COMPONENTS KNOWLEDGE & HANDLING

Contents
1- Capacitor
2- Resistor
3- Diodes
4- LEDs
5- Transistors
6- Integrated Circuit Chips
7- Relays

CAPACITOR

Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying
DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that
more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very
large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values. Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ
(micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF

p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with
different labelling systems!

Polarised capacitors (large values,1µF +)

Examples : Circuit

Symbol :

Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round, at
least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to
each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in
picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit
board. It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed
with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for

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example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the
project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater
than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.

Tantalum Bead Capacitors

Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors.
They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed in a
small size. Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and
polarity in full. However older ones use a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the
two digits) and a spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the value in µF. The standard
colour code is used, but for the spot, grey is used to mean × 0.01 and white means × 0.1 so that
values of less than 10µF can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows the voltage
(yellow 6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The positive
(+) lead is to the right when the spot is facing you: 'when the spot is in sight, the positive is to
the right'.

For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68µF

For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8µF
For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68µF

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)

Examples:
Circuit symbol:

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected

either way round. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They
have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so.
It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors
because there are many types of them and several different
labelling systems!

Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to
use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!

For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal

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point: For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Capacitor Number Code

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:

the 1st number is the 1st digit,

the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,

the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.

Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.

For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not102pF!)

For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

Capacitor Colour Code

A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course
there are many still around. The colours should be read like the resistor code, the top three
colour bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage
rating).

For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01µF.

Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a
wide band.

For example: wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22µF.

Polystyrene Capacitors
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed without units. Polystyrene
capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so you should use
a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the
joint.

Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6series)

You may have noticed that capacitors are not available with every possible value, for
example 22µF and 47µF are readily available, but 25µF and 50µF are not! Why is this?
Imagine that you decided to make capacitors every 10µF giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on.

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To produce a sensible range of capacitor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as
the value increases. The standard capacitor values are based on this idea and they form a
series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.

The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 22, 47, ... then it continues 100, 220, 470,
1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.

The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten)

10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc. Notice how
this is the E3 series with an extra value in the gaps. The E3 series is the one most frequently
used for capacitors because many types cannot be made with very accurate values.

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 Variable Capacitor Symbol

Variable capacitors

Variable
capacitors are
Trimmer capacitors

Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are

designed to be mounted directly on to the circuit board and adjusted only
when the circuit is built. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to
adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them requires patience because
the presence of your hand and the tool will slightly change the capacitance of
the circuit in the region of the trimmer!

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Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than
100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by
their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF. Trimmers are the capacitor
equivalent of presets which are miniature variable resistors.

RESISTOR

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Resistors

Example: Circuit Symbol

symbol:

Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current,for example a resistor is
placed in series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the
current passing through the LED.

Connecting and soldering

Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not

damaged by heat when soldering.

Resistor values - the resistor colour code

Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega .

1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M.

1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 . Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands.

Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.

Most resistors have 4 bands: The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.

The third band indicates the number of zeros.

The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for
almost all circuits but further details are given below.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands. So its value is 270000= 270
k.

On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.

The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.

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Tolerance of resistors(fourth band of colour code)

The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code.

Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390
resistor with a tolerance of ±10%
will have a value within 10% of 390, between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of
390).

A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, brown ±1%.

If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.

Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely
required.

Resistor shorthand
Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which avoids using a
decimal point because it is easy to miss the small dot. Instead the letters R, K and M are used in
place of the decimal point. To read the code: replace the letter with a decimal point, then
multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K, or 1000000 if the letter was M. The letter R
means multiply by 1.

For example:

560R means 560Ω ;

2K7 means 2.7 kΩ = 2700Ω ;

39K means 39 k Ω ;

1M0 means 1.0 M = 1000 k Ω

Real resistor values (the E6 and E12 series)

You may have noticed that resistors are not available with every possible value, for example 22k
and 47k are readily available, but 25k and 50k are not! Why is this? Imagine that you decided to
make resistors every 10 giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens
when you reach 1000? It would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because
for these values 10 is a very small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits. In fact
it would be difficult to make resistors sufficiently accurate.

