HUMAN AFFAIRS 24, 574–583, 2014

DOI: 10.2478/s13374-014-0250-9

KEY CONCEPTS IN PHILOSOPHICAL COUNSELLING1

BLANKA ŠULAVÍKOVÁ

Abstract: This article explores various interpretations of philosophical counselling. These interpretations
are determined by the nature and status of the key concepts from which they are derived. The first is “critical
thinking”, which a number of authors have based their conceptions on; just two examples are mentioned
in the article—Elliot D. Cohen and Tim LeBon. Many philosophical practitioners, especially those whose
philosophizing is influenced by Socrates, use critical thinking, and indeed believe that it is what philosophical
practice is all about. Pierre Grimes is another example of someone who has been influenced by Socrates.
Eckart Ruschmann and Ran Lahav believe that interpreting world beliefs is the basis of philosophical
counselling. Others think philosophical counselling stems from interpretations of the concept of “wisdom”.
The article also discusses Ran Lahav’s more recent views and those of Gerald Rochelle. The concept of
“virtues” is discussed in relation to the work of Arto Tukiainen, Lydia B. Amir and Jess Fleming.
Key words: philosophical counseling; wisdom; critical thinking; worldview; virtues.

In philosophical counselling, there are a number of concepts that play an important role
in determining the interpretation of meaning in counselling. In this article we focus on some
of them: “critical thinking”, “worldview”, “a Socratic perspective”, wisdom”, “good life” and
“virtues”.

“Critical thinking”2

All philosophical practitioners would agree that philosophical counselling involves

philosophizing and that they do indeed philosophize with their counselees. The crucial issue
is how, and to what end, the philosophizing is conducted during the counselling session. It is
in answering this question that the differences start to appear. One answer that is sometimes

1
This paper is part of a project funded by VEGA grant no. 2/0053/12.
2
We have analyzed critical thinking concepts in the following articles: “Philosophical dialogue as
a space for seeking a good life, identity and critical thinking”. In Human Affairs, 2011, vol. 21, no.
2, p. 157-162; “Questions for Philosophical Counselling”. In Human Affairs 22, 131-141, 2012 and
“Philosophical Counselling based on dialogical critical thinking”. In Human Affairs 23, 680-688, 2013,
where we analyze the views of Achenbach, G. A., Schuster, S. C., Amir, L. B., Boele, D., Curnow, T.,
Chamberlain, H. S., Delnoij, J., Facione, P. A., Grimes, P., LeBon,T., Prins-Bakker, A., & Tuedio, J. A.

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given is that the counsellor uses philosophizing primarily to help counselees overcome
their personal problems by analyzing their beliefs about, or attitudes towards, their situation
(Cohen, 1995). This approach demotes philosophy to the status of a means to something else;
that is, making the counselee happy. Here philosophizing is used only in ways that help the
counselee feel better, regardless of how true, intellectually rich, conceptually well-founded,
or spiritually deep the counselling is. Whether or not the counsellor’s philosophizing with
the counselee is deep or shallow, or coherent, or a collection of isolated clichés is irrelevant
as long as the personal problem is resolved and the counselee becomes happier. “Such
an approach, as beneficial as it may be for other purposes, betrays the distinctive nature
of philosophy as a search for wisdom for its own sake. In fact, I would rather not call it
philosophical counselling but instead ‘philosophy–therapy’” (Lahav, 2001, p. 8).
Elliot D. Cohen’s logic-based therapy is based on four assumptions: 1. Human beings
logically deduce the cognitive-behavioral components of their emotions from premises.
2. Human beings are inherently fallible and the premises of their behavior and emotional
reasoning tend to contain fallacies. 3. Behavioral and emotional problems tend to stem from
absolutist, perfectionist constructs of reality. 4. Human beings have an inherent willpower
that can be used to overcome fallacious behavioral and emotional reasoning. Thus the
counselee’s therapy is based on critical thinking, as are many other philosophical approaches
to counseling.
Another advocate of critical thinking in counselling is Tim LeBon—a cognitive
therapist and philosophical counselor, and the author of Wise Therapy (2007). LeBon
defines philosophical counseling as a type of counseling that uses philosophical insights
and methods to help people think through significant issues in their lives so they can live
more wisely. He integrates this with cognitive therapy (CBT), because rational processes can
sometimes become stuck because of psychological processes (such as decision paralysis) and
this is where psychological therapies come into their own.
LeBon has considered the methods most used in counselling: critical thinking, conceptual
analysis, phenomenology, thought experiments, and creative thinking. He writes:
Critical thinking involves testing whether arguments stand up to critical investigation and
seeing whether we have good reason to accept them. We will use critical thinking to assess
philosophical theories and also investigate the extent to which critical thinking can help clients
toward emotional wisdom, good decisions and enlightened values (Le Bon, 2007, p. 4).

