Engineering Drawing 1st Sem Final

ENGINEERING DRAWING
NSQF
1st Year (Volume I of II)
COMMON FOR ALL ENGINEERING TRADES
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence

Engineering Drawing (NSQF) - 1st Year (Volume I of II)
Common for All Engineering Trades
First Edition : December 2018 Copies : 10,000

First Reprint : January 2019 Copies : 10,000
Rs. 135/-
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.
Published by:
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE
P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
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email : [email protected]
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Website: www.nimi.gov.in
(ii)

FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, has now come up with instructional material to
suit the revised curriculum for Engineering Drawing 1st Year (Volume I of II) NSQF Common for all
engineering trades will help the trainees to get an international equivalency standard where their skill
proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the globe and this will also increase the
scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF trainees will also get the opportunities to promote life
long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF the trainers and trainees of ITIs,
and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long
way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General/ Addl. Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)

PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute(NIMI) was set up at Chennai, by the Directorate General of Training,
Ministry of skill Development and Entrepreneurship, Government of India, with the technical assistance
from the Govt of the Federal Republic of Germany with the prime objective of developing and disseminating
instructional Material for various trades as per prescribed syllabus and Craftsman Training Programme(CTS)
under NSQF levels.
The Instructional materials are developed and produced in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs),
consisting of Trade Theory, Trade Practical, Test and Assignment Book, Instructor Guide, Wall charts,
Transparencies and other supportive materials. The above material will enable to achieve overall improvement
in the standard of training in ITIs.
A national multi-skill programme called SKILL INDIA, was launched by the Government of India, through a
Gazette Notification from the Ministry of Finance (Dept of Economic Affairs), Govt of India, dated 27th
December 2013, with a view to create opportunities, space and scope for the development of talents of
Indian Youth, and to develop those sectors under Skill Development.
The emphasis is to skill the Youth in such a manner to enable them to get employment and also improve
Entreprenurship by providing training, support and guidance for all occupation that were of traditional types.
The training programme would be in the lines of International level, so that youths of our Country can get
employed within the Country or Overseas employment. The National Skill Qualification Framework
(NSQF), anchored at the National Skill Development Agency(NSDA), is a Nationally Integrated Education
and competency-based framework, to organize all qualifications according to a series of levels of Knowledge,
Skill and Aptitude. Under NSQF the learner can acquire the Certification for Competency needed at any
level through formal, non-formal or informal learning.
The Engineering Drawing (common to all Engineering Trades) is one of the book developed by the Core
group members as per the NSQF syllabus.
The Engineering Drawing (common to all Engineering Trades as per NSQF) 1st Semester is the outcome
of the collective efforts of experts from Field Institutes of DGT champion ITI’s for each of the Sectors, and
also Media Development Committee (MDC) members and Staff of NIMI. NIMI wishes that the above material
will fulfill to satisfy the long needs of the trainees and instructors and shall help the trainees for their
Employability in Vocational Training.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to all the Mentor Council Members and
Media Development Committee (MDC) members.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledge with thanks the co-operation and
contribution of the following Media Developers to bring this IMP for the course Engineering Drawing
1st Year (Volume I of II) as per NSQF.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. M. Sangara pandian - Training Officer (Retd.)

CTI, Guindy, Chennai.
Shri. G. Sathiamoorthy - Jr.Training Officer (Retd.)

Govt I.T.I, DET - Tamilnadu.
NIMI CO-ORDINATORS
Shri. K. Srinivas Rao - Joint Director,

Co - ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32.
Shri. G. Michael Johny - Assistant Manager,

Co - ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32.
NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this IMP.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the develop-
ment of this book.
(v)

INTRODUCTION
Theory and procedure along with the related exercises for further practice
This book on theory and procedure along with related exercises contains theoretical information on 1st semestser
Engineering drawing (for engineering trades of 1 year and 2 year) and procedure of drawing/ sketching different
exercise for further practice are also avaliable. BIS specification are whenever required.
Exercise for further practice
The practice exercise is given with Theory and procedure for Semester - 1 book made obsolete as it was felt that,
it is very difficult to work in workbook using drawing instruments. It is well known fact that, any drawing is prepeared
on suitable standard size of drawing.
The instructor is herewith advised to go through the instructions given below and to follow them in view of imparting
much drawing skill in the trainees.
Acquiring the above said ability and doing small drawings is not a simple task. These books will provide a good
platform for achieving the said skills.
Time allotment:
Duration of 1st Semester (26 weeks) : 78 Hrs
Effective weeks avaliable (24 weeks) : 72 Hrs
Revision and Examination (2 weeks) : 6 Hrs
Total time allotment : 78 Hs
Time allotment for each module has given below. Instructors are herewith informed to make use of the same.
S.No Module Exercise No. Time allotment (Hrs)
1 Fundamental of Engineering, Instruments

and practice of drawing lines 1.1.01 - 1.3.09 18 Hrs
2 Geometrical figures, lettering, numbering
and method of dimensioning 1.4.10 - 1.6.18 18 Hrs
3 Free hand drawing 1.7.19 - 1.7.23 6 Hrs
4 Drawing sheet sizes, title block and item list 1.8.24 6 Hrs
5 Method of presentation of engineering drawing 1.9.25 - 1.9.30 12 Hrs
6 Symbolic representation as per BIS SP: 46-2003 1.10.31 - 1.10.35 6 Hrs
7 Construction of scales and diagonal scale 1.11.36 6 Hrs
Total 72 Hrs
Instructions to the Instructors

It is suggested to get the drawing prepare on A4/A3 sheets preferably on only one side. If separate table and chair
facility is avaliable for every trainee then it is preferred to use A3 sheets and if the drawing hall is provided with
desks then A4 sheets may be used. However while preparing bigger drawings on A4 sheets suitable reduction
scale to be used or muiltiple sheets may be used for detailed and assembly drawings.
First the border and the title block to be drawn only for the first sheet of the chapter. Eg. for conical sections only
first sheet will have the title block where as the rest of the sheets of that chapter will have only borders.
Serial number of sheet and total no. of the sheets to be mentioned on each sheet.
The completed sheet to be punched and filled in a box file/ siutable files and preserved by the trainees carefully
after the approval of instructors, VPS and Principals of the Institute.
The file may be reffered by the authority before granting the internal marks at the end of each semester.
(vi)

CONTENTS
Exercise No. Title of the Exercise Page No.
Module 1
1.1.01 Introduction and its importance 1

1.1.02 Conventions 4
1.1.03 Engineering drawing sheets 5
1.1.04 Method of folding of printed drawing sheets as per BIS SP: 46-2003 7
1.2.05 Drawing instruments - their standard and uses 9

1.2.06 Setsqaures, scale, french curves 11
1.2.07 Drawing Instruments - box and pencils 14
1.3.08 Lines - definition and applications 16

1.3.09 Lines - practice of parallel lines and perpendicular lines 20
Module 2
1.4.10 Geometrical figures - types of angle and triangle 22

1.4.11 Geometrical figures - square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram and circle 24
1.4.12 Method of bisecting practice of angles and triangles 26
1.4.13 Method of bisecting practice of square - rectangle - parallelogram - rhombus
& circle 31
1.5.14 Lettering and numbering as per BIS SP: 46-2003 - uppercase and lowercase
of single stroke and double stroke 37
1.5.15 Practice of single stroke, double stroke, lettering and numbering 41
1.6.16 Dimensioning - definition, types of dimensioning, arrow heads and leaderline 45

1.6.17 Dimensioning - methods of dimensions 48
1.6.18 Practice of dimensioning 56
Module 3
1.7.19 Free hand drawing - practice of lines 59

1.7.20 Plane figures - polygon 64
1.7.21 Practice of ellipse 67
1.7.22 Geometric figures and block with dimension 69
1.7.23 Draw the isometric views of grids, transferring measurement from
exercise 1.7.22 71
Module 4
1.8.24 Title block, borders and frames, grid reference and item reference of
drawingsheet 72
Module 5
1.9.25 Reading of simple engineering drawing 74

1.9.26 Methods of orthographic projection 77
(ix)

Exercise No. Title of the Exercise Page No.
1.9.27 Methods of pictorial drawing 82

1.9.28 Practice of isometric views (Isometric to Isometric) 86
1.9.29 Method of orthographic views 89
1.9.30 Method of prespective views 90
Module 6
1.10.31 Symbolic representation as per BIS SP: 46-2003 92

1.10.32 Symbolic representation of bars and profile sections 95
1.10.33 Symbolic representation of weld, brazed and soldered joints 96
1.10.34 Symbolic representation of electrical and electronic elements 98
1.10.35 Symbolic representation of piping joints and fittings 102
Module 7
1.11.36 Construction of scales and diagonal scale 104
LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to
• Interpret specifications,different engineering drawing and apply

for different application in the field of work. [Different engineering
drawing:- Geometrical construction, Dimensioning, Layout,
Method of representation, Symbol, Scales, Different Projections,
Machined components & different thread forms, Assembly
drawing, Sectional views, Estimation of material, Electrical &
electronic symbol]
• Select and ascertain measuring instrument and measure dimension

of components and record data.
(x)

SYLLABUS
1st Year (Volume I of II) Duration: Six Months
S.no. Title
1 Engineering Drawing: Introduction and its importance
• Relationship to other technical drawing types.

• Conventions.
• Viewing of engineering drawing sheets.
• Method of Folding of printed Drawing Sheet as per BIS SP:46-2003
2 Drawing Instruments: Their Standard and uses
• Drawing board, T-Square, Drafter (Drafting M/c), Set Squares, Protractor, Drawing Instrument Box
(Compass, Dividers, Scale, Diagonal Scales etc.), Pencils of different Grades, Drawing pins /
Clips.
3 Lines
• Definition, types and applications in Drawing as per BIS SP:46-2003.

• Classification of lines (Hidden, centre, construction, Extension, Dimension, Section).
• Drawing lines of given length (Straight, curved).
• Drawing of parallel lines, perpendicular line.
• Methods of Division of line segment.
4 Drawing of Gemetrical Figures: Definition, nomenclature and practice

• Angle - measurement and its types, method of bisecting.
• Triangle - different types.
• Rectangle, Square, Rhombus, Parallelogram.
• Circle and its elements.
5 Lettering and Numbering as per BIS SP: 46-2003

• Single Stroke, Double Stroke, inclined, Upper case and Lower case.
6 Dimensioning
• Definition, types and methods of dimensioning (functional, nonfunctional and auxiliary).

• Types of arrowhead.
• Leader Line with text.
7 Free hand drawing

• Lines, polygons, ellipse, etc.
• Geometrical figures and blocks with dimension.
• Transferring measurement from the given object to the free hand sketches.

S.no. Title
8 Sizes and Layout of Drawing Sheets
• Basic principle of Sheet Size.

• Designation of sizes.
• Selection of sizes.
• Title Block, its position and content.
• Borders and Frames (Orientation marks and graduations).
• Grid Reference.
• Item Reference on Drawing Sheet (Item List).
9 Method of presentation of Engineering Drawing
• Pictorial View
• Orthogonal View
• Isometric view
10 Symbolic Representation (as per BIS SP: 46-2003)
• Fastener (Rivets, Bolts and Nuts).

• Bars and profile sections.
• Weld, brazed and soldered joints.
• Electrical and electronics element.
• Piping joints and fittings.
11 Sheet Metal Worker

• Reading of simple engineering drawing.

Common for all Engineering Trades Exercise 1.1.01
Engineering Drawing
Introduction and its importance
Communication: It is the process of conveying feelings/

information from: (Fig 1)
1 One place to the other place or
2 One person to the other person
3 Communication is the main thing which separates the
human beings from other living beings
Language
1 It is the media of communication (Fig 2)
Limitations of sign language Limitations of vocal language

1 Information/feelings cannot be conveyed effectively 1 Speaker and the listener should be aware of same
2 Chances of misunderstanding the information / feel- language
ings 2 Still there are chances of misunderstanding due to
3 Both the communicator and the receiver to be present communication gap
at the same place 3 Some languages (without alphabets) are existing on
Limitations of graphical language tongues only
1 Information /feelings can be conveyed effectively but 4 Written language can also be misunderstood as each
still there are chances for imagination (communica- and every word gives more than one meaning
tion gap) Limitations of computer language
2 Viewer may image anything in his mind due to the 1 Used only by computer programmers
absence of written language
2 Cannot be used for general communication

Conclusion One of the most widely used forms of graphic communi-
cation is the drawing. Technically, it can be defined as "a
Effective communication is possible when graphical lan-
graphic representation of an idea, a concept or an
guage is supported by written language/vocal language
entity which actually or potentially exists in life"
and vice versa.
Drawing is one of the oldest forms of communicating,
Engineering drawing is a language which uses both
dating back even farther than verbal communication. The
graphical language and written language for effective
drawing itself is a way communicating necessary infor-
communication
mation about an abstract, such as an idea or concept or
Eg. In FM radios jockeys use vocal language a graphic representation of some real entity, such as a
Eg. News papers use graphical language + Written lan- machine part, house or tools. There are two basic types
guage of drawings: Artistic and Technical drawings.
Eg. In television they use Graphical language (motion/ Technical drawings

still pictures) + written language + vocal language Technical drawings allows efficient communication among
For Effective communication engineers and can be kept as a record of the planning
process. Since a picture is worth a thousand words, a
Engineering drawing is a graphical language technical drawing is a much more effective tool for engi-
which also uses written language for effective neers than a written plan.
communication The technical drawing, on the other hand is not subtle, or
abstract. It does not require an understanding of its cre-
Engineering drawing - Its Importance and Types ator, only on understanding of technical drawings. A tech-
Importance of Engineering Drawing nical drawing is a means of clearly and concisely com-
municating all of the information necessary to transform
The economical success of any country is mainly de- an idea or a concept in to reality. Therefore, a technical
pended on its industrial development. Due to the global- drawing often contains more than just a graphic repre-
ization any industry of our country expected to be of glo- sentation of its subject. It also contains dimensions, notes
bal market standard. Due to the above said reason our and specifications.
Indian product required to be of very high quality with
respect to size of dimension, fit, tolerance and finish etc. Fields of use:
To produce a best standard product all the technical per- Technical drawing is the preferred method of drafting in
sonnel (Engineers to Craftsman) in an industry must have all engineering fields, including, but not limited to, civil
a sound knowledge in engineering drawing because en- engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineer-
gineering drawing is the language of engineers. Engineer- ing and architecture.
ing drawing is a universal language. Different types of Purpose of studying engineering drawing:
lines are its alphabets. Technical personnel in any indus-
try including craftsmen are expected to communicate any- 1 To develop the ability to produce simple engineering
thing concerning a part or a component by drawings in- drawing and sketches based on current practice
volving lines, symbols, convention and abbreviations etc. 2 To develop the skills to read manufacturing and con-
With our spoken languages it is impossible to express struction drawings used in industry.
the details of a job or a product. Engineering drawing 3 To develop a working knowledge of the layout of plant
knowledge and practice are must for designing or pro- and equipment.
ducing a component or part. Even a small mistake in the
4 To develop skills in abstracting information from cal-
drawing may reflect very badly in the product. Therefore
culation sheets and schematic diagrams to produce
reading and doing engineering drawing are very much
working drawings for manufacturers, installers and
essential for craftsmen and engineers
fabricators.
One picture worth one thousand words
Main types of Engineering drawing:
A drawing is a graphical representation of an object, or
Regardless of branch of engineering the engineering
part of it, and is the result of creative thought by an engi-
drawing is used. However based on the major engineering
neer or technician. When one person sketches a rough
branches, engineering drawing can be classified as fol-
map in giving direction to another, this is graphic com-
lows:
munication. Graphic communication involves using visual
materials to relate ideas. Drawings, photographs, slides,
transparencies, and sketches are all forms of graphic
communication. Any medium that uses a graphic image
to aid in conveying a message, instructions, or an idea is
involved in graphic communication.
2 Engineering Drawing : (NSQF) Exercise 1.1.01

Mechanical engineering drawings:
Some examples of mechanical engineering drawings are
part and assembly drawings, riveted joints, welded joints,
fabrication drawings, pneumatics and hydraulics drawings,
pipeline diagrams, keys coupling drawings etc.
Electrical Engineering drawings

Wiring diagrams of home and industries, circuit diagrams,
electrical installation drawings etc.
Electronics Engineering drawings:
Circuit drawings, PCB tracks drawings etc.
Civil Engineering drawings
Plan, front elevation of homes to be built, foundation draw-
ings, etc.,
Answer the following questions.

