Culverts, Causeway

UNIT 7 CULVERTS, CAUSEWAY AND and Bridges

BRIDGES
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Types of Cross-drainage Structures and their Adoption Criteria
7.3 Guidelines for Selection of Site
7.4 Components of a Bridge
7.5 Fixation of Waterway
7.5.1 Estimation of Discharge
7.5.2 Alluvial Streams
7.5.3 Streams not Wholly Alluvial
7.5.4 Streams with Rigid Banks
7.5.5 Steams which Overflow the Banks
7.5.6 Span Arrangement
7.5.7 Clearance
7.6 Foundation Depth and Arrangement
7.7 Bridge Loadings
7.8 Types of Culverts
7.9 Types of Bridges and their Suitability
7.10 Causeways
7.11 Over-bridges, Flyovers and Underpasses
7.12 Summary
7.13 Key Words
7.14 Answers to SAQs

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Roads have to cross several natural streams like – rivers and canals. They also have to
cross railway lines and cross-roads. The structures needed for this purpose are culverts,
bridges, causeways, over-bridges, flyovers and underpasses.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• understand what are the various types of structures encountered in a road,
• understand their suitability to site conditions, and
• know how their span and foundation details are worked out.

7.2 TYPES OF CROSS-DRAINGE STRUCTURES AND

THEIR ADOPTION CRITERIA
7.2.1 Types of Cross-drainage Structures
The following are the types of cross-drainage structures :
(a) Culverts, having waterway upto 6 m.
(b) Minor Bridges, having waterway in the range of 6-30 m.
(c) Medium size Bridges, having waterway in the range of 30-100 m. 91
Transportation (d) Major Bridges, having waterway greater than 100 m.
Engineering
(e) Paved dips and Causeway which allow water to flow over the roadway.
7.2.2 High Level and Submersible Bridges
Bridges may be high level or submersible. Highway level bridges have their deck level
sufficiently above the highest flood level, with adequate clearance. On less important
roads, it is permissible to allow the bridge to be submerged for a few times in a year and
for few hours on each occasion. Such structures are known as submersible bridges.

7.3 GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF SITE

The following are some of the guidelines for selecting the site of a bridge :
(a) A site which is on a straight reach of the river is preferred to a site on a bend
of the river.
(b) The site should be sufficiently away from the confluence of tributories.
(c) A site with a stable and well-defined bank is preferred.
(d) A site which offers a square crossing should be preferred.
(e) A site with good foundation conditions (rocky bed) should be preferred.
(f) Avoid a site with geological faults.
(g) Select a site free from landslides, slips and subsidences.

7.4 COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE

The main components of a bridge are :
Sl. No. Component Function
1. Superstructure To withstand the live load and transmit it to
substructure and foundations
2. Bearings To facilitate longitudinal movement of superstructure
3. Abutment To bear the load from the superstructure at the two
ends and withstand the earth pressure
4. Pier Intermediate supports
5. Abutment/Pier cap To provide a seat for the bearings
6. Foundations : To transmit the load to the soil strata below at a safe
(a) Open footings bearing capacity value
(b) Piles
(c) Wells
7. Flooring To prevent scour of foundations
8. Curtain walls To prevent scour of foundations
9. Wing wall/Return wall To support the earthwork in approaches behind the
abutment
10. Railing To define the end of the bridge and prevent vehicles
falling into the streams
11. Wearing coat To distribute the wheel loads on the slab and protect
the slab
12. Approach slab To withstand the effect of live loads behind abutment
13. Guide bunds To guide the flow of large alluvial streams into the
waterway provided
14. Footpath To provide for pedestrian movement
15. Kerb A vertical or nearly vertical member at the two ends
of the carriageway to protect the vehicle from hitting
the railing
92
These are indicated in Figures 7.1 and 7.2. Culverts, Causeway
and Bridges
C
L SUPERSTRUCTURE APPROACH SLAB
C
L C
L

DIRT WALL
PIER CAP BEARINGS ABUTMENT CAP

PIER ABUTMENT RIGHT

CLEARANCE RETURN WALL

HFL

GL

FOUNDATION

Figure 7.1(a) : Elevation of Bridge

WEARING COAT
2.5%
KERB RAILING

SUPERSTRUCTURE
BEARING
PIER CAP

PIER

1
HFL
8

GL
1

SECTION OF A PIER

Figure 7.1(b) : Elements of a Bridge

TOP OF WEARING COAT

SLAB
3.6
IN 12

1 IN

H = 11'-4"
R1

TER
FRONT BATTE

BAT

ABUTMENT BACK LINE

R
REA

4'-0"
4'-0"
G.L.