Critical thinking is the counsellor’s most useful philosophical method. Its value lies in
the fact that it enables clients to be more rational and reasonable in their decision-making,
beliefs, values and emotions.

“Socratic perspective”

Many philosophical practitioners, especially those whose philosophizing is influenced by

Socrates, use critical thinking, and indeed believe that it is what philosophical practice is all
about. The basic idea here is that Socrates demands that our views be clarified and justified
so that they pass the test of critical examination. According to this view, Socrates tells us that
we need to clarify the concepts we use, reveal our hidden assumptions, and give convincing

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reasons in support of our views or theories. This critical reasoning vision of philosophical
practice implies that the role of philosophical practice is to help counselees critically
examine their worldviews, reveal their presuppositions, analyze the inner logic, and improve
it in order to make it more acceptable. Ideally, the improved worldview should be a coherent
body of ideas that rests upon a firm foundation of good reasoning and acceptable axiomatic
assumptions. The primary aim is then to promote the counselee’s self-understanding (Lahav,
2006, p.4).
From a Socratic perspective, philosophical counseling can be viewed as a conversational
process guided by dialectical reasoning aimed at reflecting upon the concerns and issues that
normally arise through living one’s life—as well as upon the meaningfulness of one’s life as
a whole. This method involves question-and-answer style reflection, where the individual
enters into dialogue with others, in a friendly and supportive way, in search of the truth,
knowledge, insight, wisdom, virtue, and happiness—whatever these turn out to be. In this
way, philosophical inquiry can help a person live a more fulfilling, productive, meaningful
and happy life. Ultimately, philosophical inquiry in the Socratic tradition is the habitual,
daily practice of reflecting upon, clarifying, coming to see, and making sense of one’s
values, beliefs, ideas, judgments, desires, emotions, intuitions, feelings, goals, commitments,
relationships, and, generally, all the actions and experiences that constitute a person’s life
(Walsh, 2005).
Socrates’ work was also the basis on which Pierre Grimes developed his theory
of counselling called “Philosophical Midwifery”. It is based on Socrates’ maieutics
in Plato’s Theaetetus dialogue (Grimes, 1997; Stecker & Grimes, 1999, pp. 233-240). P.
Grimes (1999) defines philosophical counselling as an adaptation of the midwife method
used in Socratic dialectics as a kind of psychotherapy and as a philosophical counselling
method. The dialectic lends shape to the formal development of the discussion in which the
questions are formed so as to look below the surface of the unwittingly false conceptions
clients have about themselves and which make it impossible for them to achieve their deepest
and most meaningful goals. These false conceptions are unarticulated conclusions formed
at the beginning of the client’s life from critical statements made about the client in the
client’s environment (by parents or in institutions, for instance) at critical moments. Grimes
calls these false beliefs pathologos. Some pathologos may be linked together and form the
basis of the image a person has of his or herself, and can be transmitted from generation to
generation. The art of surfacing these ideas, identifying the reasons they endure, observing
their impact on current problems and resolving them is called philosophical counselling.
Grimes believes that asking questions enables the person to go below the surface of
“emotionalised behavior” and free the pathologos for further analysis. The pathologos can be
effectively dealt with using this method. It is a process of exploring and discovering, giving
the client a new kind of understanding about his or herself. This kind of self-exploration
often challenges clients’ most basic convictions and leads them to reassess their life goals.3