1 Discuss the different types of drawings?
2 Explain the different applications of technical drawing?
3 What is graphical communications?
Engineering Drawing : (NSQF) Exercise 1.1.01 3

Engineering Drawing
Conventions
TYPE CONVENTION MATERIALS
Steel, Cast Iron, Copper and its Alloys,
Aluminium and its alloy,etc
Metals
Lead,Zinc Tin White-metal,etc.
Glass Glass
Porcelain, Stoneware, Marble,Slate etc
Packing and Insulating Asbestos, Fibre, Felt, Syntehtic resin,

materials Products, Paper, Cork, Linoleum,
Rubber, Leather, Wax, insulating &
Filling Materials etc
Liquid Water, Oil, Petrol, Kerosen etc
Wood Wood, Plywood etc
Concrete Concrete

Engineering Drawing
Engineering drawing sheets

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• identify man-made and machine-made papers
• state the relationship between the sides of standard size sheets
• designate and state the length and breadth of standard drawing sheet sizes
• interpret the sizes of elongated series in the table
• state the method used in arriving at the standard sizes
• state the sizes elongated series of sheet sizes.
Drawingpaper: These are of two types: TABLE 1

• Hand-made paper Designation Trimmed size Untrimmed size
• Mill-made paper A0 841 x 1189 880 x 1230
A1 594 x 841 625 x 880
Hand-made papers have rough surfaces, pale in colour and
not used for regular work, but meant for charts. A2 420 x 594 450 x 625
A3 297 x 420 330 x 450
Mill-made papers are most commonly used for regular
work, and are available in different sizes and rolls. They are A4 210 x 297 240 x 330
specified by their weight in kg per ream or density in grams A5 148 x 210 165 x 240
per square meter. For drawings which cannot be accommodated in above
Size of drawing sheets (in mm): While working or sheets, elongated series are used. Elangated series are
handling, the papers are liable to tear on the edges. So designated by symbols A1 x 3; A2 x 4 etc.
slightly large size (untrimmed) sheets are preferred. They Special elongated series increasing its widths, double,
are trimmed afterwards. IS:10811:1983 lays down such as treble etc. are designated as follows A3 x 3, A3 x 4, A4 x
designation of preferred trimmed and untrimmed sizes. 3, A4 x 4, A4 x 5. Please refer Table 2
The basic principle involved in arriving at the sizes of the TABLE 2
drawing paper is as under. The area of the biggest size (A0)
Special elongated series
is 1m2 and its length and breadth are in the ratio 1 : 2 . Let
x and y are the sides of the paper. The surface area of A0 Designation Size
is 1m2, then the sides are x = 0.841 m and y = 1.189 m. A3 x 3 420 x 891
(Fig1) A3 x 4 420 x 1189
A4 x 3 297 x 630
A4 x 4 297 x 841
A4 x 5 297 x 1051
Exceptional elongated series
Designation Size
A0 x 2 1189 x 1682
A0 x 3 1189 x 2523
A1 x 3 841 x 1783
A1 x 4 841 x 2378
A2 x 3 594 x 1261
Two series of successive sizes are obtained by either A2 x 4 594 x 1682
halving or doubling along the length. The area of the
A2 x 5 594 x 2102
successive sizes are in the ratio of 1:2.
A3 x 5 420 x 1486
Designation of sheets: The drawing sheets are desig-
nated by symbols such as A0,A1,A2,,A3,A4 and A5. A0 A3 x 6 420 x 1783
being the largest. Table 1 below gives the length and A3 x 7 420 x 2080
breadth of the above sizes of sheets. (Trimmed and A4 x 6 297 x 1261
untrimmed) A4 x 7 297 x 1471
The relationship between two sides is same as that of a A4 x 8 297 x 1682
side of a square and its diagonal. A4 x 9 297 x 1892
5

A4 x 3 means the length of A4 size is retained and the other
side is 3 times the width of A4.
A4 x 3 = 297 x 630 (210 x 3)
Fig 2 & 3 shows how the sheet sizes are formed by halving/
doubling and similarity of format.
Quality drawing paper: The drawing papers should have

sufficient teeth or grain to take the pencil lines and
withstand repeated erasings.
A backing paper is to be placed on the drawing board before
White drawing papers which do not become yellow on fixing drawing/tracing paper, to get uniform lines. Before
exposure to atmosphere are used for finished drawings, starting the drawing, the layout should be drawn. (Ref:
maps, charts and drawings for photographic reproductions. IS:10711)
For pencil layouts and working drawings, cream colour
papers are best suited.

Engineering Drawing
Method of folding of printed drawing sheets as per BIS SP: 46-2003

• understand to fold the A1, A2 and A3 size drawing sheets
• keep the drawing sheet filing cabinet
• filing cabinet to handle according to IS procedure.
Method of folding of printed drawing sheets as per When the drawings are to be released to shop floor for
BIS SP: 46-2003 reference during manufacturing of a component
When drawings sheets are in more numbers, they have to Applicability
be folded and kept in order to save the trace required for
preserving them (Fig 1). Folding of drawings applies to only the drawings which
are released for shop floor for manufacturing of compo-
nents / reference. Original drawings will never be taken
out of drawing office and they should be kept under safe
custody. Drawings which are prepared on tracing sheets/
transparencies like cloth, polymer, acrylic polymer trans-
parencies should never be folded. They should be kept in
polythene folders and kept in filing cabinets. Sometimes
the blue prints/photo copies of drawings which are released
to shop floor are also laminated for extending their life.
Requirement
While folding the drawings following care to be taken.
It is required to the fold the drawings such that, they should
not get defaced damaged.
Drawing sheet to be folded such that the title block is
easily visible to retrieve it and keeping it back.
The following is the method of folding printed drawing sheets
as recommended by BIS (Fig 2)


Engineering Drawing
Drawing instruments - their standard and uses

• state the construction and use of drawing boards ‘T’ square
• state the standard sizes of drawing board as per IS:1444-1989
• state the purpose of erasing shield
• state the funtion of a drafting machine
• name the parts of a drafting machine
• state the advantages of protractor head and name the types of scales used.
The following are the commonly used equipment in a The standard ‘T’ square are designated as follows with
drawing office. dimensions shown in mm; as per IS:1360-1989.
Drawing board (Fig 1): Drawing board is one of the main
Sl. No. Designation Blade length
equipment of Draughtsman. It is used for supporting the
drawing paper/tracing paper for making drawings. It is
1 T0 1500
made of well seasoned wood strips of about 25 mm thick
or masonite, free from knots and warping. It should be 2 T1 1000
softer enough to allow insertion and removal of drawing 3 T2 700
pins. Two battens are fastened to the board by screws, in
slotted joints. They prevent warping and at the same time 4 T3 500
permit expansion and contraction of the strips due to the
change of moisture in the atmosphere. The ‘T’ squares is used with its head against the ebony
adge of the drawing board to draw horizontal lines, parallel
lines and to guide/hold the setsquares, stencils etc.
Fig 2b shows how the ‘T’ square is used.
‘T’ sqaure should never be used as a hammer or as guide
for trimming papers
One of the shorter edges of the drawing board, is provided

with an “ebony edge” (hard wood) fitted perfectly straight.
Standard drawing boards are designated as follows as per
IS:1444-1989.
Sl. No. Designation Size (mm)
1 D0 1500 x 1000 x 25
2 D1 1000 x 700 x 25
3 D2 00 x 500 x 15
4 D3 500 x 350 x 15
The working edge (ebony) must be straight.

Now-a-days the drawing boards are available with lami-
nated surfaces. The flatness can be checked by placing a
straight edge on its surface. If no light passes between
them, the surface is perfectly flat.
Drafting in the machine (Fig 3): It serves the functions of
‘T’ Square: It is of ‘T’ shape, made of well seasoned wood.
a Tee square, set square, protractor and scale. They come
It has two parts., head and blade. One of thr edge of the
in different sizes and a pattern called ‘Pantagraph’ type. It
blade is the working edge. The blade is screwed to this
is fitted on the top left side, edge of the drafting board,
head such that the working edge is at right angle to head.
mounted on an adjustable frame or table. It requires large
(Fig 2a)
9

area of working place. The angle of the drafting board can
be adjusted by pedal operating system. There are two
counter weights to balance the angular position of the
board and the drafting head. It is more suitable for produc-
tion drawing office.
On the other end, a protractor head H with switvelling and

locking arrangment is fitted with two scales at right angles.
The protractor head has a spring loaded clutch relieving
handle, which rotates and locks at 150 intervals automati-
cally. For setting any angle other than multiples of 150, the
clutch spring is released and by rotating the centre knob,
the zero line is set to the required angle and the friction Erasing shield: When, on a drawing, if a part of a line or
clutch knob is tightened. It is capable of rotating 1800, some lines among many other lines need to be erased or
thereby any angle can be set. modified, in normal way of erasing will damage the other
nearby lines. In such a situation an erasing shield is
The scales are bevelled on both sides, graduates to 1:1 & effectively useful. It is a thin metallic sheet having small
1:2., They can be reversed with the help of dovetail slide openings of different sizes and shapes. A suitable opening
fitting. is aligned to the line to be erased and the line is removed
There is a fine adjusting mechanism on the drafting head by the eraser. (Fig 7)
to set the scale parallel to the edge of the board. The scales
also can be adjusted if there is any error in measuring 900
between them.
mini drafter is an important device used for making draw-
ing quickly& accurately. This instrument gives faster draw-
ing as it like the purpose of T Square, Set Square, Pro-
tractor and scales. (Fig 4,5&6)

Engineering Drawing
Setsqaures, scale, french curves

Objectives: At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• state the uses of setsquares in drawing work
• state the uses of scales in drawing work
• state the advantage of french curves
• explain the method of applications of french curves.
Set square (IS:1361-1988): Transparent celluloid /Plastic ent types of scales used are shown in Figs 1,2 & 3. They
setsquares are preferred and are commonly used rather are either flat, bevel edged or triangular cross-section.
ebonite ones. They are two in number, each having one Scales of 15 cm long, 2 cm wide or 30 cm long 3.5 cm wide
corner with 90°. The setsquare with 60°-30° of 250 mm long flat scales are in general use. Thin section or bevel edged
and 45° of 200mm long is convenient for use. Setsquares scales are preferred over thick flat scales. Parallax error
sometimes loose their accuracy due to internal strains. So will be nil or least while using thin / tapered edge scales.
they should be tested periodically. (Fig 1) (Fig 2)
Protractor: Protractor is an instrument for measuring

angles. It is semi-circular or circular in shapes and is made
Sometimes set squares have french curves. Set squares of flat celluoid sheet.
are used to draw all straight lines except horizontal lines.
The angles can be set or measured from both sides,
It is convenient to draw horizontal lines using Mini drafter.
aligning the reference line and point ‘0’ with the corner point
With the help of Mini drafter and manipulating the 45°, 30°- of the angle.
60° setquares, angular lines in the multiples of 15°; Parallel
Figure 3 shows how to read or set the angle. Protractor can
lines to a given inclined line and perpendicular to can be
also be used to divide a circle or drawing sectors.
drawn.
Set squares with graduated, bevel edge and french curve
openings are preferable. They are also used to draw
smooth curves. Setsquare should never be used as guide
for trimming papers.
Scales: Scales are used to transfer and or to measure the
dimensions. They are made of wood, steel, ivory, celluloid
or plastic, stainless steel scales are more durable. differ-
French curves
• state the advantage of french curves
• explain the method of applications of french curves.
These are made in many different shapes, normally come Each new portion should fit atleast three points on the curve
in sets of 6,12,16 etc. French curves are best suited to draw just drawn. It should be seen that the curve (radius) is
smooth curves/ arcs (which cannot be drawn by a compass) increasing or decreasing smoothly and no corner should be
with ease. To draw a smooth curve using french curve first formed on the curve(Fig 1).
set it by trial against a part of the line to be drawn, then shift
it to the next portions.
11

Fig 2 show how to use the french curve and draw a smooth
curves. They are made of transparent celluloid (no bevel
edge).

Engineering Drawing
Drawing Instruments - box and pencils

• state the construction of different types of instruments
• state the handling and uses of instruments
• select the pencil grades for different drawing application.
The quality of a good drawing does not only depend on the

talent of the craftsmen but also on the quality of instru-
ments he uses.
Drawing instruments are generally sold in sets in boxes,
but they are also available separately. The main parts of
high grade instruments are generally made of nickel or
brass. They must be rust proof. Tool steel is used for
making the blades of the inking pen, bow instruments and
various screws.
An instrument box contains the following: (Fig 1a to h)
• Large compass (with attachment facility) (a)
• large divider (b)
• Bow compasses, bow divider (c)
• Lengthening bar (d)
• Pen point for attachment (e)
• Screw driver (f)
• Lead case (g)
• Liner (h)
Large compass (Fig 2): It has a knee joint in one leg that
permits the insertion of pen or pencil point or attaching
lengthening bar with pen or pencil point attached to it. It is
used for drawing large circles/arcs also for taking large
measurements. The pin on the other leg can be swivelled
to vertical position when drawing large circles, while
drawing the circles of arcs it should be held in such a way
that the needle point leg and pencil point leg should be bent
so as to make perpendicular to the paper.
As a rule while drawing concentric circles,

small circles should be drawn first before the
centre hole gets worn.
Large divider: It is used to transfer dimensions and

dividing lines into a number of equal parts. Divider with
adjustable joints is preferable rather than plain legs. (Fig 3)
13

Bow instruments: Bow pencil and bow pen compass are Inking pen or liner or ruling pen (Fig 6): It is used to ink
used for drawing circles of approximately 25 mm radius. the straight lines drawn with the instruments but never for
Bow divider is used for marking or dividing smaller spaces. free hand lines or lettering.
There are two types (i) Integral legs with spring action (4e)
(ii) two legs held with a curved spring on top with handle on
it.
Bow instruments may have adjusting wheel and nut. To
draw circles, it is better to mark the required distance
separately and set the instruments and check. Then only
the circles or arcs should be drawn on the drawing.
Fig 4 shows different types of bow instruments. Adjustment
should be made with the thumb and middle finger. The Lengthening bar (Fig 7): To draw larger circles, it is fitted
instrument is manipulated by twisting the knurled head to the compass. The pencil point or pen point is inserted
between the thumb and finger. to its end.
Replaceable spare pencil, pen and needle points for

compass are available in the instrument box.
Screw driver (Fig 8): Used for adjusting the screws of the
instruments.
Lead case (Fig 9): Lead case is the box for holding the
pencil leads.
Drop spring bow pencil and pen (Fig 5): Drop spring bow
pencil and pen are designed for drawing multiple identical
small circles. Example: rivet holes, drilled/reamed holes.
The central pin is made to move freely up and down through
the tube attached to the pen or pencil unit. It is used by Pin, Clip, Cello tape: Drawing sheet should be fastened
holding the knurled head of the tube between thumb and on to the drawing board firmly on temporary basis so that
middle finger while the index finger is placed on the top of it does not shake during preparing drawing. For this
the pin. The pin point is placed on the centre point of the purpose the pins, clips and cellotapes are used (Fig 10)
circle to be drawn (Fig 5) and pencil or pen is lowered until
it touches paper. The instrument is turned clockwise and
the circle is drawn.
Pencils, Grade and Selection

Pencils (Fig 11): In drawing office, standard pencils (lead
encased in wood) and semi-automatic pencils are made
use. Pencil leads are made of graphite with kaoline (clay)
of varying proportion to get the desired grades. More the
kaoline higher the hardness.
Grades of pencils: Pencils are graded according to the

hardness or softness of the lead.

In summer the pencil leads become softer due to rise in
temperature, so slightly harder pencils can be made use of
softer grade pencils are used on smooth surfaces for
lettering and arrow head. During rainy season or when
humidity is more, the drawing paper expands and wrinkless
form, pencil leads become harder. So softer pencils are to
be used. Whatever may be grade of pencil you use, always
prefer quality pencils/leads viz., Venus, Kohinoor, Apsara
etc.
For better line work, i.e., dense black lines, prefer paper
which is not having too much teeth (roughness).
Selection of pencils: Pencil grades vary from one brand
to another brand. Select the grades of the pencil depending
Hardest pencil is 9H grade and softest pencil is 7B
upon the type of line work. For construction lines, you can
grade. Selection of grade of pencils depends on the type
choose 2H or 3H, for lettering and object lines grade H
of line work required and paper on which it is used.
pencils. In general H, HB and 2H are used.
Softer lead pencils are used to produce thicker and darker
H medium hard
line work, but they wearout quickly. Medium grade of H, 2H
HB medium soft
are used for general line work as well as for lettering.
2H hard
Harder grade leads produce lighter and thinner lines. Most
Pencils used for drawing are always hexagonal in cross
construction line work is done with 4H, 5H and 6H pencil
sections as they do not roll easily even when they are
leads, producing thin but also sufficiently dark by exerting
placed on slope surfaces. Its cross section helps in
pressure. Depending upon the individuals touch and the
rotating the pencil, while drawing lines, to give uniform line
style of writing, right pencil may be selected.
thickness.
For any drawing on drawing paper or tracing paper, lines
Now-a-days automatic (Mechanical) pencils or clutch
should be black, particularly drawings which are to be
pencils are available in different sizes (lead dia 0.3, 0.5, 0.7
reproduced. For this purpose, the pencil chosen must be
or 0.9 mm). They are easy to handle as there is no
soft enough to produce jet black lines as well hard enough
reduction of holding length pencil leads can be replaced, as
not to smudge easily. The point should not crumble under
per required grade of hardness. They produce lines of
normal working pressure. The pencils should not be hard
uniform width without sharpening. (Fig 11)
and cut grooves on the paper while drawing with normal
pressure, Pencils H, 2H or 3H depending upon the paper
(quality) and weather conditions are selected.

Engineering Drawing
Lines - definition and applications

Drawings are made up of different types of lines. Just as Technical drawings are drawn with different types of lines.
language with alphabets and grammer. By proper choice and application of lines product features
can be correctly defined in a drawing. Different types of
Lines of different thickness and features are used for
lines recommended for specific applications are given in
specific use (Fig A and Fig B).
Table 1.
Table 1
Types of lines and their application

Lines Description General applications
See figure and other relevant figure
Continuous thick A1 Visible outlines

A2 Visible edges
Continuous thin B1 Imaginary lines of intersection
(straight) B2 Dimension lines
B3 projection lines or extension line
B4 Leader lines
B5 Hatching
B6 Outlines of revolved sections in place
B7 Short centre lines
B8 Thread line
B9 Diagonal line
Continuous thin C1 Limits of partial or interrupted views &
free hand sections, if the limit is not a chain thin
Continous thin D1 Line (See figures)
(Straight) with zig-zags
Dashed thick E1 Hidden outlines

E2 Hidden edges
Dashed thin F1 Hidden outlines
F2 Hidden edges
Chain thin G1 Centre lines
G2 Lines of symmetry
G3 Trajectores
Chain thin, thick at ends H1 Cutting planes
& changes of direction
Chain thick J1 Indication of lines or surfaces to

which a special requirement applies
Chain thin double- K1 Outlines of adjacent parts
dashed K2 Alternative and extreme positions of
movable parts
K3 Centroidal lines
K4 Initial outlines prior to forming
K5 Parts situated in front of the cutting plane
1 This type of line is suited for production of drawings by machines.

