SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

 
Cheryl F. Fischer
 
Through the effective supervision of instruction, administrators can reinforce and
enhance teaching practices that will contribute to improved student learning. By
skillfully analyzing performance and appropriate data, administrators can provide
meaningful feedback and direction to teachers that can have a profound effect on
the learning that occurs in each classroom. Because student learning is the
primary function of the schools, the effective supervision of instruction is one of the
most critical functions of the administrator. If schools are to provide equal access
to quality educational programs for all students, administrators must hold teachers
accountable for providing an appropriate and well-planned program. These
programs include a variety of teaching strategies designed to meet the diverse
needs of all students in our complex society.
 
This chapter reviews areas of focus for teacher evaluation, the components of
effective teaching, some basic strategies and procedures for data gathering and
conferencing, and steps administrators should consider in the effective preparation
of conference memorandums and letters of reprimand. Approaches that are
discussed which differ from existing procedures in the district should be used to
stimulate discussion and prompt a review of current practices. This process may
lead to a restructuring of practices and procedures that could result in the
enhancement of student learning.
 
Teacher Evaluation
 
To enhance the professional effectiveness of the teaching staff administrators
must be skilled in these areas: (a) what to evaluate, (b) how to observe and
analyze classroom observation information and other data, and (c) how to
translate the results of observations and the summary of data into meaningful
conference feedback that guides and encourages teachers to improve instruction.
This section requires the governing board of each school district to establish
standards of expected pupil achievement at each grade level in each area of
study. Under this code, evaluation and assessment of certificated employee
competency are required in four areas. These include: (1) the progress of pupils
toward the district-adopted standards, (2) the instructional strategies and
techniques utilized by the teacher, (3) the teacher's adherence to curricular
objectives, and (4) the establishment and maintenance of a suitable learning
environment. Although this code section prohibits the evaluation and assessment
of certificated employee competence by the use of published norms established by
standardized tests, it does give the board of education of each district authority to
adopt additional evaluation guidelines and criteria. In addition, the school board in
each district is required to establish and define job responsibilities of other
certificated non-instructional personnel (supervision or administrative positions)
whose responsibilities cannot be evaluated in the aforementioned four areas.
 
In the following sections, methods that can be used to assess the competency of
teachers in each of the four areas will be addressed.
 
Assessing Pupil Progress
 
To assess student progress toward the established district standards and to
facilitate the planning of various types of instruction, administration should ensure
that teachers are utilizing information from a variety of valid and appropriate
sources before they begin planning lessons or teaching. This could include data
regarding students' backgrounds, academic levels, and interests, as well as other
data from student records to ascertain academic needs and to facilitate planning
appropriate initial learning. It is important for the administration to note that
information regarding students and their families is used by the staff for
professional purposes only and is kept confidential as a matter of professional
ethics.
 
Administrators should determine if teachers are using the numerous formative and
summative diagnostic processes available to assist in planning meaningful
instruction. Formative measures include ongoing teacher monitoring of student
progress during the lessons, practice sessions, and on daily assignments.
Measures administered periodically like criterion-referenced tests, grade level
examinations, or placement tests that are teacher-made or part of district-adopted
material, also provide helpful information on the status of student learning as
instruction progresses.
 
Summative measures like minimum competency examinations, district mastery
tests, and standardized tests provide a different perspective from the ongoing
formative measures. This type of data enables the teacher to evaluate the long-
term retention rate of their students and to compare student learning on a regional,
state, or national basis.
 
The administrators should verify that teachers are preparing and maintaining
adequate and accurate records of student progress. This will include the regular
and systematic recording of meaningful data regarding student progress on
specific concepts and skills related to the standards for each subject for the grade
level or course they are teaching. Once students' success levels have been
identified from the records, the teacher should use the information to plan
instruction and any necessary remediation and enrichment. By utilizing ongoing
information on achievement, teachers can maintain consistent and challenging
expectations for all students. Students and parents should be informed of the
students' progress toward achieving district goals and objectives through
comments on individual work, progress reports, conferencing, report cards, and
other measures. Students should be encouraged to participate in self-assessment
as a way of motivating students to improve academic achievement.
 
