History Study Notes

AFRICAN HISTORY

The Effects of the Bantu Migration

The following effects resulted from the Bantu migration to the South:

• The spread in the use of iron technology and knowledge.

• There were improvements in the methods used to make and forge iron.

• This led to an increase in food production as better tools were made.

• Led to the domestication of cattle which were used to pay the bride’s price and as an insurance against
droughts.

• Led to improvements in crop cultivation-also a variety of sorghum and millets were introduced.

• This led to a change from hunting and gathering to agri-based communities which were more sedentary.

• These were used for making thick porridge and for brewing beer.

• Led to the spread of religion which was used as a way to unite the people.

• The divine right of kings as defined in most religions helped to keep rebellions in check.

• The creation of states in Central and Southern Africa.

• This was helped by the creation of more permanent systems.

• It also resulted in the movement of Khoi-San communities to remote areas and mountains where they
continue to live to this day e.g. in the Kalahari.

• Bantu migration also led to the loss of culture of the local Khoi-San communities that remained on the
land as they were absorbed into the Bantu culture.

Great Zimbabwe: Reasons for the Building of the Great Zimbabwe Walls

• It was built as a trading center.

• It was a Religious center.

• It was a dwelling place (for the royal family).

• It was a symbol of power.

• It was an administrative center.

• It was the mambo’s court.

• There were good pastures around the area and a lot of gold deposits as well as other
environmental factors that favoured the establishment of a settlement in the area.

• It acted as a fortress in times of war.

Reasons for the rise of the Great Zimbabwe state
: Great Zimbabwe: Reasons for the rise of the Great Zimbabwe state

• There are several reasons for the rise of the Great Zimbabwe state:

• Rich soils- the availability of rich agricultural soils. The black and red soils around the Great Zimbabwe
area were especially suited for agriculture. The Shona cultivated a number of crops that sustained them
and thus were able to build a large state.

• Pastures- the Great Zimbabwe area was suited for livestock area as it had a lot of pastures and the
area was free from malaria and other diseases as well as tsetse flies. The Shona kept large herds of
cattle which they used for a number of purposes including paying the bride price. Livestock rearing also
enabled the ruling class to get richer as they acquired more wealth than the others and thus were more
able to control the poor.

• Trade-there was profitable trade between the Shona and the Indian Zone. Trade was a monopoly of the
ruling class who received trade items from their subjects in the form of ivory and animal skins. All trade
routes were controlled by the ruling class and the elite as a result they become much more powerful and
were able to control their subjects. Also weaker groups were co opted and absorbed by the Shona.

• Mining-iron, gold, tin and copper all contributed to the rise of the Great Zimbabwe state. The rulers
became wealthy in mineral resources and the control of these resources enabled the Shona to exert
control over neighbouring groups and for the rulers to exert control over their subjects.
Great Zimbabwe: The economic activities of Great Zimbabwe

Economic activities carried out at Great Zimbabwe

• The people at Great Zimbabwe engaged in a variety of economic activities including:

• hunting

• gathering

• mining

• the paying and receiving of tribute

• pottery making

• blacksmithing (ironworks)

• trade (both domestic trade and with other tribes and early europeans).

• pastoralism (mainly cattle and goats)

Items that were exchanged by the people at Great Zimbabwe in return for foreign goods.

• Various items were traded by the people at Great Zimbabwe in return for foreign goods such as
jewellery. These items include:

• gold

• copper

• ivory

• grain

• livestock

• animal skins

• ostrich feathers.

• iron tools
 • soapstone bowls

Reasons for the Fall of the Great Zimbabwe State

: The Great Zimbabwe State: Reasons for the Fall of the Great Zimbabwe State
There are several reasons why the Great Zimbabwe State/Kingdom fell viz:

• Civil wars

• The rise of ambitious leaders who oppressed the people and declared war on each
other

• Succession disputes which often led to civil wars and factionalism.

• The decline in trade

• Shortage of salt

• Overpopulation which led to shortages of resources such as pastures and arable

land for farming.

• Exhaustion of minerals

• Refusal to pay tribute by vassal chiefs.

• Persistent droughts.

• The spread of deadly epidemics.

• Diseases such as cholera and smallpox that ravaged the closely populated people.
The Origin and Rise of the Mutapa State

: The Mutapa State: The Origin and Rise of the Mutapa State

• Most historians agree that the Mutapa state was an off-shoot of the Great Zimbabwe State

• The decline of Great Zimbabwe led to the rise of the Mutapa State.

• According to Oral tradition Chibatamatosi Nyatsimba Mutota’s father sent Nyakatondo the messenger to
the area north of Great Zimbabwe to look for salt deposits.

• The messenger brought back salt samples which pleased the king and his son Mutota decided to move
to the Dande area.

• Mutota then went to the Zambezi area where he defeated the weak communities such as the Torwa who
were already settled in the area.

• As a result Mutota earned the title Munhumutapa which means “he who conquers” and/or
Mwenemutapa “owner of the conquered land.”

• Mutata formed an alliance with the Tavara high priest called Dzivaguru.

• This strengthened the king’s position and helped to unify the people.
 • Lured by fertile soils and wild game Mutota decided not to return to Great Zimbabwe.

• He then established his state in the area which became known as the Mwenemutapa state.

• Mutota achieved total control of the area through: conquests, intermarriages and economic intercourse
with the northern people.
Expansion of the state

• Under Mutota political control extended to the South and North to include the Mbire, province.

• Total control was achieved through conquests, intermarriages and economic intercouse.

• Mutota ruled between 1420 and 1450.

• Matope his successor continued with the expansionist policies and his territory included roughly all the
area between the Limpopo (south) and Zambezi rivers (to the north) i.e. the entire country of modern
day Zimbabwe.

• The area also included the fringes of the Kalahari to the West and the Mozambican channel to the East.
Archeological evidence

• According to archeological evedence the Great Zimbabwe state had declined around 1450AD.

