READI

NGS. . .
Intellectual Disability

   
Matthew’s Story
Matt is 15 years old. Because Matt has an intellectual disability,
he has been receiving special education services since
elementary school. These services have helped him
tremendously, because they are designed to fit his special
learning needs. Last year he started high school. He, his family,
and the school took a good hard look at what he wants to do
when secondary school is over. Does he want more education? A
job? Does he have the skills he needs to live on his own?

Answering these questions has helped Matt and the school plan for the future. He’s always been interested in
the outdoors, in plants, and especially in trees. He knows all the tree names and can recognize them by their
leaves and bark. So this year he’s learning about jobs like forestry, landscaping, and grounds maintenance. Next
year he hopes to get a part-time job. He’s learning to use public transportation, so he’ll be able to get to and
from the job. Having an intellectual disability makes it harder for Matt to learn new things. He needs things to
be very concrete. But he’s determined. He wants to work outside, maybe in the park service or in a greenhouse,
and he’s getting ready!

What is an Intellectual Disability?

Intellectual disability is a term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills
such as communicating, taking care of him or herself, and social skills. These limitations will cause a child to
learn and develop more slowly than a typical child.
Children with intellectual disabilities (sometimes called cognitive disabilities or, previously,  mental
retardation) may take longer to learn to speak, walk, and take care of their personal needs such as dressing or
eating. They are likely to have trouble learning in school. They will learn, but it will take them longer. There
may be some things they cannot learn.

What Causes an Intellectual Disability

Doctors have found many causes of intellectual disabilities. The most common are:
 Genetic conditions. Sometimes an intellectual disability is caused by abnormal genes inherited from
parents, errors when genes combine, or other reasons. Examples of genetic conditions are Down syndrome,
fragile X syndrome, and phenylketonuria (PKU).
 Problems during pregnancy. An intellectual disability can result when the baby does not develop inside
the mother properly. For example, there may be a problem with the way the baby’s cells divide as it grows. A
woman who drinks alcohol or gets an infection like rubella during pregnancy may also have a baby with an
intellectual disability.
 Problems at birth. If a baby has problems during labor and birth, such as not getting enough oxygen, he
or she may have an intellectual disability.
 Health problems. Diseases like whooping cough, the measles, or meningitis can cause intellectual
disabilities. They can also be caused by extreme malnutrition (not eating right), not getting enough medical
care, or by being exposed to poisons like lead or mercury.
An intellectual disability is not a disease. You can’t catch an intellectual disability from anyone. It’s also not a
type of mental illness, like depression. There is no cure for intellectual disabilities. However, most children with
an intellectual disability can learn to do many things. It just takes them more time and effort than other children.

How Common are Intellectual Disabilities?

Intellectual disability is one of the most common developmental disability. It is estimated that seven to eight
million people in the United States have an intellectual disability, which means that 1 in 10 families are
affected.  (1)  More than 425,000 children (ages 3-21) have some level of intellectual disability and receive
special education services in public school under this category in IDEA, the nation’s special education law. (2)
In fact, 7% of the children who need special education have some form of intellectual disability. (3)

What are the Signs of Intellectual Disability?

There are many signs of an intellectual disability. For example, children with an intellectual disability may:

 sit up, crawl, or walk later than other children;

 learn to talk later, or have trouble speaking,
 find it hard to remember things,
 not understand how to pay for things,
 have trouble understanding social rules,
 have trouble seeing the consequences of their actions,
 have trouble solving problems, and/or
 have trouble thinking logically.

How are Intellectual Disabilities Diagnosed?

Intellectual disabilities are diagnosed by looking at two main things. These are:

 the ability of a person’s brain to learn, think, solve problems, and make sense of the world
(called IQ or intellectual functioning); and
 whether the person has the skills he or she needs to live independently (called adaptive behavior,
or adaptive functioning).
Intellectual functioning, or IQ, is usually measured by a test called an IQ test. The average score is 100. People
scoring below 70 to 75 are thought to have an intellectual disability. To measure adaptive behavior,
professionals look at what a child can do in comparison to other children of his or her age. Certain skills are
important to adaptive behavior. These are:
 daily living skills, such as getting dressed, going to the bathroom, and feeding one’s self;
 communication skills, such as understanding what is said and being able to answer;
 social skills with peers, family members, adults, and others.

 To diagnose an intellectual disability, professionals look at the person’s mental abilities (IQ) and his or her
adaptive skills. Both of these are highlighted in the definition of this disability within our nation’s special
education law, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the federal law that guides how
early intervention and special education services are provided to infants, toddlers, children, and youth with
disbilities. In IDEA,  “intellectual disability” is defined as follows:
_________________

Definition of “Intellectual Disability” under IDEA

Until Rosa’s Law was signed into law by President Obama in October 2010, IDEA used the term “mental
retardation” instead of “intellectual disability.” Rosa’s Law changed the term to be used in future to
“intellectual disability.” The definition itself, however, did not change. Accordingly, “intellectual disability” is
defined as…

“…significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive
behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child’s educational
performance.” [34 CFR §300.8(c)(6)]

_________________

Providing services to help individuals with intellectual disabilities has led to a new understanding of how we
define the term. After the initial diagnosis is made, we look at a person’s strengths and weaknesses. We also
look at how much support or help the person needs to get along at home, in school, and in the community. This
approach gives a realistic picture of each individual. It also recognizes that the “picture” can change. As the
person grows and learns, his or her ability to get along in the world grows as well.

Help for Babies and Toddlers

When a baby is born with an intellectual disability, his or her parents should know that there’s a lot of help
available—and immediately. Shortly after the diagnosis of ID is confirmed, parents will want to get in touch
with the early intervention system in their community. We’ll tell you how in a moment.

Early intervention is a system of services designed to help infants and toddlers with disabilities (until their 3rd
birthday) and their families. It’s mandated by IDEA. Staff work with the child’s family to develop what is
known as an Individualized Family Services Plan, or IFSP. The IFSP will describe the child’s unique needs as
well as the services he or she will receive to address those needs. The IFSP will also emphasize the unique
needs of the family, so that parents and other family members will know how to help their young child with
intellectual disability. Early intervention services may be provided on a sliding-fee basis, meaning that the costs
to the family will depend upon their income.
To access early intervention services in your area, ask your child’s pediatrician for a referral or call the local
hospital’s maternity ward and ask for contact information for your local services program.

To learn more about early intervention, including how to write the IFSP, visit CPIR’s Resource Hub, starting
at: http://www.parentcenterhub.org/babies/
Help for School-Aged Children
Just as IDEA requires that early intervention be made available to babies and toddlers with disabilities, it
requires that special education and related services be made available free of charge to every eligible child
with a disability, including preschoolers (ages 3-21). These services are specially designed to address the child’s
individual needs associated with the disability—in this case, an intellectual disability.
 School staff will work with the child’s parents to develop an Individualized Education Program, or IEP. The
IEP is similar to an IFSP. It describes the child’s unique needs and the services that have been designed to meet
those needs. Special education and related services are provided at no cost to parents.
To access special education services for a school-aged child in your area, get in touch with your local public
school system. Calling the elementary school in your neighborhood is an excellent place to start.

There is a lot to know about the special education process, much of which you can learn here at the CPIR,
which offers a wide range of publications on the topic. Start in at:

Educational Considerations
A child with an intellectual disability can do well in school but is likely to need the individualized help that’s
available as special education and related services. The level of help and support that’s needed will depend upon
the degree of intellectual disability involved.

