4 Ionic Equilibria Notes

133
7 Equilibria
7.2 Ionic equilibria
7.3 Partition coefficients
IONIC EQUILIBRIA
BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701 syllabus Syllabus content
134
7 Equilibria
This topic illustrates that many chemical reactions are reversible and involve an equilibrium process.
The consideration of the many factors that can affect an equilibrium is an important aspect of physical
chemistry.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701 syllabus Syllabus content
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
7.1 Chemical equilibria: a) explain, in terms of rates of the forward and reverse reactions, what is
7.2 Ionic equilibria a) show understanding of, and use, the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids
reversible reactions; meant by a reversible reaction and dynamic equilibrium
and bases, including the use of the acid-I base-I, acid-II base-II concept
dynamic equilibrium b) state Le Chatelier’s principle and apply it to deduce qualitatively
b) explain qualitatively the differences in behaviour between strong and
(from appropriate information) the effects of changes in temperature,
weak acids and bases and the pH values of their aqueous solutions in
concentration or pressure on a system at equilibrium
terms of the extent of dissociation
c) state whether changes in temperature, concentration or pressure or the
c) explain the terms pH, Ka, pKa and Kw and use them in calculations
presence of a catalyst affect the value of the equilibrium constant for a
+
d) calculate
reaction [H (aq)] and pH values for strong and weak acids and
strong bases
d) deduce expressions for equilibrium constants in terms of concentrations,
e) explain the choice
Kc , and partial of suitable
pressures, indicators
Kp (treatment forrelationship
of the acid-base titrations,
between Kp
given appropriate data
and Kc is not required)
f)
e) describe the values
calculate the changes in pH during
of equilibrium acid-base
constants titrations
in terms and explain
of concentrations
these changes
or partial in terms
pressures of the strengths
from appropriate data of the acids and bases
g)
f) (i) explain
calculate thehow bufferpresent
quantities solutions control pH given appropriate data
at equilibrium,
(ii)
(suchdescribe and explain
calculations the uses
will not require theofsolving
buffer of
solutions,
quadraticincluding
equations)the
–
role of
g) describe HCO
and 3 in controlling
explain pHused
the conditions in blood
in the Haber process and the
h) calculate the pH as
Contact process, of examples
buffer solutions, given appropriate
of the importance data
of an understanding of
chemical
i) show equilibrium inof,
understanding theand
chemical industry
use, the concept of solubility product,
Ksp
j) calculate Ksp from concentrations and vice versa
k) show understanding of the common ion effect
7.3 Partition coefficients a) state what is meant by partition coefficient; calculate and use a
partition coefficient for a system in which the solute is in the same
molecular state in the two solvents
Back to contents page www.cie.org.uk/alevel 25

135
DEFINITIONS
This chapter deals with reversible reactions and their dynamic equilibria in a system.
Reversible reactions can be defined as those that can go in either direction,

meaning they can progress forwards or backwards. Reversible reactions are
denoted as such:
H+ donated
Fact file AB(l) ⇌ A+ (aq) + B— (aq)
Even corrosive acids such as nitric acid can act as bases!
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Dynamic
When sulfuric acid and nitric acid reactequilibrium is athe
in an inert solvent, state when the rate of forward reaction equals the rate of
acid base
following equilibrium is setbackward
up: reaction. Both reactions continue to take place at the same time, and
H2SO4 + HNO3 HSO4 neither If a reactant
+ H2NO3 the concentration of the products
− + nor theis linked to a changes,
reactants product byhence
the transfer
the of a
name ‘dynamic.’ proton we call this pair a conjugate pair. Consider the
Nitric acid is acting as a proton acceptor, so it is a base. following reaction:
conjugate pair
1
hen an acid or base reacts with water, an equilibrium HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
xture is formed. For acids such as hydrochloric acid, acid base acid base
e position of equilibrium is almost entirely in favour
the products. But for ammonia the position of
conjugate pair
uilibrium favours the reactants. The equations can be
itten to show this. For example: Looking at the forward reaction:
HCl(g) + aq → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) • Cl− is the conjugate base of the acid HCl
+
H+ donated • H3O is the conjugate acid of the base H2O.
forward arrow is used as this reaction goes to completion. ACIDS AND
Looking at theBASES
reverse reaction:
bases! + − • HCl is the conjugate acid of the base Cl−
NH 3(g) + H2O(l) NHThe 4 (aq)
NH+ OH(g) +(aq)
Bronsted-Lowry
H O(l) NH Theory
+
(aq) + OHof
– acids and bases states that:
(aq)
t solvent, the 3 2 4 • H O is the conjugate base of the acid H3O+.
acid base 2
n equilibrium arrow is used
Anasacid
this reaction
is a protondoes not go
(hydrogen In a conjugate
ion) donor. pair, the acid has one proton more.
completion. If a reactant is linked to a product by the transfer Theofconjugate
a pairs for the equilibrium between
proton we call is
A base thisa pair a conjugate
proton (hydrogen ammonia
pair. Consider
ion) theand water to form ammonium ions and
acceptor.
a base. following reaction: hydroxide ions are:
conjugate pair conjugate pair
Check-up
equilibrium
14 Identify which reactants are acids
+ Hand
HCl(g) 2O(l)which
H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
chloric
areacid,
bases in the following reactions:
acid base acid base base acid acid base
y in afavour +
NH4 + H2O NH3 + H3O +
ion of
b HCOOH + HClO2 +
HCOOHconjugate −
2 + ClO
pair
2 conjugate pair
tions can be
Looking at the forward reaction:
• Cl− is the conjugate base of the acid HCl 2
+
onjugate acids and conjugate
• H 3O is the bases
conjugate acid of the base H2O.
Check-up
to completion. Looking at the reverse reaction:
a reaction at equilibrium, products are being converted −
• HCl is the conjugate acid of the base Cl
)reactants at the same rate as reactants are being 15 a Identify the acid and the base on the
• H2O is the conjugate base of the acid H3O+.
nverted to products.InThaeconjugate
reverse reaction
pair, thecan
acidalso
hasbeone proton more.
right-hand side of these equilibria.
n does not go
nsidered in termsBILAL
of the Brønsted–Lowry
ThHAMEED
e conjugate pairs for theory of
the equilibrium between i HClO2 + HCOOH IONIC EQUILIBRIA
ds and bases. ammonia and water to form ammonium ions and ClO2− + HCOOH2+
Consider the reaction: hydroxide ions are: ii H2S + H2O HS− + H3O+
136
ACIDS AND BASES

The Lewis Theory of acids and bases states that:
An acid is an electron pair acceptor.

A base is an electron pair donor.
The two theories are entirely consistent.

H F
Lewis Base H N B F Lewis Acid
H F
3
AUTO-IONISATION OF WATER
δ—
+
—
Hydrogen bond δ+
Lone pair given to Hydrogen
Water molecules can function as both acids and bases.

One water molecule (acting as a base) can accept a hydrogen ion from a
second one (acting as an acid).
However, the hydroxonium ion is a very strong acid, and the hydroxide ion is a
very strong base. As fast as they are formed, they react to produce water again.
4

• we will use equilibrium expressions to calculate
hydrogen ion concentrations for solutions of weak acids,
nise to a small extent in water. in order to calculate their pH values
oic acid solution consists mostly of • we shall also learn about137
ionic equilibria related to the
OOH(aq): solubility of salts.
The ionic product of water, Kw

IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER
Water is able to act as either an acid (by donating
+
The net effect isprotons,
that inHpure
) or a base (by accepting protons). In pure
water, the following equilibrium exists:
water, the following equilibrium exists.
H+ donated
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq)

acid base
We can simplify this equation by writing hydroxonium

This is known ions,
compost bin. The pH of compost changes
as self-ionisation
H3O+, as simple or auto ionisation.
hydrogen ions, H+:
ken down by bacterial action. The chemical
ve weak acids and weak bases. Pure water conducts H+(aq)
H2O(l)current + OH−(aq)
slightly showing that it contains ions.
20 Ionic equilibria 301

The equation:
H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH— (aq)
Can be simplified to:

H2O(l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH— (aq)
Applying the equilibrium law Kc = [H+][OH−] 

[H2O]

138

The extent of ionisation of water is very low.
The concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in pure water

(and hence the value of Kc) is extremely small.
Therefore we can regard the concentration of water as being constant.