• Some disgruntled princes like Mutota began to move out and subsequently this led to the emergence
and rise of the Mutapa state.
Political Organisation of the Mutapa State

ZIMSEC History O Level Notes: The Mutapa State: The Political Organisation of the Mutapa State

The King

• The King was known as Mwenemutapa which translates to “the owner of the conquered lands”
or Munhumutapa which translates to “he who conquered”

• He was the overall ruler of the state and all subjects were loyal to him.

• He was seen as divine or heavenly and accorded such status in order to make his subjects fear him as
they were awed.

• The King usually stayed in a capital called Zimbahwe (Portoguese Zimboa) meaning “house of stone.”

• Nyatsimba Mutota the first Mwenemutapa organised the kingdom/state into provinces which had
districts under them.

• He appointed chiefs and his immediate advisors played an important role in the appointments.

• The chiefs paid annual tribute as a sign of loyalty to the King.

• The used diplomacy and force to subdue his subjects.

• Rebellious chiefs were attacked by the empire’s army at the orders of the king.

• Vassal chiefs were lighted their own fire from Mutapa’s Royal fire as a sign of allegiance

• Vassal chiefs also paid tribute to the Mutapa.

• He also used intermarriages with vassal chiefs as a way of strengthening his allegiances.

• The King’s duties included:

• Chief judge- he tried cases and was the last court of appeal.

• He appointed chiefs in consultation with his advisors who included spirit mediums.
 • Maintained strong army for defence against neighbouring states.

• He received and shared tribute

• Was the custodian of all the state property

• Allocated land

• Presided and oversaw religious ceremonies

• Presided over the chief’s council.

The Governor/Nengomasha

• The governor of the provinces was also known as Nengomasha

• He was the Deputy of the Munhumutapa and thus the second-most powerful person in the kingdom.

• He was usually a blood relative of the Mutapa.

• His duties and roles included:

• Leading the army in a campaign where the Mutapa was not involved.

• Being a contact point at the palace for the vassal chiefs or their representatives when they visited court.

• Assisting the Mutapa in the appointment of provincial chiefs when one chief died/resigned or was
dismissed.

• Announcing to the visiting provincial leaders the orders of the king.

• Discussing important matters and developments within the state with the Mutapa.

• Acting as a regent when a Mutapa died before a new one was appointed.

• Ensuring the Mutapa orders were carried out throughout the kingdom/state.

• Keeping the king informed of what happened at the and the outlying provinces.
Spirit Mediums

• They played an important role in uniting the state.

• People respected and obeyed the spirit mediums.

• In return they were given royal status by the king.

• The chiefs communicated to the people through spirit mediums.

The army

• The army ensured the survival and expansion of the state.

• They crushed revolts and were sent to punish rebellious chiefs by the king.

• Military commanders acted as advisors to the king and they were appointed by the King.

• They enforced the law and order of the state through the kingdom and on vassal chiefs.

• The army was usually run by the Captain-General known as Mukomohasha.

• The general oversaw trade in addition to heading the army on behalf of the king.

• He was also a chief strategist and in charge of military matters such as weapons, intelligence and
enemy status.
The Judiciary
 • Judges held court every year at Mutiusinazita/Mbire.

• Ambassadors were sent to the king each year to receive the royal fire as a sign of loyalty.

• This efficient judiciary system was perfected by Mutapa Munembire/Munembiri.

Provincial Chiefs

• They were appointed by the king.

• They were responsible for administering the provinces through disseminating information to and from
the king.

• They resolved disputes and solved problems in their own provinces but referred all important matters to
the king’s court.

• These chiefs renewed their status every year by showing up at the Mutasa’s court as a sign of loyalty
and to receive the royal fire.
District Chiefs

• Each province was divided into districts which fell under district chiefs.

• These implemented the state policy under the supervision of the provincial chiefs.

• They handled matters within their districts but referred important matters to the provincial chiefs.

• District chiefs were also responsible for appointing village heads and supervising them.

• District chiefs acted as information officers for the state.

The Dare

• Central administrations was done by the Dare

• This was made up of the court chancellor, the treasurer, head drummer, nengomasha, cook, chief
priests and diviners.

• The treasurer was also referred to as a steward.

• He received presents brought to the Mutapa court and was in charge of trade goods, supervised the
royal finances.
Chief Musician/Door Keeper

• Was in chage of the and of musicians provided for entertainment to the king and his court.

• The chief musician/door keeper presented visitors to the king.

• He would screen the king’s visitors.

Chief Confidant

• Known as Mbokorume and as the king’s right hand man.

• Was usually the king’s son in law but a brother in law or grandson could also hold the office.

• He checked the loyalty of other principal officers in the state.

• Could hold other temporary assignments e.g. leading the army.

• Kept the king’s secrets.

• Acted as the king’s fool.

Priests

• Buried the Mutapa and anointed a new one.

 • Arranged biras i.e. religious ceremonies.
Diviners

• The chief n’anga was known as Netondo

• He led the group of diviners at the court and in the provinces.

• The king also had a herbalist.

• They performed religious ceremonies.

The royal wives

• In each provincial town there was a royal wife who checked on the loyalty of the provincial rulers.

• Senior wives known as Mazvarire stayed at court and gave advice to the King.

Mutapa State: A List of the rulers of Mutapa State

These are the rulers of the Mutapa State as told by the early Portoguese records as well as according to Oral
Tradition:

• Nyatsimba Mutota

• Nyanhewe Matope

• Chikuyo Chisamarengu

• Chivere Nyasoro

• Mavhuramhande

• Gatsi Rusere

• Nyamhita Nehanda

• Nyambo Kapararidze

• Mukombwe

• Kapuratsine

• Nyakunembire

• Nyahuma Mukomberanwa

• It is possible some of these are nicknames made up after the rulers had died in a bid to summarise their
history and reigns.

