ERIC Identifier: ED317087 

Publication Date: 1989-12-00 
Author: Oxford, Rebecca 
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics Washington DC.  http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-
9214/styles.htm

The Role of Styles and Strategies in Second Language Learning. ERIC Digest.

Consider the very different behaviors or strategies that individual students use to learn a new language. Shy,
introverted, analytically-oriented Marianne learns Spanish through grammar drills and sentence analysis.
Uncomfortable with spontaneous speech in Spanish, she rehearses as much as she can in private. In contrast,
sociable, extroverted, globally-oriented Jose from Mexico avoids grammar drills but seeks out social
conversation in English, his new language; he is content to get the general meaning without knowing every
word.

When intuitive Bill studies Russian, he constantly tries to build a mental model or big picture of the language.
He avoids step-by-step language learning. Noriko, attuned more to the senses (movement, sound, sight, and
touch) than to intuition, looks for English texts that proceed one step at a time. She uses flashcards, and with
her classmates, she initiates "total physical response" exercises that involve all the senses.

Serious Sarah outlines every French lesson, plans her study sessions, does all the exercises in her textbook
religiously, and is not happy unless she is on time or ahead of schedule. Playful Michael tells jokes in German
and has fun with the language, but has trouble organizing his work, coming to closure, and submitting his
assignments on time.

These learners are using different kinds of language learning strategies, or specific actions and behaviors to
help them learn. Their strategies differ greatly, at least in part because their general learning styles (overall
approaches to learning and the environment) are so varied. Recent research (Ehrman & Oxford, 1988, 1989;
Oxford & Ehrman, 1988) suggests that learning style has a significant influence on students' choice of learning
strategies, and that both styles and strategies affect learning outcomes.

This Digest briefly summarizes existing research on learning styles and strategies in foreign and second
language learning. Readers are urged to go further by consulting the references provided at the end of the
Digest.

WHAT IS MEANT BY LEARNING STYLE?

The term learning style is used to encompass four aspects of the person: cognitive style, i.e., preferred or
habitual patterns of mental functioning; patterns of attitudes and interests that affect what an individual will pay
most attention to in a learning situation; a tendency to seek situations compatible with one's own learning
patterns; and a tendency to use certain learning strategies and avoid others (Lawrence, 1984). Learning style
is inherent and pervasive (Willing, 1988) and is a blend of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements
(Oxford & Ehrman, 1988). At least twenty dimensions of learning style have been identified (Parry,
1984; Shipman & Shipman, 1985).

"Field independence vs. dependence." One of the most widely researched dimensions of learning style is field
independence vs. dependence. Field independent learner s easily separate key details from a complex or
confusing background, while their field dependent peers have trouble doing this. Field independent learners
show significant advantages over field dependent learners in analytical tasks (Hansen & Stansfield, 1981;
Chapelle & Roberts, 1986).

"Analytic vs. global processing" seems to be closely allied with field independence vs. dependence, and indeed
may be a more fundamental and more explanatory dimension of learning style. However, little foreign or
second language learning research exists concerning the analytic-global dimension except in the context of
brain hemisphericity. The left hemisphere of the brain deals with language through analysis and abstraction,
while the right hemisphere recognizes language as more global auditory or visual patterns (Willing, 1988).
Leaver (1986) speculates that right-brain learners--those who prefer the kinds of processing done by the right
side of the brain--are more facile at learning intonation and rhythms of the target language, whereas left-brain
learners deal more easily with analytic aspects of target language grammar.

"Cooperation vs. competition" has been only lightly studied as a dimension of style in the language learning
field. Reid (1987) found that in the language classroom, learners rarely report using cooperative behaviors
(behaviors that one would infer to reflect a cooperative style); however, this finding might well be related to
instructional methodologies that often preclude cooperation and foster competition. In studies where students
were taught specifically to be cooperative, results revealed vast improvement in language skills as well as
increased self-esteem, motivation, altruism, and positive attitudes toward others (Gunderson & Johnson, 1980;
Sharan et al., 1985; Jacob & Mattson, 1987).

"Tolerance for ambiguity" is another style dimension of language learning. Learning a language can be a
difficult and at times ambiguous endeavor, and students who can more readily tolerate ambiguity often show
the best language learning performance (see Chapelle & Roberts; 1986, Naiman, Frohlich & Todesco, 1975).

The Myers-Briggs Type indicator (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) contributes four more dimensions to learning
style: extraversion vs. introversion, sensing vs. intuition, thinking vs. feeling, and judging vs. perceiving (the last
dimension referring to the immediateness of the need for closure). Several of these dimensions appear to
significantly influence how students choose to learn languages, according to recent research (Ehrman &
Oxford, 1988, 1989; Oxford & Ehrman, 1988).

Other important style aspects that may relate to language learning performance are leveling-sharpening of
detail, reflectivity-impulsivity, and constricted-flexible thinking (Parry, 1984). Additional research needs to be
conducted on all style dimensions in order for teachers to understand more about the basic stylistic
preferences of their students.

WHAT ARE LEARNING STRATEGIES?

Language learning strategies are the often-conscious steps or behaviors used by language learners to
enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information (Rigney, 1978; Oxford, 1990).
Strategies can be assessed in a variety of ways, such as diaries, think-aloud procedures, observations, and
surveys. Research both outside the language field (e.g., Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983) and
investigations with language learners (see reviews by Skehan, 1989; Oxford 1989; Oxford & Crookall, 1989)
frequently show that the most successful learners tend to use learning strategies that are appropriate to the
material, to the task, and to their own goals, needs, and stage of learning. More proficient learners appear to
use a wider range of strategies in a greater number of situations than do less proficient learners, but the
relationship between strategy use and proficiency is complex. Research indicates that language learners at all
levels use strategies (Chamot & Kupper, 1989), but that some or most learners are not fully aware of the
strategies they use or the strategies that might be most beneficial to employ.