3
Grimes believes that in this kind of dialogue both sides are aware that the potential for this kind of
turnaround in life concerns a greater search for meaning in a Platonic context. Philosophical counseling
is not therefore for everyone, but for those whose visions of their lives could benefit from studying
and exploring Platonic philosophy. It is for those who wish to pursue a vision of Platonic philosophy

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“Worldview”

In the chapter on defining philosophical counselling in the first section of his book, Ran
Lahav (1995) talks of a framework specific to philosophical counselling which sets out the
“principle of worldview interpretation” (Lahav, 1995, p. 4). This principle is the bedrock of
philosophical counselling, which determines whether the philosophical counsellor’s approach
can be considered to be truly philosophical. It is about helping clients formulate their own
view of the world, which affects their daily life, and critically explore the problematic
aspects, mitigate and enrich or develop their view of the world as required. The counselor
should help the client detect implicit assumptions and provide alternatives by clarifying
the consequences, analyzing the concepts, revealing the hidden patterns and structures.
The counsellor should also familiarize the client with the literature on concepts associated
with human life, freedom, the meaning of life, judging good and evil, and introduce the
client to the various alternative streams of thinking. The counsellor should be educated in
phenomenology and should be capable of describing the aspects of subjective experience
generally overlooked by the average person (ibid., p. 10).
Eckart Ruschmann (2006, pp. 149-156) develops Ran Lahav’s original idea that
counselling is based on interpreting worldviews. This should be achieved by following these
steps: 1. enabling a reconstruction of the personal conceptions and assumptions a counselee
has, where the consultant’s approach (philosophical theory, methods and approaches) is
linked to the counselee’s “theories” on worldviews, concepts, assumptions, and so forth.
During which the (internal) coherence of the client’s worldviews should be explored and
discrepancies resolved. The consultant may try to improve the coherence and totality of
the client’s worldview. 2. The client’s philosophy should be related to his or her personal
experiences, given that personal conceptions and experiences (decisions and actions) are
linked to the totality. It is therefore necessary to look for (or “check”) for consistency and
compatibility; that is, the coherence between worldview theories and compatibility with
practical life.
According to Ruschmann, this process may function as the counselee’s initial outlook on
the coherence within the framework of his or her own theoretical contexts and his or her own
life in practice. The “frameworks” of personal philosophy are linked to the meaning of life
and life goals. All these aspects—seeking coherence, compatibility and meaning/goals—are
fundamental to achieving a “good life”. Counseling can help the counselee check his or
her theories and alter those that have not been adapted to his or her actual experiences, thus
helping him or her achieve greater coherence in this area. This helps the counselee improve
and use his or her “epistemology”.

and not simply learn to use it in its traditional form, but who attempt to affirm Plato’s philosophy in
their own experiences and deepest thoughts. This does not mean that they are only capable of learning
about dialectics and dialectical investigation, but also of embarking on the contemplative path,
freeing themselves from the pilgrimage to the cave. For Platonic philosophy promotes the practice of
contemplating visions of beauty and good and it is also a means of understanding and overcoming the
blocks and obstacles that emerge along the pathway (Grimes, 1997).