2 Although two alternatives are available, it is recommended that on any one drawing. Only one type of line be used.
Thickness of the line should be chosen according to the In the above range, for craftsman 0.5 is preferred. The Table
size and type of the drawing from the following range. 2 shows the 0.5 line range and other lines under this range.
(IS:10714-1983) 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1, 1.4 & 2 mm. The numbers in right side of the lines refers the line
thickness in mm.
16

Table 2 – without a dot or arrow head (Fig 3)
Hatching lines (B5): Hatching lines are the lines inclined

parallel lines. The minimum space between these lines
should be more than twice the thickness of the heaviest line
in the drawing. It is recommended that these spacings
should never be less than 0.7 mm. (Fig 2)
For showing the limits of partial or interrupted views and
sections continuous thin free hand lines (C1) or continuous
thin straight lines with zig-zag (D1) are used. (Fig 4)
All the views of a component drawn to one particular scale

should have the same range of line thickness.
Types of lines: Ten types of lines are used in general

engineering drawing as per IS:10714-1983. Out of which
first four types of lines are continues lines of both thick and
thin. (Type A to D)
Continuous thick line (A type) is used for drawing visible

outlines (A1) and visible edges (A2). (Fig 1) These lines are
also called as object lines.
Lines of type E to K in Table 1 are of the non-continuous

type. Some of these thin and some are thick. For hidden
lines both thick and thin dashes (E & F type) are available,
it is recommended that on any one drawing, only one type
of (Thick or thin) line be used. (Fig 5)
Continuous thin lines (B type): Continues thin lines are

used for many applications as stated in Table 1. A few
applications of B types of lines are shown in Fig 2.
Chain lines (Thin): Chain lines are used for drawing centre
lines of circles, cylinders etc. Same lines are also used to
show the axis of symmetry in symmetrical objects. To
save time and space a partial of a whole component is
drawn. The line of symmetry is identified at its ends by two
thin short parallel lines drawn at right angle to it. (Fig 6)
Another method of representing symmetrical shape is to
extend the object lines beyond the axis of the symmetry.
(Fig 7) In this case the short parallel lines described above
A leader line - B4 (Fig 2): A leader line is a line referring is omitted. The same lines are also used to show the
to a feature (dimension, object, outline etc). A leader line repetitions of features of a component. (Fig 8)
should terminate For drawing a sectional view, plane of cutting is to be shown
– with a dot in other view. Cutting plane (H1) in Table 1 is drawn with
thin chain, thick at ends and also at the places of direction
– with an arrow head change. (Figs 9 & 10)

If thick chain lines (J1) in table 1 are drawn on a
surface, it indicates some special treatment/applica-
tion on that surface. (Fig 11)
Chain thin double dashed (K) lines are applied for the
following:
K1 - Outlines of adjacent parts (Fig 11)
K2 - Alternative and extreme positions of mov-
ing parts. (Fig 11)
K3 - Centroidal lines (Fig 12)

K4 - Initial outlines prior to forming (Fig 13)
K5 - Parts situated in front of the cutting plane

(Fig14)

Engineering Drawing
Lines - practice of parallel lines and perpendicular lines

Follow the procedure and draw the exercises in the A3/A4 • Butt a setsquare on the line AB.
sheet. • Using another setsquare draw vertical parallel lines
from left to right.
Procedure
Draw the vertical lines from bottom to top.
1 Draw six horizontal parallel lines of 50 mm long
with 10 mm intervals (Fig 1). 3 Draw 45° inclined lines (Fig 3).
• Draw a vertical line AB 50 mm long, using setsquare on

left side.
• Mark points on the vertical line AB with 10 mm inter-
vals.
• Butt a setsquare on the line AB.
• Using another setsquare, draw parallel lines through
the points marked.
Use sharpened conical point pencil.

Keep the pencil slightly inclined towards the
direction of the movement.
While drawing rotate the pencil to keep the
constant thickness. • Draw a horizontal line AB 60 mm long.
Maintain uniform pressure on the lead of the • Butt a setsquare on the line AB, draw vertical lines from
pencil. the points A and B using another setsquare.
• Set off AD and BC equals to 40 mm and complete the
box.
• On lines AB and DC mark 10 mm points.
• Butting the 60° setsquare on the line AB, using 45°
setsquare draw inclined parallel lines through the
marked points.
Draw lines from bottom to top.
1 Draw the given types of lines using 0.5 range thick-
2 Draw six vertical parallel lines of 50 mm length ness of line according to the specification (Fig 4).
with 10 mm intervals (Fig 2).
• Draw a horizontal line AB 50 mm long.

• Mark the points with 10 mm intervals.
20

2 Draw the following exercises on A4 sheets (Fig 5).
EDN130915

Common For All Engineering Trades Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.10
Engineering Drawing
Geometrical figures - types of angle and triangle

Angles: Angle is the inclination between two straight lines
meeting at a point or meet when extended. AB and BC are
two straight lines meeting at B. The inclination between
them is called an angle. The angle is expressed in degrees
or radians.
Concept of a degree: When the circumference of a circle Reflex angle: It is the angle which is more than 180o.
is divided into 360 equal parts and radial lines are drawn (Fig6)
through these points, the inclination between the two
adjascent radial lines is defined as one degree. Thus a
circle is said to contain 360o. (Fig 1)
Adjacent angles: These are the angles lying on either

side of a line. (Fig 7)
Acute angle: If an angle which is less than 90o is called

an acute angle. (Fig 2)
Complementary angles: When the sum of the two

angles is equal to 90o, angle POQ + angle QOR = 90o angle
POQ and angle QOR are complementary angles to each
other. (Fig 8)
Right angle: Angle between a reference line and a
perpendicular line is called right angle. (Fig 3)
Supplementary angle: When the sum of the two adja-

Obtuse angle: This refer to an angle between 90o and cent angles is equal to 180o, example angle SOT + angle
180o. (Fig 4) TOY = 180o, angle SOT and angle TOY are supplementary
angles to each other. (Fig 9)
Straight angle: This refers to an angle of 180o. This is also

called as the angle of a straight line. (Fig 5)
22

Triangle - different types
Triangle is a closed plane figure having three sides and 4 Right angled triangle is one in which one of the
three angles. The sum of the three angles always equals angles is equal to 90° (Right angle). The side opposite
to 180°. to right angle is called hypotenuse. (Fig 4)
To define a triangle, we need to have a minimum of three

measurements as follows:
• 3 sides or
• 2 sides and one angle or
• 2 angles and one side
Types of triangles
1 Equilateral triangle is a triangle having all the three

sides equal. Also all the three angles are equal (60°)
(Fig 1) 5 Acute angled triangle is one in which all the three
angles are less than 90°. (Fig 5)
2 Isosceles triangle has two of its sides equal. The 6 Obtuse angled triangle has one of the angles more
angles opposite to the two equal sides are also equal. than 90°. (Fig 6)
(Fig 2)
3 Scalene triangle has all the three sides unequal in

lengths. All the three angles are also unequal. (Fig 3)
The sum of the three angles in any triangle is
equal to 180°.
The sum of any two sides is more than the third
side.

Engineering Drawing
Geometrical figures - square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram and circle

Quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four sides and
four angles. Sum of the four angles in a quadrilateral is
(interior angles) equal to 360°. The side joining opposite
corners is called diagonal. To construct a quadrilateral out
of four sides, four angles and two diagonals a minimum of
five dimensions are required of which two must be sides.
Quadrilaterals are also referred as Trapezium. (Fig 1)
Angle ABC = Angle ADC and Angle BAD = Angle BCD.

Diagonals AC and BD are not equal but bisecting at right
angles.
AO = OC and BO = OD.
To construct a rhombus we need to know (a) two diagonals

(b) one diagonal and an opposite angle or (c) one side and
its adjacent angle.
• Square
Rhomboid/Parallelogram (Fig 4): In a parallelogram
• Rectangle opposite sides are equal and parallel. Opposite angles are
• Rhombus also equal. Diagonals are not equal but bisect each other.
• Rhomboid / Parallelogram
Square: In a square all the four sides are equal and its four
angles are right angles. The two diagonals are equal and
perpendicular to each other.
To construct a square we need to know (a) length of the side
or (b) length of the diagonal.
Rectangle (Fig 2): In a rectangle, opposite sides are equal
and parallel and all four angles are right angles.
Parallelogram is also known as rhomboid. To construct a

parallelogram we need (a) two adjacent sides and an angle
between them or (b) one side, diagonal, and an angle
between them or (c) two adjacent sides and perpendicular
distance between the opposite sides.
In the parallelogram ABCD, AB = DC; AD = BC

To construct a rectangle we need to know the length (a) two
adjacent sides or (b) diagonal and one side. Angle DAB = angle DCB, angle ABC = angle ADC
Fig 2 shows a rectangle ABCD, Sides AB = DC and BC = Sides AB,CD and AD, BC are parallel.
AD. Diagonals AC and BD are equal. Diagonals are not
bisect at right angles. Diagonals AC and BD are not equal but bisect at 0.
Rhombus (Fig 3): In rhombus all the four sides are equal
but only the opposite angles are equal. ABCD is the
rhombus where AB = BC = CD = AD.
24

Circles, Tangents
Circle: Circle is a plane figure bounded by a curve, formed
by the locus of a point which moves so that it is always at
a fixed distance from a stationery point the "Centre".
Radius: The distance from the centre to any point on the
circle is called the "Radius".
Diameter: The length of a straight line between two points
on the curve, passing through the centre is called the
"Diameter". (D: Dia or d) It is twice the radius.
Circumference: It is the linear length of the entire curve,
equal to D .
Arc: A part of the circle between any two points on the
circumference or periphery is called an 'Arc'.
Chord: A straight line joining the ends of an arc is called
the chord. (Longest chord of the circle is the diameter)
Segment: A part of the circle or area bound by the arc and
chord is the segment of the circle.
Sector: It is the part of a circle bounded by two radii (plural
of radius) meeting at an angle and an arc.
Quadrant: Part of a circle with radii making 90o with each
other is a quadrant (one fourth of the circle).
Half of the circle is called as semi-circle. Eccentric circles: Circles within a circle but with different
centres are called eccentric circles. (Fig 3)
Tangent: Tangent of a circle is a straight line just touching
the circle at a point. It does not cut or pass through the
circle when extended. The point where the tangent
touches the circle is called the "point of tangency". The
angle between the line joining the centre to the point of
tangency and the tangent is always 90o.
Fig 1 shows all the above elements.
Concentric circles: When two or more circles (drawn)
having common centre, they are called concentric
circles. Ball bearing is the best example of concentric
circles. (Fig 2)

Engineering Drawing
Method of bisecting practice of angles and triangles

Procedure • Bisect the arc DC at O.
1 Bisect a given straight line (Fig 1). • Join OA and AO is perpendicular to the line AB from the
• Draw a line AB of 70 mm long. point À'.
• With A and B as centres, more than half of AB as radius

describe arcs on either side of the line AB.
• Let the arcs intersect at C & D.
• Join CD, bisecting the line AB at 0.
• CD is the bisector of the line AB and AO = OB.
4 Draw a line parallel to a given line at a given

distance (Fig 4).
• Draw a line AB to a convenient length (say 60 mm).
• Draw a line CD (40 mm) is the given distance.
• Mark points 1 & 2 near A & B respectively.
• With 1 & 2 as centres CD as radius draw arcs.
• At 1 & 2 errect perpendiculars by using setsquares,
2 Draw a perpendicular to a given straight line, from meeting at E & F respectively.
a given point in it (Fig 2).
• Join the points E & F.
• `C' is the point on the line AB.
• EF is parallel to AB at the given distance of CD.
• `C' as centre draw arcs on the line AB at 1 & 2.
• 1 and 2 are centres draw arcs. The arcs intersect at D.
• Join DC.
• CD is the perpendicular line from the point `C'.
5 Divide a line into any number of equal parts (Fig5).

• Draw a line AB to a convenient length (say 65 mm).
• At À' draw a line AC to a required length, forming an
3 Draw a perpendicular to a given straight line angle BAC. (Always it is better to form an acute angle)
when the point is at the end of the line (Fig 3)
• Set off 5 equal arcs on the line AC meeting at 1,2,3,4
• Draw a line AB (say 75 mm). & 5. (As many equal parts as required)
• À' as centre to a convenient radius draw an arc to meet • Join 5 & B.
AB at E.
• From the points 4,3,2 & 1 draw lines parallel to 5-B
• È' as centre AE as radius draw an arc to cut the meeting the line AB at 4', 3', 2' & 1'.
previous arc at `C'.
• Now the line AB is divided into 5 equal parts.
• `C' as centre and with the same radius draw another arc
to cut at `D'.
26

8 Construct an angle equal to 75° (Fig 8).
• Draw a line BC (60 mm long).
• At `B' erect a perpendicular GB and now GBC is a
right angle.
• Trisect the angle FBC at D & E.
• Bisect the angle FBD at À'.
6 Trisect a given right angle (Fig 6).
• Now angle ABC = 75°.
• Draw a right angle ABC.
• With `B' as centre to convenient radius, draw an arc
meeting the line BC and BA at 1 & 2 respectively.
• With 1 & 2 as centres, B-1 as radius draw arcs to cut
the previous arc at D & E respectively.
• Join BE & BD.
• Now ABD  DBE  EBC .
1
9 Construct an angle equal to 22 (Fig 9).
2
• Draw a line BC to a convenient length.
• At `B' erect a perpendicular BD and DBC is right
angle.
• Bisect the DBC at È'.
DBE  EBC  45 
• Bisect EBC at À'.
7 Bisect a given angle (Fig 7).
1
• Construct an angle BAC (say 30°). • Now ABC = 22 .
2
• À' as centre to a convenient radius draw an arc to cut
line AC at È' and AB at `D'.
• Bisect the arc DE at Ò'.
• Join AO.
• AO is the bisector of the angle BAC.
• Now OAB  OAC .

Triangles
Procedure 4 Scalene triangle: AB = 30 mm, AC = 55 mm & BC=
35 mm.
1 Equilateral triangle (Fig 1) AB = BC = CA = 35 mm.
• Draw base AB = 30.
• Draw a line and mark AB 35 mm the side of triangle.
• À' as centre draw an arc of radius 55.
• With radius AB and center A and B, draw arcs cutting
at C (Fig 1). • `B' as centre draw an arc of 35 cutting the previous arc
at `C'.
• Join CA and CB.
• Join CA and CB.
• ABC is a required triangle.
AB = 30, BC = 35 and AC = 55
ABC is the required triangle. (Fig 4)
2 Isosceles triangle : AB = AC = 40 mm & BAC  40 .

• Draw the side AB equal to 40 mm. À' as centre, draw
an arc of radius AB.
• Draw a line AC at 40° to AB.
• Join BC to form the triangle ABC. (Fig 2) 5 Scalene triangle: AB = 40 mm, AC = 30 mm &
BCA  30  .
• Draw base AB (40 mm) and a perpendicular from its mid
point.
• Set/draw the given angle 30° such that angle BAD = 30°
(Angle C).
• Erect perpendicular to AD at À'.
• Extend both perpendiculars to meet at Ò'.
• AO as radius and Ò' as centre, draw a circle or an arc.
• Side AC (30 mm) as radius and À' as centre, draw an
3 Isosceles triangle (Fig 3): Altitude = 40 mm & arc cutting the previous arc at `C'.
BCA  BAC  65  • Join CA and CB.
• Draw any line X'Y' and erect a perpendicular DB of

height 40 mm at a convenient point `D'.
• Draw a parallel line XY to X'Y' through `B'.
• Draw A'B at 65° to XY and extend to meet at À' on the
line X'Y'.
• Locate another point C on line X'Y' same way as in the
previous step and complete the triangle ABC.

6 Scalene triangle: AB = 70 mm Follow the above said procedure and construct the exer-
ABC  40 & BAC  110  cises from 15 to 19.
• Draw line AB = 70 15 Draw a triangle when one side and 2 angles being given
(Fig 8).
• Set 110° at À' using protractor.
• Set angle B = 40° using protractor. Extend the line
meeting at `C'. Join `C' with A and B.
7 Right angled triangle: AB = 60 mm, BC = 45 mm

• Draw the horizontal line BC to length 45 mm.
• Erect a perpendicular to length 60 mm at `B'.
16 Draw a right angled triangle when the base and
• Join AC. hypotenuse being given (Fig 9).
Construct triangles as per the procedure given in the theory

book
8 Draw an equilateral triangle ABC of sides 35 mm.
17 Draw a triangle the altitude and two sides being given
9 Draw an isosceles triangle through ABC in which sides
(Fig 10).
AB and AC are equal to 40 mm and BAC is equal to
40°.
10 Draw an isosceles triangle ABC in which the altitude BD
= 40 mm and BAC and BCA = 65°.
11 Draw a scalene triangle ABC in which the side AB =30
mm; AC = 55 mm and BC = 35 mm.
12 Draw a scalene triangle ABC in which the side AB =40;
AC = 30 and the angle BCA = 30°.
13 Draw a scalene triangle ABC in which the side AB =30
mm; ABC = 40° and BAC = 110°.
14 Draw a right angled triangle ABC in which the sides AB
and BC are 60 and 45 mm respectively.

18 Draw a triangle the base, altitude and vertical angle 19 Draw a triangle the base, altitude and one side being
being given (Fig 11). given (Fig 12).

