviewee. Due to it being a very personal approach, this data collection
technique is perfect when you need to gather highly-personalized data.

Depending on your specific needs, the interview can be informal, unstructured,

conversational, and even spontaneous (as if you were talking to your friend) – in which
case it’s more difficult and time-consuming to process the obtained data – or it can be
semi-structured and standardized to a certain extent (if you, for example, ask the
same series of open-ended questions).

4. Focus groups

The focus groups data collection method is essentially an interview method, but
instead of being done 1-on-1, here we have a group discussion.

Whenever the resources for 1-on-1 interviews are limited (whether in terms of people,
money, or time) or you need to recreate a particular social situation in order to gather
data on people’s attitudes and behaviors, focus groups can come in very handy.

Ideally, a focus group should have 3-10 people, plus a moderator. Of course,
depending on the research goal and what the data obtained is to be used for, there
should be some common denominators for all the members of the focus group.

5. Direct observation

Direct observation is one of the most passive qualitative data collection methods.
Here, the data collector takes a participatory stance, observing the setting in which the
subjects of their observation are while taking down notes, video/audio recordings,
photos, and so on.

Due to its participatory nature, direct observation can lead to bias in research, as the
participation may influence the attitudes and opinions of the researcher, making it
challenging for them to remain objective. Plus, the fact that the researcher is a
participant too can affect the naturalness of the actions and behaviors of subjects who
know they’re being observed.
Conclusion
Above, I’ve presented you with 5 different data collection methods that can help you
gather all the quantitative and qualitative data you need. Even though I’ve classified
the techniques according to the type of data you’re most likely to obtain, many of the
methods used above can be used to obtain both qualitative and quantitative data.

Surveys, as you may have noticed, are particularly effective in collecting both types of
data, depending on whether you structure your survey questions as open-ended or
closed-ended.
Ethics are broadly the set of rules, written and unwritten, that govern
our expectations of our own and others’ behaviour.

Effectively, they set out how we expect others to behave, and why.
While there is broad agreement on some ethical values (for example,
that murder is bad), there is also wide variation on how exactly these
values should be interpreted in practice.

Research ethics are the set of ethics that govern how scientific
and other research is performed at research institutions such as
universities, and how it is disseminated.
This page explains more about research ethics, and how you can
ensure that your research is compliant.

What are Research Ethics?

When most people think of research ethics, they think about
issues that arise when research involves human or animal
subjects.

While these issues are indeed a key part of research ethics, there are
also wider issues about standards of conduct. These include the
importance of publishing findings in a transparent way, not
plagiarising others’ work, and not falsifying work.

The Importance of Research Ethics

Research ethics are important for a number of reasons.

 They promote the aims of research, such as expanding

knowledge.
 They support the values required for collaborative work,
such as mutual respect and fairness. This is essential
because scientific research depends on collaboration
between researchers and groups.
 They mean that researchers can be held accountable for
their actions. Many researchers are supported by public
money, and regulations on conflicts of interest,
misconduct, and research involving humans or animals
are necessary to ensure that money is spent
appropriately.
  They ensure that the public can trust research. For
people to support and fund research, they have to be
confident in it.
 They support important social and moral values, such as
the principle of doing no harm to others.

Source: Resnick, D. B. (2015) What is Ethics in Research and Why

is it Important?

Codes of Ethics
Government agencies who fund or commission research often
publish codes of conduct for researchers, or codes of ethics.

For example, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Food

and Drug Administration (FDA) both publish ethical codes. Some
ethical codes may have the force of law behind them, while
others may simply be advisable.

Be aware that even if you do nothing illegal, doing something

unethical may end your research career.

Many or even most ethical codes cover the following areas:

• Honesty and Integrity - This means that you need to report

your research honestly, and that this applies to your methods (what
you did), your data, your results, and whether you have previously
published any of it. You should not make up any data, including
extrapolating unreasonably from some of your results, or do
anything which could be construed as trying to mislead anyone. It is
better to undersell than over-exaggerate your findings.
When working with others, you should always keep to any
agreements, and act sincerely.

• Objectivity

You should aim to avoid bias in any aspect of your research,

including design, data analysis, interpretation, and peer review. For
example, you should never recommend as a peer reviewer someone
you know, or who you have worked with, and you should try to
ensure that no groups are inadvertently excluded from your
research. This also means that you need to disclose any personal or
financial interests that may affect your research.

• Carefulness

Take care in carrying out your research to avoid careless mistakes.

You should also review your work carefully and critically to ensure
that your results are credible. It is also important to keep full records
of your research. If you are asked to act as a peer reviewer, you
should take the time to do the job effectively and fully.

• Openness

You should always be prepared to share your data and results, along
with any new tools that you have developed, when you publish your
findings, as this helps to further knowledge and advance science. You
should also be open to criticism and new ideas.

• Respect for Intellectual Property

You should never plagiarise, or copy, other people’s work and try to
pass it off as your own. You should always ask for permission before
using other people’s tools or methods, unpublished data or results.
Not doing so is plagiarism. Obviously, you need to respect copyrights
and patents, together with other forms of intellectual property, and
always acknowledge contributions to your research. If in doubt,
acknowledge, to avoid any risk of plagiarism.
• Confidentiality

You should respect anything that has been provided in confidence.