We can therefore incorporate this into the value of Kc:
Kc[H2O] is taken as Kw
Thus Kw = [H+][OH—] mol2dm-6
This constant Kw is referred to as ionic product of water.
7

At 298 K , [H+] in water = 1 x10—7 mol dm—3
In pure water [H+] = [OH—]

= [H+] x [OH—]
= [H+] x [H+]
= (1 x10—7 mol dm—3)2

= 1 x10—14 mol2 dm—6
Hence at 298 K Kw = 1 x10—14 mol2 dm—6

139

The dissociation of water is an endothermic process. Hence increase of
temperature will increase the extent of ionisation and hence Kw would
increase with increase of temperature
H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH—(aq) ∆H=endothermic
Kw increases at high temperature: At 100oC Kw = 5.13 x 10—13 mol2 dm—6
Kw decreases at low temperature: At 0oC Kw = 1.1 x 10—15 mol2 dm—6
ACIDITY, ALKALINITY AND pH
pH = −log[H+]
In aqueous solutions if [H+] increases then [OH—] would decrease in order

to keep the value of Kw constant
If [H+] > [OH—] then the solution is acidic
If [H+] < [OH—] then the solution is basic
If [H+] = [OH—] then the solution is neutral
10

140
ACIDITY, ALKALINITY AND pH
pH = −log[H+]
[H+] 100 10—1 10—2 10—3 10—4 10—5 10—6 10—7 10—8 10—9 10—10 10—11 10—12 10—13 10—14
[OH—] 10—14 10—13 10—12 10—11 10—10 10—9 10—8 10—7 10—6 10—5 10—4 10—3 10—2 10—1 100
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
STRONGLY WEAKLY NEUTRAL WEAKLY STRONGLY

ACIDIC ACIDIC ALKALINE ALKALINE
11
pH OF WATER
Kw = [H+][OH—] = 1.0×10—14
Both ions must be equal in concentration since they were produced in
equal molar quantities by the autoionisation reaction.
Let the concentration of each be equal to x.
[H+] = [OH—]
x2 = 1.0×10—14
x = 1.0×10—7
pH = −log10(1.0×10–7) = 7.00
12

141
ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

Thus all aqueous solutions will have a definite [H+] which expresses the
acidity or alkalinity of the solution.
In 0.1 mol dm—3 solution of HCl, the [H+] = 0.1 mol dm—3
pH = −log10[H+] = −log(0.1) = 1
In 0.02 mol dm—3 NaOH solution at 25oC. [OH—] = 0.02 mol dm—3
Since Kw = [H+][OH—] = 1 x10—14 mol2dm—6

[H+] = 5.0 x10—13 mol dm—3
pH = −log10[H+] = −log10(5.0 x10—13)

13
WORKED EXAMPLES
(a)Calculate the pH of a solution where [H+] = 2.34 × 10—3 mol dm—3
pH = −log [H+]
= −log10 (2.34 × 10—3)
= 2.63 (solution is acidic)
(b)Calculate the pH of a solution where [H+] = 2.34 × 10—10 mol dm—3

pH= −log [H+]
= −log10 (2.34×10—10)
= 9.63 (solution is alkaline)
14

142
SKILL CHECK
Q.Calculate the pH of water at 60oC. Kw at 60oC = 2.6 x 10—14 mol2 dm—6 
15
SKILL CHECK
Q. (a) Calculate the pH that corresponds to a neutral solution at 0oC.  
(Kw at 0oC = 1.1x10—15 mol2 dm—6) 
(b) What does an increase in temperature do to the pH of water?
16

143
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pH of pure water at each of the following temperatures:
(a) at 5°C, Kw is 1.86 × 10−15 mol2dm−6

(b) at 35 °C, Kw is 2.09 × 10−14 mol2dm−6
(c) at 100 °C, Kw is 5.13 × 10−13 mol2dm−6
17
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN pH & pOH
pH = −log[H+] pOH = −log[OH—] pKw = —logKw
[H+] [OH—] = Kw
Take logs of both sides log[H+] + log[OH—] = logKw
Multiply by the minus sign −log[H+] − log[OH—] = − logKw
Change to pH and pOH pH + pOH = pKw
pH + pOH = 14 (at 25°C)
18

144
STRONG & WEAK ACIDS

Do not confuse the words strong and weak with the terms concentrated
and dilute.
The strength of an acid is related to the proportion of it which has
reacted with water to produce ions.
The concentration tells you about how much of the original acid is
dissolved in the solution.
It is perfectly possible to have a concentrated solution of a weak acid, or

a dilute solution of a strong acid.
19
pH OF STRONG ACIDS
In the general case: HA + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + A—
These reactions are all reversible, but in some cases, the acid is so good at giving
away H+ that we can think of the reaction as being one-way. The acid is virtually
100% ionised.
For example, when HCl dissolves in water, so little of the reverse reaction
happens that we can write:
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl—
At any one time, 100% of the hydrogen chloride will have reacted to produce
H3O+ ions and chloride ions. Hydrogen chloride is described as a strong
acid.
20

145
pH OF STRONG ACIDS
Strong acids are those, which are completely ionised in at moderate
dilutions. (e.g 0.1M to 0.01M)
For calculations they are assumed to be completely dissociated unless
stated otherwise.
[H+] = molarity of the acid x basicity
pH = −log[H+]
In normal calculations the [H+] given by water is neglected.
21
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the pH of a solution of HCl of concentration 0.135 mol dm—3
[H+] = 0.135 mol dm—3

pH = −log [H+] = −log(0.135) = 0.87
2. Calculate the pH of a solution of H2SO4 of concentration of 0.20 mol

dm—3
H2SO4 + 2H + SO4
2—
0.20 0.40
[H+] = 0.40 mol dm—3
pH = log [H+]
= −log(0.40)
22

146
SKILL CHECK
Calculate the pH of the following solutions.
(a)0.01 mol dm—3 hydrochloric acid 
(b)0.025 mol dm—3 sulphuric acid 
(c) 1.0 mol dm—3 hydrochloric acid 
(d)1.0 mol dm—3 sulphuric acid
23
SKILL CHECK
Q. Work out pH values for the following :
(a) a solution containing 0.001 moldm-3 H+ (aq)

(b) a solution containing 1.00 x 10-12 moldm-3 H+ (aq)
(c) a solution of 1.00 moldm-3 HCl (aq)
(d) a solution of 2.00 x 10-4 HNO3 (aq)

(e) a solution of CH3COOH of concentration 0.100 moldm-3 assuming 5%
dissociation of the acid.
24

147
pH OF STRONG BASES
A strong base is something like sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide which is fully ionic. You can think of the compound as being
100% split up into metal ions and hydroxide ions in solution. 
 
NaOH Na+ + OH—
 
Some strong bases like calcium hydroxide aren't very soluble in water.
That doesn't matter. What does dissolve is still 100% ionised into calcium
ions and hydroxide ions. Calcium hydroxide still counts as a strong base
because of that 100% ionisation.
25
pH OF STRONG BASES
The pH can be worked out in either of the two ways:
1. Calculate [OH—], then [H+] using the expression:

[H+] × [OH—] = 1×10—14
Then pH = −log[H+]
2. Calculate [OH—] then pOH (where pOH = −log[OH—] )

Then pH = 14 − pOH
The [OH—] from water is neglected unless it is comparable to the [OH—]

provided by the base.
26

148
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pH of a 0.123 mol dm—3 solution of sodium hydroxide.
Q. Calculate the pH of a 0.136 mol dm—3 solution of barium hydroxide,

Ba(OH)2
Q. Calculate the pH of a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide which contains 2.78

gdm—3 of the base. 
 
27
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pOH of the following solutions:
(a) 0.030 moldm−3 KOH

(b) 0.500 moldm−3 NaOH
(c) 0.020 moldm−3 HCl
28

149
WEAK ACIDS
A weak acid is one which doesn't ionise fully when it is dissolved in water.
Ethanoic acid is a typical weak acid.

It reacts with water to produce hydroxonium ions and ethanoate ions, but
the back reaction is more successful than the forward one.
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO—
The ions react very easily to reform the acid and the water:
29
WEAK ACIDS
The ions react very easily to reform the acid and the water:
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO—
At any one time, only about 1% of the ethanoic acid molecules have
converted into ions. The rest remain as simple ethanoic acid molecules.
Most organic acids are weak.The position of equilibrium of the reaction
between the acid and water varies from one weak acid to another. The
further it lies to the left, the weaker the acid is.
30

150
WEAK ACIDS
Let HA represent a weak acid :
HA + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + A—
Kc = [H3O+][A—]
[HA][H2O]
But water being in large amount, its concentration may be taken as a

constant. Kc x [H2O] will be another constant and is represented as Ka as
Ka = [H3O+][A—]
[HA]
31
ACID DISSOCIATION CONSTANT

The equation is often simplified as: HA ⇌ H+ + A— , so: Ka = [H3O+][A—]
[HA]
The weak acid, HA, [HA] = 0.1mol/dm3, and it ionises about 1%.
HA ⇌ H+ + A—
[Initial]: 0.1 0.0 0.0
[Reacted]: 0.001 0.001 0.001
[Equilibrium]: 0.099 0.001 0.001
Now, [HA]Equilibrium = 0.099 mol/dm3 ≈ 0.1 mol/dm3
Ka = [H+][A—] = (0.001)(0.001) = 1x10—5 mol/dm3

[HA] (0.1)
32

151
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the Ka of 0.20 mol dm—3 of ethanoic acid, assuming it ionises
about 2%.
CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO— + H+
[Initial]:
[Reacted]:
[Equilibrium]:
33
ACID DISSOCIATION CONSTANT

When a weak acid ionises, it produces H+ and A— ions in equal quantities.
As weak acids are only very slightly ionised, almost all of the acid
molecules remain undissociated, and so it assumed that [HA] = original
concentration of unionised weak acid.
This means that the expression for the acid dissociation constant, Ka,
simplifies to:
Ka = x2 
[HA]
The pH of a solution of a weak acid of known concentration can be
calculated from the value of Ka.
34

152
pKa
The value of Ka indicates the extent of dissociation of the acid:
A high value for Ka (for example, 40 mol dm—3) indicates that the position
of equilibrium lies to the right. The acid is almost completely ionised. The
greater the concentration of H+ and OH—, the greater the value of the
numerator.
A low value for Ka (for example, 1.0 × 10−4 mol dm—3) indicates that the
position of equilibrium lies to the left. The acid is only slightly ionised and
exists mainly as HA molecules and comparatively few H+ and A— ions.
35
pKa
pKa = —log10 Ka
pKa bears exactly the same relationship to Ka as pH does to the hydrogen
ion concentration. Unlike Ka, pKa doesn't have any units.
The weaker the acid, the larger the value of pKa. It is now easy to see the
trend towards weaker acids as you go down the table.
36