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“Wisdom”4

According to Ran Lahav, philosophical counselling is based on having a unique subject

matter and goals that are fundamentally different from those in psychologically-oriented
therapies. It is aimed at the original Greek meaning of the word ‘philosophy’, ‘philo-sophia’:
love of wisdom. This age-old goal of seeking wisdom has been almost forgotten in our
technological, comfort-seeking, self-centered age. “Philosophical counselling is a personal
journey in the world of ideas, aimed at wisdom” (Lahav, 2001, p. 7).
Lahav initially considered (1995) the goal of philosophical counselling to be
to help counselees expose and clarify the network of concepts and ideas underlying the
relevant aspects of their lives: to analyze the basic concepts that characterize their various
attitudes, and to uncover and examine hidden presuppositions in their ways of life, explore
conceptual interconnections, or in short, investigate the philosophy of the life the person
is living. This clarification is intended to help the person develop a richer philosophical
understanding of his or herself and the world, with the possible secondary benefit of
improving their capacity to cope better with specific personal problems. However, Lahav
later says (2001) that this conception of philosophical counselling falls short of the much
greater potential philosophizing can achieve in our lives. Since it restricts itself to exploring
the philosophy already embodied in the person, and since it focuses only on things already
contained within the individual’s specific attitudes, this approach fails to explore the domains
of wisdom which extend far beyond the person’s actual life. It thus fails to unfold new
horizons of ideas, concepts and meanings, and to transcend the counselees’ current way of
being (Lahav, 2001, p. 8). In seeking out wisdom, philosophy seeks to broaden and deepen
life. Its role is not to help counselees become happier, but to become wiser; it is not intended
to overcome work problems or marriage problems, but to explore domains of ideas and
grow towards wisdom. Again, although seeking out wisdom is likely to empower a person to
overcome personal problems; that is not its primary goal.
The role of philosophy in philosophical counselling is to open up the counsellee to the all
encompassing horizons of meanings that constitute our reality, which is to say, to wisdom. To
put it dramatically, in terms of Plato’s famous cave metaphor about us people who live in a
dark cave and can see only shadows, the point of philosophy in counselling should not be to
help those cave-dwellers explore the shadows among which they live, but rather to help them
leave the cave and climb up to the greater light of the world outside (Lahav, 2001, p.10).

Lahav describes philosophical counselling as a process in which the person rises above
his or her self-centered concerns and specific interests and opens his or herself up to the
endless horizons of potential understanding of the nature of our being. It is a dialogue
with an infinite network of ideas interwoven with life that intimate to us the fabric of its
basic reality. It is here that we can see the role of philosophical counseling in the search for
wisdom. The point of philosophy is to unfold the ideational foundation of our world: the
various meanings, implications, and interconnections concerning the concepts of freedom or

4
Indeed the founder of modern philosophical counselling, Gerda Achenbach, believes that the goal of
philosophical practice is “wisdom” (Achenbach, 1998).

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the self, the moral implications of guilt, the worthwhileness or worthlessness of success, and
indeed the meaning of truth and wisdom (Lahav, 2001, p.12).
Lahav eventually gravitated towards a model of philosophical counseling based on
contemplation, where it is not critical thinking that is central, but meditation techniques. He
called it moving “towards a wisdom-inspired vision of philosophical practice”.
Wisdom, then, implies being open to a wider world beyond one’s narrow self. It is a way of
understanding that opens us to realities beyond our ordinary self-centred worldview. It is not a
tool for analysing and simplifying and solving problems, but on the contrary, an openness to the
complexity of human reality, to richer horizons of meanings, of facets, of perspectives. This is the
source of the lure of wisdom, but also of the difficulty in walking its path (Lahav, 2006, p. 4).

Lahav is convinced that self-transformation towards a new self-understanding requires