You should also follow guidelines on protection of sensitive
information such as patient records.

• Responsible Publication

You should publish to advance to state of research and knowledge,

and not just to advance your career. This means, in essence, that you
should not publish anything that is not new, or that duplicates
someone else’s work.

• Legality

You should always be aware of laws and regulations that govern your
work, and be sure that you conform to them.

• Animal Care

If you are using animals in your research, you should always be sure
that your experiments are both necessary and well-designed. You
should also show respect for the animals you are using, and make
sure that they are properly cared for.

Read more at: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/research-

ethics.html
 Ethical Considerations
Ethical Considerations can be specified as one of the most important
parts of the research. Dissertations may even be doomed to failure if
this part is missing.
According to Bryman and Bell (2007)[1] the following ten points
represent the most important principles related to ethical considerations
in dissertations:
1. Research participants should not be subjected to harm in any ways
whatsoever.
2. Respect for the dignity of research participants should be
prioritised.
3. Full consent should be obtained from the participants prior to the
study.
4. The protection of the privacy of research participants has to be
ensured.
5. Adequate level of confidentiality of the research data should be
ensured.
6. Anonymity of individuals and organisations participating in the
research has to be ensured.
7. Any deception or exaggeration about the aims and objectives of
the research must be avoided.
8. Affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as well as any
possible conflicts of interests have to be declared.
9. Any type of communication in relation to the research should be
done with honesty and transparency.
10. Any type of misleading information, as well as representation of
primary data findings in a biased way must be avoided.
In order to address ethical considerations aspect of your dissertation in
an effective manner, you will need to expand discussions of each of the
following points to at least one paragraph:
1. Voluntary participation of respondents in the research is important.
Moreover, participants have rights to withdraw from the study at any
stage if they wish to do so.
2. Respondents should participate on the basis of informed consent.
The principle of informed consent involves researchers providing
sufficient information and assurances about taking part to allow
individuals to understand the implications of participation and to reach
a fully informed, considered and freely given decision about whether or
not to do so, without the exercise of any pressure or coercion.[2]
3. The use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable language
needs to be avoided in the formulation of
Questionnaire/Interview/Focus group questions.
4. Privacy and anonymity or respondents is of a paramount importance.
5. Acknowledgement of works of other authors used in any part of the
dissertation with the use of Harvard/APA/Vancouver referencing
system according to the Dissertation Handbook
6. Maintenance of the highest level of objectivity in discussions and
analyses throughout the research
7. Adherence to Data Protection Act (1998) if you are studying in the
UK
In studies that do not involve primary data collection, on the other
hand, ethical issues are going to be limited to the points d) and e)
above.
Most universities have their own Code of Ethical Practice. It is
critically important for you to thoroughly adhere to this code in every
aspect of your research and declare your adherence in ethical
considerations part of your dissertation.
UNIT#4 – Data Analysis and interpretation
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or
logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and
evaluate data. ... Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in
observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye,
Robinson, 2004).
Data analysis is the process of evaluating data using analytical
and statistical tools to discover useful information and aid in business
decision making. There are a several data analysis methods
including data mining, text analytics, business intelligence
and data visualization.

Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming

and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information,
informing conclusion and supporting decision-making. What is

Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and

modeling data to discover useful information for business decision-
making. The purpose of Data Analysis is to extract useful information
from data and taking the decision based upon the data analysis.

Whenever we take any decision in our day-to-day life is by thinking about

what happened last time or what will happen by choosing that particular
decision. This is nothing but analyzing our past or future and making
decisions based on it. For that, we gather memories of our past or
dreams of our future. So that is nothing but data analysis. Now same
thing analyst does for business purposes, is called Data Analysis.
Data Analysis Tools

Data analysis tools make it easier for users to process and manipulate data, analyze
the relationships and correlations between data sets, and it also helps to identify
patterns and trends for interpretation. Here is a complete list of tools.
Types of Data Analysis: Techniques and Methods
There are several types of data analysis techniques that exist based on business and
technology. The major types of data analysis are:

 Text Analysis
 Statistical Analysis
 Diagnostic Analysis
 Predictive Analysis
 Prescriptive Analysis

Text Analysis
Text Analysis is also referred to as Data Mining. It is a method to discover a pattern in
large data sets using databases or data mining tools. It used to transform raw data into
business information. Business Intelligence tools are present in the market which is
used to take strategic business decisions. Overall it offers a way to extract and
examine data and deriving patterns and finally interpretation of the data.

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Analysis shows "What happen?" by using past data in the form of
dashboards. Statistical Analysis includes collection, Analysis, interpretation,
presentation, and modeling of data. It analyses a set of data or a sample of data.
There are two categories of this type of Analysis - Descriptive Analysis and Inferential
Analysis.

Descriptive Analysis
analyses complete data or a sample of summarized numerical data. It shows mean
and deviation for continuous data whereas percentage and frequency for categorical
data.

Inferential Analysis
analyses sample from complete data. In this type of Analysis, you can find different
conclusions from the same data by selecting different samples.