General education. It’s important that students with intellectual disabilities be involved in, and make progress
in, the general education curriculum. That’s the same curriculum that’s learned by those without disabilities. Be
aware that IDEA does not permit a student to be removed from education in age-appropriate general education
classrooms solely because he or she needs modifications to be made in the general education curriculum.
Supplementary aids and services. Given that intellectual disabilities affect learning, it’s often crucial to
provide supports to students with ID in the classroom. This includes making accommodations appropriate to the
needs of the student. It also includes providing what IDEA calls “supplementary aids and services.”
Supplementary aids and services are supports that may include instruction, personnel, equipment, or other
accommodations that enable children with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled children to the maximum
extent appropriate.
Thus, for families and teachers alike, it’s important to know what changes and accommodations are helpful to
students with intellectual disabilities. These need to be discussed by the IEP team and included in the IEP, if
appropriate.

Some common changes that help students with intellectual disabilities are listed in the “Tips for Teachers”
section of this fact sheet. The organizations listed at the end of this fact sheet also offer a great deal of
information on ways to help children with intellectual disabilities learn and succeed in school. And you can also
take a moment and skim through Supports, Modifications, and Accommodations for Students,
at: http://www.parentcenterhub.org/accommodations/
Adaptive skills. Many children with intellectual disabilities need help with adaptive skills, which are skills
needed to live, work, and play in the community. Teachers and parents can help a child work on these skills at
both school and home. Some of these skills include:
 communicating with others;
 taking care of personal needs (dressing, bathing, going to the bathroom);
 health and safety;
 home living (helping to set the table, cleaning the house, or cooking dinner);
 social skills (manners, knowing the rules of conversation, getting along in a group, playing a game);
 reading, writing, and basic math; and
 as they get older, skills that will help them in the workplace.
Transition planning. It’s extremely important for families and schools to begin planning early for the student’s
transition into the world of adulthood. Because intellectual disability affects how quickly and how well an
individual learns new information and skills, the sooner transition planning begins, the more can be
accomplished before the student leaves secondary school.
IDEA requires that, at the latest, transition planning for students with disabilities must begin no later than the
first IEP to be in effect when they turn 16. The IEP teams of many students with intellectual disabilities feel that
it’s important for these students to begin earlier than that. And they do.

For more information about transition planning, dive into the Transition Suite of pages, beginning
at: http://www.parentcenterhub.org/transitionadult/

Tips for Teachers

Learn as much as you can about intellectual disability. The organizations listed below will help you identify
techniques and strategies to support the student educationally. We’ve also listed some strategies below.
Recognize that you can make an enormous difference in this student’s life! Find out what the student’s
strengths and interests are, and emphasize them. Create opportunities for success.
If you are not part of the student’s IEP team, ask for a copy of his or her IEP. The student’s educational goals
will be listed there, as well as the services and classroom accommodations he or she is to receive. Talk to others
in your school (e.g., special educators), as necessary. They can help you identify effective methods of teaching
this student, ways to adapt the curriculum, and how to address the student’s IEP goals in your classroom.
Be as concrete as possible. Demonstrate what you mean rather than giving verbal directions. Rather than just
relating new information verbally, show a picture. And rather than just showing a picture, provide the student
with hands-on materials and experiences and the opportunity to try things out.
Break longer, new tasks into small steps. Demsonstrate the steps. Have the student do the steps, one at a time.
Provide assistance, as necessary.
Give the student immediate feedback.
Teach the student life skills such as daily living, social skills, and occupational awareness and exploration, as
appropriate. Involve the student in group activities or clubs.
Work together with the student’s parents and other school personnel to create and implement an IEP
tailored to meet the student’s needs. Regularly share information about how the student is doing at school and at
home.

Tips for Parents

Learn about intellectual disability. The more you know, the more you can help yourself and your child. See
the list of organizations at the end of this fact sheet.
Be patient, be hopeful. Your child, like every child, has a whole lifetime to learn and grow.
Encourage independence in your child. For example, help your child learn daily care skills, such as dressing,
feeding him or herself, using the bathroom, and grooming.
Give your child chores. Keep her age, attention span, and abilities in mind. Break down jobs into smaller steps.
For example, if your child’s job is to set the table, first ask her to get the right number of napkins. Then have her
put one at each family member’s place at the table. Do the same with the utensils, going one at a time. Tell her
what to do, step by step, until the job is done. Demonstrate how to do the job. Help her when she needs
assistance.
Give your child frequent feedback. Praise your child when he or she does well. Build your child’s abilities.
Find out what skills your child is learning at school. Find ways for your child to apply those skills at home.
For example, if the teacher is going over a lesson about money, take your child to the supermarket with you.
Help him count out the money to pay for your groceries. Help him count the change.
Find opportunities in your community for social activities, such as scouts, recreation center activities, sports,
and so on. These will help your child build social skills as well as to have fun.
Talk to other parents whose children have an intellectual disability. Parents can share practical advice and
emotional support. Find out more about,  and connect with, Parent Groups.
Meet with the school and develop an IEP to address your child’s needs. Keep in touch with your child’s
teachers. Offer support. Find out how you can support your child’s school learning at home.
Take pleasure in your beautiful one. He—she—is a treasure. Learn from your child, too. Those with
intellectual disabilities have a special light within—let it shine.

READI
NGS. . .
Intellectual Disability
By: Stephen Brian Sulkes MD, Golisano Children’s Hospital at Strong, University of Rochester School of
Medicine and Dentistry

Intellectual disability (ID) is significantly subaverage intellectual functioning present from birth or
early infancy, causing limitations in the ability to conduct normal activities of daily living.

 Intellectual disability can be genetic or the result of a disorder that interferes with brain development.
 Most children with ID do not develop noticeable symptoms until they are in preschool.
 The diagnosis is based on the results of formal testing.
 Proper prenatal care lowers the risk of having a child with ID.
  Support from many specialists, therapy, and special education help children achieve the highest level
of functioning possible.

Intellectual disability is a neurodevelopmental disorder.

The previously used term mental retardation has acquired an undesirable social stigma, so health care
practitioners have replaced it with the term intellectual disability.

Intellectual disability is not a specific medical disorder like pneumonia or strep throat, and it is not a mental
health disorder. People with ID have significantly below average intellectual functioning that limits their
ability to cope with one or more areas of normal daily living (adaptive skills) to such a degree that they
require ongoing support. Adaptive skills may be categorized into several areas including
 Conceptual area: Competence in memory, reading, writing, and math
 Social area: Awareness of others' thoughts and feelings, interpersonal skills, and social judgment
 Practical area: Personal care, task organization (for work or school), money management, and health
and safety

People with intellectual disability have varying degrees of impairment, classified from mild to profound.
Although fundamentally, impairment is caused by the decreased intellectual functioning (typically measured
by standardized intelligence tests), the impact on the person's life depends more on the amount of support the
person requires. For example, a person who has only mild impairment on an intelligence test may have such
poor adaptive skills that extensive support is required.

Support is categorized as
 Intermittent: Occasional support needed
 Limited: Support such as a day program in a sheltered workshop
 Extensive: Daily, ongoing support
 Pervasive: High level of support for all activities of daily living, possibly including extensive nursing
care

Based only on IQ test scores, about 3% of the total population are considered to have intellectual disability.
However, if classification is based on the need for support, only about 1% of people are classified as having
significant mental (cognitive) limitation.