more than just critical analysis. The goal of philosophizing is to arouse in us the yearning for
wisdom, to pull us out of our limited, superficial self-understanding—and thus our needs and
concerns, and to help us live a greater vision of life.
Gerald Rochelle (2008) states that wisdom is the process not the product—it is the
transaction, not the acquisition. Wisdom is our involvement in working towards an increased
openness. Wisdom is not the object which draws us for it is within us even if it is not known
or not recognized. In seeking wisdom, our focus should be on the process which leads
towards it and not its attainment or specific nature. Wisdom is a task—perhaps an unending
Sisyphean task—but it is the product of being involved in the task which is our focus, not the
product the task may bring about. And the state of ‘opening up’ is the state of making oneself
ready for change, to be available, free in the face of novelty and creativity, directed only by
the pull of better judgment, wisdom or clarity.
... wisdom is within each of us - attainable and realisable within a lifetime. It can be exposed,
not by focusing upon ‘objects’ beyond our knowledge - for anything beyond our knowledge
may always remain so - but on that which, although beyond our present realisation, abides
within us. Such realisation is connected to everyday life - to others, the world and all things
which form our worldview. Wisdom is a process of becoming more ‘available’ to the world,
letting go of the hindrance of pre-conception and dogma, and instead opening up to the novelty
of creation, freedom, action and change. Openness is essential to the process of questing for
wisdom, for without it there can be no discovery. We have to be open to the creative novelty and
be prepared to act upon it freely and with meaning if we are to make any progress within the
general ‘process of wisdom’. From the ‘process of wisdom’ comes good judgments and these
react together with what it means to us to lead a good life. Making judgments like this does not
prohibit our discovery of what is presently ‘beyond’, indeed it makes clearer the direction we
must follow, for no route can be followed without judgments. As wisdom increases on the basis
of openness to the potential of the individual it both utilises and produces qualities of wisdom
and good judgment, qualities of what it is we consider elements of the good living individual
- caution, modesty, balance and assuredness... Opening up the possibilities for wisdom is an
active, risk-taking process... (Rochelle, 2008, p. 45).

Practical philosophy, then, as an exchange of words, can expose wisdom as part of the
growing clarity within an individual whose reduced anxiety and increased openness is
fostered by stepping away from philosophy itself and the utilitarian gains available in the
neoliberal world.
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“Virtues”

Arto Tukiainen also suggests that the concept of wisdom is key to understanding the
specific nature of philosophical counselling. He sees wisdom as being associated with
an awareness of how to live well; a wise person must understand many things: the most
important of which include life’s goals and values, and when and how to satisfactorily
achieve the important goals in one’s life (2010, p.1). The assertion that wisdom is approached
with the knowledge that how to live well is linked to the belief that all attempts at living well
depend primarily on virtue, since: “virtues are the essence of wisdom” (ibid.). Philosophical
counseling is therefore “a process of fostering virtues” (ibid.). Virtues are associated with
self-understanding and Tukiainen distinguishes between cognitive and practical virtues,
although the distinction is not clear-cut. Cognitive virtues include self-knowledge, which
is very important and enables a person to follow their own goals, and understand their
own fears and emotions. Our knowledge of the external world, which enables us to lead
satisfactory and morally acceptable lives, can also be seen as a virtue. This knowledge is
very important since the success of our actions depends upon it and it affects our ability to
make decisions based on our awareness of the value, feasibility and appropriateness of the
various actions that lead us to make our judgment. “Openness to new ways of understanding
ourselves and our world is a cognitive virtue” (2010, p. 2), for sometimes we have to adopt
radically new perspectives and concepts that cannot be derived from our ideas thus far.
Changes such as these may lead to a changed assessment of our situation and may affect our
feelings and behavior. Cognitive virtues, such as knowledge, good judgment and openness to
new concepts make up only part of wisdom. Wisdom also requires virtues such as honesty,
patience, kind-heartedness and justice and rules out cruelty, ruthlessness, thoughtlessness,
manipulativeness, betrayal, neglect, obstinacy, ingratitude, bitterness, dishonesty, anger,
avarice, greed and arrogance. Amongst the moral and existential virtues we can also include
the practical virtue of objectivity, which means distancing oneself from immediate fears and
looking at them in relation to human life and from the perspective of the surrounding and
wider world, even from a cosmic viewpoint. A philosophical approach includes impartial
perceptions of life and the cosmos.
Tukiainen does not claim that virtues suffice in the pursuit of happiness but that
they improve the likelihood of attaining an acceptable and perhaps even contented life.
Philosophical counselling, he believes, is an invitation to a philosophical way of life with its
inevitable emphasis on virtue. Although the counselor should adopt an impartial position, he
or she should be capable of offering advice from the “wisdom” point of view. He or she may
note which virtues the counselee should explore and be encouraged to develop. If the person
has no clear virtues that does not mean that he or she is incapable of understanding their
significance. If the counselee starts hoping that these virtues will help him or her find peace
of mind, he or she may wish to confer a greater role on them in life. Seeing philosophical
counselling as a means of fostering virtues has led Tukiainen to the conclusion that virtues
enable us to deal with current and future problems in life.
Lydia B. Amir (2006) also emphasizes virtues in her approach to philosophical
counselling and sees counseling’s mission as consisting of three parts: 1. To improve abstract
thinking in moving from the abstract to the concrete and back. 2. To promote intellectual