• It is also possible that some of the rulers above might have been duplicated owing to their being known
by two different names as it is also possible that some less noteworthy rulers might have been omitted
from the list altogether as Oral tradition is subject to the fallibilities of memory.
The Provinces of the Mutapa State/Kingdom

The Mutapa State:The Provinces of the Mutapa State/Kingdom

• These were the Provinces of the Mutapa Kingdom or State:

• Manyika/ Manica

• Uteve
 • Chikova

• Dande

• Chidima

• Guruhuswa

• Mbire

• Maungwe

• Most were ruled over by chiefs/sub-chiefs and they were demarcated mostly along ethnic lines.
The Portuguese who visited the Mutapa Kingdom/State

: The Mutapa State: The Portuguese Explorers who visited the Mutapa Kingdom/State

• These are the early European/Portuguese explorers that came to the Mutapa Kingdom:

• Father Gonçalo Da Silveira

• António Fernandes

• Francisco Barreto

• Vasco Homen

• Dona Katarina

• Antonion Calade

• Gasper Bocarro

• Sinsado dias Bayao

• Antonio Lobo Da Silva

• Femao De Proemça

Items traded the Mutapa State with the Portuguese

The Local People exchanged the following items for foreign goods

• Gold

• Ivory

• Grain

• Iron tools

• Soapstone carvings

• Copper
And in return the Portuguese traded the following items with the locals

Items the Portuguese used to trade with the local people

• guns

• cloth
 • beads

• bangles

• bbracelets

• maize seed

• alcohol/spirits

• fruit trees

The Mutapa State: Reasons for the Rise of the Mutapa State

• The following reasons can be used to account for the rise and expansion of the Mutapa state:

• Scarcity of reasons such as salt, pastures etc at Great Zimbabwe

• The Rise of militaristic and ambitious leaders such as Mutota.

• The Abundance of salt in the Dande-Chidinma area.

• The leadership disputes at Great Zimbabwe.

• Population pressure at Great Zimbabwe.

• The need to control the trade with the East Coast.

• Availability of hunting grounds in the Mutapa state.

• The eventual fall of the Great Zimbabwe State.

The Portuguese in Zambezi Valley: Reasons for the spread of Portuguese influence
in the Zambezi valley

• To spread Christianity in the form of the Catholic faith to other countries and in the
process,
• Check the spread of Islam which was the official language of the Swahili traders who
were considered enemies by the Portuguese who had fought on the side of the
Crusaders in the Crusades.
• To mine gold as the Portuguese realised that most of the Gold the received at the
coastal ports was coming from the Mutapa State.

• To establish trading feiras.

• To replace the Swahili as trading partners of the Shona people.
• To control trade routes in the interior.
• To find a route to India.

• To acquire African ivory for use in the Indian trade.

• To avenge the death of Gonzalo da Silveira who had been killed by the Shona.
• To obtain land to farm in the form of prazos.
• To advance the imperial yearnings of Portugal.
Portuguese Posts (feiras) in and Ports in the Mutapa state

A map showing early Portuguese settlements in Zimbabwe. Image by MediaWiki

The Portuguese in Zambezi Valley: Portuguese Posts (feiras) in and Ports in the
Mutapa state
Trading Posts/Feiras in the Mutapa State

• The following were the Trading Posts or Feiras (Portuguese word for market) that
were established by the Portuguese in Mutapa State
• Tete
• Luanze (Ruhanje)
• Bukuto

• Sena
• Massapa
• Zumbo
• Sofala
• Dambarare

• Queliane
Portuguese Feiras in the Interior

• Bukuto
• Massapa
• Manyika
• Luanze (Ruhanje)
• Sena

• Dambarare

: The Portuguese in Zambezi Valley: Portuguese attempts to colonise the Mutapa State

• Due to a decline in trade the Portuguese decided to send an emissary to the Mutapa State

• He was tasked with tracing the trade route and work on ways to control and monopolise this route.

• He was also tasked with getting to know the ruling class, the Mutapa himself, his sub-chiefs and try and
enter into mutual and friendly treaties.

• The primary aim was to improve the mining and trade in gold.
• Antonio Fernandes was the emissary who was sent to Mutapa state by the Portuguese in 1513.

• He was versed in the coastal and interior languages and customs.

• He visited a lot of places including Manyika, Barwe, Tavara, Tete, Mbire, Fura and Harava and talked of
the abundance of gold in the area.

• He urged the Portuguese to enter the hinterland and establish trading ports and develop mining and
trade in gold and copper.

• The Portuguese sent other emissaries who reached the same conclusions.

• The Mutapa later asked for a permanent representatives of the Portuguese to be stationed in his
kingdom who was given the title “Captain of the Gates” who was in charge of relations between
Portuguese traders and the Mutapa King.

• Fernao de Proemca was the first Captain of the gates, he was appointed by the Portuguese but had to
be approved by the Mutapa..

• He resided at Masapa.

• He also had the title “Great Wife bestowed on him and his appointment was permanent.

• The Portuguese also brought with them a Jesuit Priest, Father Gonçcalo da Silveira.

• The priest converted and baptized the Mutapa who was given the name Don Sebastian.

• Muslim traders and some people in the Mutapa court were alarmed by this and worked to have da
Silveira executed.

• On March 15 1651, Silveira and about 50 Christian converts were strangled and thrown into the
Musengezi river at the order of Mutapa Negomo.

• This marked a turning point in the relations between the Portuguese and the Mutapa.

• King Sebastian of Portugal used the death of da Silveira as an excuse to try and colonise the Zambezi
valley.

• He sent an expedition of 1 000 men under Francisco Barreto to expel the Swahili from the Mutapa and
take control of the gold trade in the Mutapa state in 1569.

• Barreto’s expedition was a complete failure because:

• They arrived during the rainy season of 1571 and many men died from fever and lost their horses to
sleeping sickness.

• There was little food at Sena for the Portuguese.

• Negotiations with the Mutapa were very slow and Barreto himself died from fever before they were
completed.

• Only 200 men managed to return to the coast alive.

• Vasco Homan another Portuguese tried to reach the gold mines in Manyika and the silver mines at
Chikoa but all his efforts were in vain.