Engineering Drawing
Method of bisecting practice of square - rectangle - parallelogram - rhombus

& circle
Follow the procedures and construct quadrilaterals on A3/ • 'A' as centre and AB as radius, draw an arc. The arc
A4 sheets. cuts the circle at D.
• Similarly draw an arc with centre D with radius AB and
Procedure get point C.
Square • Join AD, DC & CB and complete the square.
1 1st method (Fig 1): A square of side 50 mm by erecting
3 3rd method (Fig 3): A square of side 60 mm long by
perpendicular.
erecting perpendicular and also using 45°
• Draw a line AB 50 mm long. setsquare.
• 'A' as centre, draw an arc of convenient radius 'r' • Draw line AB equal to 60 mm.
touching the line AB at 'P' as shown in Fig 1.
• Erect perpendicular from A and B using 60° or 45°
• 'P' as centre and radius 'r' draw another arc cutting the setsquare.
earlier drawn arc at `Q'.
• Draw 45° from A and B, cutting perpendicular lines at C
• 'Q' as centre and radius 'r', draw another arc cutting at and D.
'R'.
• Join A,D,C and B. ABCD is required square.
• Bisect QR at S and extend.
• Mark 50 mm on AS extended line. AD = 50 mm.
• From points B and D, draw parallels to AD and AB and
complete the square ABCD.
4 Square having diagonal 60 mm (Fig 4)

• Draw horizontal and vertical centre lines intersecting at
'0'.
• '0' as centre, draw a circle of radius 30 mm passing
through centre lines at A,B,C and D.
2 2nd method (Fig 2): A square of side 60 mm using • Join points A-B, B-C, C-D and D-A. ABCD is the
45° setsquare and compass. required square, whose diagonal is 60 mm.
• Draw a horizontal line AB = 60 mm long.

• From points A and B, using 45° setsquare, draw 45°
lines both intersecting at '0'.
Draw a circle of radius OA or OB with centre '0'.
31

5 Rectangle (Fig 5) • D as centre, draw an arc of radius equal to AB.
Side AB = 75 mm, side AD = 45 mm using setsquare and • 'B' as centre, draw an arc of radius equal at AD, upwards
compass. such that they meet at a point 'C'.
• Draw the side AB equal to 75 mm. • ABCD is the required parallelogram.
• Erect perpendiculars at A and B.
• Mark off a height 45 from A and B, at D and C.
• Join C and D to complete the rectangle.
8 Parallelogram (Fig 8)
Parallelogram - Side AB = 60 mm
Diagonal AC = 90 mm ABC = 120°
• Draw a line AB = 60 mm.
6 Rectangle - Diagonal - 60 mm and one side 20 mm
1st method (Fig 6a) • Draw a line from B at angle of 120° to AB.
• Draw a line AB 60 mm. • 'A' as centre with radius 90 mm, draw an arc cutting
120° line from B at C.
• Draw a circle with AB as its diameter.
• `C' as centre, radius = AB, draw an arc.
• 'A' as centre, draw an arc of R20, cutting the circle at D.
• Similarly À' as centre and BC as radius, draw another
• Join AD and BD.
arc, both arcs meet at `D'.
• Draw AC parallel to DB.
• Join AD and DC.
• Join BC and complete the rectangle.
ABCD is the required parallelogram.
2nd method (Fig 6b)
• Draw a line AD = 20 mm long.
• Draw perpendiculars from A and D upwards.
• A and D as centres, draw arcs of 60 mm radius cutting
at B and C.
• Join BC.
ADBC is the required rectangle of side 20 mm and diagonal
60 mm.
Sides = 75 mm and 40 mm Sides AB = 55 mm, BC = 40 mm and vertical height = 30
mm.
Angle between them: 50°
• Draw the line AB 55 mm long.
• Draw line AB 75 mm long.
• A and B as centres and radius (R) 30 mm, draw arcs
• Draw line AD equal to 40 mm and 50° angle to AB. above the line.

• Draw a common tangential line (parallel to base AB) to
180  130
the arcs. Angle CAB =  25
2
• A and B as centers, draw an arc of 40 mm radius cutting
the line at D and C. • Draw the diagonal AB equal to 80 mm.
ABCD is the required parallelogram. • Set an angle of 25° at A and B and draw the lines,
meeting at C.
10 Rhombus (Fig 10) • Join AC and BC.
Diagonals AB = 80 mm • Draw AD parallel to CB.
CD = 50 mm • Draw BD parallel to CA.
• Draw a line AB equal to 80 mm ABCD is the required rhombus.
• Draw perpendicular bisector of AB, passing through 0. Check
• mark OC = OD = 25 mm. Join CD cutting AB at 0 measure
• Join the points AC, CB, BD and DA to complete the A0 = 0B; C0 = 0D
rhombus.
All the four angles at 0 are right angles.
Check
AC = CB = BD = DA i.e. all the 4 sides are equal. Further practice
Angle ACB = Angle ADB and 1 Construct a square of side 50 mm using compass and
setsquare.
Angle CAD = Angle CBD
2 Construct a square whose diagonal is 60 mm using
compass and setsquare.
3 Construct a rectangle given diagonal and side are equal
to 60 mm and 20 mm.
4 Construct a rhombus of side 75 mm and one angle is
50°.
5 Construct a parallelogram given sides 75 and 40 mm
angle 50°.
6 Construct a parallelogram given side 60 mm, diagonal
90 mm and angle 120°.
11 Rhombus (Fig 11) Draw the pattern drawings given in the workbook.
Diagonal AB = 80 mm
1
ACB  130
Let the diagonal is equal to 80 mm and the angle is 130°.
Since sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°.
Angle ACB + Angle CBA + Angle CAB = 180°
180    ACB
Therefore Angle CAB = Angle CBA =
2

2 3
Circles and arcs

Follow the procedures and construct the following in the
work book practice sheets of Ex.No.1 to 15.
Procedure
1 Draw a tangent to a given circle of φ 70 mm at any
point `P' on it. (Fig 1)
• Draw a circle of φ 50 with Ò' as centre.
• Mark the given point `P' on the circumference of the
circle.
• Join OP.
• Draw a line RS perpendicular to PO through `P'. 3 Draw an arc of given radius (R 20 mm) to touch the
given lines which make an acute angle between
• RS is the tangent at `P'. them (assume 60°). (Fig 3)
• Draw an acute angle BAC (60°).
• Draw a horizontal parallel line EF at a distance equal to
the given radius (20 mm).
• Draw another angular parallel line GH at a distance of
given radius 20 mm. Both the parallel lines drawn meet
at Ò'.
• With Ò' as centre and `r' as radius (20 mm) draw an arc
touching both lines AB and AC.
2 Draw an arc of given radius (R 20 mm) to touch to

two straight lines (50 mm each) at right angles.
(Fig2)
• Draw the lines AB and AC (50 mm each) at right angles.
• With À' as centre and given radius (R 20 mm) draw an
arc to cut lines AB and AC at E and F.
• With E and F as centres and the radius given (R 20 mm),
draw arcs to intersect each other at Ò'.
• Use Ò' as centre and with same radius (R 20) draw a
curve (arc) which will just touch the given lines AB and
AC.

4 Draw a loop of 3 circles pattern. (Fig 4) 6 Draw three circles tangential to each other if
centres A,B & C are given. (Fig 6)
• Draw any line MN and mark points A,B and C. So that
AB = 20 mm and BC = 25 mm. • Mark centres A,B & C.
• With 'A' as centre draw concentric circles of dia 15 mm • Join AB, BC & CA and form triangle ABC.
and dia 20 mm.
• Bisect any two angles of the triangle. Bisectors cut the
• With 'B' as centre draw concentric circles of  20 mm opposite sides AB and BC at F and G.
and  25 mm. • 'A' as centre and AF as radius draw a circle.
• With 'C' as centre draw concentric circles of  25 mm • 'B' as centre and BF or BG as radius draw another
circle.
and  30 mm.
• 'C' as centre and CG as radius draw the third circle.
• Erase unwanted part of the circles to form the pattern.
5 Draw the cam as per dimensions given. (Fig 5)

• Draw a vertical line and mark the points C1C2 such that
C1C2 = 84 mm.
• C1 as centre, draw an arc of radius 56 mm (100-44) and
C2 as centre, draw another arc of radius 78 mm (100-
7 Draw external tangents to circles of dia 40 and 30
22). Both arcs cut at C3.
and centre distance 60 mm. (Fig 7)
• Similarly obtain a point C4 by drawing two arcs of radii
84 mm (44 + 40) and 62 mm (22 + 40) from points C1 and
C2.
• Draw a circle of radius 44 mm with C1 as centre and draw
a circle or radius 22 mm with C2 as centre.
• Produce C1C2 and get points A and B.
• C3 as centre and radius BC3 (100 mm) draw an arc.
• C4 as centre and radius 40 mm draw an arc.
• Draw a circle of R10 with centre C2.
• Rub off the unwanted lines and complete the pattern.
• Draw a line and mark two points C1 and C2 at 60 mm.
• Draw two circles of dia 40 and dia 30 with centre marked
as C1 and C2.
• On dia 40 circle (D1) draw a concentric circle of dia 10
(D3) (dia 40 - dia 30).
• From centre C2 draw a line 't' touching circle D3 at P.
• Join C1 and P (angle P is right angle).
• Extend line C1, P upto the circle D1 meeting at P1.
• Draw C2P2 parallel to C1P1.
• Join P1 and P2 forming the (common) tangent T1 to circle
D1 and D2.

• Similarly draw tangent T2. Tangents T1 and T2 are called Draw the figures in A3/A4 Sheets (Fig 10 - Fig 12)
external tangents.
10
8 Draw internal tangents to circles of same diameter
40 each and centre distance 60 mm. (Fig 8)
• Mark two points C1 and C2 60 mm apart.
• Draw circles of  40mm with centres C1 and C2.

• Mark 'A' the midpoint of C1C2 .
• Bisect C1A and mark it as B.
• 'B' as centre C1B as radius, draw an arc and get points
P1 and P2.
• 'A' as centre AP1 as radius, draw an arc and get points
P3 and P4.
• Join P1P4 and P2P3.
• Mark them as T1 and T2, the internal tangents.
11
9 Draw tangential curves for the circles of diameters

30 mm, 20 mm and centre distance 60mm. (Fig 9)
• Draw centres C1 and C2 at a distance of 60 mm.

• Draw the given circles of dia 30 and dia 20 on C1 and C2.
• C1 as centre and radius 35 (R15 + R20), draw arcs on
either side of horizontal centre line.
• C2 as centre and radius 30 (R10 + R20), draw arcs
cutting the arcs R35 at C3 and C4.
12
• C3 and C4 as centers, with R20, draw arcs forming the
arc tangential curves to the circles.

Engineering Drawing
Lettering and numbering as per BIS SP: 46-2003 - uppercase and lowercase
of single stroke and double stroke
Apart from graphical elements (lines, arcs, circles etc) Lower case letters and numerals
technical drawings will also contain written informations.
Width Letters/Numerals Width
These written informations are referred as “lettering”. (W)
Styles of lettering: Many styles of lettering are in use to 1 i 1d
day. However, a few styles which are commonly used are 3 j,l 3d
shown in figure 1. 4 f,t,l 4d
5 c,r 5d
6 a,b,d,e,g,h,k,n,o,p,q,s,u,v;3;5 6d
7 a,0 (zero), 2,4,6,7,0,8,9 7d
9 m 9d
10 w 10d
The width of different letters in terms of stroke (line) is as

follows:
Uppercase Lettering BIS SP: 46-2003
Width (W) Capital letters

1 I
Standard heights/Width: The standard heights recom-
4 J
mended by BIS SP: 46-2003 are in the progressive ratio of
“square root 2”. They are namely 2.5 - 3.5 - 5 - 7 - 10 - 14 5 C,E,F,L
and 20 mm. The height of lower case letter (without tail or 6 B,D,G,H,K,N,O,P,R,S,T,U & Z
stem) are 2.5, 3.5, 5, 7, 10 and 14 mm.
7 A,M,Q,V,X,Y
There are two standard ratios for the line thickness “d”.
They are A & B. In A = line thickness (d) is h/14 and in 9 W
B=line thickness (d) is h/10.
Lower case letters and numerals
Lowercase means small letters, as opposed to capital
letters. The word yes, is for example, is in lowercase,
Width (W) Letters/Numerals
while the word YES is in upper case. For many
programmes, this distinction is very important. Programmes 1 i
that distinguish between uppercase and lowercase is 2 l
said to be case sensitive
3 j,l
The width of different letters in terms of “d” is as follows:
4 c,f,r,t
Lettering A
5 a,b,d,e,g,h,k,n,o,,q,s,u,v,x,y,x
Width Capital letters Width
(W) 0,2,3,5 to 9
1 I 1d 0,2,3,5 to 9
5 J,L 5d 6 a,4
6 C,E,F 6d Fig 2 & 3 shows the sequence of printing single stroke

7 B,D,G,H,K,N,O,P,R,S,T,U & Z 7d capitals and lower capital letters in vertical style.
8 A,Q,V,X,Y 8d Inclined letters (Fig 3) are drawn at an angle of 15° towards

right side, the proportion being the same as of vertical
9 M 9d lettering.
12 W 12d Fig 3 shows double stroke letters also.
37

Standard letters to suit the nature of instructions, the sizes
should be selected. All the lettering should be printed, so
that they are read/viewed from the bottom of the drawing.
Lettering improves the appearance and legibility of the
drawing. Always maintain uniform lettering (letters and
numerals) which can be reproduced within reasonable time
with ease. In machine drawing ornamental lettering should
never be used.
Spacing of letters: Recommended spacing between

character, minimum spacing of base lines and minimum
spacing between words as per BIS SP: 46-2003 is given
below in figure No.4 and Table 1 & 2.
TABLE 1
Lettering A (d = h/14) Values in millimetres

Characteristic Ratio Dimensions
Lettering height h (14/14)h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20

Height of capitals
Height of lower- c (10/14)h - 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14
case letters
(without stem
or tail)
Spacing between a (2/14)h 0.36 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8
characters
Minimum spacing b (20/14)h 3.5 5 7 10 14 20 28
of base lines
Minimum spacing e (6/14)h 1.06 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4
between words
Thickness of d (1/14)h 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4
lines
Note: The spacing a between two characters may be reduced by half if this gives a better visual effect, as
for example LA, TV; it then equals the line thickness d.

TABLE 2
Lettering B (d = h/10) Values in millimetres

Characteristic Ratio Dimensions
Lettering height h (10/10)h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20

Height of capitals
Height of lower- c (7/10)h - 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14
case letters
(Without stem
or tail)
Spacing between a (2/10)h 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4
characters
Minimum spacing b (14/10)h 3.5 5 7 10 14 20 28
of base lines
Minimum spacing e (6/10)h 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4 12
between words
Thickness of d (1/10)h 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2
lines
Note: The spacing a between two characters may be reduced by half if this gives a better visual effect, as
for example LA, TV: it then equals the line thickness d.
Lettering
Note: Print letters/numerals in workbook (Ex.1 • Draw horizontal parallel lines (thin lines) of 10 mm
to 6) as instructed below: distance.
10 mm distances denotes the height of the

Procedure letter.
1 Print 10 mm single stroke capital letters and numerals
• Mark the width of the letters recommended by BIS
in vertical style using either scale or setsquare and by
(IS:9609-1983)
free hand.
The width of different letters in terms of `d' is as
follows: `d' indicates stroke thickness i.e d: h/
10.
Width Capital letters

(W)
1 I
4 J
5 C,E,F,L
6 B,D,G,H,K,N,O,P,R,S,T,U & Z
7 A,M,Q,V,X,Y
9 W

For curved letters use smooth free hand curve. Refer lettering practice theory and complete the printing of
letters and numerals.
Print straight line letters using either scale or
setsquares. 5 Print the following statements in 5 mm size.
To maintain the uniform thickness of line, use 1 All dimensions are in mm

conical point soft grade pencil and avoid too 2 Ask if in doubt
much of sharpness.
3 Six holes diameter 8 mm equally spaced 60 mm
Guidelines of both top and bottom should al- pitch circle diameter.
ways be drawn with sharp pencil.
4 This drawing confirms to IS:9609-1983
Numerals 2.1 (Fig 2) 5 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is our national

standard.
6 General deviations as per IS:2012 (medium)
7 All thick lines - 0.5 mm
8 Chamfer to bottom of thread.
9 Rough mill the surface marked `X'.
10 Punch roll number and part number.
• Follow the same procedure of letters. • Calculate the width of the each letters.
• `h' is height of numerals and `d' is the stroke thickness. • Draw the guidelines for the required size.
• Width of numerals in terms of `d' is as follows shown in • Mark the width and spacing for each letter.
square grid (Fig 3).
• Draw vertical guidelines.
• Print the letter free hand, using HB pencil.
Print letters and numerals (1 to 5) according to the

procedure given in theory book.
Practice 1 to 5
1 Print letters A to Z and numerals 1 to 0 in vertical style.
2 Print 10 mm single stroke capital letters and numerals 10 mm capital letters, 10 mm numerals.
in inclined style (Fig 4).
2 Print letters A to Z and numerals 1 to 0 in inclined style.
10 mm capital letters, 10 mm numerals.
3 Print letters and numerals vertical and inclined style.
5 mm capital letters.
4 Print lower case letters 5 mm size in vertical and
inclined style.
5 Print the following statements in 5 mm size letters and
numerals.
• All dimensions are in mm.
• Six holes diameter 8 mm equally spaced 60 mm
pitch circle diameter.
• This drawing confirms to BIS SP: 46-2003.
• Follow the same procedure of vertical capital letters and
numerals. • Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is our national
standard.
• Mark inclined lines at an angle of 15° towards right or
75° from horizontal. • All thick lines - 0.5 mm.
3 Print letters and numerals, vertical and inclined style. • Chamfer at bottom of thread.
Size 5 mm - Capital letters. • Rough mill the surface marked `X'.
4 Print 5 mm lower case letters and numerals both in • Punch roll number and part number.
vertical and inclined style.