Causes

A wide variety of medical and environmental conditions can cause intellectual disability. Some are genetic.
Some are present before or at the time of conception, and others occur during pregnancy, during birth, or after
birth. The common factor is that something interferes with the growth and development of the brain. Even
with recent advances in genetics, especially techniques of chromosome analysis, a specific cause of ID often
cannot be identified.

Some causes that can occur before or at conception include

 Inherited disorders (such as phenylketonuria , Tay-Sachs disease, neurofibromatosis , hypothyroidism ,
and Fragile X syndrome)
 Chromosomal abnormalities (such as Down syndrome)
Some causes that can occur during pregnancy include
 Severe maternal undernutrition
 Infections with human immunodeficiency virus, cytomegalovirus , herpes simplex
virus, toxoplasmosis , rubella
 Toxins (such as alcohol, lead, and methylmercury)
 Drugs (such as phenytoin, valproate, isotretinoin, and cancer chemotherapy drugs)
 Abnormal brain development (such as porencephalic cyst, gray matter heterotopia, and encephalocele)
  Preeclampsia  and multiple births (such as twins or triplets)
Some causes that can occur during birth include
 Insufficient oxygen (hypoxia)
 Extreme prematurity
Some causes that can occur after birth include
 Brain infections (such as meningitis  and encephalitis)
 Severe head injury
 Undernutrition of the child
 Severe emotional neglect or abuse
 Toxins (such as lead and mercury)
 Brain tumors and their treatments
Symptoms

Some children with intellectual disability have abnormalities apparent at birth or shortly thereafter. These
abnormalities may be physical as well as neurologic and may include unusual facial features, a head that is
too large or too small, malformations of the hands or feet, and various other abnormalities. Sometimes
children have an outwardly normal appearance but have other signs of serious illness, such as seizures,
lethargy, vomiting, abnormal urine odor, and failure to feed and grow normally. During their first year, many
children with more severe ID have delayed development of motor skills, and are slow to roll, sit, and stand.

However, most children with ID do not develop symptoms that are noticeable until the preschool period.
Symptoms become apparent at a younger age in those more severely affected. Usually, the first problem
parents notice is a delay in language development. Children with ID are slower to use words, put words
together, and speak in complete sentences. Their social development is sometimes slow because of cognitive
impairment and language deficiencies. Children with ID may be slow to learn to dress and feed themselves.
Some parents may not consider the possibility of cognitive impairment until the child is in school or
preschool and is unable to keep up with age-appropriate expectations.

Children with ID are somewhat more likely than other children to have behavioral problems, such as
explosive outbursts, temper tantrums, and physically aggressive or self-injurious behavior. These behaviors
are often related to specific frustrating situations compounded by an impaired ability to communicate and
control impulses. Older children may be gullible and easily taken advantage of or led into minor misbehavior.

About 20 to 35% of people with ID also have a mental health disorder (dual diagnosis). In particular, anxiety
and depression are common, especially in children who are aware that they are different from their peers or
who are maligned and mistreated because of their disability.

Diagnosis

 Developmental and intelligence evaluation

 Imaging of the nervous system
 Genetic testing

Many children are evaluated by teams of professionals, including a pediatric neurologist or developmental
pediatrician, a psychologist, speech pathologist, occupational or physical therapist, special educator, social
worker, or nurse.

Doctors evaluate a child suspected of having intellectual disability by testing intellectual functioning and
looking for a cause. Even though the cause of the child's ID may be irreversible, identifying a disorder that
caused the disability may allow doctors to predict the child's future course, prevent further loss of skills, plan
any interventions that can increase the child's level of functioning, and counsel parents on the risk of having
another child with that disorder.
Screening
Because mild developmental problems are not always noticed by parents, doctors routinely do developmental
screening tests during well-child visits. Doctors use simple questionnaires, such as the Ages and Stages
Questionnaires or Child Development Inventories, to quickly evaluate the child's cognitive, verbal, and motor
skills. Parents can help the doctor determine the child's level of functioning by completing a Parents'
Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS) test. Children who perform significantly below their age level on
these screening tests are referred for formal testing.

Formal testing
Formal testing has three components:

 Interviews with parents

 Observations of the child
 Tests in which the child's performance is compared with scores of many children of the same age
(norm-referenced test)

Some tests, such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children,
measure intellectual ability. Other tests, such as the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, assess areas such as
communication, daily living skills, social abilities, and motor skills. Generally, these formal tests accurately
compare a child's intellectual and social abilities with those of others in the same age group. However,
children of different cultural backgrounds, non–English-speaking families, and very low socioeconomic
status are more likely to do poorly on these tests. For these reasons, a diagnosis of ID requires that the doctor
integrate the test data with information obtained from parents and direct observations of the child. A
diagnosis of ID is appropriate only when both intellectual and adaptive skills are significantly below average.

Identifying the cause

Newborns with physical abnormalities or other symptoms suggestive of a condition associated with
intellectual disability often need laboratory tests to help detect metabolic and genetic disorders.

Imaging tests, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may be done to look for structural problems
within the brain. An electroencephalogram (EEG) records the brain's electrical activity and is used to evaluate
a child for possible seizures.
Chromosome analysis, including chromosomal microarray analysis, urine and blood tests, and x-rays of bones
can also help rule out suspected causes of ID.
Some children who are delayed in learning language and mastering social skills have conditions other than
ID. Because hearing problems interfere with language and social development, a hearing evaluation is
typically done.
Emotional problems and learning disorders also can be mistaken for ID. Children who have been severely
deprived of normal love and attention (see Overview of Child Neglect and Abuse) for long periods of time
may seem to have ID. A child with delays in sitting or walking (gross motor skills) or in manipulating objects
(fine motor skills) may have a neurologic disorder not associated with ID.
Prognosis

Because intellectual disability sometimes coexists with serious physical problems, the life expectancy of
people with ID may be shortened, depending on the specific condition. In general, the more severe the
cognitive disability and the more physical problems the person has, the shorter the life expectancy. However,
in the absence of physical problems, a person with mild ID has a relatively normal life expectancy, and health
care is improving long-term health outcomes for people with all types of intellectual disabilities. Many people
with ID can support themselves, can live independently, and can be successfully employed with appropriate
support.

Prevention
Prevention applies to environmental, genetic, and infectious disorders as well as to accidental injuries.