Many different strategies can be used by language learners: metacognitive techniques for organizing, focusing,
and evaluating one's own learning; affective strategies for handling emotions or attitudes; social strategies for
cooperating with others in the learning process; cognitive strategies for linking new information with existing
schemata and for analyzing and classifying it; memory strategies for entering new information into memory
storage and for retrieving it when needed; and compensation strategies (such as guessing or using gestures)
to overcome deficiencies and gaps in one's current language knowledge (see Oxford, 1990).
Language learning strategy research has suffered from an overemphasis on metacognitive and cognitive
strategies, which are admittedly very important, at the expense of other strategy types that are also very useful.

Some preliminary research suggests the existence of sex differences in strategy use (see review by Oxford,
Nyikos, & Ehrman, 1988). Choice of language strategies also relates strongly to ethnicity, language learning
purpose, the nature of the task, and other factors (see Politzer, 1983; Politzer & McGroarty, 1985; Oxford,
1989). As noted earlier, one of these related factors is, no doubt, learning style.

Important effects of training in the use of language learning strategies have been discovered by a number of
researchers (see Atkinson, 1985; Bejarano, 1987; Chamot & Kupper, 1989; Cohen & Hosenfeld, 1981; Oxford,
Crookall, Lavine, Cohen, Nyikos & Sutter, forthcoming). It is clear that students can be taught to use better
strategies, and research suggests that better strategies improve language performance. Just how language
learning strategies should be taught is open to question, but so far it has been confirmed that strategy training
is generally more effective when woven into regular classroom activities than when presented as a separate
strategy course.

Language learning styles and strategies appear to be among the most important variables influencing
performance in a second language. Much more investigation is necessary to determine the precise role of
styles and strategies, but even at this stage in our understanding we can state that teachers need to become
more aware of both learning styles and learning strategies through appropriate teacher training. Teachers can
help their students by designing instruction that meets the needs of individuals with different stylistic
preferences and by teaching students how to improve their learning strategies.

REFERENCES
Atkinson, R.C. (1985). Mnemotechnics in second-language learning. "American Psychologist," 30, pp821-28.

Bejarano, Y. (1987). A cooperative small-group methodology in the language classroom. "TESOL Quarterly," 2, pp483-
504.

Brown, A.L., Bransford, J.D., Ferrara, R. & Campione, J.C. (1983). Learning, remembering, and understanding. In J.N.
Flavell & E. M. Markham (Eds.), "Carmichael's manual of child psychology, v1." New York, NY: Wiley.

Chamot, A.U. & Kupper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. "Foreign Language Annals," 22,
pp13-24.

Chapelle, C. & Roberts, C. (1986). Ambiguity tolerance and field independence as predictors in English as a second
language. "Language Learning," 36(1) pp27-45.

Cohen, A.D. & Hosenfeld, C. (1981). Some uses of mentalistic data in second language acquisition. "Language Learning,"
31, pp285-313.

Ehrman, M. & Oxford, R. (1988). "Ants and grasshoppers, badgers and butterflies: Qualitative and quantitative exploration
of adult language learning styles and strategies." Paper presented at the Symposium on Research Perspectives on Adult
Language Learning and Acquisition, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.

Ehrman, M. & Oxford, R. (1989). Effects of sex differences, career choice, and psychological type on adults' language
learning strategies. "Modern Language Journal," 73, pp1-13.

Gunderson, B. & Johnson, D. (1980). Building positive attitudes by using cooperative learning groups. "Foreign Language
Annals," 13, pp39-43.

Hansen, J. & Stansfield, CW. (1981). The relationship of field dependent-independent cognitive styles to foreign language
achievement. "Language Learning," 31, pp349-67. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 196 275)

Jacob, E. & Mattson, B. (1987). "Using cooperative learning with language minority students: A report from the field."
Washington, DC: Center for Language Education and Research. Center for Applied Linguistics.
Lawrence, G. (1984). A synthesis of learning style research involving the MBTI. "Journal of Psychological Type," 8, pp2-
15.

Leaver, B.L. (1986). Hemispherity of the brain and foreign language teaching. "Folia Slavica," 8, pp76-90.

Myers, I. & McCaulley, M. (1985). "Manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs type indicator." Palo
Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., & Todesco, A. (1975). The good language learner; "TESL Talk," 6, pp58-75.

Oxford, R. (1989). The use of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy training.
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Oxford, R. (1990). "Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know." New York: Newbury House/ Harper
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Oxford, R., Crookall, D., Lavine, R., Cohen, A., Nyikos, M., & Sutter, W. (forthcoming). "Strategy training for language
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Oxford, R. & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on six situational language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and
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Oxford, R. & Ehrman, M. (1988). Psychological type and adult language learning strategies: A pilot study. "Journal of
Psychological Type," 16, pp22-32.

Oxford, R., Nyikos, M. & Ehrman, M. (1988). Vive la difference? Reflections on sex differences in use of language
learning strategies. "Foreign Language Annals," 21(4).

Parry, T.S. (1984). "The relationship of selected dimensions of learner cognitive style, aptitude, and general intelligence
factors to selected foreign language proficiency tasks of second-year students of Spanish at the secondary level."
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and communicative competence. "TESOL Quarterly," 19, pp103-24.

Reid, J.M. (1987). The learning style preferences of ESL students. "TESOL Quarterly," 21, pp87-111.

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cooperate, cooperating to learn." pp314-44. New York: Plenum.

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