Engineering Drawing
Practice of single stroke, double stroke, lettering and numbering

Practice the following lettering exercises in A3/A4 paper as per the given ratio
1 Single stroke inclined letters of ratio 7:6, 7:5, 7:4, 7:3, 7:1 (Fig 1)
41

2 Single stroke vertical letters of ratio 7:6, 7:5, 7.4, 7:3, 7:1 (Fig 2)

3 Double stroke vertical letters of ratio 7:6, 7:5, 7.4, 7:3, 7:1 (Fig 3)

4 Double stroke inclined letters of ratio 7:6, 7:5, 7.4, 7:3, 7:1 (Fig 4)

Engineering Drawing
Dimensioning - definition, types of dimensioning, arrow heads and leaderline

Importance of dimensioning: AnyComponent or prod- Auxiliary or Reference dimension (AUX/REF): It is the
uct manufactured should be confirm to its specification. In dimension given for information only. It is derived from the
fact, without specification of product, there cannot be values given on the drawing or related documents and it
production. In engineering industry, all manufacturing is does not given in the production or inspection. (Fig 1)
controlled by the technical specification of product or
components. Size dimensions: Give the size of a component, part,
hole, slot, depth, width, radius etc.
Technical specification provides complete information on
the shape, size, tolerance, finish, material and other eg: L1, L3, H, h1, S etc. (Fig 2)
technical aspects such as heat treatment, surface coating Location dimension: Give or fixes the relationship of the
and other relevant information required to manufacture a features. viz centre of holes, slots and any significant
component. In most cases technical specifications of forms. (Fig 2)
components are given in the form of a technical drawing
while shape is described by various types of views i.e eg: L4, L5, L6
Orthographic, pictorial and perspective projection and
size is given by dimensions.
Definitions related to dimensioning

Dimension: It is a numerical value expressed appropri-
ate unit of measurement and indicated graphically on
technical drawings with lines, symbols and notes.
Dimensions are classified according to the following
types:
Functional dimension (F): It is a dimension which is
essential to the function of the component or space. They
are generally shown with limits. (Fig 1)
Feature: It is an individual characteristic such as flat
surface. Cylindrical surface, shoulder, screw thread, a
slot, a curve or profile etc. (Fig 3 & 4)
End product: It is a part ready for direct use or assembly

or it can be a part ready for further process. e.g a casting,
shoulder screw etc. (Fig 4)
Non-functional dimension (NF): It is a dimension which

is not essential for the function of the component or
space.
45

The unit of measurement in general, unless or
otherwise specified is mm (millimetres). On
the dimensions of drawings the abbreviation
mm is omitted and a general note is given in an
appropriate corner as "All dimensions are in
mm".
Elements of dimensioning
• Extension line - a
• Dimension line - b
• Leader line - c
Dimension line: These are thin continuous lines, termi-
• Termination of dimension line - d nated at ends by arrow heads, dots or oblique lines
• The original (starting point) indication and the dimension touching the extension line. (Fig 9)
(a).
Extension line: It is a thin line projecting from the feature
and extending beyond the dimension line. (Fig 5)
It is normally perpendicular to the feature being dimen- Dimension line may cut or cross another dimension line
sioned, but may be drawn obliquely as shown for where there is no other way.
dimensioning tapers, parallel to each other. (Fig 6)
Dimension to the hidden lines be avoided. (Fig 10)
When construction line are required to be shown for

practical purposes of the intersecting projection lines Arrow heads may be placed outside where space is
extend beyond their point of intersection. (Fig 7) insufficient.
Leader line: It is a thin continuous line. It connects a note
or dimension with the features to which it applies. (Fig 10)
Termination and Origin indication: The size of the

terminations (arrow heads/oblique strokes) shall be pro-
portional to the size of the drawing. Only one style of arrow
head shall be used on a single drawing. However, where
Extension lines (Projection lines) should not cross the
the space is too small for the arrow heads, it may be
dimension lines, but where not possible the lines should
substituted by a dot or by an oblique line. Arrow heads are
not break. (Fig 8)

drawn as short lines forming barbs at any convenient of sufficient size to ensure complete legibility on the
included angle between 15° and 90°. They may be open, original drawings as well as on reproductions made from
closed or closed and filled in. Oblique strokes drawn as micro-filming.
short line inclined at 45°. (Fig 9)
They shall be placed in such a way that they are not
Indicating dimensional values on drawings: All di- crossed or separated by any other line on the drawing.
mensional values shall be shown on drawings in characters

Engineering Drawing
Dimensioning - methods of dimensions

Methods of indicating values: There are two methods • Dimensioning by co-ordinates
used for indicating the values. Only one method should be
• Combined dimensioning.
used on any one drawing.
Method 1
Dimensional values shall be placed parallel to their dimen-
sion lines and preferably near the middle, above and clear
of the dimension line. However, values shall be indicated
so that they can be read from bottom or from the right-hand
side of the drawing. Dimension lines are not broken.
Dimensioning of angles also given in the same way. (Fig
1 & 2) This method is known as aligned system of
dimensioning.
Chain dimensioning: It is used where the possible

accumulation of tolerances does not infringe (effect) on the
functional requirement of the component. (Fig 5)
Method 2
Dimensional values shall be indicated so that they can be
read from the bottom of the drawing sheet. Non-horizontal
Dimensioning from a common feature is used where a
dimension lines are interrupted, preferably near the middle
number of dimensions of the same direction relate to a
so that the value can be inserted. (Fig 3&4). This method
common origin.
is termed as unidirectional system of dimensioning.
Dimensioning from a common feature may be executed as
Arrangement and indication of dimensions parallel dimensioning or as superimposed running
The arrangement of dimensioning on a drawing shall dimensioning.
indicate clearly the design purpose. Parallel dimensioning: Dimensions of features are taken
The arrangements of dimensioning are: from one datum/common origin and are shown parallel to
other and placed, so that the dimensional values can easily
• Chain dimensioning be added in Fig 6.
• Dimensioning from a common feature
48

Methods of dimensioning common features
Dimensioning Tapered parts: When dimensioning ta-
Superimposed running dimensioning (Progressive
pered part, extension lines be at an angle and parallel to
dimensioning): It is a simplified dimensioning also Cumu-
each other. Dimension line be drawn parallel to the feature
lative error is controlled. It starts from one origin with arrow
to be dimensioned. (Figs 10 & 11) They may sometimes
heads in one direction only. This may be used where there
be shown with large dia and or MT number.
are space limitations and where no legibility problems
would occur.
The origin indication is placed appropriately and the oppo-
site ends of each dimension line shall be terminated only
with an arrow head. It may be advantageous to use
superimposed running dimensions in two directions. (Fig7)
Dimensioning by co-ordinates: This system is much

used for components, produced on jig boring machine.
Two edges are taken as datum. (references)
Instead of dimensioning in superimposed way, same may
be tabulated and given. (Fig 8) Dimensioning smaller width: Arrow heads are replaced
by oblique lines. (Fig 12)
This method is useful in indicating places/positions in To avoid placing dimensions too far away from feature,
country, city and site plans. dimension lines are drawn closer and not fully. (Fig 23)
Combined dimensioning: Dimensions are given in chain Dimensioning cylindrical and spherical features:
dimensioning and parallel dimensioning. Common feature Cylindrical features have diameter and length whereas
is combined. (Fig 9) sphere has a diameter only.

Dimensioning equidistant features: Where equidistant
features or uniformly arranged elements are parts of the
drawing, specification of the dimensioning may be simpli-
fied. Linear spacings may be dimensioned as in Fig17a&b.
Diameter may be indicated by any one of the abbreviation

D, Dia, d, dia or φ and radius may be indicated by R, r, Rad
or rad by square. Any one abbreviation or symbol on a
drawing may be indicated by SQ or .
The length if any required to give alongwith dia, if it is shown
as φ...x... long. (Fig 14)
φ - Diameter
R - Radius
 - Square
SR - Spherical radius
Sφ - Spherical diameter
Dimensioning angles and Angular spacings

Equal angles eg. 4 x 10° = 40°
Equal centre distances eg. 4 x 10 = 40. (Fig 18)
Dimensioning a chord: For dimensioning of chord, refer

Fig 15. It is shown as linear size.
When the drawing is clear, symbols or abbreviation viz. dia,

Pcd and angle can be omitted. (Fig 19)
Dimensioning an arc/radius: A small arc is shown over
the dimension value, while dimensioning an arc. (Fig 16)

Dimensioning periphery: The features on the periphery
can be shown as given in the figure, indicating width, depth
and number of slots. (Fig 20)
Dimensioning repeated features: When elements of

same size occur, but not of same pitch be shown as in
Fig21.
Countersinks and counterbores (IS:10968-1984): For

simplification, the holes are indicated by centre lines and
marked by different letters to different type/size of hole.
The holes maybe plain, through blind, tapped, countersink
of counterbored. (Fig 22)
Dimensioning chamfers and undercuts: Chamfer of 45°
may be shown by leaderline indicating chamfer width and
angle or by dimension line with chamfer width and angle.
(Figs 23 & 24)
Dimensioning undercut: Dimensioning undercuts are
dimensioned either by normal dimensioning the width i.e u/
c 4 x 2 or by leader terminating horizontally u/c 4 x 2.
(Fig23)

Other indications: In order to avoid repeating the same
dimensional values or to avoid long leader lines, reference
letters/numbers may be used in connection with an ex-
planatory table or note. In such cases leader lines may be
omitted. (Fig 25)
In partially drawn views and partial sections of symmetrical

parts the dimension lines that need not cross the axis of the
symmetry are shown extended slightly beyond the axis of
symmetry. The second termination is then omitted. (Fig26)
Principles and application of dimensioning: Before

Where several parts are drawn and dimensioned in an
proceeding to give dimensions, consider the following
assembly, the groups of dimensioned in an assembly, the
steps:
groups of dimensions related to each parts should be kept
as separate as possible. (Fig 27) • Mentally visualize the object and divide it into geometri-
cal shapes such as prisms, cones, cylinders, pyramids
etc.
• Place the size dimension on each form.
• Consider the relationship of mating parts and the
process of production, then select the locating (reference
or datum) centre lines and surfaces.
• ensure that each geometrical form is located from a
centre line and/or a finished surface.
• Place the overall dimensions.
• Add the necessary notes like surface finish, specific
Dimensioning arcs by radius: Only one arrow head
operations, material, fit, type of thread etc. (Fig 30)
termination, with its point on the arc end of the dimension
line shall be used where a radius is dimensioned. The • All dimensional information necessary to define a part
arrow head may be either inside or outside of the feature or component clearly and completely shall be shown
outline. (Fig 28) directly on a drawing unless this information is specified
in relevant documents.
Values for dimensions out of scale: After finalising sizes
may require modification. Instead of re-drawing the entire • Each feature shall be dimensioned once only on a
component, the dimension which is changed is marked drawing.
and a thick line drawn below such size indicating this
• Dimension shall be placed on the view or section that
(feature) size is not to scale (NTS). (Fig 29)
most clearly shows the features.

The non-functional dimensions should be placed in a way
which is most convenient for production and inspection.
Projection lines should be drawn perpendicular to the
feature being dimensioned. Where necessary, however,
they may be drawn obliquely, but parallel to each other.
(Fig 33)
Each drawing shall use the same unit (for example,

millimetres) for all dimensions but without showing the unit
symbol. In order to avoid misinterpretation, the pre-dominant
unit symbol on a drawing may be specified in a note.
Where other units have to be shown as part of the drawing
specification ( for example, N, m for torque or kPa for
pressure), the appropriate unit symbol shall be shown with Dimension line shall be shown unbroken where feature to
the value. which it refers is shown broken, except in Method 2
No more dimensions than are necessary to define a part or (Unindirectional). (Fig 34)
an end product shall be shown on a drawing. No feature of
a part or an end product shall be defined by more than one
dimension in any one direction. Exception may, however
be made
• where it is necessary to give additional dimensions at
intermediate stages of production (for example, the
size of a feature prior to carburizing and finishing).
• where the addition of an auxiliary dimension would be
advantageous.
Production processes or inspection methods should not Avoid intersection of projection lines and dimension lines,
be specified unless they are essential to ensure satisfac- where unavoidable neither line shall be shown with a break.
tory functioning or interchangeability. (Fig 35)
Functional dimensions should be shown directly on the A centre line or the outline of a part shall not be used as a
drawing wherever possible. (Fig 31) dimension line but may be used in place of a projection line.
Occassionally indirect functional dimensioning is justified Any one style of arrow head termination shall be used on
or necessary. In such cases, care shall be exercised so a single drawing. However, where space is too small for
that the effect of directly shown functional dimensioning is arrow head, oblique stroke or dot may be substituted.
maintained. Fig 32 shows the effect of acceptable indirect (Fig36)
functional dimensioning that maintains the dimensional
requirements established by Fig 31.

Values for dimensions out of scale, except where break
lines are used shall be underlined with a straight thick line.
Use chain dimensioning where the possible accumulation
of tolerances does not infringe effect on the functional
requirements of the part.
Single dimension, chain dimensioning and dimension line
from a common feature may be combined on a drawing if
necessary.
Where the size of the radius can be derived from other
dimensions, it shall be indicated with a radius arrow and the
symbol `R' without an indication of the value. (Fig 39)
It may be advantageous to use superimposed running

dimensioning in two directions. In such a case, the origins
may be as shown in Fig 40.
Arrow head terminations shall be shown within the limits of
the dimension line where space is available. Where space
is limited, the arrow head termination may be shown
outside the intended limits of the dimension line that is
extended for that purpose. (Fig 37)
Only one arrow head termination, with its point on the arc
end of the dimension line, shall be used where a radius is
dimensioned. The arrow head termination may be either on
the inside or on the outside of the feature outline for its
projection line depending upon the size of the feature.
(Fig38)
If it is possible to define a quantity of elements of the same

size so as to avoid repeating the same dimensional value,
they may be given as shown in Figs 41 & 42.
Dimensional value should be legible.

Dimension of spherical features should be preceded by S
or SR.

If the special requirement is applied to an element or
Where necessary, in order to avoid repeating the same revolution, the indication shall be shown on one side only.
dimensional value or to avoid long leader lines, reference (Fig 45)
letters may be used in connection with an explanatory
table or note. Leader lines may be omitted. (Fig 43)
Where the location and extent of the special requirement

requires identification, the appropriate dimensioning is
necessary. However, where the drawing clearly shows the
extent of the indication, dimensioning is not necessary.
(Fig 46)
In partially drawn views and partial sections of symmetrical

parts, the dimension lines that need to cross the axis of
symmetry are shown extended slightly beyond the axis of
symmetry. The second termination is then omitted. (Fig44)

Engineering Drawing
Practice of dimensioning
1 Draw the two sheet metal templates to full scale with
appropriate lines use 0.5 range line thickness. (Fig 1)
• Draw a rectangular block of length 80 mm and width 50

mm in thin lines.
• Incorporate the features of the template as per the given
dimension.
• Draw by thick lines all visible out lines.
• Give dimensions and maintain the line thickness as
per the line range (0.5).
• Complete the figure and remove the unwanted lines.
2 Draw the figures given. Maintain the types of lines as per

the B.I.S and choose correct line thickness. (Fig2)
• According to the given dimensions, draw the figures
given in Fig 2.
• Select the appropriate lines and maintain uniformity.
• Remove (erase) unwanted lines, arcs and complete the
drawing.
3 To the given drawing of the profile sheet metal as shown
in Fig 3, place the dimensions in the aligned system.
(Fig3a)
• Draw the drawing of the sheet metal to 1:1 scale.
• Draw the extension lines in continuation of outlines.
• Draw the dimension lines. (Fig 3b)
• Place the dimension value near the middle and above
the dimension line to be read from "bottom and right
hand side" of the drawing.
Note: Draw the dimension line terminations as • Draw the arrow heads with short lines forming borbs at
per IS:11669-1986. any convenient angle between 15° to 90°.
56

4 To the given drawing of the profiled sheet metal as
shown in Fig 4, give the dimensions in the unidirectional
system.
• Place the horizontal dimensions above and middle of
the dimension line without break.
• Break the dimension in the middle of all non-horizontal
dimension lines. (Fig 4b)
5 Motor cycle engine gasket is shown in figure 5. There

are some mistakes in dimensioning. Reproduce the
same in A3/A4 sheet provided and correct the mistakes
according to the aligned system of dimensioning. (Fig5)

6 Draw the given cover plate and give the dimensions in 10 Draw the given distance plate and dimension in aligned
the aligned system. (Fig 6) system. The basic dimension of the plate is 60 mm x
80 mm (Fig 10).
7 Draw thecover plate given in figure and place the 11 Draw the board of 3-phase motor given and dimension
dimensions in the unidirectional system. (Fig 7) in aligned system (Fig 11).
12 Draw the special cam shown in figure and dimension

according to aligned system (Fig 12).
8 Draw the profiled plate given in figure having angular
edge and give dimensions in aligned system. The left
and bottom edge represent the dimension reference
line. (Fig 8)
9 Draw the profiled plate sheet metal with angular edges

and dimension in unidirectional system (Fig 9).