Fetal alcohol syndrome is a highly common and totally preventable cause of intellectual disability. The March
of Dimes and other groups concerned about the prevention of ID focus much of their efforts on alerting
women to the seriously damaging effects of drinking alcohol during pregnancy.
Doctors may recommend genetic testing for people who have a family member or other child with a known
inherited disorder, particularly ones related to ID, such as phenylketonuria , Tay-Sachs disease, or Fragile X
syndrome. Identification of a gene for an inherited disorder allows genetic counselors to help parents evaluate
the risk of having an affected child.
Women who plan to get pregnant should receive necessary vaccinations , particularly against rubella. Women
who are at risk of infectious diseases that may be harmful to a fetus, such as rubella and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), should be tested before getting pregnant.
Proper prenatal care lowers the risk of having a child with ID. Folate (folic acid), a vitamin supplement, taken
before conception and early in pregnancy can help prevent certain kinds of brain abnormalities,
especially neural tube defects.
Advances in the practices of labor and delivery and in the care of premature infants have helped to reduce the
rate of ID related to prematurity .
Certain tests, such as ultrasonography , amniocentesis , chorionic villus sampling, and various blood tests, can
be done during pregnancy to identify conditions that often result in ID. Amniocentesis or chorionic villus
sampling is often used for women at high risk of having a baby with Down syndrome, especially those aged
35 and older, and for women with family histories of metabolic disorders.
Measuring the mother's blood level of alpha-fetoprotein  is a helpful screening test for neural tube defects,
Down syndrome, and other abnormalities. Noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) detects small amounts of
DNA from the fetus in the mother's blood and uses that to diagnose genetic disorders in the fetus such as
trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), trisomy 13, or trisomy 18 and certain other chromosome disorders.
A few conditions, such as hydrocephalus  and severe Rh incompatibility , may be treated during pregnancy.
Most conditions, however, cannot be treated, and early recognition can serve only to prepare the parents and
allow them to consider the option of abortion.
Treatment

 Multidisciplinary support

A child with ID is best cared for by a multidisciplinary team consisting of the

 Primary care doctor

 Social workers
 Speech therapists
 Occupational therapists
 Physical therapists
 Neurologists or developmental pediatricians
 Psychologists
 Nutritionists
 Educators
 Orthopedists

Other professionals may also be part of the team if necessary. Together with the family, these people develop
a comprehensive, individualized program for the child, which is begun as soon as the diagnosis of ID is
suspected. The parents and siblings of the child also need emotional support and sometimes counseling. The
whole family should be an integral part of the program.

The full array of a person's strengths and weaknesses must be considered in determining what kind of support
is needed. Factors such as physical disabilities, personality problems, mental illness, and interpersonal skills
are all taken into consideration. People with ID and coexisting mental health disorders such as depression
may be given appropriate drugs in dosages similar to those given to those without ID. However, giving a
child drugs without also instituting behavioral therapy and environmental changes is usually not helpful.

All children with ID benefit from special education. The federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA) requires public schools to provide free and appropriate education to children and adolescents with ID
or other developmental disorders. Education must be provided in the least restrictive, most inclusive setting
possible—where the children have every opportunity to interact with non-disabled peers and have equal
access to community resources.

The federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide free
and appropriate education to children and adolescents with ID or other developmental disorders.

A child with intellectual disability usually does best living at home. However, some families cannot provide
care at home, especially for children with severe, complex disabilities. This decision is difficult and requires
extensive discussion between the family and their entire support team. Having a child with severe disabilities
at home requires dedicated care that some parents may not be able to provide. The family may need
psychologic support. A social worker can organize services to assist the family. Help can be provided by day
care centers, housekeepers, child care givers, and respite care facilities. Most adults with ID live in
community-based residences that provide services appropriate to the person's needs, as well as work and
recreational opportunities.

Insights on Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disabilities (ID, formerly mental retardation) are defined by significant limitations in
intellectual functioning (mental abilities) and adaptive functioning (life skills). Associated
features, prevalence, life expectancy, and severity classifications were discussed.
 Intellectual disabilities do not represent a particular disease or disorder. Instead, they result from many
causes. These are medical conditions, brain damage, genetic causes, and certain psychiatric conditions.
The methods used to diagnose intellectual disabilities were reviewed. The diagnostic criteria for the American
Psychological Association (APA) and the American Association on Intellectual Disabilities and Developmental
Disorders (AAIDD) criteria were reviewed and contrasted.

Historically, attitudes toward persons with intellectual disabilities have generally been very negative.
Social stigma has been reduced as the medical causes were revealed. Contemporary and historical controversies
were reviewed.

Since intellectual disabilities are not illnesses, there are no treatments. Instead, Individualized Support
Plans (ISPs) are developed. The goal of the ISP is to assess the individual needs and competencies of each
person. Then, a strategy for maximizing competencies while limiting challenges is developed. The primary
objective of the ISP is to optimize functioning and life satisfaction. Individual Support Plans address intellectual
functioning through the provision of educational supports and adaptive functioning. Supports for adaptive
behavior include: social skills training, supported employment, supported housing, and various therapies.

Families caring for people with intellectual disability need their own support. Among the services for
families there are: community supports, financial supports, advanced directives for future care, respite and
emergency services, family education and support groups, and advocacy and legal supports.

In conclusion, people with intellectual disabilities can live meaningful, satisfying, and productive lives,
within their own communities, when provided adequate supports. We salute the courage and dedication of
families and other advocates who have tirelessly worked to improve the lives of these deserving citizens.

Insights on Intellectual Disability

People with disabilities are still people, they are people with hearts and they are actual physical beings;
people with disabilities do their best to live every day to their fullest, yet that is still not enough for others. I feel
like as a whole, humans are generally uncomfortable with people who have disabilities. Let’s think of it this way,
people live their life every day in their normal lives and then they come across a person with a disability and
suddenly their life is interrupted, like it is such a barrier in their flow of life to come across someone different from
themselves. When I was younger, I use to think that people who hold a type of disability were weird and off, so I
thought that I didn’t have to like them or view them in a positive light because they weren’t like me. It is horrible
that I use to think that way, but to be brutally honest, I think this is what is perceived in the minds of young
children’s minds. Children grow up thinking that people with a disability are weird and that they should be treated
differently, because they are young and inexperienced in dealing with situations like this. Things like this, like
learning how to accept and view people with disabilities in a positive light is something that is learned, not
inherited when you are born.

Developmental disability refers to a group of severe chronic diseases that cause mental or physical
impairments. They are known to cause a lot of difficulties, especially in areas of life such as mobility, learning,
independent living, self-help, and language.

Students with developmental disabilities face unique challenges in the classroom.  In addition to the
challenges these students face academically, many have difficulties with social, emotional, communication and
behavioral.  In many school settings, creating an inclusive environment can be difficult.  Students are often
placed in segregated classrooms and expected to meet modified learning objectives.  In some situations,
classroom teachers lack support and can struggle to meet the needs of these students while still managing to
effectively teach their class.  One of the major challenges faced by students with developmental disabilities is
being able to effectively communicate with their peers and teachers.  Students with developmental disabilities
may be non-verbal or have limited verbal communication skills This can pose a large barrier to successfully
integrating those students into the classroom.  However, when students are able to be successfully integrated
into the classroom, the benefits can reach beyond just improvements for that student, but for all members of the
class

Developmental disability, better known as intellectual disability, or mental retardation is a disorder that
causes individuals to preform at below average levels (“Intellectual”). This disorder is characterized by continued
infant-like behavior, decreased learning ability, failure to meet the markers of intellectual development, inability
to meet educational demands, and a lack of curiosity (“Intellectual”). Some people with intellectual disabilities are
able to live normal lives, while others may require assistance. Most people with intellectual disabilities have the
same capacity to preform the same task as those without intellectual disabilities.

Persons with intellectual disabilities differ from one another and some may require support in order to
live independently within the community while others will live independently on their own with perhaps little
difficulties in reading and writing. Most at times, having a child with an intellectual disability can be so
upsetting for their families as they may feel the need to make different future plans. Nevertheless, it should not
be forgotten that every person has got their own strengths and weaknesses and building self esteem is crucial for
confidence in order to learn new skills.