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virtues with the ultimate goal of deepening intellectual courage and autonomy, since the
essence of philosophy is found in intellectual virtues. To accept different viewpoints and
other cognitive virtues such as impartiality, openness to the thinking of others, critical
assessment of differing opinions, spiritual sobriety, and make careful judgments based on
evidence, and develop intellectual courage including the stamina and determination that
go with it. 3. To foster moral virtues with the ultimate goal of encouraging the developing
thoughts and feelings needed to acquire the wisdom which promotes pluralism, tolerance,
solidarity towards other human beings.
One of the important goals of philosophical counseling according to L. B. Amir is to
strengthen the counselee’s autonomy, where autonomy is defined as relying on one’s own
powers to choose and form opinions. The concept of autonomy is closely linked to courage,
and also humility, highlighting the link between cognitive and volitional processes, which
presume a spiritual ability to judge whether someone can make better judgments than we can
and the ability to control the emotions that prevent these skills from being applied. Gaining
greater autonomy helps the counselee minimize the tension between freedom and equality,
which is the ultimate goal of democratic philosophical practice.
Jess Fleming formulates her own list of virtues which may prove useful or essential to
the counselor and/or client: “courage, moral and psychological stability (or equilibrium),
listening, patience, humility, timing, irony and humor (especially the ability to laugh at
oneself, and not take oneself too seriously), warmth and friendliness, honesty, sincerity,
empathy, non-judgmental acceptance, authenticity, epoche (i.e. suspension of judgement),
moderation (sophrosyne), equanimity (ataraxia), confrontation (agon), self-confidence,
creativity, spontaneity and wisdom” (Fleming, 2000, p. 14).

Conclusions

As LeBon has stated critical thinking is the most useful philosophical method for the
counsellor. Its value lies in the fact that it enables counselees to become more rational
and reasonable in their decision-making, beliefs, values and emotions. Critical thinking is
appropriate for the many philosophical practitioners, who use Socrates as a paradigm for
philosophizing, or indeed consider it to be what philosophical practice is all about. The basic
idea here is that Socrates demands that our views be clarified and supported by reason so
that they pass the test of critical examination. According to this view, Socrates tells us that
we need to clarify the concepts we use, expose our hidden assumptions, and give convincing
reasons that support our views or theories. The principle behind the worldview interpretation
is that it aims to help the counselee formulate his or her own opinions on the world that
affects his everyday life, critically explore its problematic aspects, and soften, enrich or
develop opinions on the world as required. The counselor should help the counselee unravel
implicit assumptions and offer alternatives by identifying the consequences, analyzing the
concepts and revealing hidden patterns and structures. Some authors stress that philosophical
counselling is a search for wisdom. It is a search for a means of broadening and deepening
life. Its role is not to help counselees become happier, but wiser; its role is not to overcome
problems in the workplace or in marriage, but to explore the domain of ideas and grow
towards wisdom. Again, although the search for wisdom is likely to empower a person so

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they can overcome personal problems; that is not its primary goal. Virtues have an important
role to play in the acquisition of wisdom and greatly assist in the process of coming to terms
with the problems of life.

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Institute for Research in Social Communication,
Slovak Academy of Sciences,
Dubravska cesta 9,
841 04 Bratislava 4,
Slovakia
E-mail: [email protected]

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