NEAT LINE

4'-0"

FRONT ELEVATION SECTION ON X X'

FOUNDATION OFFSET
FOUNDATION OFFSET

FRONT BATTER 1:12

X'
BALLAST WALL
LEVEL OFFSET

REAR BATTER
SLAB SEAT

OFFSET
SLOPE

1 IN 12

22°
45°
FO LE
UN VE

LE
R
DA L

VE S
L LO EA
TI OF

TR P
IA IN R
ON F S

N G B
FR GUL PO A
TT 4'-0"
OF ET

O AR RTIO
LE NT PO N O ER
FS

VE B R
FO TIO F W 1
ET

A
X U
N
L
O TTE O F G W
N IN IN
3. Y'
D S FF 5
A LO SE
R WIN ALL
TI P 1 : G W TO
O E T 12 A P
N LL
O TO
F FS P SECTION ON Y Y'
ET

LEVEL
PORTION

4'-0"
Y

FOUNDATION PLAN

Figure 7.2 : Abutment and Wing Wall 93

Transportation
Engineering
7.5 FIXATION OF WATERWAY
7.5.1 Estimation of Discharge
The estimation of discharge of a stream is necessary for determining the waterway,
clearance and foundation details. Discharge is estimated from :
(a) empirical formula, and
(b) rational formula.
There are several empirical formula for estimation of discharge. Dicken’s formula, given
below is commonly adopted.
Q = CM3/4
where Q = Discharge in cu m/sec,
M = Catchment area in sq. km,
C = A constant with the following values :
C = 11-14 where the annual rainfall is 60-120cm
= 14-19 in Madhya Pradesh
= 22 in Western Ghats.
The rational formula, given below, requires the intensity of rainfall.
Q = 0.028 PAIC
where Q = Discharge in cum per sec.,
P = Coefficient of run-off for the catchment, having values of
0.10-0.90 depending upon porosity of the surface,
A = Catchment area in hectares, and
Ic = Critical intensity of rainfall in cm per hour.
7.5.2 Alluvial Streams
In alluvial streams, the regime width of a river is calculated from the Lacey’s formula :
W = 4.8 Q½
where W = Regime width in m, and
Q = Discharge in cu m per sec.
The waterway is kept equal to the regime width.
7.5.3 Streams Not Wholly Alluvial
In streams which are not wholly alluvial, consisting of bed of pebbles, rock, etc. the liner
waterway is kept equal to the actual surface width of the stream, measured from edge to
edge along the high flood level line.
7.5.4 Streams with Rigid Boundaries
The bridge should span from bank to bank, measured along the high flood level line.
7.5.5 Streams which Overflow the Banks
In streams which overflow the banks, the waterway is kept equal to the Lacey’s regime
width and the river is provided with guide bunds to train the flow.
7.5.6 Span Arrangement
The number of spans and the span length are decided on the basis of the well-known
thumb rule that the cost of the superstructure equals the cost of the substructure and
foundations. Roughly, the span is 1.5 times the height of the pier from the bottom of the
foundation to the top of the pier.
94
7.5.7 Clearance Culverts, Causeway
and Bridges
Clearance is provided above the high flood level upto the levels where bearings are fixed
for accommodating any trees floating along the river. The clearance depends upon the
discharge, and varies from 0.15 m for small discharge (upto 0.3 cu m per sec) to 1.5 m
for discharge over 3000 cu m per sec.
SAQ 1
(a) What are culverts, minor bridges, medium size bridges, major bridges,
paved dips and causeways?
(b) What are the guidelines for selecting the site of a bridge?
(c) What are the main components of a bridge and their function?
(d) Give the Dicken’s formula for estimating discharge.
(e) If the catchment area is 1000 sq km and the stream is located in Madhya
Pradesh, what is the maximum estimated discharge?
(f) Give the Lacey’s formula for fixing the waterway of a bridge across a river
with alluvial bed.