153
pH OF WEAK ACIDS
The pH of a solution of a weak acid of known concentration can be
calculated from the value of Ka.
HA ⇌ H+ + A—
[H+] = [A−] = x
Ka = x2 
[HA]
pH = —log [H+]
= —log x
37
pH OF WEAK ACIDS
Calculate the pH of a 0.123 mol dm—3 solution of ethanoic acid.  
Ka for ethanoic acid = 1.70×10–5 mol dm—3.
Ka = [H+] × [CH3COO—] = 1.70 × 10–-5 

[CH3COOH]
[H+] = [CH3COO—] & [CH3COOH] = 0.123 mol dm—3
Ka = x2 = 1.70 × 10—5 
0.123
x = √ (1.70 × 10—5× 0.123) = 0.00145 mol dm—3
pH = —log (0.00145) = 2.84
38

154
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pH of a solution of 0.1 mol dm—3 ethanoic acid at 25oC.
The acid dissociation constant of ethanoic acid at 25oC is 1.8 x10—5 mol
dm—3.
39
SKILL CHECK
Q. A solution of propanoic acid, C2H5COOH, of concentration 0.222 mol
dm—3 has a pH of 2.77. Calculate the Ka of propanoic acid.
40

155
SKILL CHECK
Q. The p.H of 0.1 mol dm—3 methanoic acid is 2.4 at 25oC. What is the
dissociation constant of methanoic acid at this temperature?
41
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pH of 0.1 mol dm—3 solution of a weak monobasic acid
which is 1% dissociated. Also calculate the pKa of the acid.
42

156
SKILL CHECK
Q. For each of the following reactions:
(i) Identify the two acids and the two bases
(ii) Suggest with reasons, which ion or molecule is the stronger acid,
and which the stronger base.
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH— Kc = 1.8 x 10—5 mol—3 

 
C6H5O— + CH3CO2H ⇌ C6H5OH + CH3CO2— Kc =1.3 x 104 mol dm—3
43
SKILL CHECK
Q. The pH of a 0.1 mol dm—3 solution of CH3CO2H is 2.4, and the pH of 0.1
mol dm—3 HCl is 1.0.
(i) Calculate the ratio of hydrogen ions concentrations in these two

solutions. 
 
(ii) However, when 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm—3 CH3CO2H is reacted with an
excess of zinc powder, the same volume of hydrogen (120 cm3) is
evolved as when 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm—3 HCl is used. Explain why this
is so.
44

157
SKILL CHECK
Q. The pH of 0.100 in mol dm—3 sulphuric acid is 0.98.
(a) Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+, in this solution.
 
(b) Write equations to show the two successive ionisations of sulphuric
acid, H2SO4, in water.
 
(c) Suggest why the concentration of hydrogen ions is not 0.20 in mol dm
—3 in 0.100 in mol dm—3 sulphuric acid.
45
EFFECT OF COMMON IONS

Consider a solution of a weak acid HA to which a salt containing the
common ion A—, for example KA, is added. In aqueous solutions weak
acids are only slightly ionised:
HA ⇌ H+ + A—
But the salt will completely ionise:

KA ➝ K+ + A—
When the salt containing the common ion is added, the equilibrium will
shift still more to the left and the [H+] will be further reduced.
HA ⇌ H+ + A— (shifts left)
46

158

The concentration of [H+] in the presence of the common ion will be very small
and correspondingly the concentration of A— provided by the weak acid would
also be equally small.
HA ⇌ H+ + A—
Hence the [A—] provided by the acid will be negligible in comparison to the [A—]
provided by the salt and the [A—] in the system may be regarded as only derived
from the salt.
KA ➝ K+ + A—
[A—]total = [A—]acid + [A—]salt
but [A—]acid is very low, ∴ [A—]total ≈ [A—]salt
47

Since the dissociation of the weak acid is very little and has been further
suppressed by the presence of the common ion the concentration of the
acid at equilibrium may be considered to be equal to the initial
concentration of the acid.
Ka = [H+][A—] but [A—]total ≈ [A—]salt
[HA]
therefore Ka = [H+][A—]salt
[HA]
Conjugate base
or Ka = [H+][salt]
[acid]
Unionised acid
48

159
EXAMPLE
Take 0.1 mol of CH3COOH in 1dm3 & then add 0.1 mol of CH3COO—Na+
(Ka = 1.8x10—5)
Before adding CH3COO—Na+:
CH3COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3COO—
0.1 x x
Ka = [H+][CH3COO—] = x2 = 1.8x10—5
[CH3COOH] 0.1
x = 1.3x10—3 mol dm—3
pH = —log x =2.87
49
EXAMPLE
After adding CH3COO—Na+:
CH3COO—Na+ CH3COO— + Na+

0.1mol 0.1mol 0.1mol
CH3COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3COO—
0.1 a a a = small value
[CH3COOH]equilibrium = 0.1 – a ≈ 0.1
[H+]equilibrium = a
[CH3COO—]equilibrium = 0.1 + a ≈ 0.1
50

160
EXAMPLE CONTINUED
Ka = [H+][CH3COO—] 
[CH3COOH]
= a(0.1) = 1.8x10—5
0.1
a = 1.8x10—5
pH = —log(1.8x10—5) 
= 4.74
Note: There has been a change in pH, as the concentration of H+ decreases, the solution
becomes less acidic.
51
SKILL CHECK
Wherever needed assume the Ka to be 1.8 x10—5 mol dm—3
Q. Evaluate the pH of a 0.10 mol dm—3 solution of ethanoic acid, which

has been made 0.15 mol dm—3 with respect to sodium ethanoate.  
52

161
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pH of a solution obtained by dissolving 4.1 g of sodium
ethanoate in 500 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm—3 ethanoic acid.
53
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pH of a solution obtained by mixing 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol
dm—3 ethanoic acid with 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm—3 sodium hydroxide
solution. 
54

162
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pH of a solution made by adding 55 cm3 of a 0.15 mol
dm—3 solution of ethanoic acid to 40 cm3 of 0.20 mol dm—3 solution of
sodium ethanoate.
55
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the mass of sodium ethanoate that is needed to be added to
100cm3 of a 0.50 mol dm—3 solution of ethanoic acid to make a buffer
solution of pH 4.75.
56

163
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the pH of a solution made by mixing 100 cm3 of 0.10 moldm—
3 ethanoic acid, Ka = 1.76 x 10—5 moldm—3, with 100 cm3 of 0.20 moldm—3
sodium ethanoate.
57
ADDING ACID TO WATER

Water does not ionise much. Therefore its concentration of [H+] and [OH—]
is very low.
in H2O: H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH—(aq)
On addition of a small amount of H+ ions, the equilibrium will shift

backwards but not completely since the amount of OH— ions aren’t
enough to completely convert the H+ to water.
add H+ ions: pH =
58

164
ADDING ACID TO ETHANOIC ACID

Ethanoic acid does not ionise much. Therefore its concentration of [H+] and
[CH3COO—] is very low and the concentration of [CH3COOH].
in CH3CO2H: CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO— + H+
On addition of a small amount of H+ ions, the equilibrium will shift backwards

but not completely since the amount of CH3COO— ions aren’t enough to
completely convert the H+ to CH3COOH.
add H+ ions: pH =
59
BUFFER SOLUTIONS
Buffer solution is one whose pH value changes negligibly when small quantities of
acids or alkalis are added to it.
Common ion solutions are buffer solutions.
There are three types of buffer solutions:
A solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base, e.g. ethanoic acid and sodium
ethanoate
A solution of a weak base and its conjugate acid, e.g aqueous ammonia and
ammonium chloride
An aqueous solution of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base, e.g ammonium
ethanoate
60

165
ACID BUFFER SOLUTIONS

A weak acid and a salt of that weak acid. e.g a solution of ethanoic acid
containing its salt sodium ethanoate (conjugate base).
The salt would be fully dissociated while the acid only slightly dissociated due to
the common ion suppressing the ionization of the acid.
CH3COONa ➝ CH3COO— + Na+

high
  CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO— + H+
high low low
Thus the mixture will contain relatively high concentration of unionized ethanoic
acid and a relatively high concentration of ethanoate ion, its conjugate base.
61

When a small quantity of an acid is added, the H+ ions introduced will
combine with the base, ethanoate ions to form more of the unionised
ethanoic acid.
H+ + CH3COO— ➝ CH3COOH
low high high
• Because the amount of CH3COO— ions was large and only small amount of H+ ions were
added, [CH3COO—] remains approximately constant.
• Because the original amount of [CH3COOH] was large and only small amount was
produced by the reaction above, [CH3COOH] remains approximately constant.
• As both are approximately unchanged, [H+] and hence the pH are also approximately
unchanged.
62

166

When a small quantity of a base is added, the OH— introduced will combine
with the H+ ions to form water. (H+ ions are reduced):
H+(aq) + OH— (aq) ➝ H2O(l)

The removal of the H+ ions will shift the equilibrium of the acid forwards.
CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO— + H+
high high
Overall equation: OH— + CH3COOH ➝ CH3COO— + H2O

The acid will further ionise and the concentration of the H+ ions will be almost
restored to the initial value because of the relatively high concentration of the
unionised acid molecules in the system. Thus the pH will remain almost the
same. 63
ACID BUFFER SOLUTIONS EQUATIONS
CH3COOH (acid) & CH3COO— (conjugate base):
on adding H+ ions: H+ + CH3COO— ➝ CH3COOH

base acid
on adding OH— ions: OH— + CH3COOH ➝ CH3COO— + H2O

acid base
H2PO4— (acid) & HPO42— (conjugate base):
on adding H+ ions: H+ + HPO42— ➝ H2PO4—

base acid
on adding OH— ions: OH— + H2PO4— ➝ HPO42— + H2O

acid base
64

167
ALKALINE BUFFER: NH 3 & NH 4 + Cl —

A solution of a weak base with one its salts e.g. a solution of aqueous
ammonia containing one of its salts e.g. ammonium chloride.
The salt would be fully dissociated while the base only slightly
dissociated due to the common ion suppressing the ionization of the
base. NH Cl ➝ NH + + Cl—
4 4
high
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH—

high low low
Thus the mixture will contain relatively high concentration of unionised

ammonia and a relatively high concentration of ammonium ion, its
conjugate acid.
65