Instructional Strategies
 
When a profession deals with people, cause-and-effect relationships are never
identified as certainties, only as possibilities. Therefore, there are no certainties in
teaching. It is a situational process requiring constant decision-making which,
when properly implemented, increases the probability of learning. Research on
teacher effectiveness has been intensified in the last two decades. The results
have helped identify an instructional process that provides a solid and basic
framework for planning instruction which is helpful in guiding the administrator in
what to look for when visiting a classroom. These steps include planning,
preparing, presenting the lesson, monitoring student progress, and conducting
practice sessions.
 
Planning the Lesson
 
Formulating a well-defined objective of the lesson is a critical first step as it
provides the direction and framework for the decisions which will follow. The
objective should describe the specific content to be learned and the observable
behavior the student will exhibit to demonstrate that learning has occurred. No
matter how expertly the objectives are stated, objectives facilitate learning only if
they are appropriate to the academic achievement of students. A well-written
objective includes specific information on what is to be included in the lesson and
what is not. This specifically expedites the next step, which is the identification of
sub-skills or sub-objectives. A task analysis of each of the sub-objectives enables
the teacher to sequence them in order of difficulty to provide a logical sequence to
the lesson.
 
Preparing the Lesson
 
Administrators will know if the appropriate planning for instruction has taken place
when the teacher is able to design a lesson that achieves the objective. This
means everything the teacher and students do during the lesson is related to the
objective. Birdwalking is a term coined by Madeline Hunter that refers to the
inability of a teacher to focus on the objective of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).
Instead, the teacher birdwalks, pecking at interesting ideas with what seems to be
worthwhile or informative digressions, distracting the students' thinking processes
and leaving the students confused about the topic of the lesson. Avoiding
birdwalking does not mean there can never be spontaneity. The decision to adjust
a lesson must be a conscious one where the advantage of postponing or
interrupting the lesson is weighed against the disadvantage of interrupting the
logic of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).
 
Presenting the Lesson
 
The beginning of each lesson provides the challenge of how to change the focus
of students' attention from previous classes or discussions with friends to the
objective of the lesson. The importance of eliciting appropriate associations prior to
presenting a lesson can be found in research on positive transfer and advanced
organizers (Ausubel, 1960; Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Emmer & Evertson,
1979).
 
Research indicates that the learning of facts is greatly facilitated when memories
of organized principles and prerequisite concepts related to the lesson are
reviewed at the beginning of the lesson. The focus portion, or anticipatory set as it
is called by Madeline Hunter, requires the student overtly or covertly have the
prerequisites in memory. The activity must be designed effectively to elicit
information related to the lesson objective.
 
During the opening it is important for students to know the direction of the
instruction, the relevance of what they are learning, and to have a sense of
continuity. Students are often not able to see the relationship between today's
work and the work from yesterday. Sharing the objective of the lesson informally
with students would include teacher statements such as "what we are going to do
today" and "the reason we are studying this concept."
 
The body of the lesson includes the presentation of information; what Rosenshine
(1986) would call the explanation-demonstration stage of the lesson. To implement
this phase of the lesson, administrators should note that teachers have a wide
variety of different styles and models of teaching from which to choose. The larger
the number of alternative teaching styles teachers is comfortable utilizing, the
more likely they will select techniques that match the desired objectives, learning
styles, and academic levels of their students. Publications that describe a wide
variety of models of teaching include Joyce and Weil (1986) and Bellon, Bellon,
and Handler (1977). Other authors have described specialized models like
cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1975) and Ethna Reid's ERIC model.
Current literature is in agreement that there is no single right way of teaching or
one approach that will be effective for all learning objectives. To determine if the
best teaching strategy was selected administrators should determine if the teacher
achieved the objective.
 