7.6 FOUNDATION DEPTH AND ARRANGEMENT

There are two types of foundations, viz,
(a) Shallow foundations, also known as open foundations, and
(b) Deep foundations.
Slab culverts and small bridges are generally provided with shallow foundations. Even
for large bridges, if good rocky strata is met with at shallow depths, open foundations are
adequate. If the strata is erodible, open foundations can be protected by providing
impermeable flooring protected by cut-off walls (Figure 7.3).
FLOOR DEPRESSED BY 0.5m BELOW DEEPEST BED LEVEL

6m 3m LENGTH OF PIER 1.5m 3m

0.8m 0.8m
1.2m 1m
DRY RUBBLE 2.75m IMPERVIOUS APRON
TALUS 0.5m THICK
C.C. (M-15) BED DRY RUBBLE
D/S CURTAIN TALUS
WALL 0.15m THICK
U/S CURTAIN
WALL

Figure 7.3 : General Arrangement of Floor Protection Works

Deep foundations are generally made of wells for rivers. For land structures, pile
foundations are adopted. For erodible beds (such as alluvial streams), the foundations
should be taken to a depth below the maximum high flood level equal to 1.33 times the
maximum scour depth. The scour depth is calculated from the Lacey’s formula :
1
0.473 Q 3
D= 1
f 3

where D = Scour depth in m,

Q = Discharge in cu m per sec, and
f = silt factor, equal to 1.76 m , where m is the mean diameter of the
particles in mm. 95
Transportation For example, if the maximum discharge of a river is 1000 cu m per sec, and the silt factor
Engineering is 0.60, the maximum scour depth is :
1
0.473 (1000) 3
D= 1
f3
1
0.473 × 9.98 3
=
0.84
= 5.62 m
The depth of the foundation below the high flood level is then 1.33 × 5.62 = 7.47
or 7.5 m.
The well foundation consists of :
(a) well curb with cutting edge
(b) well steining
(c) bottom plug
(d) sand filling
(e) top plug
(f) well cap
A typical arrangement of a well foundation is given in Figure 7.4.

1.5m

2.5m
R.C.C WELL CAP
0.3m TH. C.C TOP
PLUG IN CONCRETE
2.5m DIA.
WELL STEINING IN
CONCRETE
4.0m DIA.
SAND
FILLING BOTTOM PLUG IN
CONCRETE

1.5m 1.2m R.C.C WELL CURB

0.75m

2.5m

100mm x 100mm x 10mm ANGLE

200mm x 12.5mm M.S PLATE

DETAILS OF WELL CURB

1.5m AND CUTTING EDGE

4.0m

PLAN TWIN
PLAN OF WHEELS
TWIN WELLS

Figure 7.4 : Details of Well Foundation

96
 Culverts, Causeway
7.7 BRIDGE LOADINGS and Bridges

Loadings of bridges in India have been standardized by the Indian Roads Congress. The
major features of the various load classes are given below :

Class Features

IRC Class 70 R A tracked vehicle of 70 Tonnes load or a wheel load of

100 Tonnes. Individual axle load of 20 Tonnes and bogie
axle load of 40 Tonnes.

IRC Class 70 R A tracked vehicle of 70 Tonnes or a wheeled vehicle of

40 Tonnes. The maximum individual axle load of
20 Tonnes and bogie axle load of 40 Tonnes.

IRC Class 70 R A train of vehicles consisting of a main vehicle of

28.2 Tonnes load, followed by two trailers of 13.6 Tonnes
load each. The maximum axle load is 11.4 Tonnes. The
minimum nose-to-tail distance between two trains
is 18.4 m.

IRC Class 70 R A train of vehicles consisting of a main vehicle of

16.8 Tonnes load, followed by two trailers of 8.2 Tonnes
load each. The maximum axle load is 6.8 Tonnes. The
minimum nose-to-tail distance between two trains
is 18.4 m.

Bridges and culverts on National Highways are designed for one lane of
Class 70 R or two lanes of Class A loading, whichever produces more severe stresses.
IRC Class AA loading is to be adopted within certain municipal limits, in certain
contemplated or existing industrial areas, in other specified areas, or a long specified
highways.
IRC Class A load is to be normally adopted on all roads on which permanent bridges and
culverts are constructed.
IRC Class B loading is to be normally adopted for temporary structures (for example
timber structures) and for bridges in specified areas.