• In the end the Portuguese decided to concentrate on trade and making alliances.

• A land concession by the Mutapa Negomo gave the Portuguese an opportunity to interfere more into the
politics of the Mutapa.

• In the 17th century the Portuguese established a warehouse and a church at Sena with a population of
50 Portuguese, 750 Indians and Africans of mixed races.

• Some were also stationed at Tete.

• The Portuguese paid tribute to the chiefs of the areas.

• Another Portuguese expedition under Pereira was repelled by the Mutapa.

 • An expedition led by Bocarro was more successful in Kilwa north of the Zambezi.

• The Portuguese helped Nyambo Kapararidze to power but he refused their demands for influence and
attacked the garrisons and trade towns.

• They responded by using private armies under the command of Meneses to defeat the Mutapa.

• They replaced him with a more westernised Mutapa called Mavhura Mhande who went on to grant
concessions to them.

• The Portuguese moved and traded freely in the kingdom/state and missionaries built churches and
schools and taught Africans their culture.

• Settlers gained land through bribery and threats.

• The Portuguese replaced African chiefs and ruled over everyone.

• After Mavhura Mhande’s death the Portuguese enjoyed economic prosperity in their plantations (prazos)
by using underpaid and unpaid labour.

• African miners began to produce less and less gold as the Portuguese did not pay a fair price.

• The Portuguese opened up the country to free trade.

• Slave labour was acquired and some of it was exported to Brazil.

• Most Shona people fled to Changamire’s area due to the constant conflicts.

• Changamire Dombo defeated the Portuguese at Dambarare, Massapa and Manyika and killed all the
Portuguese.

• He died before he could follow through with his successes on Tete and Sena.

• The Portuguese never gained any political influence in the Rozvi kingdom.
Portuguese activities in the Mutapa kingdom were characterised by:

• Interference in traditional politics leading to the erosion of the power of kings and chiefs.

• Divisions between the common people and the traditional leaders.

• Loss of independence of traditional chiefs and their subjects.

• Expropriation and externalisation of African resources.

• Enslavement of Africans

• Environmental degradation

• Loss of human life especially in conflicts.

• Cultural decay.

• Unequal trade

: The Portuguese activities in Zambezi valley: The decline of the Prazo system

• The lack of industry, commerce,education and religious work in prazo areas led to their eventual decline
and the crumbling of the prazo system.

• Most of the prazeros were not really from Portugal and most of them were of mixed blood being of
Portuguese, Goan and African descent.

• The prazos became centers of corruption and degeneration instead of centers of civilization, religious
learning and good living.

• The prazeros surrounded themselves with slaves, chikundas and were notorious for abusing African
women.
 • Prazeros had private prisons where Africans were flogged, tortured and sometimes killed even for minor
offences.

• Prazos became sources of slave labour which was exported to Brazil and Cuba even though slave trade
was banned in Portuguese colonies.

• Finally Portugal took action which ended slavery and the slave trade resulting in the end of the prazo
system.

• In addition natural disasters like locusts and droughts made life very difficult for the prazeros.

• Civil wars caused by the interference of the prazeros and even amongst themselves greatly impacted
on the prazo system and contributed to its eventual fall.

• Africans were also no longer keen to keep producing gold and other minerals for the Portuguese who
did not pay fair prices thus leading to the weakening of the mining economy.

• By 1678 there were only a few Portuguese at Tete and Dambarare.

• The rise of Changamire Dombo saw the defeat of the Portoguese.

• Nyakunembire, Mukombwe’s successor sought help from the Rozvi ruler Changamire Dombo.

• Changamire Dombo helped Nyakunembire and in 1693 killed all the Protuguese at the feira at
Dambarare.

• The Masapa feira which was also at the center of the Mutapa state was also attacked.

• The alliance between the Mutapa and Rozvi was short lived as the Changamire abandoned the Mutapa
and withdrew his army.

• Attacks by Africans on the Portuguese in the interior and the defeats by the Changamire marked a
change of fortunes for the Portuguese.

• There a lot of sporadic attacks by the disgruntled Africans.

• The rise of the Rozvi was a decisive factor in the decline of Portuguese influence in the interior.

• Many forts such as Tete and Sena were destroyed.

• The Portuguese retreated to the Zambezi valley.

• Competitions from other European powers especially the British and the Dutch saw Portuguese
influence in the Zambezi Valley decline.

• By 1855 Portuguese influence was now limited to the lower Zambezi Valley.

• Portugal had also lost its position as one of the pole powers of Europe and with it the will to protect her
colonial interests.

• Portuguese settlements were also ridden by tropical diseases such as malaria.

• Slave trade to the Americas also destroyed the prazo system which was based on slave labour since
few Africans remained, too few to sustain the prazo economy.

The Portuguese in Zambezi Valley: Methods used by the Portuguese to control the
Mutapa State

• The Portuguese used a variety of methods to try and exert control on the Mutapa
State and these included:
• Taking control of the trade in the Mutapa State for themselves.

• Controlling the mining activities in the state using forced labour.

 • Converting some of the leaders and their subjections into Christianity e.g. Negomo
(Sebastiao)
• Encouraged and intervened in civil wars.

• Carried out slave trade.

• Forced the Mutapa and his chiefs to pay tribute to them.
• Singed treaties and concessions.
• Created chikunda forces.
• Established private prisons to incarcerate, intimidate, flog and punish Africans.
• Took large swathes of land from the Africans.
• Married Mutapa women.
• Refused to pay their taxes.

• Adopted the Mutapa traditional religion and customs.

• Introduced the credit system.
• Forced the Mutapa to expel the Swahili traders.
• Established feiras in the Mutapa state.

The Portuguese in the Zambezi Valley: The benefits and damage of Portuguese activities to the
Mutapa State

Benefits

• They introduced new farming methods.

• Introduced new crops e.g. maize and cassava.

• Introduced new mining methods.

• Brought in new goods such as cloth.