READI
NGS. . . Learners with Exceptionalities
“Learner” a person who is learning a subject or skill.
“Exceptionalities” Exceptional
Adjective:unusual; not typical.
Synonyms: unusual, uncommon, abnormal, atypical, extraordinary, out of the ordinary.
Synonyms: outstanding, extraordinary, remarkable, special, excellent, phenomenal, prodigious; (of a child)
mentally or physically disabled so as to require special schooling.
The term “exceptional learners” includes those with special needs related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social
functioning, physical and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness.
• Gifted and talented – learners with the abilities at the upper end of the continuum
• Intelligence – ability to acquire & use knowledge, solve problems & reason in the abstract and adapt to
new situations in our environments
• You will encounter students with various degrees of intelligences
DISABILTY
Measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person’s ability. It may refer to a physical, sensory or
mental condition.
Examples of physical disability include:
 amputation
 arthritis
 cerebral palsy
 upper limbs
 multiple-sclerosis
 muscular dystrophy
 acquired spinal injury (paraplegia or quadriplegia)
 post-polio syndrome
 spina bifida
Types of sensory disabilities
 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
 Blindness and low vision
 Hearing loss and deafness
 Sensory processing disorder
Types of Mental conditions:
 Autism Spectrum Disorder (Formerly Asperger’s, Autistic Disorder, & Rett’s)
 Attachment Disorder
 Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD/ADD)
 Autism
 Conduct Disorder
 Disorder of Written Expression
 Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
 Encopresis
 Enuresis
 Expressive Language Disorder
 Mathematics Disorder
Mental Retardation, see Intellectual Disability
 Oppositional Defiant Disorder
 Reading Disorder
 Rumination Disorder
 Selective Mutism
 Separation Anxiety Disorder
 Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder
 Stereotypic Movement Disorder
 Stuttering
 Tourette’s Disorder
 Transient Tic Disorder
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) -Is the law that provides comprehensive service and support
for exceptional learners.
Individualized Education Program (IEP) -An assessment of the student’s current level of performance
Long term objectives
Strategies to ensure that the student is making academic progress
Schedules for implementing the plan
Criteria for evaluating the plan’s success
When teachers enter the classroom, they bring with them personal experiences, beliefs, and attitudes that shape
instructional choices, interactions with students, and beliefs about the learner. 

Educators at all levels refer to special needs students as those with exceptionalities. In general, exceptionalities
fall in six broad categories:

Most educators prefer not to use the term handicapped because of its negative implications. You'll more often
see terms like challenged and exceptionality—both of which have more positive implications.

 Intellectual. This includes students who have superior intelligence as well as those who are slow to
learn.

 Communicative. These students have special learning disabilities or speech or language impairments.

 Sensory. Sensory-grouped students have auditory or visual disabilities.

 Behavioral. These students are emotionally disturbed or socially maladjusted.

 Physical. This includes students with orthopedic or mobility disabilities.

 Multiple. These students have a combination of conditions, such as orthopedically challenged and
visually impaired.

Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the school-age
population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable that 3 or 4
individuals will exhibit one or more exceptionalities.

Insights on Students with Exceptionalities

Exceptionality covers a wide range of students and abilities. An exceptional child is consider as
someone that is either gifted or talented, has a physical or sensory impairment, or has a learning or behavioral
disability. As you can see, this is quite a large spectrum. Through discourse with educators, I have learned a lot
about how special education works.

Through my discussion with these teachers, I have learned the true importance of collaboration. It
became very clear that students with disabilities need a specialized education, there is simply no other way to go
about it because few students with the same disability will respond to it in the same ways. To fully understand a
child’s disability they should personally meet with the special education department and do outside research.
Although this is a lot of ‘extra’ work, it will greatly improve the students learning; therefore, it would be worth
it. A teacher’s main objective is to teach content, through investment teaching in turn will become more
rewarding.
 In order to be the best teacher possible, I will incorporate exceptionalities into multiculturalism. To do
so, I will recognize to cultural needs of students and fulfill them to the best of my abilities. For example, a deaf
student may live in the Deaf Community and therefore will have a different culture and only communicate with
sign language. I will either provide that student with written out notes or sign to him or her. Similar to this
accommodation, I will make changes to my teaching to ways that allow for the most learning. I will not
marginalize students because of their disability or treat them with lower expectations. Lowering expectations
for students with disabilities is common because of pity, but pitying a student does not help either party in the
slightest.

Insights on Students with Exceptionalities

I learned from the article: ” Learners with exceptionalities” , exceptional learners those persons who are
different in some way from the “normal” or “average” these include those with special needs related to
cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical/sensory impairments, emotional disturbances and
giftedness. Children who cannot proceeds directly information or remember.  All this kind of disabilities
mental, emotional and physical disabilities needs deeper understandings. We differentiate the disability and
handicap. Disability means the condition of being unable to perform as a consequence of physical or mental
unfitness while handicap means a degree of disadvantage is dependent made by both the person and his
environment. According to Lev Vygotsky in his theory about the socio-cultural, learners should needs
scaffolding for their learning capabilities especially they have defects in mental, emotional and physical. Parents
and teachers should give great contributions to develop well their learning structures even they have disabilities.
         
I realize that people with disabilities is not a hindrance to reach an education. These kinds of persons
need our supports and compassion. Teachers should building good relationship between them. There are some
people with disabilities that are successful in their field with the supports of their parents and relatives.
         
As a teacher, I will give courage and positive insight to them so that they will continue their ambition
whatever happen because this is the only way they can get better future in spite their disabilities.  
 READI
NGS. . . Learners with Exceptionalities
What are the characteristics of gifted students?
Children who are considered gifted are those who have above-average intelligence and/or superior talent in
some domain, such as art, music, or mathematics.
• Broader definitions acknowledge both demonstrated skills and potential abilities.
• Some students demonstrate outstanding abilities in more than one area; others demonstrateskills in specific
areas or may have accompanying disabilities.
• Some critics argue that too many students in “gifted programs” aren’t really gifted but are instead bright,
cooperative, and, usually, white.
• Others are concerned that students who are potentially gifted, especially young boys, adolescent girls, and
students from ethnic minority groups or from socially and/or economically disadvantaged backgrounds, are at
risk for being unidentified.
What programs exist for students who are gifted?
Educational programs available for children who are gifted include special grouping (“pullout”programs);
acceleration, enrichment, mentor, and apprenticeship programs; and work/study or community service
programs.
 Aggressive, Out-of-Control Behaviours
 Developmental Disabilities/Intellectual Disabilities
 Teaching Strategies for use with Students who have Developmental Disabilities
Characteristics
Speech and Language Disorders
 A small proportion of children who are classified as having emotional and behavioural disorders and
who engage in disruptive, aggressive, defiant, or dangerous behaviours are removed from the classroom;
approximately 80 percent of students with emotional and behavioural disorders are educated in their regular
schools (Smith et al., 2001).
When students present severe emotional and behavioural disorders, teachers often enlist the services and
supports of community mental health organizations and other institutions.
The most distinctive characteristics of developmental disabilities, or what are sometimes called
intellectual disabilities, are limited intellectual functioning and adaptive skills.
Classification and Types of Developmental Disabilities
People with developmental disabilities were identified as either mild, moderate, severe, or profound
based on their IQ range. mild: 55–70; moderate 40–54; severe 25–39; profound: below 25
 Teach to students’ levels of intellectual functioning
 Provide concrete examples
 Provide opportunities for frequent practice
 Be sensitive to students’ self-esteem
 Set positive expectations for students’ learning
 Use the principles of applied behaviour analysis
 Use the services of educational assistants and volunteers
Speech and language disorders include a number of speech problems (such as articulation disorders, voice
disorders, and fluency disorders) and language problems (difficulties in receiving information and expressing
language).
Language disorders involve difficulties in understanding and expressing thoughts in correct sentences.These
impairments can negatively affect a child’s ability to be educated.
 Receptive language consists of linguistic information that is received by the brain.
 Expressive language involves the ability to express one’s thoughts
 Emotional and Behavioural Disorders
They are students who has severe, persistent difficulties with relationships, aggression, depression, phobias, or
other socioemotional behaviours.
• Depression, anxiety, and fears can become so intense and persistent that students’ ability to learn is
significantly compromised
Autism and Asperger Syndrome Autism and Asperger syndrome (AS) are lifelong developmental
disorders that affect children’s social interactions, language, and behaviours.
Students with autism and Asperger syndrome benefit from well-structured classrooms, individualized
instruction, or small-group instruction.
These students also benefit from explicit teaching and modelling of social skills, social interaction, and
social cognition.
Teaching Strategiesfor Students Who Have Learning Disabilities and ADHD
 Use explicit or direct teaching methodologies
 Activate and use students’ relevant prior knowledge
 Provide accommodations as required
 Provide modifications as required
 Facilitate students’ organizational and study skills
 Facilitate students’ reading and writing skills
 Use behaviour-management techniques when necessary
 Learners with exceptionalities
 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
ADHD is typically associated with activity and attentional difficulties that start before the age of seven.
 Children who are inattentive have difficulty focusing on any one thing and might become bored with a task
after only a few minutes.
Children who are hyperactive show high levels of physical activity and almost always seem to be in motion.
Children who are impulsive have difficulty curbing their reactions and often do not think before they speak
or act.
These students are often described as being more talkative and intrusive than others. They often interrupt
others and present themselves as bossy and socially immature. Such children may have few friends and tend
toward rough play when interacting with classmates.