While well over a hundred instructional strategies have been identified, there are
some attributes common to all strategies (Joyce & Weil, 1986). Classroom
observers should be aware that each strategy has a set of activities with a distinct
purpose and role for the teacher and students. Each strategy has a logical
sequence which is necessary if students are to accomplish the objective of the
lesson. Therefore, the selection of an instructional strategy is a complex task
because there are numerous effective strategies that could be used, depending on
the instructional goal. Joyce and Weil (1986) drew from a wide range of teaching
studies to organize the methods of instruction into four major categories which
they refer to as families of instruction.
Based upon research in education and psychology, the four families categorize
strategies according to the intended learning outcomes.
 
The families include information processing, personal, social interaction, and
behavioral. The information processing family promotes a discovery process of
learning. Methods included in this family stress thinking  kills and the content and
process of learning. There is no single right answer. Motivation comes from the
natural curiosity of the students. Models in the information processing family are
based upon the findings of Bruner, Piaget, Taba, Suchman, and others. Some
examples of teaching styles that promote information processing are inquiry,
concept attainment, and advanced organizers.
 
The personal family, derived from the work of Rogers, Perls, Gordon, and A.S.
Neill, emphasizes individual student development and problem-solving techniques.
In this model the teacher assists the students in developing interpersonal and
cognitive skills and creativity. It enables the students to determine and evaluate
their own learning. Some examples from this family include non-directive teaching,
synectics, and the classroom meetings.
 
The work of Dewey, Thelen, Staffel, Glasser, and others is the basis for models in
the social interaction family. The focus is on group problem-solving skills and the
relationship of the individual to society or other people. Selecting a model of
instruction from this family is appropriate when the goal of the lesson is to teach
group process and academic skills. Examples include various forms of cooperative
learning and role-playing.
 
The behavioral family emphasizes convergent thinking and a linear learning
process where learning is broken down into small, sequenced behaviors with
frequent rewards for correct responses. This family includes the work of Skinner,
Bandura, Gagne, Walper, and others who share an emphasis on changing the
behavior of the learner. It is an appropriate method of instruction when the
objective of the lesson is to teach facts, concepts, or skills. Examples of teaching
strategies included in this family are direct instruction and contingency
management.
 
An ability to utilize several models in each of the four families enables teachers to
review the needs of the students and the objectives of the lesson, and select the
particular approach that is most likely to facilitate achievement of the learning
objective. Classroom observers should understand that the four families provide a
valuable source of information for staff development training sessions.
 
Monitoring Student Progress
 
It is clear that good teaching requires diagnosing student progress during the
lesson and adjusting instruction accordingly (Good, 1983; Rosenshine & Stevens,
1986; Hunter, 1982). Periodic and formal assessments of student learning through
a mid-term or final examination may be helpful in formulating grades, but are not
frequent enough to enable the teacher to adjust the teaching to correct for
misconceptions. When observing a lesson, administrators should note points in the
lesson where teachers should monitor instruction as it progresses to enable them
to immediately respond to students' misunderstandings and insure that all students
are learning the material. Checking for understanding can be done in large groups
by having all of the students signal the response at the same time to the same
question. This can be done with the use of their fingers to signal multiple choice
answers 1, 2, or 3, the first letter of a word, or thumbs up or down to indicate true
or false (Hunter, 1982). Other techniques for group signaling include the use of
individual chalkboards, ceramic tiles, or laminated cards on which students record
their responses with a grease pencil or crayon and flash the answer. A group
choral response can also be used. Students' understanding can also be checked
through the use of brief written responses, or mini-diagnostic tests. As students
are completing the quick quiz the teacher walks around the room monitoring the
approach the students are using to solve the problems as well as their answers,
and determines if adjustment in teaching needs to be made. Another method
would be a pair share where students take turns telling each other the answers to
two different questions related to the same objective while the teacher monitors.
Although some measures may not indicate specifically which students are
confused, they do provide the teacher with the information needed to determine if
the direction or pace of the lesson needs to be adjusted.
 