• They brought in new weapons for defense against neighbouring tribes.

Damage/ non-benefits

• They abused African men and women.

• They used forced labour which they relied on in their prazos.

• The interfered in the political system in ways that led to the eventual collapse of the Mutapa state.

• They diluted the African culture.

• They exploited Africans during trade and often did not pay fair prices for goods.

• They depleted the natural resources especially minerals within the Mutapa state.

• They left a lot of Africans landless.

: The Portuguese activities in Zambezi valley: The decline of the Prazo system

• The lack of industry, commerce,education and religious work in prazo areas led to their eventual decline
 and the crumbling of the prazo system.

• Most of the prazeros were not really from Portugal and most of them were of mixed blood being of
Portuguese, Goan and African descent.

• The prazos became centers of corruption and degeneration instead of centers of civilization, religious
learning and good living.

• The prazeros surrounded themselves with slaves, chikundas and were notorious for abusing African
women.

• Prazeros had private prisons where Africans were flogged, tortured and sometimes killed even for minor
offences.

• Prazos became sources of slave labour which was exported to Brazil and Cuba even though slave trade
was banned in Portuguese colonies.

• Finally Portugal took action which ended slavery and the slave trade resulting in the end of the prazo
system.

• In addition natural disasters like locusts and droughts made life very difficult for the prazeros.

• Civil wars caused by the interference of the prazeros and even amongst themselves greatly impacted
on the prazo system and contributed to its eventual fall.

• Africans were also no longer keen to keep producing gold and other minerals for the Portuguese who
did not pay fair prices thus leading to the weakening of the mining economy.

• By 1678 there were only a few Portuguese at Tete and Dambarare.

• The rise of Changamire Dombo saw the defeat of the Portoguese.

• Nyakunembire, Mukombwe’s successor sought help from the Rozvi ruler Changamire Dombo.

• Changamire Dombo helped Nyakunembire and in 1693 killed all the Protuguese at the feira at
Dambarare.

• The Masapa feira which was also at the center of the Mutapa state was also attacked.

• The alliance between the Mutapa and Rozvi was short lived as the Changamire abandoned the Mutapa
and withdrew his army.

• Attacks by Africans on the Portuguese in the interior and the defeats by the Changamire marked a
change of fortunes for the Portuguese.

• There a lot of sporadic attacks by the disgruntled Africans.

• The rise of the Rozvi was a decisive factor in the decline of Portuguese influence in the interior.

• Many forts such as Tete and Sena were destroyed.

• The Portuguese retreated to the Zambezi valley.

• Competitions from other European powers especially the British and the Dutch saw Portuguese
influence in the Zambezi Valley decline.

• By 1855 Portuguese influence was now limited to the lower Zambezi Valley.

• Portugal had also lost its position as one of the pole powers of Europe and with it the will to protect her
colonial interests.

• Portuguese settlements were also ridden by tropical diseases such as malaria.

• Slave trade to the Americas also destroyed the prazo system which was based on slave labour since
few Africans remained, too few to sustain the prazo economy

The Mutapa State: Reasons for the fall of the Mutapa State

• The following reasons can be given to account for the fall of the Mutapa state:
 • The succession to the throne by weak leaders such as the Mukombwes and Negomo

• Succession disputes which often led to

• Civil wars

• The vast size of the state made communication and control difficult.

• Persistent droughts further weakened the state.

• Rebellious by vassal chiefs.

• Refusal to pay tribute by vassal chiefs.

• Attacks by Mfecane groups for example the Mutapa Kandeya and Mutapa Dzeka were attacked by the
Ngoni.

• Ndebele raids further weakened the state.

• The exhaustion of minerals like gold.

• The coming of imperial European powers who competed to control the state.

• Portuguese interference for example the installation of puppet rulers like Mavhura Mhande.

• The Portuguese also supplied weapons to rival chiefs and often interfered in civil wars.

• The rise of Changamire Dombo and the Rozvi kingdom.

• The Swahili influence was also detrimental to the unity of the state.

The Mutapa rulers who resisted Portuguese control and those who cooperated

The Mutapas who cooperated with the Portuguese

• The following Mutapas cooperated with the Portuguese in one way or another during their reign:

• Mavhura Mhande

• Gatsi Rusere

• Chikuyu Chisamarengu

• Negomo Mupunzaguta
The Mutapas who resisted the Portuguese

• The following Mutapas actively resisted Portuguese influence within their territories during their reign.

• Nyambo Kapararidze

• Mukombwe

• Kapuratsine

• Nyakunembiri

• Negomo Mupunzaguta
NB: Some Mutapas e.g. Mupunzaguta alternated between cooperation and resistance at one occasion or
another.

• The spellings of these Mutapas are not certain: The Shona Language was only a spoken language in
those days and only became a written language in the 20th century hence there was no standardised
way to spell the names. The Portuguese chroniclers often used varied spellings and sometimes oral
tradition sources vary for example Negomo is sometimes known as Nogomo and his last name is
sometimes Mupunzagutu in other sources. This may be due to corruption as the story is passed down
 generations or may simply reflect the differences in dialects used in the State.

• Another thing is that the Portuguese writers, who given the fact that there were/may have been
contemporaries and therefore more credence would naturally be attributed to their work, often
embellished their stories as seen in the silly painting of Mutapa Gatsi Rusere above. He looks more
Portuguese that Bantu!

: Crops grown by the Portuguese in their Prazos

• The Portuguese grew the following crops in their prazos:

• Rice

• Maize

• Groundnuts

• Cotton

• Coffee

• Tea

• Burley
N.B The Portuguese introduced some of these crops to Zimbabwe and Africa for the first time for example
maize. They also introduced cassava in other parts of Africa.

: The importance of cattle in the Rozvi and Mutapa states

• Cattle were at the center of every family’s wealth in both the Mutapa and Rozvi
kingdoms.
• They had various uses including:

• Being a symbol of wealth and power.