When a small quantity of a base is added, the OH— ions introduced will
combine with the acid, ammonium ions to form water and more of the
unionised ammonia molecules.
OH— + NH4+ ➝ NH3 + H2O
As the NH4+ ions are found in large excess (from the salt), the small amount of
OH— ions added will be removed almost completely.
The pH will be almost constant. (The pH will increase but not significantly).
66

168

When a small amount of H+ ions are added, they react with the large
reservoir of NH3 molecules (conjugate base):
H+ + NH3 ➝ NH4+
base
The relatively large values of [NH3] and [NH4+] do not alter significantly,
and almost all the added H+ ions are converted from NH3 to NH4+ , so
overall [H+] and hence pH do not alter significantly.
67
ALKALINE BUFFER: NH 3 & NH 4 + Cl — SUMMARY

A mixture of NH3 and NH4Cl contains high amounts (concentrations) of NH4+ (acid) and
NH3 (base) and low concentration of OH—:
NH4Cl ➝ NH4+ + Cl—

high
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH—

high low low
NH3 (base) and NH4+ (conjugate acid):

on adding H+ ions: H+ + NH3 ➝ NH4+
base acid
on adding OH— ions: OH— + NH4+ ➝ NH3 + H2O
acid base
68

169
BUFFER SOLUTIONS
Every buffer solution has a definite pH value and the addition of a small
quantity of either an acid or a base will not cause any appreciable change
in the pH of the solution.
Dilution has no effect on the pH of the buffer solution.  
This is because the pH of the buffer solution depends on the ratio of the
concentration of the acid and the salt and not on the actual values.
The ratio is unaffected by dilution.

Every buffer solution has a pH range within which it acts as a buffer.
69
USES
Buffer solutions play an important part in the field of biochemistry,
medicine, agriculture and industry.
In industry it is employed in electroplating and in the manufacture of
leather, photographic material and dyes.
It is also used in the lab to check the readings on a pH meter. For

accurate work, you would make up a buffer solution with a pH of, say, 4.0,
and then adjust your pH meter so that it was reading exactly that value.
70

170
CONTROLLING pH IN BLOOD
The pH of blood is kept constant pH between 7.35 and 7.45. There are
several things which buffer the pH of the blood, one of which is the
following equilibrium involving HCO3- ions:
H2CO3 CO2 + H2O ⇌ HCO3— + H+

If the [H+] in the blood decreases (if the pH rises), then this equilibrium will move
to the right to replace the missing H+.
If the [H+] in the blood increases (if the pH falls), then this equilibrium will move to
the left to remove the extra H+.
The carbon dioxide in the blood comes from, for example, the break-down of
carbohydrates in the body.
71
SKILL CHECK
Q.Calculate the pH of these buffer mixtures.
(a) A solution containing equal amounts in moles of H2PO4—(aq) and

HPO42—(aq). pKa for the dihydrogenphosphate(v) ion is 7.2.
 
(b) A solution containing 12.2 g benzenecarboxylic acid (C6H5CO2H) and
7.2 g of sodium benzenecarboxylate in 250 cm3 solution. pKa for
benzenecarboxylic acid is 4.2.
72

171
SKILL CHECK
Q. Benzoic acid, C6H5COOH, is a weak monobasic acid (Ka = 6.4 x 10—5
mole dm—3).
(a) Explain with equations how a mixture of benzoic acid and sodium
benzoate can act as a buffer on the addition of small amounts of either
HCl(aq) or NaOH(aq). 
 
(b) What is the [H+] in 0.02M benzoic acid?
73
SKILL CHECK
(c) What is the pH of 0.02M benzoic acid? 
 
(d) What is the pH of a solution containing 7.2 g of sodium benzoate in 1

dm3 of 0.02M benzoic acid?
74

172
SKILL CHECK
Q. Assuming that the pH of blood is maintained at 7.4 by the acid,
H2PO4—, and its salt, HPO42—, calculate the ratio of concentration of
H2PO4— to that of HPO42— in blood. [Ka(H2PO4—) = 6.4 x 10—8 mol dm—3]
75
SKILL CHECK
Q. Using the pKa value of 4.76 for ethanoic acid, calculate the value for Ka
for ethanoic acid. What mass of sodium ethanoate needs to be present in
1.00 dm3 of a solution of 0.500 mol dm—3 ethanoic acid to give a buffer
solution with a pH of 5.0?
76

173
SKILL CHECK
Q. Some 0.10 mol dm—3 sodium hydroxide is added to 25.0cm3 of 0.10
mol dm—3 hydrochloric acid.
(a) Calculate the initial pH of the acid. 
(b) Calculate the pH of the resulting solution after the addition of:
i. 20.0 cm3 of NaOH

ii. 24.0 cm3 of NaOH
iii. 26.0 cm3 of NaOH
77
ACID BASE INDICATORS

Acid-base indicators are substances, which change colour according to
the pH of the solution to which they are added.
They are either complex organic weak acids or bases whose unionised
molecule or the ion or both are coloured.
Their dissociation is so weak that they do not affect the pH of the solution
to which they are added. Most indicators being weak acids may be
represented by HIn.
HIn(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + In—(aq)
The unionised form (HIn) is a different colour to the anionic form (In—).
78

174
ACID BASE INDICATORS
When the indicator is added to an acid solution the equilibrium will shift
backwards increasing the concentration of HIn, and revealing the
Litmus: HIn(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + In—(aq)
red
When added to an alkaline solution the equilibrium will shift forwards,

increasing the concentration of In— and thus reveal the colour of In—.
When the concentration of HIn and In— are equal an intermediate colour
will be seen. HIn(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + In—(aq)
Litmus:
blue
79
COLOUR CHANGES OF SOME INDICATORS
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
METHYL ORANGE CHANGE
LITMUS CHANGE
PHENOLPHTHALEIN CHANGE
Methyl Orange: pink 3–5 yellow

Litmus: red 6 – 8 blue
Phenolphthalein: colourless 8 – 10 pink
80

175
pH CURVES
The equivalence point in a titration occurs when chemical equivalent
amounts of the acid and alkali are added together (The ‘vertical’ line on the
pH curve).
The solution obtained however need not be neutral.
The indicator that we use to detect the equivalence point should be the one,
which can change colour around the pH of the neutralised solution.
End-point in a titration is when the indicator changes its colour.
ph curves follow the pH changes in the conical flask. Before adding any
solution from the burette, the initial pH will be due to the solution in the flask.
81
pH CURVES
While titrating acids against alkalis a drop of indicator added near the
equivalence point must produce a large change in pH (at least by 2) so
that the indicator can change its color.
Only then there will be a sharp end point.
End point: The point during a titration when a colour change shows that
enough of the solution in the burette has been added to react exactly
with the amount of the chemical n the flask.
End point corresponds with equivalence point.
82

ation curves and indicators
D – STRONG BASE TITRATION 176

This curve shows what happens when 1.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide is
added to 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm –3 hydrochloric acid
during an acid–base titration can be NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
H meter. Consider starting with 50 cm3 of 14
ochloric acid. Since [H+(aq)] = 1.0 mol 13
will be 0. After 49 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
12
added there will be 1.0 cm3 of the original
STRONG ACID (HCl) VS. STRONG BASE (NaOH)
ochloric acid left in 99 cm3 of solution. 11
q)] 1.0 × 10–2 10 inflexion point

(maximum
H = 2. 9 gradient)
burett e
he NaOH solution 8
Curve levels off at pH 13 due to
pH
e solution will be excess 0.1M NaOH (a strong alkali)
7
will be 7. This is
oint of inflexion, NaOH(aq 6
the equivalence 5
pH meter
en that there is a 4 Very sharp change in pH over the addition
in pH around the
3 of less than half a drop of NaOH
Almost all of the
e indicators 2
ch their end 1 Very little pH change
H region. This Equivalence point Is
during the initial
not matter which HCl(aq) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
volume20cm 3 dm–3 NaOH added
of 1.0 mol midpoint of vertical line
pH 1 at the start due to pH = 7
0.1M HCl (strong acid)
STRONG BASE TITRATION INDICATORSvolume of alkali added / cm3
50.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 CH3COOH An indicator is a weak acid (or base) in which the
(Burette)
NaOH. dissociated form is a different colour to the undissociated
form. 83
aking the usual assumptions the initial
COOH] and pH = 2.37. HIn(aq) H+(aq) + In–(aq)
colour A colour B
the 1.0 mol dm–3 NaOH has been
(colour in acid solution) (colour in alkali solution)
] ≈ 0.05 mol dm–3 and
0 × 10–2 mol dm–3. [In–]
Kin = [H+] × Assuming the colour changes when
H3COOH] 1.8 × 10–5 ×1× 10–3 [HIn]
≈
–] [In–] ≈ [Hin] then the end point of the indicator will be when
3COO 0.05
[H+] ≈ Kin, i.e. when pH ≈ pKin. Different indicators have
0–7 mol dm–3 and pH = 6.44 different Kin values and so change colour within different pH
nce point the graph will follow the same ranges.
ng acid – strong base curve as more Indicator pKin pH range Use
STRONG ACID
is simply being added to the solution.
(HCl) 3.7VS.3.1–4.4
methyl orange STRONGtitrations BASE
with
strong acids
(NaOH)
+ NaOH(aq) NaCH3COO(aq) + H2O(l)
phenolphthalein 9.6 8.3–10.0 titrations with
strong bases
Similar arguments can be used to explain the shapes of pH

inflexion point curves for strong acid – weak base, and weak acid – weak base
titrations. Since there is no sharp inflexion point titrations
PHENOLPHTHALEIN Any of the indicators listed
involving weak acids with weak bases should not be used in
suitable indicator:
analytical chemistry. will be suitable — they all
LITMUS
phenolphthalein
pKin = 9.6 change in the ‘vertical’
Strong acid – weak base Weak acid – weak base
METHYL ORANGE
e.g. HCl(aq) and NH3(aq) e.g. CH3COOH(aq) and portion
14 14 NH3(aq)
pH pH
7 inflexion point 7
suitable indicator
methyl orange
pKin = 3.7
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
olume of 1.0 mol dm–3 NaOH
0 0
added vol. of base added vol. of base added
84
f alkali have been added, half the acid has
o its salt, so pKa = pH.
ases