7.8 TYPES OF CULVERTS

Culverts are constructed with various materials and to different designs. The popular
forms are :
(a) Temporary stone scuppers
(b) Stone slab culverts with abutments and piers
(c) RCC slab culverts with abutments and piers
(d) RCC Box culverts
(e) RCC Pipe culverts
(f) Armco Pipe (metal pipe) culverts
(g) Masonry arch culverts
7.8.1 Temporary Stone Scuppers
In hill roads, it is customary to cut the roads from the hill-face and to open up the road
immediately thereafter to traffic. Further improvements such as construction of the
pavement are taken up gradually. In such cases, it is the practice to construct temporary
stone corbelled scuppers immediately after the road is cut (Figure 7.5). These are
eventually replaced by permanent structures.
97
Transportation
Engineering

Figure 7.5 : Dry Stone Masonry Scupper

7.8.3 Stone Slab Culverts with Abutments and Piers

Where good quality stone slabs are available like granite slabs, they can be used for
superstructure of culverts, with suitable masonry abutments. Spans of such slabs are
necessarily small, say upto one metre. Such culverts can be constructed for rural roads
(Other District Roads and Village Roads).
7.8.4 RCC Slab Culverts
RCC slab culverts with masonry abutments and piers can be constructed for individual
spans upto 6 m.
7.8.5 RCC Box Culverts
RCC Box culverts are ideal for in-situ constructions for opening of size upto 5 m. They
can be constructed in square boxes or rectangular boxes, depending upon site conditions.
Single or multiple boxes can be constructed. The advantage lies in the elimination of the
stout abutment sections which are unavoidable in slab construction.
7.8.6 RCC Pipe Culverts
Reinforced cement concrete pipe culverts are ideal for dealing with small discharges. The
advantages are :
(a) They are very economical, since a circular section is the most ideal for
withstanding forces from all around.
(b) Since the pipes do not need very elaborate bedding, the cost further comes
down.
(c) Pipe culverts do not demand structural design for individual cases. Pipes are
standardised, in terms of mix, thickness and reinforcement.
(d) Pipes can be cast under strictly controlled conditions at a Central plant and
thus their quality is assured.
The disadvantages with pipes are that they cannot be used for large openings. A
minimum cover of at least half the diameter of the pipe is to be ensured over the pipes.
In India, RCC pipes of the NP 3 class are suitable for highway loadings. For rural roads
(Village Roads and Other District Roads), NP 2 pipes are suitable. Two conditions of
bedding are followed :
98
 (a) Granular bedding (Figure 7.6), which consists of forming and grading the Culverts, Causeway
bed with sand or any granular material passing 4.75 mm sieve. The and Bridges
thickness of the bedding layer should be minimum 75 mm. Such a bedding
is suitable for fills upto 4 m height.

1000

300

100
1500

Figure 7.6 : Granular Bedding for Pipe Culverts

(b) Concrete cradle bedding (Figure 7.7), which consists of a concrete bed of
M-15 grade concrete. The thickness of the bedding layer should be
minimum 250 mm. Such a bedding is used for height of fills above 4 m.

1000

300
M 15 CONCRETE 250

1600

Figure 7.7 : Concrete Cradle Bedding for Pipe Culverts

Single pipe or a row of pipes can be used. The distance between pipes
should be at least half the diameter of the pipe subject to a minimum of 450
mm. the pipes are kept sufficiently below the floor of the deepest bed. Pipe
culverts are generally designed to flow full. Suitable head-walls are needed
to protect the embankment fills. The slope of the floor is kept to a minimum
of 1 : 1000.