• They were used to bay the bride’s price (lobola/roora)
• They were used as draught power.
• They were used to make sacrifices during religious ceremonies
• They were used in trade as exchange items.
• They acted as an insurance against droughts.

Mutapa State:Did the people of the Mutapa state benefit from the expansion of the state?

• The expansion of the Mutapa state brought with it some benefits including:

• Trade items from the conquered lands.

• The people and chiefdoms of the conquered state paid tribute to the king who redistributed this wealth
to the people during times of drought.

• The state obtained new land for cultivation.

• New mining concerns were found within the conquered lands.

• These minerals were traded with the Portuguese who came into contact with the Mutapa because of the
size of the state.
 • Gained more pastureland for their animals.

• Gained more hunting grounds which mean more ivory and meat.
However the expansion also had its own drawbacks including:

• The vast size of the state and paired with poor communication systems led to failure of the state as
breakaway factions emerged.

• Some vassal chiefs rebelled against the Mutapa and refused to pay tribute.

During succession disputes factions fought in civil wars as chiefs and sub-rulers chose sides

The Officials found at Mutapa Court

The following officials were found at the Mutapa court in the Mutapa kingdom.

• The Mutapa himself.

• The Governor of Provinces (Nengomasha) who was in fact the king’s deputy.
• The Captain-General of the armies (Mukomohasha)
• Treasurer
• The Chief Confidant (Mbokorume) who also acted as the king’s fool.
• Priests
• Diviners/Spirit mediums
• The king’s wives

• The chief Musician/Drummer

• The head cook
• The Doorkeeper

The Rozvi State: Reasons for the fall of the Rozvi State
The following factors led to the eventual fall of the Rozvi state:

• The death of the Changamire Dombo who had founded the empire because of his
charisma and military prowess.
• The rise of Weak and uncharismatic leaders.
• Succession disputes that were often accompanied by factionalism and
• Civil Wars

• The refusal to pay tribute by some vassal chiefs as a way of challenging the authority
of the mambo over them.
• Rebellions
• Failure by the Tumbare to maintain law and order in the kingdom.

• The decline of the gold trade.

 • The vast size of the state which made control and communication difficult.
• The persistent droughts that afflicted the kingdom.
• Attacks by the Mfecane groups such as the Shangaane.
• Attacks by the Portuguese.
• Attacks by the Hiya of Dondo area.
The Ndebele under Mzlikazi Khumalo: South of the Limpopo

Origins of the State

• Mzilikazi was the leader of the Khumalo who were originally part of Zwide’s Ndwandwe state but had
joined the Zulu state.

• Mzilikazi broke away from the Zulu in 1822 after a conflict he had with Tshaka.

• Mzilikazi was one of Tshaka’s trusted Generals and had been tasked to raid a certain group.

• Mzilikazi, however, did not surrender the loot from this raid which angered Tshaka who demanded an
explanation.

• Tshaka sent out a regiment to punish Mzilikazi but the regiment was defeated and Mzilikazi managed to
escape accross the Drakensburg mountains.

• He led a group of about 300 young warriors, men, women and children across the Drakensburg and first
settled at Ekupumuleni (Ndebele for Place of rest)
At Ekupumuleni

• This settlement was too close to Zululand and the Zulu’s attacked it on a fairly regular basis and so did
the surrounding ethnic groups like the Pedi.

• Groups such as the Sotho, Dhlodos, Pondo and Swazi joined the Ndebele so as to be protected from
the Zulu attacks. Mzilikazi also absorbed the Ndzundza into his group.

• The Sotho were good farmers while the Ndebele were good herders which formed the basis of a strong
state.

• Mzilikazi had good leadership skills which helped unite people of different origins and cultures into a
single nation.

• Women who were captured during the raids, which the Ndebele still took part in after fleeing Zululand,
were send to Ndebele homesteads to live with the Ndebele families.

• He encouraged intermarriages to ensure the growth of the state and the offspring of these marriages
were groomed into the leadership ranks of the Ndebele society.

• Mzilikazi promoted people on merit so they could become Indunas and chiefs.

• Mzlikazi also persuaded other ethnic groups to join the state as he allowed them to retain their
possessions and privileges in society.

• Cattle rearing and settled agriculture were difficult because of the constant attacks from he Zulu, Pedi
and Griqua.

• His tribe was also greatly affected by the drought of 1823 which destroyed grazing lands.

• Mzilikazi raided other groups to obtain food, cattle and captives to strengthen his state.

• Other supplies came from tribute from the surrounding loyal tribes.

• Due to insecurity Mzilikazi decided to wait for the harvest and raided other groups of their crops before
leaving Ekupumuleni.
 • Despite the hardships and people leaving his state grew in size.
Mhlahlandela

• This was Mzilikazi’s second settlement, but it was still close to Zululand and faced many attacks from
Dingane who was now King of the Zulu

• He established other military towns such as Endinaneni and Enkungqini and raided as far as Botswana,
Lesotho and Zimbabwe.

• The state lost a lot of man and cattle leaving it depleted.

• Mzilikazi met with Robert Moffat of the London Missionary Society in 1829 and the two became friends.

• There were hostile groups of the Kora, Khoisan who would team up with the Kwena people and attack
the settlement.

• The state was almost destroyed by the gun carrying Griqua and Rolong warriors (part of the Tswana)
who captured a lot of the Ndebele cattle and almost destroyed the Ndebele state.

• Many people became disgruntled and deserted though a lot of people stayed behind.

• Realizing agriculture was impossible and cattle pastures scarce, Mzilikazi decided to move on.

• His state had been further ravaged by disease which attacked the cattle thus spurring him to move.

• People were also attacked by diseases such as malaria

Mosega

• The Ndebele moved further west closer to Moffat’s mission in Mosega

• The land was good for cattle and at this point around Marico he drove out the Hurutshe

• He also became friends with Dr Andrew Smith of the Central African Expedition in 1835

• His friendship with the whites did deter or stop the Griqua and Kora from attacking.