177

20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm—3 NaOH (strong base) vs 0.1 mol dm—3 HCl (strong acid)
85

20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm—3 NaOH (strong base) vs 0.1 mol dm—3 HCl (strong acid)
86

178
STRONG ACID (HCl) VS. WEAK BASE (NH 3 )
Curve levels off at pH 10 due to excess

H
dy p 0.1M NH3 (a weak alkali)
stea
Equivalence Point below pH 7 due

to NH4Cl, which is slightly acidic salt.
Very sharp change in pH over the addition of

Very little pH change less than half a drop of NH3
pH 1 at the start due to
0.1M HCl (strong acid)
volume of alkali added / cm3

87
PHENOLPHTHALEIN
LITMUS
Only methyl orange is suitable — it

METHYL ORANGE is the only one to change in the
‘vertical’ portion

88

179

20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm—3 NH3 (weak base) vs 0.1 mol dm—3 HCl (strong acid)
89
WEAK ACID (CH 3 COOH) VS. STRONG BASE (NaOH)
Curve levels off at pH 13 due to excess

0.1M NaOH (a strong alkali)
Sharp change in pH over the addition of

less than half a drop of NaOH
ion  
Buffer reg
&
CH3COOH +
O —Na
CH3CO
Equivalence point Is midpoint of
vertical line
pH 3 due to 0.1M change
steady pH
CH3COOH (weak acid)
pH > 7 as salt is CH3COO—Na+ (weak
base — salt of weak acid)

90

180
WEAK ACID (CH 3 COOH) VS. STRONG BASE (NaOH)
PHENOLPHTHALEIN
Only phenolphthalein is
LITMUS
suitable — it is the only
METHYL ORANGE one to change in the
‘vertical’ portion

91
WEAK ACID VS STRONG BASE

20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm—3 NaOH (strong base) vs 0.1 mol dm—3 CH3CO2H (weak acid)
92

181
WEAK ACID VS WEAK BASE
There is no sharp fall in the graph line.
No acid–base indicator is suitable to

determine the end-point of this reaction.
93
TITRATION CURVES SUMMARY
94

182
TITRATION CURVES SUMMARY
95
SKILL CHECK
Q. A 20cm3 sample of 0.200M NH3(aq) was titrated with 0.10 M H2SO4.
(a) Calculate the mol of NH3.
(b) Calculate the mol of H2SO4.
96

183
SKILL CHECK
(c) Calculate the volume of H2SO4 required for complete neutralization.
(d) Given that the pH of 0.20 M NH3 is 2

11.3, deduce the final pH at the For
Examiner's
equivalence point. Answer all the questions in the spaces provided Use
81 (a) Write an expression for Kw.
.................................................................................................................................... [1]
(b) Use your expression to help you calculate –3 NaOH(aq).

97the pH of 0.200 mol dm
..........................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... [2]
(c) The pH of 0.200 mol dm–3 NH3(aq) is 11.3. Explain why this answer differs from your
answer in (b).
..........................................................................................................................................
SKILL CHECK
.................................................................................................................................... [1]
(e) On(d)the following

A 20.0 axes,
cm3 sample sketch
of 0.200 mol dmhow
–3 NH the pHtitrated
3(aq) was changes during
with 0.100 titration.
mol dm –3 HCl.
On the following axes, sketch how the pH changes during this titration. Mark clearly
Mark clearly
wherewhere theoccurs.
the end point end point occurs.
14
pH 7
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
volume of added acid / cm3
[3]
98
9701/4/S02
184
SKILL CHECK
Q. (a) Propanoic acid is weak acid with a Ka of 1.22 x 10—5 moldm—3
i. Write an equation for the ionisation of propanoic acid.
(b) Calculate pKa, for propanoic acid.
99
SKILL CHECK
Q. Sodium propanoate is made by the reaction of sodium hydroxide with
propanoic acid.
(a) Write an equation for the reaction.
(b) If the reaction were carried out by titration using 0.1M solutions of the
hydroxide and the acid, state the name of suitable indicator.
100

185
SKILL CHECK
Q. A mixture of sodium propanoate and propanoic acid act as a buffer
solution.
(a) What is mean by the term buffer solution?
(b) Explain how the mixture of sodium propanoate and propanoic acid
act as a buffer solution.
(c) Calculate the pH of the solution formed by adding 15.0cm3 of 0.1M

sodium hydroxide to 30.0cm3 of 0.1M propanoic acid.
101
SKILL CHECK
Q. Lactic acid and sodium lactate are both used as food additives.
A solution of 0.100 moldm—3 lactic acid is titrated against 25.0 cm3 0.100
moldm—3 sodium hydroxide.
(a) Sketch the labeled pH titration curve
(b) Suggest an indicator that is suitable to be used for this titration
(c) An equimolar mixture of the lactic acid and sodium lactate is present
in a food. These compounds are described as acid regulators. Explain
how this mixture can act as a buffer solution.
102

186
INSOLUBLE SALTS
Salts which are considered to be insoluble in water, e.g. AgCl, BaSO4,
PbCl2, are soluble at least to some extent.
If you take solid AgCl and add it to water and let it sit there for a while, a
very small amount of solid AgCl will in fact dissolve in water. And it would
form a small concentration of Ag+ and a small concentration of Cl— ions.
Very quickly an equilibrium is set up between where the solid AgCl is still
dissolving and ions, Ag+ and Cl—, are re-precipitating at equal rates.
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+(aq) + Cl—(aq)
103
EQUILIBRIUM AND SOLUBILITY

An equilibrium is established when an undissolved ionic compound is in
contact with a saturated solution of its ions.
The ions move from the solid to the saturated solution at the same rate
as they move from the solution to the solid.
104

187
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+ (aq) + Cl— (aq)

And since this is an equilibrium, we can write the equilibrium constant
expression for the above reaction.
Kc = [Ag+][Cl—]
[AgCl]
Since AgCl is a solid, we do not include that in our equilibrium

expression.
Kc = [Ag+][Cl—] = Ksp
105
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
There is an equilibrium between an ionic solid and its saturated solution.
MX(s) ⇌ M+ (aq) + X— (aq) Ksp = [M+][X—]
Even the most insoluble ionic compounds dissolve to a small extent.

BaSO4(s) ⇌ Ba2+(aq) + SO42—(aq) Ksp = [Ba2+][SO42—]
Unsaturated solutions can still have more solid dissolved and hence
have not reached equilibrium. Hence, there is no Ksp. Solubility
equilibria only exists when the solution is saturated.
106

188
SKILL CHECK
Q.Write the Ksp expression, along with its units, for the following
equations:
(a) PbS(s) ⇌ Pb2+(aq) + S2—(aq) 
(b) Fe(OH)2(s) ⇌ Fe2+(aq) + 2OH—(aq) 
(c) Fe(OH)3(s) ⇌ Fe3+(aq) + 3OH—(aq)
107
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
Thus solubility product of a sparingly soluble electrolyte is the product of
the concentration of the ions in a saturated solution with each
concentration term raised to its own stoichiometric coefficient.
Solubility is affected by temperature and hence the value of Ksp
depends on temperature.
Ksp has always units and it depends on the number of ions involved.
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+ (aq) + Cl—(aq) Ksp for AgCl = 1.8 x 10—10 mol2 dm—6
PbCl2(s) ⇌ Pb2+ (aq) + 2Cl—(aq) Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl—]2 mol3 dm—9
108

189
EXAMPLE
Question: The solubility of ionic compound MY2 at 25°C is
5 x 10—10 gdm—3. The relative mass of MY2 is 200. Calculate the solubility
product of the salt MY2 at 25°C.
1. Find the solubility of MY2 in mol dm—3 :
solubility in g = 5 x 10—10 g dm—3 = 2.5 x 10—12 mol dm—3

molar mass 200
109
EXAMPLE
2. Find the concentration of ions at equilibrium
MY2(s) ⇌ M2+ (aq) + 2Y— (aq)
MY2 M2+ Y—
[Initial]: a 0 0
[Reacted]: 2.5 x 10—12 2.5 x 10—12 5.0 x 10—12
[Equilibrium]: a — 2.5 x 10—12 2.5 x 10—12 5.0 x 10—12
3. Plug in the values of the concentration of ions @ equilibrium into the

Ksp expression
Ksp = [M2+][Y—]2 = (2.5 x 10—12)(5.0 x 10—12)2 =
110

190
SKILL CHECK
Q. The solubility of silver chloride is 1.45 mg dm—3 at 18oC. Hence
calculate the solubility product of silver chloride at 18oC.
111
SKILL CHECK
Q. At 25oC the solubility of calcium hydroxide is 2.78 g dm—3. Hence
calculate the solubility product of calcium hydroxide at this temperature.
112

191
EXAMPLE
Solubility products can be used to calculate the solubility of compounds:
Question: At 25°C the solubility product of AgCl is 1.8 x 10—10 mol2dm—6.