Engineering Drawing
Free hand drawing - practice of lines

Sketch by free hand 2 To draw vertical lines in thick and thin. (Fig 2)
Follow the procedure and sketch the following Ex.No.1 to • Sketch two horizontal thin guide lines AB & CD.
17 in A3/A4 sheets.
• Mark points on the horizontal lines AB & CD, 5 mm
1 To draw horizontal thick and thin lines. (Fig 1) intervals.
• Sketch two vertical thin guide lines AB & CD. • Sketch the line in free hand between the two points with
• Mark points on the vertical lines AB & CD, 5 mm thick and thin alternatively.
intervals approximately. Vertical lines are drawn from top to bottom.
• Draw the lines by free hand between the two points (Fig 2B)
sketch thick and thin alternatively.
Lengthy lines can be drawn with the forearm
motion and short lines are drawn with the wrist
motion.
Keep uniform pressure while sketching.
Horizontal lines are drawn from left to right.
(Fig 1B)
While sketching straight lines between two
points keep your eyes on the point to which the
line is to go rather than the point of pencil.
Avoid of drawing whole length of line in one
single stroke.
Prevent using eraser often.
3 Sketch the inclined lines as shown in figure with

thick and thin lines. (Fig 3)
• Sketch two axis AB & CD.
• On the horizontal and vertical axis AB and CD, mark
points with 5 mm intervals.
• Draw thick and thin lines in the direction as shown in the
figure alternatively.
59

Inclined lines running upward are drawn left to
right i.e bottom to top. (Fig 3B)
The pencil point need not to be too sharp.
Hold the pencil freely and not close to the point.
It is better that the pencil can be hold 30 mm
away from the tip of the pencil lead.
5 Sketch the plane figure as shown. (Fig 5)

• Sketch a square box of 30 mm side in thin lines.
• Mark off the dimensions as shown in figure approxi-
mately.
• Thick the required lines.
• Erase the unwanted lines and complete the figure.
6 Sketch the plane figure as given. (Fig 6)

• Form a square box of 30 mm side in thin lines.
• Set of the dimensions and angle as shown in figure.
• Draw the lines and remove the unwanted lines.
• Complete the figure.
4 Sketch the given plane figure as shown. (Fig 4)

• Draw the horizontal straight line in free hand and mark
off 60 mm approximately.
• Draw a vertical straight line of 60 mm long from the base.
• Draw horizontal & vertical parallel lines and form a
square box of 30 mm sides.
• Darken the lines of the surfaces in figure using thick
line.
• Erase the unwanted lines and complete the plane
figure. 7 Sketch a circle of diameter 50 mm. (Fig 7)
Do not place any dimensions in the figure. • Sketch a square box of given diameter, mark the mid
points and join the mid points of horizontal and vertical
sides. (Fig 7A)
• Join the corners (diagonals) of the square box and mark
the radius of the given diameter. (Fig 7B)

• Join all the 8 points by a smooth curve and complete the • Sketch a rectangular box of 85 mm x 60 mm.
circle. (Fig C)
• Mark of the dimensions as shown in figure.
• Erase the unwanted lines and darken the curve. (Fig 7D)
• Follow the method given in Ex.7,8 and sketch the circle.
Side of the square = Diameter of the circle • Thick the required lines.
Radius of circle = Half of the square side. • Erase the unwanted lines and complete the figure.
10 Sketch the blank shown in figure. (Fig 10)

• Sketch a rectangular box of 75 mm x 60 mm as is figure.
• Mark the other dimensions as shown in figure.
• Thick the required lines of the template.
8 Sketch the template as shown in figure. (Fig 8)

• Sketch a square box of 40 mm side.
• Sketch the semi-circle on right side of the square as
shown in figure.
• Darken the lines as in figure and complete the shape of
11 Sketch the curved shape blank plane figure as
the template.
given in figure. (Fig 11)
• Draw a vertical straight line and horizontal straight line
intersecting each other at right angles.
• Mark off 20 mm on either side of the vertical line from the
intersecting point of the straight lines.
• Sketch semi-circle of R 20 mm top and bottom as in
figure.
• Join the two semi-circles with vertical lines.
• Sketch the three circles of φ 10 mm.
• Darken the lines and complete the figure.
9 Sketch the given figure. (Fig 9)

12 Sketch the template as shown. (Fig 12) • Darken the squares as per exercise drawing.
• Draw a vertical straight line. • Rub off the thin construction lines and complete the
exercise.
• Draw two horizontal straight lines intersecting the
vertical line keeping 40 mm away.
• Sketch the two curves as in figure and join the curves.
15 Draw the pattern of sides 70 mm and 35 mm by free

hand proportional to the size. (Fig 15)
• Draw a rectangle proportionately.
• Join the diagonals.
• Draw parallel lines to the diagonals approximately at 10
mm distance from each other as shown in the exercise.
13 To sketch an ellipse of given major and minor

axis. (Fig 13)
• Draw a horizontal and a vertical line intersecting each
other at right angles.
• On the horizontal line mark the half of the major axis on
either side of the centre and similarly half of the minor
axis on the vertical line.
• Through these points draw horizontal and vertical par-
allel lines and form a rectangular box. 16 Draw a square ABCD of side 80 mm approximately
by free hand. (Fig 16)
• Sketch the small arcs with thin lines.
• Join diagonals (thin line).
• Join the other portion by smooth curve and complete the
ellipse. • Draw the perpendicular bisectors from two adjascent
sides (free hand).
• On side AB, mark EF = 20 mm.
• Join E and F to centre of square.
• Draw a line at a distance 10 mm parallel to EF.•
The parallel line cuts the inclined lines EO and FO at G
and H.
• Join GH, GE and HF.
• Follow the procedure and draw trapeziums similar to
EFHG on the remaining three sides.
• Join the lines shown in the Fig 16 and rub off the thin line
and finish the drawing.
14 Draw the pattern of 50 mm side by free hand.

(Fig14)
• Draw a square by free hand.
• Divide one horizontal and one vertical side into each ten
equal parts.
• Draw a thin horizontal and vertical line through the parts
marked.

17 Sketch the given pattern by free hand. (Fig 17)
• Mark the mid point of the line AB.
• Draw free hand circles of φ 35 and φ 50 on the mid point
of the vertical line.
• Draw two circles φ 20 mm using A and B are the centres.
• Draw two circles of φ 10 from points A and B.
• Complete the drawing after removing unwanted lines.
Plane figures for which the procedure are not

given follow the constructional methods given
in Skill sequences and the Procedures for
plane figures and complete them.

Engineering Drawing
Plane figures - polygon

Polygon is a plane figure bounded by many (usually five or
more) straight lines. When all the sides and included
angles are equal, it is called as a regular polygon. (Fig 1)
Names of polygons: Polygons are named in terms of their

number of sides as given below: (Fig 2)
Name No. of sides
Pentagon Five sides

Hexagon Six sides
Heptagon Seven sides
Octagon Eight sides
Nonagon Nine sides
• The sum of exterior angles of a polygon is equal to 360°.
Decagon Ten sides
Undecagon Eleven sides • The sum of the interior angle and the corresponding
external angle is 180°. (Fig 4)
Duodecagon Twelve sides
Properties of polygon
• All corners of a regular polygon lie on the circle. The
sides of a regular polygon will be tangential to the circle
drawn in side. (Fig 3)
• The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to
(2 x n - 4) x rt angle, where n is the number of sides.
Types of Polygons
Follow the procedure and construct polygons 3.34 to 3.42
in the work book practice sheets of Ex.No.3.
Procedure
1 Regular heptagon of side 25 mm.
Semi-circular method - Type A (Fig 1)
• Draw a line AB equal to 25 mm.
• Extend BA to a convenient length.
• À' as centre and radius AB describe a semi-circle.
• Divide the semi-circle into seven equal parts (number of
sides) using divider.
• Number the points as 1,2,3,4,5,6 starting from `P'.
• Join A2
64

• Draw the perpendicular bisectors from 2A and AB • Divide AH into 5 equal parts (as many equal parts as the
intersecting at 0. sides).
• `0' as centre and OA or OB as radius describe a circle. • A and H as centres, AH as radius describe arcs
• Mark the points C,D,E,F and 2 on the circle such that intersecting at `P'.
BC = CD = DE = EF = F2 = AB. • Join P2 and extend it to meet the circle at `B'.
• Join the line BC, CD, DE, EF and F2. • Set off BC, CD, DE, EF equals to AB on the circle.
• ABCDEF2 is required heptagon. • Join the points.
2 Semi-circle method - Type B (Fig 2) • ABCDEF is the required pentagon.
Follow the procedure upto dividing the semi-circle into 4 Arc method
number of equal parts. (Ex.5.1)
Hexagon of side 32 mm (Fig 4)
• Join A2
• Draw a circle of radius 32 mm.
• Join A3, A4, A5 and A6 and extend to a convenient
length. • Mark the diameter AD
• With centre `B' and radius AB draw an arc cutting A6 • With same radius, A and D as centres. draw two arcs
extended line at `C'. cutting the circle at points B,F,E & C respectively.
• `C' as centre adn same radius, draw an arc cutting the
line A5 at `D'. • Join AB, BC, CD, DE, EF and FA.
• Locate the points E & F in the same manner. ABCDE is the required hexagon.
• Join BC, CD, DE, EF and F2.
• ABCDEF2 is the required heptagon.
5 Arc method (Fig 5)

Hexagon inside a circle of diameter 60 mm (inscribing)
• Draw a line FC equal to 60 mm (Diameter of circle).
• 'O' as centre describe a circle on the diameter FC.
• F as centre FO as radius draw an arc at A.
• 'A' as centre, same radius draw an arc at B.
3 Pentagon inside a circle of diameter 60 mm. (Fig3)
• In the same manner set the points C,D & E.
• Join AB, BC, CD, DE, EF and FA.
ABCDEF is the required hexagon.
• Draw the line AH equals to 60 mm. (Diameter of circle)
• Ò' as centre OA as radius describe a circle.

6 Across flats method (Fig 6)
Hexagon, distance across flat of 45 mm
• Draw a circle of  45. (45 mm is the size across flat)

• Draw two horizontal tangents BC and FE.
• With 60° setsquare draw four tangents, touching the
horizontal tangents.
• Mark the corners A,B,C,D,E and F.
ABCDEF is the required hexagon.

Engineering Drawing
Practice of ellipse
Elements of an ellipse (Fig 1) All ellipse can be constructed in different methods:
– Rectangle method (oblong)
– Concentric circle method
– Arcs method
– String and pins method
– Paper trammel method
– 4 centre method
– Conjugate diameters method
– Eccentricity method
Practical applications: In general, a circle in a pictorial

drawing is represented by an ellipse. The use of elliptical
shape is rarely used for engineering applications. Ellipse
Major axis: It is the longest distance which passes is dealt extensively in mathematical books. Elliptical
through the centre, at right angle to the fixed lines called the shape is adopted for better asthetics.
directrix. AB is the major axis.
1 Construct an ellipse by concentric circle method.
Minor axis: It is the maximum distance which bisects the
Major axis 80 mm. Minor axis 40 mm. (Fig 2)
major axis at right angle. It will be parallel to the directrix.
CD is the minor axis.
Directrix: It is a straight line perpendicular to the major

axis.
Focus: When an arc is drawn with C or D as centre and

AB
radius equal to half the major axis i.e , it is cut at two
2
points F1 and F2 on themajor axis. F1 and F2 are the focal
points of an ellipse F1 or F2 is the focus. The sum of the
distances from F1, F2 to any point on the curve i.e., F1P +
F2P is always constant and equal to the major axis.
Focal radii: The distances from point P on the curve to the

focal points F1 and F2 are called focal radii. Sum of the focal
radii is equal to the major axis. • Draw the major axis AB (80 mm) and minor axis CD
(60 mm), bisecting at right angle at 0.
Eccentricity: The ratio between the distances from the
vertex to focus and vertex to the directrix is called the • '0' as centre OA and OC as radius, draw two
eccentricity and is always less than one. concentric circles.
AF1/A0 is less than one. • Draw a number of radial lines through '0' (say 12)
cutting the two circles.
It can also be stated as the ratio of the distance from focus
onto any point on the curve, say P1 and the perpendicular • Mark the points on the outer circle as a,b,c.
distance of P1 from the directrix. i.e P1F1/P1M is a • Similarly mark the corresponding intersecting points
constant. on inner circle as a',b',c'.
Vertex: The end points of the major axis on the curve are • From points such as a,b,c... draw lines parallel to
called vertex. (A, B) minor axis.
• From points such as a', b',c'.... draw lines parallel to
Tangent and normal to an ellipse: Normal is the line
the major axis to intersect with the corresponding
bisecting the angle F1PF2 in Fig 4. Tangent in a line at 90°
vertical lines at points P1, P2,P3.... etc.
to the normal and touching the ellipse.
• Join all these points with a smooth curve by free
Directrix, axis, focus, vertex and tangent are the elements hand or using "french curve" and form the ellipse.
common to ellipse, parabola and hyperbola.
67

• To find the 'Foci' - with half the major axis (a) as
radius and with 'C' on the minor axis as centre, draw
an arc cutting the major axis, at two points, mark
them as F1F2 the focus points of the ellipse.
2 Construct an ellipse by four centre method - Major axis

= 80 mm and Minor axis = 40 mm - Type A. (Fig 3)
• Join EC
• Bisect AE and mark P the mid-point.
• Join DP meeting EC at K.
• Draw the major axis A1A2 and minor axis B1B2.
• Draw perpendicular bisectors of KD and extend DC
• Set off B1M2 and B2M4 equals to A1B1. and locate point `S'.
• Join A1B1 and set off B1B3 equal to a-b (a = OA1, b • 'S' as centre SD as radius draw the arc KD.
= OB1)
• Similarly get the point 'R'.
• Draw a bisector on A1B3 which intersects A1A2 at
M1. • Join AK and draw perpendicular bisector on it, and
meet AB at f1.
• Similarly obtain M3. M2 & M4 as centres and B1M2
as radius, draw arcs P1P2 & P3P4. • 'f1' as centre, Af1 as radius, draw an arc KK'.
• M1M3 as centres and M1P1 as radius, draw arcs P1P3 • Mark centre 'f2' so that Bf2 = Af1.
& P2P4 and complete the ellipse.
• Now R, S, F1 & F2 are the four centres of the ellipse.
3 Construct an ellipse by four centre method - Major axis Similar to the procedure followed for drawing curves KD and
= 80 mm and Minor axis = 40 mm - Type B. (Fig 6) KK1 and complete the ellipse
• Draw the rectangle EFGH (80 x 40) and draw AB &
CD represent major and minor axis.

Engineering Drawing
Geometrical figures and block with dimension
69


Engineering Drawing
Draw the isometric views of grids, transferring measurement from exercise

1.7.22
71

Engineering Drawing
Title block, borders and frames, grid reference and item reference of
drawingsheet
The drawing sheet on which the drawings to be prepared 3 Follow the same procedure for A3 drawing sheet where
should be prepared first by following the procedure given the title block is to be drawn right side bottom corner
below and the border dimensions remain same
1 Take A4/A3 drawing sheet. 4 Title block to be drawn whenever the title of the drawing
2 Mark the borders and draw the title block as mentioned changes. Eg. for the geometrical construction chapter
below the title block may be drawn in the first sheet only where
as on the remaining sheets borders to be drawn before
they are used for preparing drawings.
Fig 1
72

Layout of drawing sheet: 2
As a standard practice sufficient margins are to be provided
on all sides of the drawing sheet. The drawing sheet should
have drawing space and title page. A typical layout of a
drawing sheet is shown in the (Fig 2&3).
EDN182412
3
EDN182413
Item Reference on Drawing Sheet
05 TIGHTENING PIN 01 MILD STEEL
04 WORK PIECE 01 ANY MATL.
03 SCREW ROD 01 STD.
02 “U” CLAMP 01 CAST IRON
01 “V” BLOCK 01 CAST IRON
DESCRIPTION OF ITEM QTY/ASSY MATERIAL REMARKS
BILL OF MATERIALS

Engineering Drawing
Reading of simple engineering drawing

• concept of axes plane & quadrant
• projection of plain figures
• visualisation of object
• procedure for orthographic projection
• related exercises.
Graphics are preferred by engineer's and craftsman to see Fig 3, wherein a cube with a circular hole is represented
communicate their ideas. When graphics are used for pictorially. We know that all corners of the cube are of 90°.
communication it is called graphical language. Those who But in the pictorial drawing in Fig 3, the same 90° is
donot have the knowledge of this language are profession- represented at some places by acute angles and at some
ally illiterate. other places by obtuse angles.
The saying that "A picture is worth a thousand words" is

very much relevant in technical work.
An engineering drawing conveys many different types of

information of which the most important thing is the shape
of the object. Fig 1 shows a sample drawing. In this
drawing the shape of the part is represented by three views.
For an untrained person it will be very difficult to conceive

the shape of the object from the above drawing.
But in Fig 2, the same object is shown pictorially in a

different ways and the shape is easily understood even by
a layman.
From Fig 1 & 2, it is clear that there are different ways of Projection: Projection is commonly used term in
describing the shape of a part on a paper. Figure 1 is called draughtsmans vocabulary. In the context of engineering
as Multiview drawing or Orthographic drawing and the drawing, projectors means image and it is comparable to
method adopted in figure 2 is called pictorial drawing. The the image formed on the retina of the eyes. (Projection can
different views in a multiview drawing are called as 'Ortho- also be compared to the image of the object on the screen,
graphic views' or Orthographic projections. where the film is projected (by the cinema projector) by the
light rays.
To describe the shape of a part in engineering drawings,
multiview or orthographic view method is preferred as only Projection or images can also be formed inbetween the
Orthographic view can convey the true shape of the object. eyes and the object by keeping a transparent plane. (Fig 4)
Whereas in pictorial drawing through this shape is easily
understood and it is distorted. To emphasise this point,
74

A single orthographic view of an object will show only two
of its three dimensions. The view in figure 6 shows only the
length and height of the object only.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to have an additional view

to show the missing dimensions (width). Therefore, we
have to make two views to represent the three dimensions
of an object.
The two views thus required are to be obtained on two

different planes which are mutually perpendicular (one HP
and one VP) with the object remaining in the same position.
The projection or the view obtained on the horizontal plane
is called the top view or plan and the view obtained on the
In this figure 4 the rays from the object converge to the eyes vertical plane is called elevation.
and this image (Projection) is smaller than the object.
However if the rays are parallel as in the case of rays First angle and third angle projection: One vertical plane
coming from the sun, the image (Projection) will be of the (VP) and one horizontal plane (HP) intersect at right angles
same size as that of the objects. Such a projection is to each other. (Fig 7)
called orthographic projection. The parallel lines/rays
drawn from the object are called projectors and the plane
on which image is formed is called plane of projection. In
orthographic projection, the projectors are perpendicular to
the plane of projection. (Fig 5)
All the four quadrants have one HP and one VP formation.