Intervention Strategies
Many interventions have focused on improving students’ reading ability such as phonemic awareness.
Not all children who have a learning disability that involves reading will receive early intervention. In
older students, insufficiently developed phonological awareness is often followed by difficulties in reading
comprehension and writing so effective remedial programs must be comprehensive, explicit, and continuous,
address all the major components of reading and incorporate metacognitive and/or motivational techniques to
encourage independent reading.

Identification
A student with a learning disability typically does not look disabled, can communicate verbally, and
does not stand out in a crowd. The classroom teacher usually makes the initial suggestion that a student may
have a possible learning disability. Medical examinations and hearing and vision tests are used to eliminate the
possibility of a physical disorder.
In the early-childhood years, disabilities are often identified in receptive and expressive language. Input
from parents and teachers is considered before making a final diagnosis.
Who are students with Exceptionalities?
They are students with disabilities and students who are gifted.
Categorizing students with exceptionalities is widespread and controversial. Categories include mental
retardation, learning disabilities, behavior disorders, communication disorders, visual disabilities, and hearing
disabilities. Students from cultural minorities are disproportionately categorized as having learning problems.
 SYNTHESIS

Silence in the classroom, doesn’t mean learning is not occurring. It’s unfortunate for those who can’t hear
the morning birds singing, bells ringing, or the soft voice of your friends and family. Sitting in their own little
world, all alone.
One of the reasons behind my taking this course was to learn how to better accommodate students in my
class with hearing impairment and strategies to help them slearn meaningfully..
Ninety percent of students who are deaf are born to two hearing parents. Therefore almost all of the
knowledge these students acquire about their language, culture, and history comes from their teachers. As a
teacher of the Deaf it is important to know and teach the history and culture of the Deaf. You must also know
the difference in curriculum, class management, teaching technique, and legal limits placed upon you as a
teacher for the Deaf. Deaf culture is very limiting and composed of the language, and how they go about their
everyday lives. Including things they value as a community, the traditions they have, even the different ways
they identify themselves or each other.
I personally feel that every teacher should be professionally qualified to deal with any issues concerning
exceptional learners especially Deaf. This course has not only helped me to grow professionally and understand
the students with hearing needs and apply various strategies to accommodate them.  
 SYNTHESIS

Special education is something you cannot explain in a nut shell. Special education teachers,
paraprofessionals and everyone else involved in helping students with different types of disabilities often work
above and beyond to help these students succeed.
The initial barrier experienced by many students with physical and mental disabilities is accessing the
learning environment itself. Students with a neurological condition, and who may also have a physical
disability, may have speech and language difficulties, along with students who are deaf, or who have partial
hearing, may have difficulty communicating through speech. People with communication difficulties are often
thought to be far less able than they really are. It is important to avoid making quick judgments about these
students to ensure that automatic assumptions are not being made concerning a student’s intelligence and ability
if their speech is very slow, slurred, or if they are non-verbal. The potential of these students often goes
unrecognized.
During this course I not only learned from the course material and text but also from sharing at the
discussion board. There were many experienced teachers in the class and everyone’s inputs were valuable. The
focus of the course was mainly to discuss and learn about how to accommodate all students including the
exceptional learners to create an inclusive classroom. Every child should feel valued and appreciated. The
strategies that I learned through discussions and the course material were valuable and would help me in future
as Special Education resource teacher.
This course has not only helped me to grow professionally and understand exceptional students’ needs
and apply various strategies to accommodate them but also to learn about various disabilities in children help
me to understand any child better.  

This course has been one of the most meaningful courses that I have taken so far. I plan to take continue
and finish this degree to extend my learning and grow professionally and personally.
 Related
Study. . Motivation of Teachers and Performance of
Special Education:
. Students Research Paper

 Paper Type: Research Paper

 Subjects: Education (1966) Special Education (34)
 Pages: 13
 Words: 3767

Introduction
Special education is an important portion of an education process in any learning setting. Special
education focuses on children or any other learner with some disability that requires a unique attention in the
form of education dissemination. Students with disabilities are also eligible of attaining high grades in their
fields of study.

This calls for special attention from the teachers that guide these students throughout their education life.
A special education student can be better placed to achieve academically if well guided by his/her teacher
through a specially designed program. Lack of such guidance translates to low performance of students who
would score highly in their course work.

In the event of establishing this knowledge claim, motivation will be treated to cover not only teachers
but also the students wit special needs in education. However, the focus shift will incline towards the teacher as
a central character in the study. Besides, motivation will also be handled investigate possible courses of the lack
of it, ways to motivate the teachers of special education.

Although, the study focuses on motivation as a central word in the study, another goal is to establish
possible impacts of motivation to the students. Consequently, interest was developed to conduct a study to
probe into the knowledge claim that there might be a relationship between special education teachers’
motivation and performance of children with special needs.

In addition, it is suspected that there may be a relationship between motivation of a special education
teacher and a similar motivation of his/her student. Therefore, there is a need to establish this relationship
between motivation of special education teachers and the performance of students with special education needs.
Literature review
There is substantial literature in support of the motivation and its impacts to students in with special
needs. Study has shown that people who are highly motivated in their careers are usually inclined to some goals
throughout their jobs (Johnson, 2008, p. 234). This is an assertion that holds ground with regard to motivation
of teachers of special education.