Calculate the solubility of AgCl.
Lets say “x” is the amount of AgCl that dissolves per dm3 of water to
make it a saturated solution
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+ (aq) + Cl—(aq)
[Initial]: a 0 0
[Reacted]: x x x
[Equilibrium]: a—x x x
113
EXAMPLE
Ksp = [Ag+][Cl—] = x2
x2 = 1.8 x 10—10
x = 1.34 x 10—5
114

192
EXAMPLE
In a saturated solution of Ca(OH)2, the [Ca2+] is 0.0135 moldm—3. Calculate
the Ksp.
0.0135 0.0135 0.027

Ca(OH)2 → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH—(aq)
Ksp= (0.0135) (0.027)2 mol3dm-9
115
SKILL CHECK
Q. At 25°C the Ksp of PbS is 4 x 10—28 mol2 dm—6. Calculate the solubility
of PbS.
116

193
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the solubility of CaCl2 given that its Ksp is 3.9 x 10—11 mol3
dm—9.
117
SKILL CHECK
Q. Calculate the solubility of Li3PO4, given its Ksp = 3.2 x 10—9 mol4dm—12.
118

194
EXAMPLE
Q. 10cm3 of a 0.1 moldm-3 solution of HCl was required to completely
neutralize 25cm3 of a saturated solution of Ca(OH)2. Calculate:
a) [OH—] in the saturated solution

mol of HCl = cv = 0.1 × 10/1000 = 10—3 mol
Since H+ + OH— ➞ H2O
mol of OH— = 10--3 mol
[OH—] = c = n/v = 103/ 0.025 = 0.04 moldm—3
119
EXAMPLE
b) Ksp of the Ca(OH)2 saturated solution
Ca(OH)2 ➞ Ca2+(aq) + 2OH— (aq)
0.02 0.04
Ksp = 0.02 × (0.04)2
= 3.2 × 10—5
120

195
PREDICTING PRECIPITATION
The solubility product can be used to predict whether precipitation will
occur when two solutions are mixed.
Both barium chloride and sodium carbonate are soluble salts, but barium
carbonate is relatively insoluble. We must consider the equilibrium for the
insoluble salt dissolving in water:
BaCO3(s) ⇌ Ba2+(aq) + CO32—(aq)
121
PREDICTING PRECIPITATION
The solubility product is given by:
Ksp = [Ba2+][CO32—] = 5.5 × 10—10 mol2 dm—6
If [Ba2+][CO32−] is greater than 5.5 × 10–10 mol2 dm−6 a precipitate will

form.
If [Ba2+][CO32−] is less than 5.5×10−10 mol2 dm−6 no precipitate will form.
122

196
THE COMMON ION EFFECT

Adding a common ion, (one which is already present in the solution), will
result in the precipitation of a sparingly soluble ionic compound.
Definition: The common ion effect is the reduction in the solubility of a

dissolved salt achieved by adding a solution of a compound which has
an ion in common with the dissolved salt. This often results in
precipitation.
Adding NaCl to a saturated solution of AgCl will result in the precipitation

of AgCl.
123
Na+ Cl-
Cl- Na+
Cl- Ag+
Cl-
Adding NaCl to a solution of AgCl increases the concentration of
Ag+ Cl-
Ag+ Cl—(aq). Cl—(aq) is a common ion as it is already in solution.
Ag+ Cl-
Cl- Ag+
Cl- The extra Cl— ions means that the solubility product is exceeded.
Na+
Ag+
Cl- To reduce the value of [Ag+(aq)][Cl—(aq)] below the Ksp, some ions
Cl-
Na+
are removed from solution by precipitating.
Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl-
124

197

The effect of increasing or decreasing the concentration of one of the
ions in equilibrium with the sparingly soluble salt may be predicted
qualitatively using Le Chatelier’s principle.
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+ (aq) + Cl— (aq)
The addition of either of Ag+(aq) or Cl—(aq) into the above system in
equilibrium would displace the equilibrium to the left causing the
precipitation of AgCl.
In other words when either M+(aq) or X—(aq) is added the ion product will
exceed the solubility product and MX will be precipitated until the value
of the Ksp is restored.
125

Since the Ksp [Ag+] [Cl—] = 1x10—10 mol2dm—6
[Ag+] = [Cl—] = 1x10—5 moldm—3
When [Cl—] is raised to 0.01 mol dm—3 by adding either NaCl or HCl
the [Ag+] must decrease to 1x10–8 mol dm-3

as Ksp = [Ag+][Cl—]
= 1x10—8 x 0.01 = 1x10—10

In calculations of solubility in solutions containing common ion, the
concentration of the ion from the sparingly soluble salt is usually
negligible in comparison to the concentration of the common ion.
126

198
CALCULATION EXAMPLE
To 1 dm3 of a saturated solution of PbCl2 (aq) and 0.1 mol of NaCl and find the
concentration of Pb2+ after precipitation. Ksp of PbCl2 = 1 x 10—4 mol/dm3.
PbCl2 ⇌ Pb2+ + 2Cl—

x x 2x
Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl—]2
Ksp = (x) (0.1)2 = 1x10–4
x = 0.01mol dm—3
127
CALCULATION EXAMPLE
[Pb2+] is only from PbCl2, ∴ [Pb2+] = x
[Cl—] is from PbCl2 AND NaCl,
And since ‘x’ is very small, ∴ [Cl—] = 0.1 + 2x ≈ 0.1
Note: Ksp is the same because it only changes with changes in

temperature.
The solubility of PbCl2 in pure water is greater than its solubility in NaCl
128

199
SKILL CHECK
Q.Calculate the mass of calcium hydroxide that will dissolve in 100 cm3 of
0.1 moldm—3 sodium hydroxide solution at 25oC. The Ksp of calcium
hydroxide at 25oC is 2.12 x10-4 mol3 dm—9.
129
EXAMPLE
Q.Ksp of PbBr2 is 6.6 x 10–6 mol3dm—9. Calculate:
a) [Pb2+ ] in the saturated solution of PbBr2
PbBr2 ⇌ Pb2+ + 2Br—

y y 2y
y × (2y)2 = 6.6 10—6
y = 0.0118 mol dm—3
130

200
EXAMPLE
(b) An excess of PbBr2 is stirred with 0.4 moldm—3 KBr solution, and
excess PbBr2 filtered off. Calculate the [Pb2+] in the remaining solution.
Ksp= [Pb2+] [Br—]2 = 6.6× 10–6
y × (0.4)2 = 6.6× 10–6
y = 4.13 ×10–5
Note that [Br—] is only from KBr
131
SKILL CHECK
Q. The solubility of lead chloride is 4.75 gdm—3 at 25oC. What mass of
lead chloride will be precipitated if 5.85 g of sodium chloride is added to 1
dm3 of saturated solution of lead chloride?
132

22
201
Figure 22.4 Iodine partitioned between
water and hexane
SKILL CHECK
Q. (a) The Ksp for Ca(OH)2 at 298K is 4.78× 10–5. Calculate the [Ca2+] in the
saturated solution.
(b) 5 dm3 of a saturated solution of was made. To this was added 0.1
moldm—3 of NaOH. What mass of Ca(OH)2 will precipitate?
When some iodine crystals are shaken w

further change takes place, and the two
we find that the ratio of the concentratio
This is true if we use only a small amou
constant is the equilibrium constant for
I2(aq) I2(hexane)
133
[I2 (h exan e)]
K=
[I2 (aq)]
K is the partition coefficient of iodine
phrase is distribution coefficient. Like
partition coefficient changes with tempe
It is important always to write an equ
coefficient. Following the usual equilibr
[products]
K=
[reactan ts]
we need to know which solution is the
PARTITION COEFFICIENT no universally accepted convention, but
on the right-hand side.
Partition: the distribution of a dissolved substance betweenThe twoequilibrium is a dynamic one: iod
interface between the two solvents. Equ
solvents which do not mix (they are immiscible). Partition is
twothe basisare equal:
processes
rate of leaving aqueous layer = k1[I
for solvent and paper chromatography.
Figure 22.5 At equilibrium, the rates at
rate of leaving hexane = k2[I2(hexan
which I2 leaves each layer are equal.
(k1 and k2 are rate constants).
At equilibrium,
[X(in S)] solvent S k1[I2(aq)] = k2[I2(hexane)]
[ I2 (hexane)] k1
= =K
[ I2 (aq)] k2
Notice that partition coefficients do not
water The technique of solvent extraction
an organic compound is extracted from
[X(aq)]
which is immiscible with water. Exampl
a perfume component or a pharmaceuti
22_05 Cam/Chem AS&A2