7.8.7 Masonry Arch Culverts

Brick or stone masonry arches were very popular forms for culverts till recently. The
disadvantage with this form is the unavoidable humps in the longitudinal profile that
result. It can also give employment to skilled masons. It is a labour intensive form of
construction.
SAQ 2
(a) If the maximum discharge of a river with alluvial bed is 1000 cu m per sec,
what is the waterway required?
(b) What is the thumb rule for fixing the span length of a bridge?
(c) Why is clearance provided in bridges across streams?
(d) Give a sketch of floor protection for open foundations.
(e) What is the formula for determining the maximum scour depth?
(f) For a river is alluvial bed with a silt factor of f = 0.60, and having a
discharge of 1500 cu m per sec, what is the depth of foundation? 99
Transportation
Engineering
7.9 TYPES OF BRIDGES AND THEIR SUITABILITY
Bridging is a specialized filed of engineering science. India has very high degree of sill
and expertise in this field, gathered from bridging its mighty rivers. The types of
superstructure commonly adopted and the site conditions for which they are suitable are
indicated in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 : Types of Bridges and their Suitability
Sl. No. Type Suitability
1. Masonry arch Good foundations
Spans upto 15 m
2. RCC slab, simply supported Any type of foundations
Spans upto 10 m
1. RCC T-beam and slab, simply Any type of foundations
supported Spans in the range 10-25 m
4. Continuous T-beam and slab, RCC Rocky unyielding foundations
Spans in the range 10-20 m
5. RCC Balanced Cantilever Deep foundations
Spans in the range of 25-60 m
6. Prestressed T-beam and slab, simply Any type of foundations, generally deep
supported Spans in the range 20-60 m
7. Prestressed segmental balanced Deep foundations
cantilever Spans in the range 60-100 m
8. Cable-stayed girders Deep foundations
Spans in the range 80-500 m

A simple rule in determining the length of span of the super-structure of bridges is that
the cost of the foundations and sub-structure should equal the cost of the superstructure.
This is generally achieved by making the span length 1½ to 2 times the height of
foundations plus the sub-structure.
SAQ 3
(a) Give a sketch of a well foundation showing all the components.
(b) What are the various IRC bridge loadings?
(c) A National Highway bridge is to be designed. What IRC bridge loading
shall be considered?
(d) What are the various types of culverts?
(e) What are the advantages and disadvantages of pipe culverts?
(f) What are the various types of bridges and what is the suitability of each?

7.10 CAUSEWAYS
7.10.1 Paved Dips
Paved dips, also known as bed level causeways, are structures consisting of gentle and
shallow depressions in the road where the water is allowed to flow over the road. The full
road width is paved with a cement concrete bed, and curtain walls are provided on the
100 upstream and downstream sides to prevent scour (Figure 7.8).
 0.5m HIGH STREAMLINED Culverts, Causeway
GUIDE POST @ 2m C/C and Bridges
U/S ROADWAY D/S
UNIDIRECTIONAL CAMBER 1 IN 60

0.6-1.0m 0.45m
0.45m
2.0m
0.15-0.22m THICK RUBBLE
SOLING OR OVERSIZE
0.6m
METAL BASE IN 2 LAYERS 0.55m
0.15m THICK CC PAVEMENT
OR HAMMER DRESSED 0.75m
STONE FLOORING

(a) Cross-section
ROAD TOP PROFILE TO BE IN
SMOOTH CURVE

NORMAL ANNUAL FLOOD LEVEL

FOUNDATION LINE OF FOUNDATION LINE OF

U/S CURTAIN WALL D/S CURTAIN WALL

(b) Longitudinal Profile

Figure 7.8 : Typical Paved Dip
7.10.2 Vented Causeway
Vented causeways are structures provided with vents (usually pipes) to take care of dry
weather perennial flows and which allow water to overflow the paved bed on occasions
of high rainfall (Figure 7.9).
0.15m THICK CC OR HAMMER DRESSED
STONE FLOORING OVER RUBBLE SOLING
FLOW 0.5m HIGH STREAMLINED
GUIDE POST @ 2m C/C
CROSSFALL
BELL MOUTHED
ENTRY
0.6m
6.0m
BED LEVEL RCC PIPE MIN. 0.75 DIA.
0.3m
1.0m
2.0m 2.0m
0.3m THICK RUBBLE APRON ON
0.75m 0.15m THICK FILTER BACKING
1.0m