Besides, motivation of special education teachers has some impacts on the student with special education needs.
Conrad and Serlin (2006, p. 15) established a relationship of student performance based teacher expectations.
They asserted that a student who knows the expectation the teacher performs highest. The resulting link in this
case ties motivation to a two dimensional outlook.

In one dimension, a student in special education program attaches performance to teacher’s

expectations. On the other hand, a teacher’s motivation dictates the performance to self-motivation. Studies
have shown that availability of incentives catalyzes performance of students. Thomas (2005, p.176) postulated
through his studies that a relationship occurs between teacher motivation and performance of students.

He suggested the importance of incentives as a way of motivating teachers. Other studies have shown
that it is not only motivation of a teacher that shapes the achievement and outcome of students, but also teacher
enthusiasm (Fowler, 1997, p.201). Additionally, motivation for better outcome of the student has been given
another dimension. This dimension investigates the relationship between a special education teacher and his/her
student.

The outcome and type of this relationship has a sizably discernible impact on the achievement and
performance of a student with special needs (Wentzel & Wigfield, p. 309). Mashek and Yost (2011) put forward
an emphasis on teacher and lesson styling during teaching and its effects on student performance.

They posited that a teacher’s ability to create and make a lesson more interesting through an appropriate
style shapes the outcome of a student in the subject that is taught.

Purpose of the study and research questions

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between motivation of special education
teacher’s motivation and their impact on the performance of students.

The students in this context refer to learners with that require special education due to disabilities. In
addition, investigation of motivation covers both teacher and student. However, the impact is singly directed to
the performance of the student as defined by the dual nature of the word “motivation”.

1. What is the relationship between motivation and performance of students with special education needs?
2. Are there factors that contribute to teachers’ attention of his students’ achievement needs?
3. To what extent does lack of motivation affect special education students’ academic outcome?
4. What are special education teachers’ perceptions of his/her student’s performance?

Theoretical stance
 The research will employ qualitative methods in its race to answer the research questions as posed. With
respect to qualitative research design to be employed in this study, it is utterly important to cast light upon
epistemological framework to be used in this study. Therefore, this study will be grounded by employment of a
constructionist framework.

Studies back up this framework by positing its assertion of lack of discovery of importance. There is
need to establish the relationship between performance of the students as related to the motivation by the special
education. The choice of this framework best grounds the meaning in the study, based on its ability to support
construction of meaning in studies.

In addition, this framework best suits this investigation since the research is centered on the motivation
of special education teachers as a suspected impact of student performance in special education. The study is
centered on two key figures: special education teacher and the student. In the light of the two, this study will
strive to figure out the level of understanding of the motivation at the individual levels.

Aided with constructivism framework, consistence in identifying how participants constructed the
understanding of the subject matter of this study is important. Therefore, constructivism is consistent with the
study, as it is consistent with the purpose and research questions for this study.

Design
The research designs that will the study targets to employ are qualitative. In this design, the target
population for the study has two major participants and one minor. The major participants will be special
education teachers and students.

These are primarily the central participants of the study. The minor participant according to this design
will be parents. We seek to establish the any existing relationship or roles that parents play. This role or roles
will help to determine the motivation level and its outcome size on the performance of children with special
needs.

Participants
Participants for this study will include special education teachers and their students. The research is not
limited to any education level. Since the study will be investigating the impacts of motivation on the outcomes
in performance of students with special needs, primary, high school, college level and university level students
and teachers will be investigated.

At each level of education, the participants must meet the following demographic characteristics. In the
first place, and considering primary education level, participants will be required to have reached an examinable
level that, according to the education system available, is a requirement for moving to the next level of
education. Precisely, in most education systems, coincides to age ranges of 12-15 years.

The gender of the students will be both male and female students. The subjects that the students study
shall not be important in the investigation of the participants. The reason for the above assertion lies in the fact
that this research investigates the overall performance in all the subjects under study.

Categorically therefore, these students must have completed their level of education. Similar
characteristics will be applicable to students other levels of education, that is, high school, college and/or
university. The only variation will be changes in the age ranges of the participants at each level of education.

Secondly, special education teachers will form another segment of participants. The gender of special
education teachers will be both male and female teachers. All teachers in this participants category will be
grouped according to the level of schooling that they teach. Teachers will be further split into another category
for the study purposes.
 The first characteristics just explained are based on general identities of teachers. To study the
population further, I will include teachers who left the special education for either another profession or
crossing from special education to general education.

This second category of special education teachers will also consider the age limit particularly for those
who may have retired. These participants must fall within the age limit of 65 years or below.

The last category as mentioned will involve parents of the students with disabilities. The age limit of the
parents is not limited to any level. The education background of the parents will not, to a large extend, be
considered a necessary requirement.

The participants will be located from their respective areas of work or homes. The first category of
location will target students and teachers. Teachers were classified into two categories. The first category of
teachers includes those that are in service in school (primary, high school, college and/or university).

This category of teachers will be located in their respective schools when these institutions are in
session. The perfect timing for this study and location will be in January when learning institutions will be
opening. This time is deemed appropriate for this study because the intended teachers and students will be in
session.

The second assumption for the choice of the month of January is that most students who shall have
completed their level education level the previous year would be coming back for results, hence accessibility is
assured.

The last category of participants is parents. Parents of sampled students will locate in their respective
homes for the purposes of information gathering. This strategy is the best for the parents since it gives direct
access to them as participants.

Sampling
The research will employ systematic sampling technique for the study. This method is deemed
appropriate over its closest substitute. The reason that favored systematic sampling over random sampling is
that it has a relatively higher degree of accuracy. Sampling as a whole process is intended to cover a period of
two weeks. The target participants at the end of the sampling process are a sample size of 100 participants.

The sample selection will begin from special education institutions as mentioned. This will then be
narrowed down to participants in the study. The reason for the inclusion of institutions in the sampling process
is to ensure accuracy of the process. The sample scope will be at a national level. Students and teachers that will
be included in the study will account for 80% of the sample size.

To begin with, 800 institutions will be selected from across the nation. From these 800 institutions,
systematic sampling will be employed to randomly select 80 institutions from which the participants will be
selected. The implication is that every tenth institution will be selected for sampling.

From the eighty institutions, another sampling procedure will be carried out to select 40 students and
teachers. I will select the 40 students and teachers as follows. In the first place, the procedure for selection of
either teachers or students is similar. Therefore, one procedure is representative. Eight students will be selected
from each of randomly selected sample of 40 institutions as explained from above.

This means that every fifth institution under random sampling will yield a student for the study sample.
Thus, 40 students will have been randomly selected for the study. The process of selecting teachers for the study
sample will follow the above procedure. The sample for the study must be 100 participants. The explanation
reveals that 20 participants are required to make up the 100th participant.

Data collection
 Data collection from participants will involve the use of questionnaires and interviews. The data to be
used in this study includes both primary and secondary data. Primary data will majorly come from the surveys
and questionnaires as well as interviews. To begin with, letters requesting the selected participants to take part
in the research process will be mailed.

These letters would contain requests and suggestions of interviewing venues for convenience to the
participants. The following step would involve division of research team in order to cater for the diversity of
research participants in terms of physical abilities and communication requirements. This is important since the
participants involve students with special leaning needs or communication requirements.

These students are also diversified in their needs as special education participants. With respect to
students, the research team will be composed of special education teachers that will enable the communication
process to for students to take place without any breakdowns. Consequently, questionnaires will involve Braille
printouts in case a blind participant is selected.