To produce a sensible range of resistor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the
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value increases. The standard resistor values are based on this idea and they form a series which
follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.

The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 20% tolerance) 10, 15, 22, 33,
47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 Ω etc.

Notice how the step size increases as the value increases. For this series the step (to the next
value) is roughly half the value.

The E12 series (12 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 10% tolerance) 10, 12, 15,
18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82, ... then it continues 100, 120, 150 Ω etc.

Notice how this is the E6 series with an extra value in the gaps. The E12 series is the one most
frequently used for resistors. It allows you to choose a value within 10% of the precise value
you need. This is sufficiently accurate for almost all projects and it is sensible because most
resistors are only accurate to ±10% (called their 'tolerance'). For example a resistor marked 390
Ω could vary by ±10% × 390Ω = ±39Ω, so it could be any value between 351 and 429Ω.

Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the effect is
negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a large current may
pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the
heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this. Power ratings of resistors are rarely
quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are
suitable. For the rare cases where a higher power is required it should be clearly specified in the
parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors (less than about 300) or high voltages
(more than 15V).

in a resistor is given by: P = I² × R

or P = V² / R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)

I = current through the resistor in amps (A)

R = resistance of the resistor in ohms (Ω)
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)
Examples:

A 470Ω resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating

P = V²/R = 10²/470 = 0.21W.

In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.

A 27Ω resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating

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P =V²/R = 10²/27 = 3.7W.

A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable.

Variable Resistors

Construction
Standard Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper
which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon,
cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually
rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available. Variable resistors may
be used as a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a
potentiometer with all three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for
setting up circuits which will not require further adjustment.

Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues. They are specified by
their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. The standard
spindle diameter is 6mm. The resistance and type of track are marked on the body: 4K7 LIN
means 4.7 k linear track.

Linear (LIN) and Logarithmic (LOG) tracks

Linear (LIN) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper.
This is the standard arrangement and you should assume this type is required if a project does
not specify the type of track. Presets always have linear tracks.

Logarithmic (LOG) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and
rapidly at the other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance! This
arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a logarithmic
response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low volumes and coarser
control (rapid change) at high volumes.

It is important to connect the ends of the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the
spindle increases the volume rapidly followed by little further change you should swap the
connections to the ends of the track.

Rheostat
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor.

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 Rheostat

Two terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track,

The other to the movable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance between the
two terminals from zero up to the maximum resistance.

Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the brightness of a lamp or the
rate at which a capacitor charges.

If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that all three terminals are
connected!
However, one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical
strength of the mounting but it serves no function electrically.

Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected.

Potentiometer Symbol

This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a
circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit.

Presets
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted
directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example to set the
frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or
similar tool is required to adjust presets.

Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects
where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.

Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be
turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very
fine control.

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 P re s e t P re s e ts M u ltit u r n p r e s e t
( o p e n s ty le ) ( c l o s e d s ty le )

Diodes

Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early
diodes were actually called valves.

DIODES

Examples: Circuit Symbol

Forward Voltage Drop

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through
the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door with a
spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a
conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is
about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon.
The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through
the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current- voltage graph).

Reverse Voltage :
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When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a
very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be
very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes
have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will
fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown. Ordinary
diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of 100mA or less
and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are LEDs (which have
their own page) and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page).

Connecting and soldering

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode
and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line
painted on the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small print, you may need a
magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes! Small signal diodes can be damaged by
heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes
beginning OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink
clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A
standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink. Rectifier
diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are
needed for soldering them.

Testing diodes

You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery,

resistor and LED) to check that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may
be used to test a rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large
current passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!

Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are only
required to pass small currents of up to 100mA. General purpose signal diodes such as the
1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of
0.7V. Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward
voltage drop of 0.2V and this makes them suitable to use in radio
circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from the weak
radio signal. For general use, where the size of the forward voltage
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drop is less important, silicon diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat
when soldering, they have a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage
currents when a reverse voltage is applied.

Protection diodes for relays

Signal diodes are also used to protect transistors and ICs from the brief high voltage produced
when a relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected
'backwards' across the relay coil. Current flowing through a relay Coil creates a magnetic field
which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off.