Teachers who monitor progress as part of their teaching have all students perform
some observable behavior congruent with the objective of the lesson while they
check the behavior. They analyze the correctness and completeness of the
responses and determine if it is necessary to reteach certain segments of the
lesson before they move on. Once this is completed they proceed to the next
concept--teaching, re-teaching if necessary, and providing the necessary practice.
 
Conducting Practice Sessions
 
Once students have an adequate level of understanding, research concludes that
it is extremely important that students be given the opportunity to practice the new
skill and its application (Russell & Hunter, 1977). In the initial phase, practice
should be conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher. Hunter refers to
the process as guided practice. The teacher moves about the room providing
support, encouragement, praise, individual assistance, and re-teaching. It can be
particularly effective during this portion of the lesson if the teacher utilizes
cooperative learning groups or heterogeneous grouping strategies to form practice
groups. This provides an opportunity for peer-tutoring while the teacher circulates
among the groups and keeps them on task while monitoring their level of
understanding.
 
It is important to remember that individuals are only able to assimilate a certain
amount of information before it needs to be organized. Otherwise, new learning
interferes with the old and produces confusion. For longer or more complicated
lessons it may be critical to stop and get closure at several points throughout the
lesson as well as at the end. Students who actively participate in the process are
able to reorganize the material and achieve greater retention and clarity of the
information.
 
Prior to allowing students time for independent practice, the use of summary or
review statements helps students put the information into perspective and identify
the key points. It is also helpful if the teacher identifies how it will relate to the
lesson planned for the following day. Providing closure, at any point in the lesson,
provides students with the opportunity to consolidate and organize what they have
learned.
 
After providing adequate explanation and practice in a monitored setting, students
should be provided the opportunity to practice the new skill independently. To
insure that this practice session is positive and  productive, the material must
relate directly to the lesson just mastered.
 
Adherence to Curricular Objectives
 
The third area supervisors are required to evaluate and assess is the teacher's
ability to adhere to curricular objectives. To comply with this requirement,
administrators should assure that teachers are utilizing state frameworks, district
curriculum guides, scope and sequence charts, and course outlines to assist them
in planning instruction. Lesson plans should have a clearly defined objective that is
appropriate to the class learning level and consistent with established district,
school, department, or grade level curriculum standards for expected
achievement. Further, plans should incorporate the needs, interests, and special
talents of students in the class and include enrichment or acceleration activities for
students who complete basic tasks early. Activities in the lesson should revolve
around the acquisition of new learning.
 
Planning should include a time line so the teacher can monitor the pace of
instruction to insure that the intended curricular objectives are taught and
mastered in the allocated time. Administrators should verify that a variety of
ongoing assessment measures are being utilized by the teacher to monitor
achievement of intended objectives. Information from these measures should be
used to make adjustments to the pace, objectives, or sequence when necessary.
Teachers should utilize district-adopted materials and appropriate supplemental
materials to meet individual student's academic needs and learning styles.
 
Teachers should be encouraged by administrators to participate in recommending
texts and supplementary materials and developing curriculum so they can utilize
their knowledge of students' skills, needs, and interests in selecting a product that
will more closely meet the needs of students in the school or grade level.
 
Suitable Learning Environment
 
The fourth and final requirement is that evaluators verify that teachers establish
and maintain a suitable learning environment. Therefore, each teacher should
develop and implement clear classroom routines and appropriate standards at the
beginning of each school year to insure the health, safety, and welfare of their
students. This includes maintaining a clean, safe, and orderly learning
environment that includes establishment of good work habits and discipline.
Teachers should post and communicate the classroom standards and procedures
as well as the consequences for misbehavior with students and their parents.
Students should show evidence of respect for the rules in the classroom and on
the campus. Teachers should strive to be fair, firm, and consistent as they
maintain effective student control in the classroom and uphold the rules throughout
the school. Teachers should refer students to support staff when necessary to
maintain the appropriate learning environment.
 