As per convention in mathematics, the quadrants are
Orthographic projection: The term orthographic is pro- numbered as 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th. These four quadrants are
jection derived from the words, Ortho means straight or at called four dihedral angles, namely 1st angle, 2nd angle, 3rd
right angles and graphic means written or drawn. The angle and 4th angle.
projection comes from the Old Latin words PRO means To draw two views of an object, we assume that the object
forward and Section means to throw. The orthographic is placed in any one of the quadrant/angles, 1st angle & 3rd
projection literally means "Throw to forward", "drawn at angle Fig 8a, 9a and its plan and elevation projected to the
right angles" to the planes of projection. respective planes.
An orthographic system of projection is the method of Now tomake it possible to draw the two views (Plan &
representing the exact shape and size of a three dimen- elevation) in one plane i.e the plane of the drawing paper,
sional object on a drawing sheet or any other plain surface the horizontal plane is assumed to be unfolded in clock-
such as drawing board. wise direction through 90° Fig 8b & 9b. We proceed this

way, when the views are made. When the object is placed
in the 2nd or fourth quadrant the plan and elevation will get
super imposed (one up on the other) Fig 10a & b.
Due to this reason the 2nd and 4th angle are not used for
making engineering drawings as the three dimensions
cannot be easily identified. Hence for representing the
three dimension of the object, we assume the object is
placed either in 1st angle and in 3rd angle (Fig 11 & 12)
respectively
The placement of plan and elevation when the horizontal
plane is unfolded will be different in these two systems. It
may be observed in Fig 13 that in the first angle projection
plan (top views) will be directly below the elevation, whereas
in 3rd angle projection plan lies directly above the elevation.
(Fig 14)
Views can be drawn in any one of these two methods.
However Indian STandard (BIS) has recommended the first
angle method to be used in our country.

Engineering Drawing
Methods of orthographic projection

Procedure In this exercise the faces of prism are parallel to the planes
of projection. Therefore all the lines orthographic projection
Method 1
are vertical and horizontal lines only.
Draw the orthographic projection (elevation, plan and side
Visualise the shape of the object and imagine the shape
view) of the square sheet (40 mm side) kept perpendicular
description of views. Surface ABCD (Fig 2B) only visible
to HP and parallel to VP. (I angle) (Fig 1)
from the elevation. At the same time all the four sides of
ABCD are isometric lines. Therefore in the elevation a
rectangle of 40 x 30 mm is seen.
• Draw the xy line.

• Draw the square with its centre 40 mm above the xy line
and one edge parallel to xy line.
• Mark the corners of the figure a', b', c' & d'. This will be
the elevation of the square.
• Draw the vertical projectors from a'b' downward beyond
the xy line.
• Draw a horizontal line dc at a distance of 20 mm below
the xy line. Line dc will be the plan.
• Draw a X'Y' line at a convenient distance from b'c',
intersecting the xy line at `0'.
• Project the plan to the X Y line meeting at e.
• Draw xy line of convenient length. (Fig 2B)
• By arc method transfer Oe to xy and mark the point `f'
at a" and d" respectively. Now the line a"d" is the side • Draw a rectangle a'b'c'd' on the xy line. This will be the
view. elevation of the prism.
• Project the vertical sides of the elevation (a'd' and b'd')
Method 2 : Rectagular prism downwards beyond xy line.
Draw the Top, Front and side views of the rectangular prism • Draw a horizontal line fg approximately 20 mm below xy
of base 30 x 20 mm and height 40 mm. (Fig 2A) line.
77

• Draw a rectangle fgba of 30 x 20 mm size. This will be • Draw projectors from elevation and side view and
the plan of the prism. complete the plan.
• Project points b' and c' horizontally a convenient length (Three lateral faces are visible of which one is of true
to the right side of the elevation. shape and the other two are fore shortened)
• Transfer the width of plan gb by arc and locate points
Method 4 : Cylinder
e"d" on the xy line.
Draw the top, front and side view of a cylinder of diameter
• Project e"d" vertically up and locate points f"a"d"e" is
20 mm and length 30 mm. (Fig 4A)
the left side view of the prism.
Method 3 : Hexgonal prism

Draw the three views of the hexagonal prism shown in
Fig3A.
From the position described above, it is clear that the
hexagonal face of the prism is parallel to AVP. Therefore
the end view is a true hexagon and hence this view should
be drawn first.
• Draw the side view (hexagonal of side 25 mm) with one
side on HP line. (Fig 3B)
• Draw horizontal projectors from side view and complete
the front view. (in the front view two lateral faces are
visible, but they are fore shortened)
In this problem the circular faces are parallel to VP.

Therefore the elevation is a circle resting on XY line. Plan
an end views are rectangles of size 30 mm x 20 mm.

• Draw the circle of diameter 40 mm touching XY line. In this elevation, three triangular faces are seen and all of
(Fig4B) them are fore-shortened.
• Draw the plan projecting it from the elevation. • Mark the centre of hexagon (Point P) and draw lines
from P to the six corners of the hexagon. Now this is
• Draw the end view by drawing projection on it, from the
the required plan. (Fig 6B)
plan and elevation.
• Project this P from plan upwards and mark P' at a
• Draw the plan, elevation and side view of a cylinder
distance of 75 mm from XY line.
whose base diameter 30 mm and height 50 mm when
its position is as shown in Fig 4C. • Mark the points f', a'b'c' etc... on XY line by projecting
the corresponding points from plan.
Method 5 : Cone
• Join the P' with f', a',b',c' etc and complete the required
Draw the multi-views of the cone shown in the Fig 5A. elevation.
Follow the procedures of the earlier exercises and draw the
• Draw projectors from elevation and plan to complete the
multi-views. (Fig 5B)
required side view.
Method 7
Method 6 : Regular hexagonal pyramid
Identify the surfaces of the block shown in the isometric
Draw the Orthographic views of a regular hexagonal pyra- view with the corresponding multi-views and fill the numericals
mid of side 20 mm and height 40 mm given its position as in the given tabulation column. (Fig 7)
below. (Fig 6A)
The surfaces are parallel and perpendicular to the plane of
– standing vertically with its base on HP and one side of projection.
the hexagonal base parallel to VP.
• Study the isometric view and the corresponding multi-
The pyramid has 6 triangular faces and one hexagonal views carefully.
base. The plan will show the true shape of the base and
other six triangular faces are fore-shortened.

• You may observe that the surfaces seen in one view are • Similarly the surface À' seen from the top of the
represented by lines in other two views. isometric views is numbered as `10' in the plan of the
multi-views, whereas the full surface area is visible.
• In this exercise the surface À' shown in isometric view
is seen as a line in the front elevation and numbered as When a surface is parallel or perpendicular to the plane of
`5' in the front view of the corresponding multi-views. projection vice-versa in a multi-views drawing, full area of
the surface will be seen in any one the three views (plan,
• The same surface À' in the side view is seen as a line
elevation and side view) and in other two views the corre-
and numbered `6' in the side view of the multi-views.
sponding line of the surface will be seen.
Method 8
Identify the surfaces of the block with slope cuts shown in • In this exercise, the surface `B' is seen as a surface in
isometric view with the corresponding multi-views and fill front view and top view, numbered in multi-views as 7 &
the tabulation column. (Fig 8) 8 respectively.
Surfaces B and F are inclined to HP and parallel to VP. • The same surface `B' in the side view is seen as a line
and numbered as 19 in the multi-views which are shown
• You may observe that the surface inclined to one plane
in tabular column. Study the drawing carefully and fill
is seen in other two views as fore-shortened area of the
up the other columns.
surface and in other view the corresponding line of the
surface is visible.
Method 9 (Fig 9)
Identify the surfaces of the block shown in Isometric view • Seen from top of the isometric view the fore-shortened
with the correspoding multi-views and fill in the tabulation area of the surface is seen and numbered as 5 in the top
column. (Fig 9) view of the multi-view. Similarly in side view it is
The surface is inclined to three planes HP, VP & AVP. numbered as 7 in multi-view.
• In this exercise you may observe that the surface À' is When a surface of the object is inclined to all the planes,
inclined to all the three planes. the complete fore-shortened surface will be seen in all the
three views.
• When you visualise the surface À' in the front view of the
isometric view, the fore-shortened area of the surface is • Fill the other columns and complete the exercise.
seen and numbered as 2 in the multi-view.

Method 10
Draw the isometric view (Fig 10) and also draw the three
views in the work book.
line joining `D' and È', also the line joining back bottom
Orthographic projection shows the shape of a component surfaces are appearing in the side view by hidden line.
by drawing number of views each looking at different side (Fig13)
of the component. Arrange views as stated earlier with uniform gap between
A minimum of two views are required to represent a views. (Fig 13)
component. In order to clarify clearly the internal and
external details a minimum of three views are to be drawn.
They are:
• Elevation or Front view or Front elevation. (F)
• Plan or Top view. (P)
• Side view or side elevation or end elevation. (S)
In the Fig 10, surface À' is only seen when looking at the
front of the figure. All the lines in the isometric view are
isometric lines. Therefore in the orthographic projection,
the front view will be like this. (Fig 11)
In the plan surfaces `C', `D' and `F' are visible and the
bottom surface will not visible. The line joining the two
surfaces will not visible. The line joining the surfaces will
appear in the plan by hidden line. (Fig 12)
In the side view surface `B' is visible and surfaces È' and
back bottom surfaces are invisible. Due to this reason the

Engineering Drawing
Methods of pictorial drawing

Pictorial drawing: Even a common man can understand is vertical. After drawing two 30° lines and one vertical line,
easily the shape of an object quickly by a picture or by a parallel lines are drawn to complete cube. (Fig 2)
pictorial drawing. It is also called as three dimensional
drawing.
Pictorial drawings are very useful for describing the shape
of a piece part or component, even though they have a
distorted look.
Three type of pictorial drawings are (Fig 1)
• Isometric drawing
• Oblique drawing These three lines which represent the mutually perpen-
• Perspective drawing dicular edges are isometric axes. Generally those axes
are kept in four positions. (Fig 3)
So to draw the isometric drawing, first draw the three

mutually perpendicular edges, set other linear dimensions
and complete the figure. (Fig 4)
Out of the above three types, isometric drawings are very

much prefered by machine shop and metal working trades
group. But perspective drawings are popular in civil Isometric and non-isometric lines: Fig 5 shows the
engineering group of trades. isometric view of a shaped block. Here all lines except
AB, BC and DE are parallel to isometric axis. Such lines
Isometric drawing: In an isometric drawing the three
which are parallel to isometric axes are called isometric
mutually perpendicular edges of a cube are at an angle of
lines whereas such lines AB, BC and DE which are not
120° with each other. Instead of drawing the edges in the
parallel to isometric axes are called non-isometric lines.
above said way, first we can also start from point à'. At this
point also three mutually perpendicular edges met while
two of these edges make 30° to horizontal, the other edge
82

The length of non-isometric lines will not follow the scale • Construct a rectangular box to the overall size of the
used for isometric lines. To prove this point consider the pyramid (Fig 7a)
non-isometric lines AB or BC. The true length of both AB
• Mark the distances ad and be from the plan of Fig 7b in
and BC is 5 cm while BC will be longer. Because of this
the base of the box.
reason non-isometric lines are drawn first by locating their
starting and end points on isometric lines. • Mark the distances kg and dh on the top face of box.
(Fig 7c)
• Join the points ab, bc, ca, ag, bg and cg and complete
the isometric view of the pyramid in box method. (Fig7c)
Off-set method of drawing a pyramid

Example
Same triangular pyramid (Fig 6) is considered for drawing
isometric view using offset method.
To locate the end points and to draw the non-isometric lines
two methods are employed. They are • Draw an isometric square/rectangle considering the
corners of the base of the pyramid. (Fig 8a)
• Box method
• With the help of Fig 6 (Plan) locate all the three corners
• Off-set method of the base P,Q and r using offset method.
Box method: The object is assumed to be inside a • Locate the position of vertex Ò' on base by referring the
rectangular box. Starting and end points are located and Fig 6 (Plan) using the same offset method. (Fig 8b)
marked. By joining the points isometric view is drawn.
• Draw the vertical line 0'-0 to the height of the pyramid.
Off-set method: This method is most suited for the objects
consisting of number of planes at a number of different • Join the corners of the base.
angles. • Join the vertex 0' with the corners of the base and
complete the pyramid. (Fig 8c)
These methods are not only useful for isometric
views involving non-isometric lines but also for
the isometric views involving isometric lines.
Box method of drawing a pyramid

Example
Draw an isometric view for the triangular pyramid shown in
Fig 6 using a box method.
Angles in isometric drawing: The angles of inclined

surfaces will not have the value in the isometric drawing, but
will be more in some cases and less in other cases.
For example, in the isometric view of prism shown in Fig 9
the true value of all the angles is 90°. But in isometric
drawing the angles are 60° in some cases and 120° in
others.
Isometric circles: The term isometric circle refers to the
shape of circle in isometric view. An isometric circle will be
elliptical in shape as shown in Fig 10. While drawing
isometric view of cylindrical features isometric circles will
have to be used. (Fig11)

Arc method: Isometric circles drawn by offset method is
the ideal method of making isometric circles as the ellipse
obtained this way is geometrically true. But by free hand
we cannot get a clear line.
Fig 13 shows the construction of isometric circle in 3
different orientation by arc method. Four arcs are to be
drawn and the centres an C1, C2, B & D. While centre B
and D are the corner of the rhombus C1 and C2 are
intersection points of the longer diagonal with lines from
points B or D to the mid point of the side of the rhombus.
Note: The arc method gives a clean ellipse, but

this ellipse drawn this way will slightly deviate
from true ellipse. It does not matter for our
purpose.
The isometric circles can also be drawn using templates
which can be bought from stationary shops.
An isometric circle can be drawn either be plotting offset
method or by arc method. Isometric view of profiles: The profile M'N' of the block
shown in Fig 14 is irregular in nature. The isometric views
Plotting method (Fig 12) of such lines may be drawn by offset method described
earlier. The points 1',2',3' and 4' lie on the profile. Lines A'-
1', B'-2', C'-3', D'-4' are isometric lines and their length are
same both in Fig 14 & Fig 15. After getting the points 1,2,3
& 4, they joined by smooth curve.
• Draw a square of side equal to the dia of circle and

inscribe the circle.
• Divide the circle into any number of equal parts and
mark points such as 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 on the circle.
• Through the points 1,2,3 etc draw lines parallel to the
both the axis of cylinder. Note: In offset method more the number of
• Draw isometric view of the square. points, better will be the accuracy of the curve.
• Mark points corresponding to 1,2,3....8 with isometric Isometric drawing of sphere: The Orthographic view of
view of the square as points 1',2',3'....8'. a sphere seen from any direction is a circle of diameter
• Join these points with a smooth curve to for an ellipse. equal to the diameter of the sphere. Hence, the isometric
drawing of a sphere is also a circle of the same diameter.
Note: The orientation of the isometric circle
will depend upon the plane on which the
circular feature exists.

Again, assume a horizontal section through the centre of
the sphere.
The isometric drawing of this circle is shown by the ellipse

3, drawn in a horizontal position around the same centre
Ò'. In all the three cases 1,2 & 3 the outermost points on
the ellipse from the centre Ò' is equal to 1/2 D.
Thus, it can be seen that in an isometric drawing, the
distances of all the points on the surface of a sphere from
its centre are equal to the radius of the sphere. Hence, the
isometric projection of a sphere is a circle whose diameter
is equal to the true diameter of the sphere. (Fig 17)
Also the distance of the centre of the sphere from its point
The front view and the top view of a sphere resting on flat of contact with the flat surface is equal to the isometric
surface are shown in Fig 16a. radius OP of the sphere.
It is therefore of the utmost importance to note that
Ò' as its centre, D is the diameter and P is the point of
isometric scale must invariably be used while drawing
contact with the surface.
isometric projection of solids in conjunction with spheres
Assume a vertical section the centre of the sphere. Its or having spherical parts.
shape will be a circle of diameter D. The isometric drawing Draw the following isometric figures (Ex.1 to 29) in A3/A4
of this circle are ellipses 1 & 2 Fig 16(b) drawn in two Sheets. Follow the procedure given wherever necessary.
different vertical positions around the same centre Ò'. The
major axis in each case is equal to D. The distance of the
point P from the centre Ò' is equal to the isometric radius
of the sphere.

Engineering Drawing
Practice of isometric views (Isometric to Isometric)

Procedure • Draw the isometric view of a rectangular prism of
1 Draw the isometric drawing of a rectangular prism dimensions equal to the overall size of the block 45 x 25
of base 30 mm x 40 mm and the height 60 mm. x 30 mm.
(Fig1) • Draw the lines JD, DE, EF, FH, HI and IJ using the
measurements given in the figure.
• Rub off SR, RD, SJ, SH and RF.
• Darken the remaining lines of the stepped block.
3 Draw the isometric view of the components shown.

(Fig 3)
• Draw the stepped block as per dimension. Follow the
procedure given in the previous Ex.No.2.
• Mark points UTSV as per dimension on the top of the
surface EDGF (Fig 3b)
• Join points UTSV.
• Draw the three isometric axes through point À'. • Project vetically downwards from the points UTSV and
obtain the point WXYZ at bottom surface such that UW,
• Mark AB = 15 mm, AD = 30 mm and AH = 50 mm
TX, SY & VZ are equal to 10 mm. Join the point WXYZ
representing the three sides of prism.
and draw the thick lines which are all visible and dotted
• Draw two vertical lines parallel to the line AH through lines which are not visible.
points B and D.
• Similarly draw two more lines parallel to AB and AD
through point H.
• Mark G and E the intersecting points.
• Draw lines parallel to GH and HE through points G and
E intersecting point is F.
• Draw lines parallel to AB & AD through points D and B
respectively intersecting at C.
• Join CB & CD with dash lines.
• Join F and C also with dash lines.
• Rub off the construction lines and complete the prism.
2 Draw the isometric view of the stepped block

given in Fig2.
86

Note: All construction lines should be in thin 6 Draw the isometric view of the machined block
lines. After completion of the isometric views, having non-isometric lines. (Fig 6a)
in each case erase the unwanted lines and • Draw an isometric box. (Fig 6b)
construction lines.
• Mark point A on PS at a distance of 15 mm from P.
With the experiences gained in previous exercises of • Draw line AB = 25 mm parallel to PQ.
drawing isometric views, draw the following exercises 4 &
5 and complete the same. • From B, draw a vertical line cutting RS at L.
• Mark point D on US such that UD = 20 mm.
4 (Fig 4)
• Draw a line DC parallel to UT equal to AB.
• Join AD, BC and CL to complete the required isometric
view of the block.
• Remove the extra lines and darken the required visible
edges.
• Show hidden edges by dashed lines.
5 (Fig 5)
7 Draw the isometric view of the `V' block. (Fig 7a)

• Draw the isometric view of a rectangular box of size 50
x 40 x 30.
• On the face ABFE, draw the lines JN & LN by offset

method.