The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil
which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection of diode allows the induced
voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away
quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause
damage to transistors and ICs.

Rectifier diodes (large current) Maximum

Maximum
Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert Diode Reverse
Current
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), Voltage
a process called rectification. They are also used 1N4001 1A 50V
elsewhere in circuits where a large current must pass
1N4002 1A 100V
through the diode. All rectifier diodes are made from
1N4007 1A 1000V
silicon and therefore have a forward voltage drop of
0.7V. The table shows maximum current and 1N5401 3A 100V

maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier 1N5408 3A 1000V

diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage
circuits with a current of less than 1A.

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Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available in special packages containing thefour
diodes required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and maximum reverse
voltage.

They have four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are labelled + and, the two AC inputs are
labelled . The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC.

Zener diodes
Example: Circuit symbol

a = anode , k = cathode

Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable

and non-destructive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed voltage across their
terminals. The diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in series to limit the current.

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Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and breakdown voltage
which are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZY... Their breakdown voltage
is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for example.

Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power:

*The minimum voltage available is 2.4V.

*Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.

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Function LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode
and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and
there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode
is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method). LEDs can be damaged
by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special precautions are
needed for soldering most LEDs.

Testing an LED

Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply! It will be destroyed almost
instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out.

LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes
a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.

Colours of LEDs

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs
are much more expensive than the other colours. The colour of an LED is determined by the
semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all
colours are available in uncoloured packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often
described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard
type) or transparent.

Tri-colour LEDs

The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in
one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and
green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green

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LEDs are on. The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different lengths
of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for
both LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs
allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to give
the third colour.

Bi-colour LEDs

A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel'(one

forwards, one backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can
be lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above.

Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The 'standard' LED has a round cross-
section of 5mm diameter and this is probably the best type for general use, but 3mm round

LEDs are also popular. Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to
install on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to hold
the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in holes. Other cross-section
shapes include square, rectangular and triangular. As well as a variety of colours, sizes and
shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing angle. This tells you how much the beam of light
spreads out. Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60°but others have a narrow beam of 30°or
less.

Connecting LEDs in series LEDs

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be

possible to connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by
lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED. All
the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if
they are all the same type. The power supply must have
sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue
and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To work out a

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value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use this for VL.

Example calculations:

A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least 3 × 2V + 2V = 8V,

so a 9V battery would be ideal.

VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up). If the supply voltage VS is 9V and
the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A,

Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200, so choose R = 220

(the nearest standard value which is greater).

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between them is generally not
a good idea. If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will
light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it. Although identical LEDs
can be successfully connected in parallel with one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit
because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs

individually. If LEDs are in parallel each one should have it shown resistor.

LED Displays

Bargraph 7-segment Dot matrix

Starburst

Flashing LEDs

Flashing LEDs look like ordinary LEDs but

they contain an integrated circuit (IC) as well

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as the LED itself. The IC flashes the LED at a low frequency, typically 3Hz (3 flashes per
second). They are designed to be connected directly to a supply, usually 9 - 12V, and no series
resistor is required. Their flash frequency is fixed so their use is limited and you may prefer to
build your own circuit to flash an ordinary LED, for example our Flashing LED project which
uses a 555 a stable circuit.

Pin connections of LED displays

There are many types of LED display and a supplier's catalogue should be consulted for the pin
connections. The diagram on the right shows an example from the Rapid Electronics catalogue.
Like many 7-segment displays, this example is available in two versions: Common Anode (SA)
with all the LED anodes connected together and Common Cathode (SC) with all the cathodes
connected together. Letters a-g refer to the 7 segments, A/C is the common anode or cathode as
appropriate (on 2 pins). Note that some pins are not present (NP) but their position is still
numbered.

TRANSISTORS

Function
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the
small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or
other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the
changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage. A
transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no
current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). The amount of current amplification is called the
current gain, symbol hFE.

Types of transistor

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The
letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors
used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to
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electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors.

The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). These terms refer to the internal
operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so
just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain In
addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are
usually referred to as FETs.

Connecting

Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care
with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on.
If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or stripboard layout
diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to identify the leads. The
drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles. Please note that
transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads towards you.