Administrators should ensure that appropriate behavior is supported with regular
and ongoing recognition and reinforcement activities. Mutual respect among
pupils, teachers, and staff should be evident on campus and in classrooms.
Everyone should work together cooperatively, communicate with sensitivity, and
utilize appropriate language. Administrators and teachers should serve as role
models for students in developing self-control, a sense of responsibility, and
attitudes of tolerance and sensitivity.
 
Emergency procedures should be reviewed with students and practiced regularly.
In addition, administrators should verify that materials and supplies that will be
needed in an emergency, including exit routes and student information, are readily
available.
 
Teachers should adjust the heating, lighting, and ventilation to promote comfort.
The classroom arrangement should make good use of space, foster good study
habits, and enable students to see and hear instruction. The classroom should
have attractive and appropriate visuals and decorations that do not distract from
learning.
 
Good home-school relationships help create a positive learning environment and
can be enhanced by regular communication. This can include information on what
is to be taught as well as the methods and materials that will be used to achieve
the objectives. Evaluators should check to see that systems have been
established to communicate with parents on a regular basis regarding student
progress. Parents should have opportunities for classroom visitations as well as
parent conferences. Teachers should make every effort to promptly return parents'
phone calls.
 
Supervision Strategies
 
Supervision of instruction must be built on the observer's thorough understanding
and in-depth knowledge of instructional theory, not on a check list of what should
be in a lesson.
 
Gathering Data
 
Three main sources of information help identify a teacher's competency on the
four criteria. They include: observations, interviews, and documents.
 
Observations should include walk-throughs conducted on at least a weekly basis.
These brief visits, lasting only a minute or two, provide a quick look at teacher
performance and classroom environmental factors. Walk-throughs are helpful in
identifying ongoing patterns of behavior. An informal observation is an
unannounced visit lasting more than 10 minutes during which the teacher's
behaviors or classroom factors may be observed to document consistent trends or
patterns of behavior. The informal observation can be followed by a written
summary or conference with the teacher.
 
A formal observation is an announced visit lasting an agreed-upon amount of time.
During the observation, the administrator records what was said by the teacher
and the students. The formal observation also includes a pre- and post-conference
and a written summary. The summary includes a description of the conference,
observation, observer's judgments, and agreements or directions for changes in
teacher behaviors, activities, or classroom environment. A peer observation is
agreed upon by the teacher and peer and can be used to verify a trend or pattern
of behavior perceived by the evaluator.
 
Interviews are also a helpful source of obtaining information. They can include
discussions with students to verify perceptions. At times, parents request a
conference to discuss their perceptions. In addition, other members of the
administrative team or classified employees who are assigned to work in the
classroom can be interviewed to provide their perceptions.
 
The review of various types of documents can be helpful in identifying trends or
behaviors. These include written parent and student letters or complaint forms.
Individual pieces of students' work, folders, or portfolio assessments which contain
a number of samples of students' work also provide helpful information on their
achievement. Documents should include both formative (ongoing assessment
measures) and summative measures (culminating assessment) including
homework, practice exercises completed in class, examinations, and student
projects.
 
Reviewing student work on district developed criterion-referenced tests is also
helpful. An analysis of the lesson plans in respect to required or recommended
district curriculum requirements or course outlines is also beneficial.
 
Teacher Conferencing
 
Conferences throughout the year provide a means to communicate the evaluation
of the teacher's performance. Decisions shared during the conference are based
upon the data collected through observations, review of documents, and
interviews that relate to the assessment and evaluation of the teacher's ability to
meet the requirements as adopted by the local district governing board. The
conference should provide the teacher with the means to change unsatisfactory
behavior or options for enhancement of performance. The conference should
provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's knowledge and concepts and
reinforce his or her understanding of the missions of the school. The pre-
conference is held before a formal observation and provides the administrator with
the opportunity to obtain as much information about the upcoming observation as
possible.
 