Having identified the needs for the data collection, the next stage will be to distribute the questionnaires
and interview conduction. For the participants who are proximately far away, mailing service will be employed
for distributing the questionnaires. Those who would feel convenient to be interviewed will employ telephones
for the process.

Besides, notebooks will also be employed for the collection of data from the participants. A close follow
up will be executed after the distribution of the interviews in order to increase the responses from participants. I
have a high expectation that the response level from the surveys will be above 55%.

Validity and reliability

The employed tools and methods of data collection are the ones suggested and employed for data
collection and in social sciences. Therefore, the questionnaires and surveys used in this study are presumed
reliable and valid based on their favored usage in such research works.

Data analysis and discussion

Raw data from the field interviews will be analyzed immediately to avoid lose. Since the methods of
data collection are reliable, several methods of analysis are proposed. Data expected to be collected from the
field will be numerically analyzed using several methods, such as graphs and tables. These methods are good
for analyzing data are chosen due to their ease of interpretation of the data.

To facilitate graphical analysis of data from the field, numerical data will be summarized using tables.
The tabulated results would then be represented using more advanced means like pie charts and line graphs. The
second method involves the analysis of data using statistical packages like Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS). These packages and many others are readily available.

Since this study seeks to establish possibility of a relationship between two variables, correlation tests
will be employed to verify this allegation. They can be used to carry out several important tests on the collected
data. The results from both tabulated and statistically tested data will be discussed to establish the relationship
between motivation of special education teachers and the performance of their students at all levels of learning.
Threats to internal and external validity
This research presents a number of limitations that threaten internal and external validities of the study.
In the first place, internal validity is threatened by the tendency of the collected data to be analyzed with some
degree of bias. In fact, this factor not only affects internal validity of the study but also externally during the
generalization of the results of the study.

Another limitation is related to the process of sample selection. During the selection of the sample, the
needs specific needs of education were not put into consideration. For instance, students were selected
randomly using systematic selection. Specific needs of students with disabilities may influence motivation
trends for performance.

However, this study did not put into consideration such factors. Thirdly, another limitation that threatens
the generalization of the results for this study is the fact that the sample chosen for this study may be relatively
small.

Another limitation that was identified during this study was the lack of exploitation and usage of special
education teachers in the enhancement of communication with students with special needs. More information
can be collected if these teachers are utilized during the data collection process for the study.

Overcoming the limitations

Since the above factors have been identified as limiting factors to the external and internal validities of the
intended findings of this study. However, for each one of the limitation identified above, a solution is provided
they would help overcome the limitations. In the first place, the data collected would be analyzed immediately
in there collected form.

Manipulations to the collected will be avoided in order to limit injecting bias in the collected data.
Secondly, data analysis will be done with a high degree of accuracy by the correct employment the suggested
methods of data analysis as given in this study. Another aspect of limitation that is identified in this study is
related to the selection of the sample.

This will be mitigated through proper monitoring of the sample selection process by use of experienced
researchers or their assistants. However, this limitation is only in its theoretical form. The implication of the
outgoing assertion is that it can be completely eliminated through the following means.

In the first place, the reliability of the selected sample will be validated by use of a pilot study prior to
the conducting of the real research. This pilot study’s conditions will be manipulated to simulate the conditions
and variables of the main research. The importance of the pilot research not only eliminates the possibility of
poor sample selection but also gives the possibility of identification of many more barriers to the main research.

The study also identifies the lack of full utilization of special education teachers in the process of data
collection. The research has discovered the that data collection from students with special needs experts with
communicational skills. In a normal research situation, data collection process can be difficult if the teachers are
not employed.

There was mention of printing of Braille questionnaires for the blind participants in the study. Since they
are potential participants in the study, and the selection process was purely probabilistic, such a participant
cannot be eliminated from the study because of lack communication. Therefore, they will be given a chance to
express and therefore, contribute positively towards the research process.

Since there is essence in the usage of special education teachers not only as research participants but
also as special research assistants, the information collection process. Besides contribution to the data collection
process, bias in the data collection and analysis will be reduced. This will boost the external and internal
validities of this study.

In addition, there will be provision for criticism from the academic world. This research is open to
criticism in its bid to contribute to knowledge. However, this research is not an absolute end in itself. This is
also one-way of increasing reliability of the study, as well as its external and internal validities.

Ethical considerations
The research is contacted in a sensitive context with respect to participants. The participants, in
particular student participants, have physical challenges, which may tempt the researchers to make unfriendly
comments during the data collection process. To this, one way of mitigating such like occurrences will be
ensure the confidentiality of information regarding to participants.

To ensure that no chances are taken against the participants in the research, we intend to involve the
research assistants in the research through a comprehensive education program concerning the ethics in this
particular study. This program will take one week.

The aspect of the training will involve training the researchers in this field on the aspect of asking non-
provocative questions to the participants. this has the benefit of not breaching the ethics in the research process
but also it enhances the participant’s participation in the research process. Another ethical aspect, which is
critical to the success of this research, is treatment of research information with utmost confidence.

The information collected from the participants will only be used for the research purpose for which
they were solicited. This shall be enhanced through non-inclusion of participants’ identification information in
the final research report.

Ethical enhancement of the study will be boosted by getting any required clearances from the authorities
if there is need or request to do so. This could be through conducting this study based on any human rights Act
applicable for clearance.

Conclusion
This research has an ability to answer the questions that were asked. The reason for this assertion is
based on the assumption that the purpose of the study is well suited and linked to the methods chosen for the
study. In addition, the theoretical stance of the study supports epistemological aspect of the research questions.

In addition, the qualitative methods chosen for the study supports the methods of data collection that is
intended for the study. There is a substantial link between the methods employed in the identification and hence
selection of a sample from the population under study. Besides, supports of the sample selection based on the
systematic random sampling ensure reduction of errors in the selection of the sample.

Data analysis methods for the study are appropriate for the creation and analysis of the data from the
field. In the study, the ethical perspective of the participants has been well covered, thus enhancing reliability in
the data collection process.

Reference list
Conrad, C., & Serlin, R. C. 2006. The sage handbook of for research in education. Californa: Sage Publicatios.
Fowler, W.J. 1997. Development in school finance. Melbourne: Diane Publishing.

Johnson, M.L. 2008. Special education teachers’ intent to remain in the teaching profession: Perceptions of
special educators in Southern Dakota. Eisenhower Parkway: ProQuest LLC.

Mashek, D., & Yost, E. 2011. Empirical Research in Teaching and Learning: contributions from social
psychology. West Sussex: BlackWell Publishing.

Wentzel, K,R., & Wigfield. A. 2009. Handbook of motivation at school. New York: Taylor &Francis.

Thomas, R.M. 2005. High stakes testing: coping with collateral damage. New Jersey. Routledge.

Appendix. Questionnaire
Participant’s Information

Name ……………………………………………………………………………

Date of birth …………………………………………………………………

Ethnicity ………………………………………………………………………

Sex………………………………………………………………………………

Level……………………………………………………………………………

Student Performance

1. Think your performance is related to motivation in any way?

2. Who motivates your performance?
3. As a teacher, do you associate the contribution of parents to student performance?
4. Does the teacher-student relationship affect student performance?

Other Factors

1. Are there any other factors that affect student performance beside motivation (please list)
2. Are there educational policies that you feel can be changed to improve performance?(list them)