Soldering

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a
heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the transistor body. A standard crocodile clip
can be used as a heat sink.

Crocodile clip

Heat sinks

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Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through them. Heat sinks are
needed for power transistors because they pass large currents. If you find that a transistor is
becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat sink helps to dissipate
(remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding air.

Testing a transistor

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you suspect that
a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it:

1.Testing with a multimeter

2.Testing in a simple switching circuit

Testing with a multimeter

Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and

LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a
digital multimeter to diode test and an analog multimeter to
a low resistance range.

The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only. The base-
collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only. The collector-
emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total): junctions behave in an NPN
transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor
22 but the same test procedure
can be used.
Testing in a simple switching Circuit

Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right which uses the transistor as a switch.

The supply voltage is not critical, anything between 5 and 12V is suitable. This circuit can be
quickly built on breadboard for example. Take care to include the 10k resistor in the base
connection or you will destroy the transistor as you test it!

If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is pressed and not light when the
switch is released. To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the
supply voltage. Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known base
current and measures

the collector current so as to display the transistor's DC current gain hFE.

Transistor codes

 Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478 The first letter B is for
silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates the type; for
example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F
means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor.
There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the
end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher
current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher gain version
(BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with
that code is suitable.
 Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas
Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end identifies versions with different
voltage ratings.
 Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053. The initial '2N' identifies the part as a
transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious
logic to the numbering system.

Choosing a transistor

Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually substitute an
equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important properties to look for are
the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most
23
suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their typical use or maximum
power rating.

Structure : This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the two types are
different so if you are looking for a substitute it must be the same type.

Case style : There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most common case styles in
the Connecting section above. This information is also available in suppliers' catalogues.

hFE : This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum value is
given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same
type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. The gain is often quoted at a
particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle of the transistor's range, for example
'100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum
values are given. Since the gain is roughly constant for various current but it varies from
transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts.

Why hFE?

It is one of a whole series of parameters for

transistors, each with their own symbol. There are
too many to explain here.

Category : This shows the typical use for the

transistor, it is a good starting point when looking
for a substitute. Catalogues may have separate
tables for different categories.

Darlington pair

There is two transistors connected together so that the amplified current from the first is amplified
further by the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain such as
10000. Darlington pairs are sold as complete packages containing the two transistors. They have
three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor

You can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors.

For example:

For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220.

For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40. The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 × hFE2=8800.

24
Integrated Circuits Chips

Introduction ICs

Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They are complex circuits which have been
etched onto tiny chips of semiconductor (silicon). The chip is packaged in a plastic holder with pins
spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid which will fit the holes on stripboard and breadboards. Very fine
wires inside the package link the chip to the pins.

Pin numbers
The pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC (chip) starting near the notch or dot. The
diagram shows the numbering for 8- pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the same for all sizes.

IC holders (DIL sockets)

ICs (chips) are easily damaged by heat when soldering and their
short pins cannot be protected with a heat sink. Instead we use
an IC holder, strictly called a DIL socket (DIL = Dual In-
Line), which can be safely soldered onto the circuit board. The
IC is pushed into the holder when all soldering is
complete.

IC holders are only needed when soldering so they are not used on breadboards.

Commercially produced circuit boards often have ICs soldered directly to the board without an IC
holder, usually this is done by a machine which is able to work very quickly.

Removing an IC from its holder

If you need to remove an IC it can be gently picked out of the holder with a small flat-blade
screwdriver. Carefully lever up each end by inserting the screwdriver blade between the IC
and its holder and gently twisting the screwdriver. Take care to start lifting at both ends
before you attempt to remove the IC, otherwise you will bend and possibly break the pins.

Static precautions

Many ICs are static sensitive and can be damaged when you touch
them because your body may have become charged with static electricity, from your clothes for
example. Static sensitive ICs will be supplied in antistatic packaging with a warning label and they
should be left in this packaging until you are ready to use them. It is usually adequate to earth your
hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling the IC but for the more
sensitive (and expensive!) ICs special equipment is available, including earthed wrist straps and
earthed work surfaces. You can make an earthed work surface with a sheet of aluminium kitchen foil
and using a crocodile clip to connect the foil to a metal water pipe or window frame with a 10k
resistor in series.