Post-conferences can be collaborative, guided, or directive in nature. Each type of
conference is planned by the supervising administrator to achieve a different goal.
A collaborative conference is effective when the teacher is able to identify problem
areas, suggest alternatives, develop a plan, and is ready and willing to grow
professionally, needing little support. This conference is designed to conclude with
mutually determined follow-up activities that will enhance the teacher's capabilities.
The conference begins with the teacher presenting an overview and analysis of
the lesson that was observed. The teacher identifies the strengths and
weaknesses of the lesson while the administrator listens to the teacher's
perceptions. The administrator then verifies the teacher's perceptions and offers
his or her own opinions. After this mutual exchange, possible activities for the next
steps are discussed and the conference concludes with agreement on a final plan.
 
A guided conference is effective for teachers who have difficulty identifying
problem areas and alternatives to current practices and need support to carry out
the action plan. In addition, the guided conference is effective with a teacher who
has little or no difficulty identifying areas that need improvement but is unwilling or
not committed to making the necessary changes. During a guided conference it is
important that the principal provides prompts to encourage the teacher's thinking,
to allow the teacher freedom to explore various possibilities, and to enable the
teacher to make a commitment.
 
During the guided conference the teacher is encouraged to describe the lesson
observed. The administrator probes for further information and possible plans for
growth and time frames. The administrator paraphrases his or her understanding
of the teacher's messages and asks for clarification when necessary. At the
culmination of the guided conference the teacher restates the criteria for action
and the time frame.
 
A directive conference is effective for teachers who cannot identify problem areas,
require a great deal of support, and are unwilling or unable to change. In
conducting the directive conference the administrator identifies the problems and
allows the teacher to provide input. The administrator shares the details of a plan
for support and assistance that is designed to enable the teacher to meet the
desired expectations. Following the conference the administrator directs and
monitors the follow-up activities. It is the administrator's responsibility to provide
support, monitor the time line activities, and to evaluate the degree of
effectiveness resulting from the assistance.
 
During each conference it is important to stay on the topic and focus on the data
and documentation regarding the lessons observed. If the data collected clearly
indicate a change must occur to increase student learning, a directive for change
is appropriate. Some administrators find this type of conference difficult. It is
important to avoid compromising statements that provide an excuse for poor
performance like, "I know this is asking a lot since it's your first year in advanced
science," or "You shouldn't be concerned that the lesson didn't go well, it happens
to everyone." When teachers make threats or caustic statements, the
administrator must remember that teachers who use this strategy are often
diverting attention from the task at hand. It is important to avoid this diversion and
remain on task.
 
At the close of a collaborative, guided, or directive conference there should be an
agreed-upon or directed statement clearly outlining the changes expected in the
undesirable patterns of behavior, and where appropriate, the specific professional
growth activities that will be utilized to achieve the desired changes. The statement
should include the support and assistance, monitoring process, time lines for skill
transfer, observable changes, and which data will be reviewed. When preparing
the statement it is important to select several changes that will have the greatest
effect on students' learning. Once the focus is established it is important to
consider what is reasonable to achieve in the given time frame. The administrator
who will monitor
and conduct the review should consider all data needed to document whether the
desired changes have taken place.
 
Planning the Conference
 
In preparation for the conference, the administrator will need to review the data
and identify the strengths and areas of concern. The administrator should select
only one or two behavioral changes and the professional growth activity or
activities that will have the greatest effect on the learning for the largest number of
students. These selected areas will be the focus or objective of the conference. It
will be necessary to identify specific aspects of the data collected that support the
need for growth in these areas. It is helpful to formulate questions before the
conference that will help the teacher focus on these issues or clarify aspects of the
lesson for the administrator. The administrator should identify possible resources
and personnel that could assist in a follow-up plan prior to the conference. The
recommendations considered should be doable and reasonable based on the
teacher's readiness and the time available. The administrator should select the
type of conference  collaborative, guided, or directive) and prepare a conference
outline. A good conference should last 30-40 minutes. Longer sessions become
an ordeal for both the teacher and the administrator. It is the administrator's
responsibility to have his or her thoughts well-organized and to keep the
conference on task so it can be completed in a timely manner.
 