134
Barking Dog Art
181333_22_A_Chem_BP_367-380.indd 377

K is the partition coefficient of iodine between hexane and water. An alternative
phrase is distribution coefficient. Like all equilibrium constants, the value of a
partition coefficient changes with temperature.
202
It is important always to write an equation alongside a value of a partition
coefficient. Following the usual equilibrium constant expression:
[products]
K=
[reactan ts]
PARTITION we
COEFFICIENT
need to know which solution is the ‘product’ and which is the ‘reactant’. There i
no universally accepted convention, but usually the organic solution is the ‘product’
on the right-hand side.
Shaking a solid with two immiscibleThe solvent produces
equilibrium is a dynamicanone:equilibrium
iodine molecules are constantly crossing the
interface between the two solvents. Equilibrium is established when the rates of the
system to which the equilibrium law applies at equilibrium. The ratio
two processes are equal:
of the concentrations in the two layers rate is constant,
of leaving aqueousatlayer
a given
= k1[I2(aq)]
Figure 22.5 At equilibrium, the rates at
rate of leaving hexane = k2[I2(hexane)]
temperature:
which I2 leaves each layer are equal.
(k1 and k2 are rate constants).
At equilibrium,
[X(in S)] solvent S k1[I2(aq)] = k2[I2(hexane)]
[ I2 (hexane)] k1
[x]= organic
= K solvent S
[ I2 (aq)] k2
Kpc =
[x] coeffi
Notice that partition aqueouscients do not usually have units.
water The technique of solvent extraction depends on partition. This is used when
an organic compound is extracted from an aqueous solution by an organic solvent,
[X(aq)]
which is immiscible with water. Examples would be if the aqueous solution contain
a perfume component or a pharmaceutical extracted from a plant, or contained the
135
22_05 Cam/Chem AS&A2
Barking Dog Art
37
181333_22_A_Chem_BP_367-380.indd 377
PARTITION COEFFICIENT
Partition coefficient is the ratio of concentration of a solute in two
immiscible layers at a particular temperature at equilibrium.
The partition obeys the equilibrium law only so long as the dissolved
chemical has the same molecular structure on both solvents.
Partition can also be defined as the separation of components dus to
their different solubilities in the two solvents.
Each component has a specific partition coefficient and thus, the

solubility in the mobile and stationary phase are different. Thus, the
rate of movement of each component differs.
136

aqueous layer
layer
tap tap tap tap
closed 203 open closed
closed
hold
1 2 3 collect 4 5
aqueous
PARTITION layer
COEFFICIENT
Figure 2.27 – solvent extraction
When some iodine crystals are shaken with a mixture of hexane and
water until no further change takes place, and the two layers allowed to
When some iodine crystals
separate, weare
findshaken
that thewith
ratioa of
mixture of hexane and
the concentrations of water
iodineuntil no further change
in each
takes place, and the two layers allowed to separate (see Figure 2.27), we find that the ratio of the
concentrations oflayer is a in
iodine constant, no matter
each layer how much
is a constant, no iodine
matter we
howstart
much with. This we start with. This
iodine
constant is the equilibrium
constant isconstant for the change:
the equilibrium constant for the change:
I2(aq) I2(hexane)
Kc = [I2(hexane)]/(I2(aq)]
Kc is called the partition coefficient of iodine between hexane and water. The usual symbol for a
Kc is called the partition coefficient of iodine between hexane and water.
partition coefficient is Kpc. Like all equilibrium constants, the value of a partition coefficient changes
with temperature. The usualthat,
Notice symbol for a partition
in general partitioncoefficient
coefficients Kpc. no units.
is have
Partition coefficients are useful in working out how much solvent we need in order to extract a
137
minimum amount of solute from one solvent into another. An example will make this clear.
Example 1:
Question:
When 100 cm3 of an aqueous solution containing 2.0g of the organic dye X was shaken with 20 cm3
of hexane, it was found that 1.6g of the dye had been extracted into the hexane.
(i) Calculate the partition coefficient of X between hexane and water.
(ii) Calculate the minimum volume of hexane needed A Levelto reduce
Science the amount
Applications of X in
Support Booklet: the aqueous layer
Chemistry
to less than 0.1g.
more likely to dissolve those solutes whose molecules are only attracted to each other by van der
Waals’ (induced dipole) attractions.
Answer: PARTITION COEFFICIENT
SAQ 7. (a) Methanol, CH3OH, is very soluble in water, whereas heptanol, C7H15OH, is almost
(i) If 1.6g of X had been extracted by the
insoluble in water. Whyhexane,
is this? 0.4g must have been left in the aqueous layer. The
Note: The partition
(b) Predict, withcoefficient
two concentrations are therefore: a reason, whichisalcohol
a simple ratio
would be more of twoin hexane.
soluble concentrations. It
If a solute such as iodine is soluble in two immiscible solvents (e.g. water and hexane), its solubility
does notmeasured
in the hexane layer:(usually
1.6/20 matter
= 0.08 inwhat
ggcmcm concentration
or-3molin
-3
dmthe -3
) is water units toyou
layer:
very unlikely theuse,
be0.4/100 as=
same in long
both0.004asgyou
solvents. use
-3
cmsolvent
One the
will be better at dissolving it than the other.
same on top and bottom.
Kpc = [X(hexane)]/[X(aq)] = 0.08/0.004 = 20
allow excess
pour in vapour to
liquids hold escape
81
mixed
© University of Cambridge International Examinations 2006 tap
layers open
organic
layer shake organic
aqueous layer
layer
tap tap tap tap
closed closed open closed
hold
1 2 3 4 collect 5
aqueous
layer
Figure 2.27 – solvent
138 extraction
When some iodine crystals are shaken with a mixture of hexane and water until no further change
takes place, and the two layers allowed to separate (see Figure 2.27), we find that the ratio of the
concentrations of iodine in each layer is a constant, no matter how much iodine we start with. This
constant is the equilibrium constant for the change:
I2(aq) I2(hexane)
Kc = [I2(hexane)]/(I2(aq)]
BILAL HAMEED IONIC
Kc is called the partition coefficient of iodine between hexane and water. The usual symbol for EQUILIBRIA
a
partition coefficient is Kpc. Like all equilibrium constants, the value of a partition coefficient changes
with temperature. Notice that, in general partition coefficients have no units.
Partition coefficients are useful in working out how much solvent we need in order to extract a
204
SKILL CHECK
Q. A solution of 5.00 g of an organic compound X in 50 cm3 of water
was shaken with 100 cm3 of ether. After separation, the aqueous
solution was found to contain 0.80 g of X. Determine the partition
coefficient of x between ether and water.
139
SKILL CHECK
Q. When 100 cm3 of an aqueous solution containing 2.0 g of organic
dye X was shaken with 20 cm3 of hexane, it was found that 1.6 g of
the dye had been extracted into the hexane.
(a) Calculate the partition coefficient of X between hexane and water.
(b) Calculate the minimum volume of hexane needed to reduce the

amount of X in the aqueous layer to less than 0.1 g.
140

205
SUCCESSIVE EXTRACTIONS
Solvents are often expensive and flammable, and can also be polluting to
the environment. It is sensible, therefore, to use the minimum amount of
solvent that is needed to achieve the intended goal. Thus in the example
above, the use of 20 cm3 of hexane allowed 1.6 g of the dye X to be
extracted from its aqueous solution, i.e. (1.6/2.0) x 100 = 80%.
We can extract more (89%) than this if we use two separate 10 cm3
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
portions of hexane, rather than one 20 cm3 portion.
product formed during a synthetic reaction carried out in a