Sinking and sourcing current

IC outputs are often said to 'sink' or 'source' current. The terms refer to the direction of the current at
the IC's output. If the IC is sinking current it is flowing into the output. This means that a device
connected between the positive supply (+Vs) and the IC output will be switched on when the output
is low (0V). If the IC is sourcing current it is flowing out of the output. This means that a device
connected between the IC output and the negative supply (0V) will be switched on when the output
is high (+Vs). It is possible to connect two devices to an IC output so that one is on when the output
is low and the other is on when the output is high. This arrangement is used in the Level Crossing
project to make the red LEDs flash alternately. The maximum sinking and sourcing currents for an
IC output are usually the same but there are some exceptions, for example 74LS TTL logic ICs can
sink up to 16mA but only source 2mA

Using diodes to combine outputs

The outputs of ICs must never be directly connected together. However, diodes can be used to
combine two or more digital (high/low) outputs from an IC such as a counter. This can be a useful
way of producing simple logic functions without using logic gates! The diagram shows two ways of
combining outputs using diodes. The diodes must be capable of passing the output current. 1N4148
signal diodes are suitable for low current devices such as LEDs. For example the outputs Q0 - Q9 of
a 40171-of-10 counter go high in turn. Using diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and 4th (Q3) outputs
as shown in the bottom diagram will make the LED flash twice followed by a longer gap. The
diodes are performing the function of an OR gate.

Sinking and sourcing current

IC outputs are often said to 'sink' or 'source' current. The

terms refer to the direction of the current at the IC's
output. If the IC is sinking current it is flowing into the
output. This means that a device connected between the
positive supply (+Vs) and the IC output will be switched on
when the output is low (0V). If the IC is sourcing
current it is flowing out of the output. This means that a
device connected between the IC output and the negative
supply (0V) will be switched on when the output is
high (+Vs).It is possible to connect two devices to an IC
output so that one is on when the output is low and the
other is on when the output is high. This arrangement is
used in the Level Crossing project to make the red LEDs
flash alternately. The maximum sinking and sourcing currents for an IC output are usually the
same but there are some exceptions, for example 74LS TTL logic ICs can sink up to 16mA but
only source 2mA

Using diodes to combine outputs

The outputs of ICs must never be directly connected together.

However, diodes can be used to combine two or more digital
(high/low) outputs from an IC such as a counter. This can be a
useful way of producing simple logic functions without using
logic gates! The diagram shows two ways of combining
outputs using diodes. The diodes must be capable of passing
the output current. 1N4148 signal diodes are suitable for low
current devices such as LEDs. For example the outputs Q0 -
Q9 of a 4017 1-of-10 counter go high in turn. Using diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and 4th
(Q3) outputs as shown in the bottom diagram will make the LED flash twice followed by a
longer gap. The diodes are performing the function of an OR gate.

The 555 and 556 Timers

The 8-pin 555 timer IC is used in many projects, a popular

version is the NE555. Most circuits will just specify '555 timer IC'
and the NE555 is suitable for these. The 555 output (pin 3) can sink
and source up to 200mA. This is more than most ICs and it is
sufficient to supply LEDs, relay coils and low current lamps. To
switch larger currents you can connect a transistor. The 556 is a
dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin package. The two
timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins.

Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these should only be used
when specified (to increase battery life) because their maximum output current of about 20mA
(with 9V supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin
arrangement as a standard 555.

Logic ICs (chips)

Logic ICs process digital signals and there are many devices, including logic gates, flip-flops,
shift registers, counters and display drivers. They can be split into two groups according to their
pin arrangements: the 4000 series and the 74 series which consists of various families such as the
74HC, 74HCT and 74LS.

Mixing Logic Families

It is best to build a circuit using just one logic family, but if necessary the different families may
be mixed providing the power supply is suitable for all of them. For example mixing 4000 and
74HC requires the power supply to be in the range 3 to 6V. A circuit which includes 74LS or
74HCT ICs must have a 5V supply. A 74LS output cannot reliably drive a 4000 or 74HC input
unless a 'pull-up' resistor of 2.2k is connected between the +5V supply and the input to correct
the slightly different logic voltage ranges used. Note that a 4000 series output can drive only one
74LS input.