During the conference the teacher and/or administrator should cite purpose,
strengths, and areas of concern with reference to supporting data. A follow-up plan
with the desired specific outcome, activities, and a summary of decisions should
be developed.
 
The evaluation conference should be held at the close of the evaluation period or
at the end of the year. The purpose of the conference is to communicate the
teacher's rating based upon the SB 813 performance criteria adopted by the
district and should include any commendations for exemplary performance.
Additionally, the conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's
thinking and develop means to strengthen performance. The conference provides
yet another forum to communicate and clarify the school's missions, goals, and
values. The administrator prepares for the evaluation conference in much the
same manner as other conferences. The administrator should review all of the
data collected to-date, including conference memoranda and data prepared during
the evaluation period. He or she should determine the teacher's ratings,
commendations, and recommendations, then prepare the evaluation forms. In
addition, the administrator should identify the objectives that will have the greatest
effect on student learning, recommendations for improvement, methods of
improvement and support, and a reasonable time line. The administrator should
select the type of conference (collaborative, guided, or directive) and formulate
questions that help guide the staff to review specific areas of performance.
 
The teacher and administrator should develop plans for enhancement or
improvement. Following the conference the administrator should prepare a legally
sound evaluation conference memorandum following the format suggested in the
next section. Summative evaluation written documentation is required by law and
must be delivered in person to the teacher no later than thirty days prior to the end
of the school year.
 
Memorandum and Letters of Reprimand
 
In education, a memorandum is often defined as any written material given to a
teacher regarding his or her performance or conduct. There are a wide variety of
administrative correspondence that qualify as memoranda. These include
observation checklists, letters regarding an observation or conference, and letters
summarizing a conference. To insure that the desired results are achieved it is
important that memoranda be legally sound. Memorandum, as well as letters of
reprimand, must be written in a timely manner, should include a reference date,
and state specific facts. These can include the date, time, place, and names of
others who were present and/or witnesses of the actions of the staff member being
evaluated or reprimanded. These actions should be described in an explicitly
factual and objective manner using sensory facts (what was seen, heard, touched,
tasted, or smelled). Subjective opinions, conclusions, or educational jargon should
be avoided. The consequences of the performance or action on students,
teachers, classified staff, administrators, or the work unit, should be described.
 
Extenuating or enhancing circumstances surrounding the performance should also
be noted, as well as the teacher's reasons or motives for the action if they were
expressed. The appropriate and related teaching certificates of the staff member
should be referenced as well as related staff development efforts. Letters which
cite unsatisfactory behavior should reference the contract provision, rules,
regulations, students' rights, guidelines, and curriculum guides that were upheld or
violated. Previous oral or written commendations or reprimands or warnings,
including compliments or complaints from students or parents that are related to
the actions described in the memo, should be noted. Efforts related to this area
that have been made in the past to assist the staff member and the employer's
reactions to these efforts (positive and negative) should be  reviewed. The author
should state his or her belief regarding the likelihood of recurrence. If it is a letter of
reprimand; it must be specifically stated. If this is the case, the letter should
indicate that the staff member is being given another opportunity to improve their
performance with the hope they will be successful. The letter should state that if
the staff member does not improve, further disciplinary action will follow, although
the specific action should not be noted. On both the memorandum and letter of
reprimand it must indicate that the staff member has the right to respond. The
letter should be handed, not mailed, to the employee with a copy
forwarded to the personnel office for inclusion in the staff member's personnel file.
 