1.0m

(a) Alternative 1 : With Masonry Head/Cut-off Wall

0.5m HIGH STREAMLINED
GUIDE POST @ 2m C/C

0.3m THICK RUBBLE PITCHING PAVEMENT AS IN ALT. I

OVER 0.15m THICK FILTER
POINTED IN cm 1:3

2.0m 5.0m
R C C PIPE

0.5m 0.75m
0.5m
0.75m 0.3m THICK RUBBLE APRON ON
0.15m THICK FILTER BACKING

(b) Alternative 2 : With Stone Pitched Bank

PROFILE TO BE IN SMOOTH CURVES

ROAD LEVEL VENTS TO BE DISTRIBUTED

ALL ALONG CAUSEWAY

NORMAL FLOOD LEVEL

STREAM BED LEVEL

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

Figure 7.9 : Vented Causeway with RCC Pipes for Vents 101
Transportation
Engineering
7.11 OVERBRIDGES, FLY-OVERS AND
UNDERPASSES
7.11.1 Railway Over-bridges
Railway Over-bridges (ROB) are structures constructed to enable the road traffic to go
over the railway tracks.
7.11.2 Fly-overs
Where one road crosses another road, and it is desired that they should not cross at the
same level on the ground, a fly-over is constructed. One of the roads goes above the road
it crosses, with sufficient clearance (about 5.0-5.5 m).
7.11.3 Underpasses
Underpasses are structures constructed to enable light vehicles, animals and pedestrians
cross underneath a high speed facility. A clearance of 2.5-3.5 m is provided.
7.11.4 Reinforced Earth Walls
When constructing ROBs, fly-overs and underpasses, it is often not possible to provide
sloped earthen embankments for the approaches, which are as high as
8-12 m at places. It is cheaper to construct reinforced earth (RE) walls than reinforced
concrete retaining walls. The RE walls consist of :
(a) a facia wall in panels of suitable size,
(c) a reinforcing element of metal strips or geogrids or geofabric, and
(d) granular fill to provide friction between the reinforcing element and the soil.
Figure 7.10 gives a view of the arrangement.

Figure 7.10 : General Arrangement of a Reinforced Earth Wall

SAQ 4
(a) What are paved dips? Give a sketch.
(b) What are vented causeways? Give a sketch.
(c) What is a railway Overbridge?
(d) What is a fly-over?
(e) What is an underpass?
(f) What is a Reinforced Earth Wall? Give a sketch.
102
 Culverts, Causeway
7.12 SUMMARY and Bridges

In this unit you have understood the various types of culverts, causeways and bridges
encountered in a road. You have been told how the waterway, span and foundations of
the bridges are determined.

7.13 KEY WORDS

Culverts : A structure having a waterway upto 5 m.
Minor Bridge : A structure having a waterway of 6-30 m.
Medium Size Bridge : A structure having a waterway of 30-100 m.
Major Bridge : A structure having a waterway above 100 m.

7.14 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) Refer to Sections 7.2.1 and 7.10
(b) Refer to Section 7.3
(c) Refer to Section 7.4
(d) Refer to Section 7.5.1
(e) Using Dicken’s formula,
3
Q = CM 4

where, C = 19 for Madhya Pradesh

M = 1000 sq Km
3
Q = 19 × 1000 4

= 19 × 178
= 3382 cu m per sec
(f) Refer to Section 7.5.2
SAQ 2
(a) Using Lacey’s formula,
1
W = 4.8 Q2
1
= 4.8 × (1000) 2

= 4.8 × 31.6
= 151.68 m
(b) Refer to Section 7.5.6
(c) Refer to Section 7.5.7
(d) Figure 7.3
(e) Refer to Section 7.6 103
Transportation (f) Using formula :
Engineering
1
0.473 Q3
D= 1
f3
1
0.473 × (1500) 3
= 1
(0.6) 3

0.473 × 11.42
=
0.84
= 6.43 m
Dept of foundation below HFL
= 1.33 × 6.43
= 8.55 m
SAQ 3
(a) Figure 7.4
(b) Refer to Section 7.7
(c) Refer to Section 7.7
(d) Refer to Section 7.8.1
(e) Refer to Section 7.8.6
(f) Refer to Section 7.9.1.
SAQ 4
(a) Refer to Section 7.10.1 and Figure 7.8
(b) Refer to Section 7.10.2 and Figure 7.9
(c) Refer to Section 7.11.1
(d) Refer to Section 7.11.2
(e) Refer to Section 7.11.3
(f) Refer to Section 7.11.4 and Figure 7.10.

104