EMISTRY the value of the partition coefficient for the compound, we
would
141
be extracted into the organic layer.
Industrially, octan-1-ol is often used as the organic solve
HYSICAL CHEMISTRY product formed during a synthetic reaction carried out in a laboratory. If we know
the value of the partition coeffiWorked example
cient for the compound, we can calculate how much
would be extracted into the organic layer.
The partition coefficient for the distribution of cyclohexanone b
Industrially, octan-1-ol is often used as the organic solvent.
octanol is 24.
product formed during a synthetic reaction carried out in a laboratory. If we know
the value of the partition coeffiOcient for the compound,Owe can calculate how much
Workedwould example
be extracted into the organic layer.
(aq) (in octanol) K = 24
The partition coefficient for the distribution of cyclohexanone between water and
The partition
octanolcoefficient
is 24. for the distribution of cyclohexanone
Calculate between water
the mass of cyclohexanone and be extracted i
that would
Worked
octanol is 24. Calculate the example shaken with 100that
mass of cyclohexanone cm3would
of an aqueous solution
be extracted if containing 2.5 g o
O O
The
waspartition
20cm3 of octanol(aq) shakencoefficient for
with 100cm(in the
3 ofdistribution
an aqueous
octanol) Kof=cyclohexanone between water and
solution containing
24
octanol is 24.
Answer
2.5g of cyclohexanone. Let [X] be the concentration of cyclohexanone expressed in g cm
Calculate the massOof cyclohexanone O would be extracted if 20 cm3 of octanol was
that
cyclohexanone extracted be x g; the mass remaining in the aqu
3
shaken with 100 cm(aq)
of an aqueous (in octanol)
solution containing = 24
K2.5 g of cyclohexanone.
(2.5 − x) g
Let [X] beAnswer
the concentration ofmass
Calculate the cyclohexanone expressed
of cyclohexanone [X(octanol)]
in be
g cm –3; let the cm3 of octanol was
if 20mass
K that
= would extracted
shaken
Let [X] be the
of cyclohexanone withbe
100xcm
concentration
extracted
3
g; ofofcyclohexanone
the an aqueous
mass solution
remaining [X(aq)]
containing
expressed
in in g2.5
the aqueous
–3
cmg of cyclohexanone.
; layer
let thewill
mass of
cyclohexanone extracted be x g; the [X(octanol)] =
mass remaining in ×
[X(aq)] theK aqueous layer will therefore be
therefore be (2.5 −Answer
x) g.
(2.5 − x) g Let [X] be the concentration of cyclohexanone − x⎞
x ⎛ 2.5 expressed –3
== ⎜ ⎟ × 24in g cm ; let the mass of
[X(octanol)]
cyclohexanone extracted be x g; the20 ⎝ 100
mass remaining ⎠ in the aqueous layer will therefore be
K=
(2.5 − x)[X(aq)]
g 5x = (2.5 − x) × 24
[X(octanol)] = [X(aq)] [X(octanol)]
K= ×K 5x = 60 − 24x
x ⎛ 2.5 − x ⎞ [X(aq)] x = 2.07 g
== ⎜
[X(octanol)] = ⎟ × 24 × K142
[X(aq)]
20 ⎝ 100 ⎠ This process has extracted about 83% of the 2.5 g of cyclohexa
x ⎛ 2.5 − x ⎞ If we wanted to extract more cyclohexanone, we could repe
5x = (2.5 − x) == ⎜× 24 ⎟ × 24
20 ⎝ 100 ⎠
5x = 60 − 24x would require another 20 cm3 of octanol. However, if we were
5x = (2.5 − x) × 24
x = 2.07 g octanol into two 10 cm3 portions, and use these for successive
5x = 60 − 24x
This process has extracted aboutextracted material would increase. The following calculations w
x = 2.07 g 83% of the 2.5 g of cyclohexanone that was in the water.
If we wanted to extract
This process more cyclohexanone,
has extracted about we2.5could
g ofrepeat the process. Butinthis
3
1 Let the83%
massofofthe cyclohexanonecyclohexanone
extracted that
bywas the 10
the first water.
3
cm3 p
would
BILAL HAMEED require
If another
we 20
wanted cm
to of octanol.
extract more However,
cyclohexanone, if we
we were
could to split
repeat the
the original
process. 20
But cm
this of
3
mass3
remaining in the water willIONIC EQUILIBRIA
therefore be (2.5 – y) g 3
octanol into tworequire
would 10 cm another
portions, andofuse
20 cm these However,
octanol. for successive extractions,
if we were ouroriginal
to split the yield of20 cm of
octanol into
extracted material two increase.
would The ⎛ and y ⎞these
2.5 −use
y following
10 cm3 portions, for successive
calculations will extractions,
make this our
clear. yield of
=⎜ ⎟ × 24
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
206
product formed during a synthetic reaction carried out in a laboratory. If we
the value of the partition coefficient for the compound, we can calculate ho
would be extracted into the organic layer.
This process has extracted about 83% of the 2.5 g of cyclohexanone that
Worked example
was in the water.
The partition coefficient for the distribution of cyclohexanone between water an
octanol
If we wanted to extract more is 24.
cyclohexanone, we could repeat the
O
process. But this would require another O
20 cm3 of octanol.
(aq) (in octanol) K = 24
However, if we were to split the original 20 cm3 of octanol into two 10 cm3
Calculate the mass of cyclohexanone that would be extracted if 20 cm3 of octano
portions, and use these for successive
shaken with 100extractions, our yield
cm3 of an aqueous of extracted
solution containing 2.5 g of cyclohexanone.
material would increase. The following calculations will make this clear.
Answer
Let [X] be the concentration of cyclohexanone expressed in g cm –3; let the mass o
cyclohexanone extracted be x g; the mass remaining in the aqueous layer will the
(2.5 − x) g
[X(octanol)]
=
K 143
[X(aq)]
[X(octanol)] = [X(aq)] × K
x ⎛ 2.5 − x ⎞
== ⎜ ⎟ × 24
20 ⎝ 100 ⎠
5x = (2.5 − x) × 24
5x = 60 − 24x
x = 2.07 g
This process has extracted about 83% of the 2.5 g of cyclohexanone that was in
If we wanted to extract more cyclohexanone, we could repeat the process. Bu
would require another 20 cm3 of octanol. However, if we were to split the origina
octanol into two 10 cm3 portions, and3use these for successive extractions, our yi
Let the mass of cyclohexanone extracted by the first 10 cm portion of
extracted material would increase. The following calculations will make this clear.
octanol be y g. The mass remaining in the water will therefore be (2.5 – y) g.
1 Let the mass of cyclohexanone extracted by the first 10 cm3 portion of octanol
mass remaining in the water will therefore be (2.5 – y) g
y ⎛ 2.5 − y ⎞
= × 24
10 ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠
10y = (2.5 − y) × 24
10y = 60 − 24y
y = 1.765 g
This first extraction results in 2.5 − 1.765 = 0.735 g of cyclohexanone remaining
This first extraction results inaqueous layer. = 0.735 g of cyclohexanone
2.5 − 1.765
remaining in the aqueous2layer
We can
. now calculate how much of this remaining cyclohexanone can be extra
using the second 10 cm3 portion of octanol.
Let the mass
144
of cyclohexanone extracted by the second 10 cm3 portion of oc
z g. The mass remaining in the water will be (0.735 – z) g.
z ⎛ 0.735 − z ⎞
= × 24
10 ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠
10z = 17.64 − 24z
z = 0.519 g
The total mass of cyclohexanone extracted is y + z = 1.765 + 0.519 = 2.28 g
BILAL HAMEED The use of two successive extractions hasIONIC EQUILIBRIA
now raised the percentage extracte
⎛ 2.28 ⎞
83% to 100 × ⎜ = 91%
⎝ 2.5 ⎟⎠
1 Let the mass of cyclohexanone extracted by the first 10 cm3 portion of oct
mass remaining in the water will therefore be (2.5 – y) g
y ⎛ 2.5207 −y⎞
=⎜ × 24
10 ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠
10y = (2.5 − y) × 24
10y = 60 − 24y
SUCCESSIVE y = 1.765 EXTRACTIONS
g
This first extraction results in 2.5 − 1.765 = 0.735 g of cyclohexanone rem
aqueous
We can now calculate how much layer.
of this remaining cyclohexanone can be
extracted by using the second 10can
2 We portion
cm3now of octanol.
calculate how much of this remaining cyclohexanone can be
using the second 10 cm3 portion of octanol.
Let the mass of cyclohexanone extracted by the second 10 cm3 portion of octanol
Let the mass of cyclohexanone extracted by the second 10 cm3 portion
be z g. The mass remaining inz the water
g. The masswill be (0.735
remaining in – z) water
the g. will be (0.735 – z) g.
z ⎛ 0.735 − z ⎞
= × 24
10 ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠
10z = 17.64 − 24z
z = 0.519 g
The total mass of cyclohexanone extracted is y + z = 1.765 + 0.519 = 2.28
The use
The total mass of cyclohexanone extracted is y of
+ ztwo successive
= 1.765 + 0.519 = extractions
2.28 g has now raised the percentage ex
⎛ 2.28 ⎞
83%
The use of two successive extractions hastonow × ⎜ the⎟percentage
100raised = 91% extracted from 83% to 91%
⎝ 2.5 ⎠
If a higher degree of extraction is required (when dealing with expensiv
145
components, for example), the process can be automated into a continuo

apparatus.
378
SKILL CHECK
_22_A_Chem_BP_367-380.indd 378
Q. (a) What is meant by partition coefficient.
(b) If iodine is shaken with 100 cm3 of water and 100 cm3 of an organic
solvent, the concentration of iodine in the water layer is 4.0 x 10–3
moldm—3 and in the organic solvent is 1.0 x 10–3 moldm—3. Calculate the
partition coefficient for iodine between the organic solvent and water.
146

208
SKILL CHECK
(c) The aqueous layer is separated and shaken with 50 cm3 of pure
organic solvent. What will be the concentration of iodine in the
organic solvent at equilibrium in moldm—3?
147

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133

7.2 Ionic equilibria

7.3 Partition coefficients

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

Back to contents page www.cie.org.uk/alevel 25

Reversible reactions can be defined as those that can go in either direction,

ACIDS AND BASES

An acid is an electron pair acceptor.

The two theories are entirely consistent.

Lewis Base H N B F Lewis Acid

Water molecules can function as both acids and bases.

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

The ionic product of water, Kw

H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq)

We can simplify this equation by writing hydroxonium

20 Ionic equilibria 301

IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER

H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH— (aq)

Can be simplified to:

Applying the equilibrium law Kc = [H+][OH−]

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER

The concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in pure water

Therefore we can regard the concentration of water as being constant.

IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER

In pure water [H+] = [OH—]

= (1 x10—7 mol dm—3)2

Hence at 298 K Kw = 1 x10—14 mol2 dm—6

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER

H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH—(aq) ∆H=endothermic

Kw increases at high temperature: At 100oC Kw = 5.13 x 10—13 mol2 dm—6

Kw decreases at low temperature: At 0oC Kw = 1.1 x 10—15 mol2 dm—6

ACIDITY, ALKALINITY AND pH

In aqueous solutions if [H+] increases then [OH—] would decrease in order

If [H+] > [OH—] then the solution is acidic

If [H+] < [OH—] then the solution is basic

If [H+] = [OH—] then the solution is neutral

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

ACIDITY, ALKALINITY AND pH

STRONGLY WEAKLY NEUTRAL WEAKLY STRONGLY

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

Since Kw = [H+][OH—] = 1 x10—14 mol2dm—6

pH = −log10[H+] = −log10(5.0 x10—13)

(b)Calculate the pH of a solution where [H+] = 2.34 × 10—10 mol dm—3

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

(b) What does an increase in temperature do to the pH of water?

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

(a) at 5°C, Kw is 1.86 × 10−15 mol2dm−6

(c) at 100 °C, Kw is 5.13 × 10−13 mol2dm−6

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN pH & pOH

pH = −log[H+] pOH = −log[OH—] pKw = —logKw

Take logs of both sides log[H+] + log[OH—] = logKw

Multiply by the minus sign −log[H+] − log[OH—] = − logKw

Change to pH and pOH pH + pOH = pKw

pH + pOH = 14 (at 25°C)

BILAL HAMEED IONIC EQUILIBRIA

STRONG & WEAK ACIDS

Applying the equilibrium law Kc = [H+][OH−] 

(a)0.01 mol dm—3 hydrochloric acid 

(b)0.025 mol dm—3 sulphuric acid 

(c) 1.0 mol dm—3 hydrochloric acid 

Ka = [H+] × [CH3COO—] = 1.70 × 10–-5 

NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH— Kc = 1.8 x 10—5 mol—3 