Staff Development
 
The quality of student learning is directly related to the quality of classroom
instruction. Therefore, one of the most important aspects of instructional
leadership is to provide the necessary climate to promote ongoing instructional
improvement. To accomplish this, the instructional supervisor must be able to plan
and deliver effective staff development programs. The leadership needs to insure
that staff development efforts have the appropriate financial resources; adequate
time set aside to plan, conduct, and implement the programs; and time for staff to
practice the new skills. Further, teachers need the verbal support and physical
attendance at sessions by the supervisors to verify their commitment. Teachers
should be involved in the identification of their own staff development needs. They
must be involved in the planning and delivery of staff development activities to
gain the greatest acceptance. Collaboration of teachers and supervisors will
enhance the staff development program and lead to improved student learning.
Staff development programs need to be comprehensive and continuous programs
that are carefully designed for personal and organizational growth. The activities
should be founded upon strong theoretical, conceptual, or research bases. The
information must be related to practice with ample opportunities provided for
modelling and coaching. Professional training sessions developed for teachers
must be consistent with adult learning theory. A well-planned and administered
staff development program may be one of the most critical factors in the
improvement of instruction and subsequently in the increase in student learning.
 
Conclusion
 
The supervision of instruction is by design a developmental process with the main
purpose of improving the instructional program, generally and teaching,
specifically. Only when this process is carefully planned and executed can success
be assured.
 
The supervisory function is best utilized as a continuous process rather than one
that responds only to personnel problems. Administrators with supervisory
responsibility have the opportunity to have tremendous influence on the school
program and help ensure the benefits of a strong program of instruction for
children.

Suggested Readings
 
Acheson, K., & Gall, M. (1987). Techniques in the clinical supervision of teachers
(2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.
 
Beach, D., & Reinhartz, J. (1989). Supervision: Focus on instruction. New York:
Harper& Row.
 
Borich, G. (1990). Observational skills for effective teaching. Columbus, OH:
Merrill.
 
Duckworth, E. (1987). The having of wonderful ideas and other essays on
teaching and learning. New York: Teachers College Press.
 
Glickman, C. D. (1985). Supervision of instruction: A developmental approach.
Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
 
Good, T., & Brophy, J. (1987). Looking in classrooms (4th ed.). New York: Harper
& Row.
 
Joyce, B. (Ed.). (1990). Changing school culture through staff decisions
development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
 
McNeil, J., & Wils, J. (1990). The essentials of teaching: Decisions, plans,
methods. New York: Macmillan.
 
Smith, W., & Andrews, R. (1989). Instructional leadership: How principals make a
difference. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
 
Stanley, S., & Popham, J. (1990). Teacher evaluation: Six prescriptions for
success.
 
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
 
Zumwalt, K. (Ed.). (1986). Improving teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for
 
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
 
References
 
Ausubel, D. P. (1960). Use of advance organizers in the learning and retention
of  meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267-272.
 
Bellon, J., Bellon, E., & Handler, J. (1977). Instructional improvement: Principles
and  processes. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
 
Bransford, J. D., & Johnson, M. K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for
understanding: Some investigations into comprehension and recall. Journal of
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 717-726.
 
Education Codes of California. (1991). West's Annotated Education Codes. St.
Paul, MN: West.
 
Emmer, E., & Evertson, C. (1979). Some prescriptions and activities for organizing
and managing the elementary classroom. Austin, TX: The Research and
Development Center for Teacher Education.
 
Gentile, R. (1987). Recent retention research: What educators should know. The
High School Journal, 70(2), 77-86.
 
Gentile, R. (1988). Instructional improvement. A Summary and analysis of
Madeline Hunter's essential elementary instruction and supervision. Oxford, OH:
National Staff Development Council.
 
Good, I. J. (1983). Good thinking: The foundations of probability and its
applications.  Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
 
Hunter, M. (1982). Mastery teaching. Lansing, MI: TIP.
 
Hunter, M., & Russel, D. (1977, September). How can I plan more effective
lessons? Instructor, 87, 74-75.
 
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., Holubec, E. J., & Roy, P. (1984). Circles of learning:
Cooperation in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
 
Joyce, B. R., & Weil, M. (1986). Models of teaching (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ:  Prentice-Hall.
 
Rosenshine, B., & Stevens, R. (1986). Teaching functions. In M.C. Wittrock,
Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
 
Russel, D., & Hunter M. (1977, September). Planning for effective
instruction.  Instructor, 87.