• In 1831 a combined Tswana-Griqua (the Rolong warriors) force had attached while his army was away
on a raiding mission in Lesotho resulting in many casualties.

• This was followed in 1834 by another attack by the Griqua and Kora

• Attacks continued as hunting expeditions from these groups crossed the Vaal

• At Mosega he faced the real threat of the Boers under the leadership of Potgieter who were keen to
expand eastwards after they had been driven away from the south by the British.

• In 1837 the Ndebele were defeated by the Boers who had allied with the Griqua, Tlokwa and Rolong
warriors.

• During this time Dingane sent another expedition to attack the Ndebele. The expedition was defeated by
the Ndebele incurred heavy losses.

• This encouraged the local Hurutshe and Griqua to raid the Ndebele for cattle.

• The mounting problems finally compelled the Ndebele to migrate further north into Botswana absorbing
the Tswana and proceeding across the Limpopo

The Zulu under Tshaka: Reasons why Tshaka was assassinated.

• He was an absolute ruler/tyrant.

• He disrespected and often humiliated traditional chiefs.

• He did not consult with his commanders.

 • He dismissed commanders at will often for petty reasons.

• He killed his subjects for petty offences.

• He killed any girl whom he impregnated because he did not want a successor.

• He did not give his relatives positions of authority.

• The army became exhausted as a result of endless military campaigns.

• Tshaka’s successes made his relatives Dingaane and Mhalangane jealous and want to usurp the
throne.

• Mkabayi suspected Tshaka of killing his mother.

The Ndebele:Groups that fought with the Ndebele on their way to W. Zimbabwe

The Ndebele fought with the following groups as they made their way to Western Zimbabwe:

• The Zulu

• The Kora

• The Rolong

• The Hurutshe

• The Tlokwa

• The Tsonga

• The Griquas

• Hendrik Potgieter’s Boers.

The Ndebele:The tribes that formed (were part of) the Ndebele society
The following tribes made up the Ndebele Society:

• The Ndebele (the Khumalo originally from Zululand)

• The Swazi
• The Sotho
• The Virwa
• The Nyubi
• The Tswana

• The Nanzwa
• The Venda
• The Tonga
• The Kalanga and,
• The Shona
The Ndebele:Methods used by Mzilikazi to establish the Ndebele State
Mzilikazi and the Ndebele used the following methods to co-opt other tribes and form the
Ndebele state North of the Limpopo river:

• They demanded tribute from the local tribes.

• They entered into trade relations with the local tribes.

• They Attacked, defeated and absorbed the Rozvi.

• They raided their cattle and crops.
• They forbade the Europeans from selling guns and ammunition to the Shona.
• They captured and killed Shona leaders.
• The people were forced to speak the Ndebele language.
• Young Shona men were conscripted into the Ndebele armies.
• Ndebele governors were sent to control the people living in tributary areas.

: The Role of the King in the Ndebele State

• The King had several roles that he played in the political organisation of the Ndebele
state.
• These roles included:
• Raising the amabutho (army)
• Acted as the supreme commander of the army.
• Acted as the chief judge in the state.
• Allocated land.
• Presided over religious ceremonies especially those of national importance.
• Distributed captives, cattle and other loot obtained from the raids.

• Appointed indunas.
• Acted as the custodian of all cattle, land and people in the state.
• He was a nation builder, statesman and military strategist.

The Ndebele:The role of the amabutho in the Ndebele state

• The amabutho (army) played a central role in the Ndebele state.

• These roles included:
• Protecting the trade routes
• Protecting the king
 • Defended the state against incursions.
• Herded cattle during times of peace.
• They were raiders and raiding was an important part of the Ndebele economy.
• Helped during harvest times.
• Sometimes provided labour in the king’s fields.

• Hunted elephants for ivory.

• Some were miners.
• Punished offenders and rebelling chiefs on the king’s orders

: The Ndebele: Settlements established by the Ndebele South of the Limpopo

• These are the names of the settlements established by the Ndebele south of the Limpopo as they made
their way to Zimbabwe.

• Ekupumuleni

• Emhlahlandela

• Marico river

• Mosega

• Gibixhegu

The Kololo under Sebetwane

Origins and migration of the Kololo people

• The Kololo were Sotho speaking people from the Transorangia area composed of
two Fokeng groups which migrated under Sebetwane during the period of Mfecane
(a.k.a Defecane).

• The Patsa Fokeng under Sebetwane left as a result of attacks from the Tlokwa of
Mma Ntatisi.
• Sebetwane fled across the Vaal river to move as far away as possible from the
threats and disturbances of the Mfecane
• They arrived in Tlapini capital Dithakong in 1823 facing resistance from the Tlapini
and Griqua who had guns and fought on horseback.
• Sebetwane continued through Botswana reaching Molopo River where he defeated
the northern Rolong around Kunwana.
• The Kololo proceeded further into Hurutshe and defeated them but they were in turn
defeated by the Ndebele.

• In Botswana they managed to defeat Kgabo-Kwena and Tshwane-Tlokoa but they

were forced to leave Kwena by the Ngwakwetsi.
• Sebetwane attacked the Ngwato who sought refugee in the Kutswe Mountains.

• The Kololo marched through the Kalahari Desert travelling mostly at night in small
 groups.
• They rested at Lake Ngami where they carried out raiding expeditions to replenish
the cattle they had lost in the desert heat.
• From Lake Ngami they travelled across the Okavango River reaching Chobe where
they established their capital at Dinyati.
• They defeated and ruled the Sibya fisherman and some Tswana.
• The Kololo left the Chobe Valley as it proved to be unhealthy as they journeyed
towards the Zambezi where they raided the Tonga for cattle.
• They established a settlement on the Toka Plateau south of Kafue an area excellent
for cattle.
Settlement in Zambia

• After having subdued most of the chiefdoms on the Toka Plateau they crossed the
flood plain of the Kafue River.
• They were assisted to cross into Illa by local fishermen who resisted the intruders by
force.
• The Kololo reached the Sala area near Lusaka capturing the Sala religious leader,
Priestess Chief Longo.
• Sebetwane was warned against trekking further because of the danger of the
Portuguese and their Chikunda allies and Swahili traders.
• he was advised to turn west to a land of red cattle called Luyi country or Bulozi
• On their way the Kololo defeated the Ndebele in the Tlokoa Plateau in Kolomo.
• The hill at which the fighting took place was named Thaba yabasadi (the women’s
mountain) in honor of the brave Kololo women who took part in the battle.
• The Kololo finally arrived in Bulozi which was under the rule of the
Litunga and Mubhukwanu.