• Similarly draw lines KP & MP. Draw the isometric drawing of the following slant cut
blocks. (Fig 8)
• Join ML, KJ and PN.
• In each case draw the isometric view of a rectangular
• Erase construction lines and make the remaining line prism to the overall sizes of the each block.
thick and dashes according to the drawing.
• Follow the procedure adopted in the previous exercises
and complete the each isometric view of the blocks.
• Remove the unwanted lines, draw the remaining lines
thick and hidden lines as required. Complete the
figures.
• Assume the missing dimensions if any proportionally.

Engineering Drawing
Method of orthographic views

Draw Isometric view for the given Orthographic views
89

Engineering Drawing
Method of perspective views

Perspective (from Latin: perspicere "to see through") in
the graphic arts is an approximate representation, generally
on a flat surface (such as paper), of an image as it is seen
by the eye. The two most characteristic features of
perspective are that objects appear smaller as their
distance from the observer increases; (Fig 1) and that they
are subject to foreshortening, meaning that an object's
dimensions along the line of sight appear shorter than its
dimensions across the line of sight.
Two-point perspective
A drawing has two-point perspective when it contains two
vanishing points on the horizon line. In an illustration, these
vanishing points can be placed arbitrarily along the horizon.
(Fig 1&2) Two-point perspective can be used to draw the
same objects as one-point perspective, rotated: looking
at the corner of a house, or at two forked roads shrinking
into the distance, for example. One point represents one
One-point perspective set of parallel lines, the other point represents the other.
Seen from the corner, one wall of a house would recede
A drawing has one-point perspective when it contains only towards one vanishing point while the other wall recedes
one vanishing point on the horizon line. (Fig 1&2) This towards the opposite vanishing point.
type of perspective is typically used for images of roads,
railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed so that the
front is directly facing the viewer.
90

Three-point perspective
Three-point perspective is often used for buildings seen
from above (or below). (Fig 1&2) In addition to the two
vanishing points from before, one for each wall, there is
now one for how the vertical lines of the walls recede. For
an object seen from above, this third vanishing point is
below the ground. For an object seen from below, as when
the viewer looks up at a tall building, the third vanishing
point is high in space.

Engineering Drawing
Symbolic representation as per BIS SP: 46-2003

Introduction
Conventions are the graphical symbols used while mak- 1 Materials
ing drawings to indicate
2 Equipments/Instruments/Engineering Components
1 Fasterners (Rivets, Bolts and Nuts) 4 Electrical and Electrionic elements

2 Bars and Profile section 5 Piping joints anf Fittings
3 Weld, Brazed and soldering joints
Fasterners (Rivets, Bolts and Nuts)

In joining numbers of parts together and dismandling with-
out damaging any parts, devices called Bolts, nuts, screws
etc are made use of . These are called “Screwed
fasterners”. Bolt is a metallic cylindrical rod having a
specific shape on one end called “Head” and the other
end called the shank with screw threads cut on it. All the
fasterners are ganerally made of steel of good tensile
strength.
Bolts are known by the shape of head viz., Hexagonal,
Square, Cylindrical or cheese headed, cup or round, ‘T’
hook, eye bolts etc. and shank dia. The shape of head is
selected depending upon the purpose for which it is used.
While engaging or dismantling a nut on to bolt, to prevent
the rotation of bolt, bolt head is held by another spanner.
All the fasterners size/specifications follow letter M, stands
for Metric (size) e.g. Hex.bolt M20x100 i.e hexagonal bolt
shank dia 20mm, 100mm long. There are three grads of hex.head bolts viz (i) Precision,
Hexagonal head bolts: For drawing purpose, irrespective (ii) Semi precision and (iii) Black denoted by letters A,B,&c
of shape of head, bolt head thickness is taken as 0.8d reapectively according to their dimensional accurancies.
where d is the diameter of the shank. The length of bolt Hexagonal bolts Grades A and B IS:1364 part-1 M3 to
varies according to dia and the reqiurements. Fig 1&2 show M36. (12 sizes)
the bolt head and bolt. The top corners of the hexagon are
chamfered to avoid sharp corners which get damaged while Grade C IS:1363-part-1 M5 to M36 (10 sizes)
using spanner and also injurious while handling. Grade C Black IS:3138 M42 to M156 (23 sizes) are
avaliable.
92

Nuts
Nut is a metallic piece of definite shape with threaded
(screwed) hole on the centre of the face. It is used on the
end of the bolt/screw to hold the part in position.
Nuts are known by their shape or their cross-section. The
most commonly used forms are hexagonal and square.
Nuts are specified by the shape of the nut and the nominal
dia of bolt/screw on which they are used.(Fig 1)
Hexagonal nut (Fig 2): It is made of hexagonal bar with a

screwed/threaded hole in the centre. To avoid the damaging
of the corners on the face, they are chamfered at 300, with
reference to the base. Theoretically the thickness of the
nut is equal to the diameter of the bolt and corner to corner
is 2d i.e., twice the diameter of the bolt.
The actual sizes are specified in IS:1363, 1364, 3138.
Thin hex.nut are avaliable IS:1364 (Part-4) Rivets
Convention of threads: Since drawing the profile of

threads is cumbersome and does not serve ant special
purpose, the thread forms are conventionally represented
by thin line. Fig 1 show the convention of threads on the
screw and end view.


Engineering Drawing
Symbolic representation of bars and profile sections
95

Engineering Drawing
Symbolic representation of weld, brazed and soldered joints

1 Symbolic representation of supplementry welding
Convention used for Welded joints symbols
S.no Designation Illustration Symbol
1 Fillet
2 Square butt
3 Single V-butt
2 Symbolic representation of Positioning of welding

4 Double V-butt
symbols
5 Single U-butt
6 Double U-butt
7 Single bevel butt
8 Double bevel butt

3 Symbolic representation of End view of joint, its
9 Single J-butt symbolization and front view of its symbolization
10 Double J-butt
11 Stud
12 Bead edge or seal
13 Sealing run
14 Spot
15 Seam
16 Stitch
17 Plug weld
96

4 Brazed and soldered joints

Engineering Drawing
Symbolic representation of electrical and electronic elements

Conventions used for electrical and electronic elements
S.No. Particulars Symbols S.No. Particulars Symbols
1 D.C. 11 Cell
2 A.C.
12 Battery
3 Positive
13 Single pole single

4 Negative throw switch
5 Single Phase
A.C. 50 Hz
14 Push-button switch
6 Three Phase
A.C., 50 Hz
15 Energy meter
7 A.C. / D.C.
16 Alternator
8 3-Phase line
17 Generator
9 Neutral line
18 D.C. Motor
10 Earth
98

29 Ceiling Rose
19 A.C.Motor Single 2-pin, 3-pin
phase
30 Over head line

20 3-phase squirrel
cage motor
31 Aerial
21 3-phase slip
ring motor
32 Voltmeter
22 Capacitor:
Fixed, variable
33 Ammeter
23 Electrolytic
Capacitor
34 Ohm Meter
24 Two-way switch 35 Watt Meter
36 Lamp
25 D.P.D.T. Switch
37 Fan regulator
26 Fuse: ordinary
catridge
38 Electro Magnet
27 Link
39 Relay
28 Socket
2 pin, 3 pin

40 Electric bell 51 Recitifier
41 Buzzer 52 Trimmer:
Padder
42 Contacts - NO, NC
53 Ganged
Capacitor
43 3-phase contactor
54 Main transformer
44 Connections: with multiple
star, Delta secondary winding
45 Choke
55 Auto transformer
46 Transformers
56 Silicon Bilateral
switch (SBS)
47 Carbon microphone
57 S.C.R.
48 Loudspeaker
58 U.J.T
49 Resistor : Fixed
59 F.E.T. N-Channel
50 Resistor:
variable

68 AND gate
60 F.E.T. P-Channel
69 NAND gate
61 TRAIC
70 Ex-OR gate
62 DIAC
71 Operational
amplifier
63 NPN Transistor
72 Ex-NOR gate
73 Flip - flop
64 PNP transistor
74 Differential
Amplifier
65 NOT gate
66 OR gate 75 Light emitting diode
67 NOR gate
76 Photo diode

Engineering Drawing
Symbolic representation of piping joints and fittings

Isometric and orthographic symbols for pipe fittings
S. No. Description Isometric symbol (right face) Orthographic symbol
Screwed Flanged Screwed Flanged
1 Joint/Coupling
2 Reducer
3 900 elbow
(i) Turned up
(ii) Turned down
4 Tee
(i) Turned up
(ii) Turned down
5 Cross
6 Bend
7 Plug (female)/(dead end)
8 Plug (male)
9 Union
10 Hose nipple
102

Image Valves Buttweld Symbol Flanged Symbol
Gate
Globe
Ball
Plug
Butterfly
Needle

Engineering Drawing
Construction of scales and diagonal scale

Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• construct plain and diagonal scales
Plain Scale, Representative fraction (R.F)and Different reduction scales are recommended by BIS vide
Diagonal Scale IS:10713 are as follows:
Scales (Fig 1): It is difficult to draw the components to their Full scale 1:1
actual sizes, because they may be too large to be
accommodated on the drawing sheet or too small to draw Reduction scales:
and cannot be effectively used in the shop floor. For 1:2 1:5 1:10
example, think of making the drawing of a motor car. It is
1:20 1:50 1:100
too long and wide to be drawn on the drawing sheet to its
original size. Similarly small component like wheel of a 1:200 1:500 1:1000
wrist watch or its needle (hands) if drawn to its original size
1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
will not be legible enough for use in the shop floor.
The recommended enlarged scales are
So depending on the situation drawings are drawn smaller
or larger than the actual sizes. When we say that the 50:1 20:1 10:1
drawings are smaller or larger, we mean that a given length
in the drawing will be smaller or larger than the corresponding 5:1 2:1
length in the object.
Designation of scale: 1:1 for full scale
The ratio of the length in the drawing to its corresponding
length of an object, when both the lengths are in the same 1:X for reduction scale
unit, it is called the Representative Fraction (RF).
X:1 for enlargement scale
Size of the component in the Drawing
RF = To construct a scale the following information is essential
Actual size of the component
– RF of the scale
Depending on the situation the term scale implies either RF – Units which it must represent example mm; cm; m; ft;
or a measuring device itself made for a particular RF. inches etc.
RF has two elements of which one of the element is always – the maximum length it must show
'1'.
Minimum length of the scale = RF x the maximum length
Example of RF: 1:5; 1:22; 10:1; 150:1 etc. required to be measured.
First element in the RF always represents the size in the Here RF is expressed as a fraction.
drawing while the second element represents the
corresponding size of the object. Recommended length of the scale is 15 or 30 cm but prefer
15 cm.
Reduction and enlarged scale
Plain scales (Fig 1): Scales are drawn in the form of
Thus RF such as 1:3; 1:100 etc are the reduction scales rectangle, of length 15 cm (can be upto 30 cm) and width
and the drawings made is smaller than the object. 15 mm. It is divided into suitable number of parts. The first
Similarly RF such as 10:1; 150:1 etc are the enlarged part of the line is sub-divided into smaller units as required.
scales and the drawings made are larger than the object. Every scale should have the following salient features:
RF may be written in one of the two ways shown below: – The zero of the scale is placed at the end of the first
division from left side.
1
or 1:120 (Reduction scale) – From zero, mark further divisions are numbered towards
120
right.
15 – Sub-divisions are marked in the first division from zero
or 15:1 (enlargement scale)
1 to left side.
104

– Names of units of main divisions and sub divisions Example: A small distance AB is to be divided into 10
should be stated/printed below or at the end of the equal parts using diagonal scale.
divisions.
AB is the line to be divided into 10 equal parts.
– Indicate the `RF' of the scale.
Diagonal scale is shown in the figure 2.
Example of construction of a plain scale to measure
1
metres and decimetres. RF = and to measure upto 8
50
metres. Minimum standard length of scale = 15 cm.
The length of the scale = RF x maximum length to be
1
measured = x 8 x 100 cm = 16 cm.
50
Length of 16 cm is divided into 8 equal parts or major

divisions each representing one metre. If each major Side AD is the line to be divided into 10 equal parts 1 to 10.
division is divided into 10 sub-divisions each sub-division Parallel lines are drawn to AB from points 1,2.....10.
will represents one decimetre.
Join one of the diagonal AC.
A distance of 6.7 m will be shown as in the figure 1.
Join parallel line cuts the diagonal at a,b.....j.
Diagonal scale: Plain scales cannot be used for taking
smaller measurement. The distance between the
th
consecutive divisions on a plain scale, at best can only be 1
0.5 mm. In other words, the smallest measurement that Distance 1 - a is   of AB = 0.1 AB
 10 
can be taken. Using a plane scale of RF 1:1 is 0.5 mm. If
the RF of a plain scale is 1:5, the smallest measurement
such a scale can take is 2.5 mm (0.5 mm x 5). 2
th
Distance 2 - b is   of AB = 0.2 AB
To overcome this limitation two different types of scales are  10 
employed. They are
th
– Diagonal scale 9
Distance a - i is   of AB = 0.9 AB
 10 
– Vernier scale
th
8
Principle of diagonal scale: Diagonal scale relies on a Distance b - ii is   of AB = 0.8 AB
"diagonal" to divide a small distance into further equal  10 
parts.
If AB is 1 mm then 1 - a will be 0.1 mm and 2 - b will be 0.2
Principle of diagonal scale is based on the principle of mm.
similar triangles. Similarly a - i will be 0.9 mm and c - iii will be 0.7 mm.

Parallel lines on both sides of the diagonal can be considered
for measurement.
1.1: Construct a plain scale of R.F 1/20 to read 1.2 m and

minimum distance of 10 cm.
1.2: Construct a rectangle whose perimeter is 1800 m

and its sides are in the ratio of 3:4, using scale of R.F
1:16000.
1.3: Construct a plain scale to show metres and decime-

tres long enough to measure upto 5 m. RF = 1/40.
Mark a length of 3.7 m on it.
1.4: Construct a diagonal scale for 4 m length and show

the length 2.69 m, 1.09 m and 0.08 m. (RF = 1/5)
1.5: A rectangular plot of land area 9 Sq.m is represented

on a map by a similar rectangle of 1 square centime-
tre. Calculate the R.F of the scale of the map.
Construct a plain scale to read metres from the map.
The scale should be long enough to measure upto
45 metres on the scale to indicate a distance of 25
m.
1.6: Construct a diagonal scale of R.F = 1:32,00,000 to

show km and long enough to measure upto 350 km.
Show distances 237 km and 222 km on the scale.
1.7: Reproduce the given template in full size. (1:1) scale

according to the dimensions.Fig 3
1.8: Draw the given fig 4 in reduced scale i.e 1:2 scale
according to the dimensions.
1.9: Draw the Fig 5 in 1:2 scale according to the

dimensions.



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ENGINEERING DRAWING

1st Year (Volume I of II)

COMMON FOR ALL ENGINEERING TRADES

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

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First Edition : December 2018 Copies : 10,000

All rights reserved.

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence

New Delhi - 110 001

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Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. M. Sangara pandian - Training Officer (Retd.)

Shri. G. Sathiamoorthy - Jr.Training Officer (Retd.)

Shri. K. Srinivas Rao - Joint Director,

Shri. G. Michael Johny - Assistant Manager,

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Exercise for further practice

Total time allotment : 78 Hs

S.No Module Exercise No. Time allotment (Hrs)

1 Fundamental of Engineering, Instruments

Instructions to the Instructors

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Exercise No. Title of the Exercise Page No.

1.1.01 Introduction and its importance 1

1.2.05 Drawing instruments - their standard and uses 9

1.3.08 Lines - definition and applications 16

1.4.10 Geometrical figures - types of angle and triangle 22

1.6.16 Dimensioning - definition, types of dimensioning, arrow heads and leaderline 45

1.7.19 Free hand drawing - practice of lines 59

1.9.25 Reading of simple engineering drawing 74

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1.9.27 Methods of pictorial drawing 82

1.10.31 Symbolic representation as per BIS SP: 46-2003 92

1.11.36 Construction of scales and diagonal scale 104

LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

On completion of this book you shall be able to

• Interpret specifications,different engineering drawing and apply

• Select and ascertain measuring instrument and measure dimension

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1 Engineering Drawing: Introduction and its importance

• Relationship to other technical drawing types.

2 Drawing Instruments: Their Standard and uses

• Definition, types and applications in Drawing as per BIS SP:46-2003.

4 Drawing of Gemetrical Figures: Definition, nomenclature and practice

5 Lettering and Numbering as per BIS SP: 46-2003

• Definition, types and methods of dimensioning (functional, nonfunctional and auxiliary).

7 Free hand drawing

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8 Sizes and Layout of Drawing Sheets

• Basic principle of Sheet Size.

9 Method of presentation of Engineering Drawing

10 Symbolic Representation (as per BIS SP: 46-2003)

• Fastener (Rivets, Bolts and Nuts).

11 Sheet Metal Worker