4000 Series CMOS

This family of logic ICs is numbered from 4000 onwards,

and from 4500 onwards. They have a B at the end of the
number (e.g. 4001B), which refers to an improved design
introduced some years ago. Most of them are in 14-pin or 16-
pin packages. They use CMOS circuitry which means they use
very little power and can tolerate a wide range of power
supply voltages (3 to 15V) making them ideal for battery powered projects. CMOS is
pronounced 'seemoss' and stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. However the
CMOS circuitry also means that they are static sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with
static electricity (from your clothes for example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular
use are quite tolerant and earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame
before handling them will be adequate. ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you
are ready to use them.

74 Series: 74LS, 74HC and 74HCT

There are several families of logic ICs numbered from 74xx00 onwards with letters (xx) in the
middle of the number to indicate the type of circuitry, eg 74LS00 and 74HC00. The original
family (now obsolete) had no letters, eg 7400 The 74LS (Low-power Schottky) family (like the
original) uses TTL (Transistor- Transistor Logic) circuitry which is fast but requires more power
than later families. The 74HC family has High-speed CMOS circuitry, combining the speed of
TTL with the very low power consumption of the 4000 series. They are CMOS ICs with the
same pin arrangements as the older 74LS family. Note that 74HC inputs cannot be reliably
driven by 74LS outputs because the voltage ranges used for logic 0 are not quite compatible, use
74HCT instead. The 74HCT family is a special version of 74HC with 74LS TTL-compatible
inputs so 74HCT can be safely mixed with 74LS in the same system. In fact 74HCT can be used
as low-power direct replacements for the older 74LS ICs in most circuits. The minor
disadvantage of 74HCT is a lower immunity to noise, but this is unlikely to be a problem in most
situations. The CMOS circuitry used in the 74HC and 74HCT series ICs means that they are
static sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for
example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and earthing your
hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling them will be adequate.
ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use them.

PIC microcontrollers

PIC is a Programmable Integrated Circuit microcontroller, a 'computer-on-a-chip'. They have a

processor and memory to run a program responding to inputs and controlling outputs, so they can
easily achieve complex functions which would require several conventional ICs. Programming a
PIC microcontroller may seem daunting to a beginner but there are a number of systems
designed to make this easy. The PICAXE system is an excellent example because it uses a
standard computer to program (and re-program) the PICs; no specialist equipment is required
other than a low-cost download lead. Programs can be written in a simple version of BASIC or
using a flowchart.
RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on
or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains
circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between thetwo circuits, the link is
magnetic and mechanical. Circuit symbol for a relay.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12Vrelay, but it can be
as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot
provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger
value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is
200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification. Relays are usually
SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4
sets of changeover contacts are readily available. The relay's switch connections are usually
labelled COM, NC and NO:

•COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.

•NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.

•NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on

Choosing a relay

Physical size and pin arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions and
pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's catalogue.

Coil voltage

The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil.

Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily available.
Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated
value.

Coil resistance

The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use Ohm's law
to calculate the current:

Relay coil current = Supply Voltage/coil resistance

Switch ratings (voltage and current)

The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to
check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for

AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".

Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)

Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO)
or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the page on switches

Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is
switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg. 1N4148) is connected 'backwards'
across the relay coil to provide this protection. Current flowing through a relay coil creates a
magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse
of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to
damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief
current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly.
This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

Reed relays

Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are normally operated
with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through the coil to create a magnetic field and
close the reed switch Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays
(1000 for example) and a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable
of switching much more rapidly than standard relays, up to several hundred times per second; but
they can only switch low currents (500mA maximum for example).
The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin DIL socket ('IC holder').

Relays and transistors compared

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching small DC
currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However transistors

cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not usually a good
choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a
low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Advantages of relays:

_Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.

_Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.

_Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

_Relays can switch many contacts at once

Disadvantages of relays:

_Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

_Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times pe _Relays
use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.