• Sebetwane took advantage of a weak state divided by succession disputes.

• The kingdom had been divided into south and north and there was also division into
Lozi proper and the conquered subject peoples.
Settlement in Bulozi

• Sebetwane found support of the local people as well as the Ngambe who did not like
the Litunga.
• Sebetwane defeated the Litunga and forced him into exile.
• He took the heir to the throne and all the young men of the royal family and educated
them as members of the Kololo aristocracy.

• The Kololo control of Bulozi was hampered by invasions from the Msene-Ngoni
under Nxaba in 1843 that were driven away at great cost.

• The Ndebele also invaded in 1845 and 1850 but were cleverly defeated as they were
lured to an island where they were later flooded.
• The final defeat of the Msene-Ngoni and the Ndebele brought unity in Sebetwane’s
 new kingdom.

• Trusted local chiefs were left in charge of their areas while some of them were given
positions in local government councils.
• Sebetwane mixed freely with is subjects, both the Kololo and the Lozi.

• Sebetwane took wives from among the conquered groups to ensure unity and trust.
• He encouraged the use of the Kololo language in his kingdom.

• Raids were carried out into the surrounding Tonga, Livingstone, Illa, Mazabukwa and
north western Zimbabwe.
• Even in areas where Kololo rule was permanent Sebetwane did not force the
conquered people into the age regiment system.

• He allowed the Lozi to continue with their political and administrative institutions but
did his best to persuade them to adopt his methods.

• He placed one or two Kololo families in every village as Lords of the Land.

• Villages were grouped into provinces under Kololo provincial governors.

• Subject peoples were encouraged to cultivate the land but aid tribute in grain ,nuts,
spears, hoes, ivory, skins and canoes.

• he took some of the tribute and distributed it among his people.

• In 1850 the capital was moved Naliele at the southern end of the upper Zambezi
flood plain to Dinyati for strategic and economic reasons.

• At Dinyati Sebetwane was able to defend his kingdom against any threat from the
south.

• Dinyati was also good for cattle as it was situated where the wagon road from
Ngamiland and the Cape ended.
• Dinyati was also free from mosquitoes.
The end of Kololo rule

• Upon his death, Sebetwane was succeeded by his daughter who in turn abdicated
her throne in favour of her brother Sekeletu.
• Sekeletu, however lacked his father’s courage, intelligence and ability as a leader.

• He did not trust his official advisers especially the Lozi.

• He became suscipisous of his councillors and got them killed.

• After he became a leper Sekeletu accused most people especially the Lozi of
bewitching him.
• During Sekeletu’s rule the Kololo became arrogant and treated the Lozi as inferior or
even slaves.

• The Lozi did all the farm work while the Kololo did the harvesting.
• The Kololo became involved in the slave trade with the Portoguese in 1853

• The Kololo from the South were decimated by malaria as they had less resistance to
 the disease.
• Sekeletu’s death was followed by succession disputes and civil war whcih destroyed
the stat.

• Tired of the Kololo rule the Lozi organised themselves and rose up in arms against
their rulers.

• They were supported by the Tonga and the Kololo were defeated. Old men were
killed and young men and women were incorporated into the Lozi kingdom.
• The desire by the Lozi to be independent proved to be the major drive behind the
collapse of the Kololo state.

The Gaza State

Origins of the Gaza State

• Soshangane and Zwangendaba were Zwide’s generals who fought alongside Zwide in the 1819 war
against Tshaka.

• Soshangane emerged as the most powerful leader amongst the Nguni groups expelled from Zululand.

• After escaping from Tshaka, Soshangane and his people settled in the area South of modern day
Mozambique and south eastern of what is now Zimbabwe. The area is otherwise known as the lower
Limpopo region.

• They settled down and intermarried with the Shona speaking people of the area.

• They had migrated from Zululand in the 1820s as a small group of men,women and children.

• On their way north they absorbed the Swazi and other Nguni related groups.

• Between 1825 and 1845 they established control over most of southern Mozambique and south eastern
Zimbabwe.

• They first settled east of the Save River in the old Mandaba kingdom.

• The Ndau and other Shona speaking people were ruled by Soshangane and paid tribute to him.

• He defeated the Portoguese traders in the area and forced them to pay taxes in order to continue
trading.

• The first capital of Gaza state was Moyamuhle (“cool breeze).

• Soshangane was the son of Ndwandwe who was a descendant of Gaza thus the state was named after
him. The state was thus called Gaza after Soshangane’s grandfather.

• In honour of their founder the people caled themselves the Shangaane.

Expansion of the Gaza State

• The soldiers were organised into disciplined Nguni regiments known as Amabutho.

• They were strong enough to send forces or impis to luanch military expeditions in all directions.

• In 1834 they conquered a Portuguese trading station at Inhambane.

• By 1836 they had wiped ou the Portuguese garrisons in the area as far north as Sofala.

• After raiding Tete and Sena they succeeded in overpowering the Portuguese political and economic
bases along the Zambezi river.

• This resulted in the disruption of the trading systems of the Portuguese between the interior and their
coastal settlements.

• The Gaza took over ivory trade in the areas of Sofala, Inhambane and Maputo controlling the movement
 of goods from the interior in the process.

• The wealth and power of the Portuguese and the sub chiefs established over time declined.

• Soshangane expanded into the old kingdom of Uteve and Manyika.

• Most of the area south of the Zambezi paid tribute to the Gaza which was allocated to the soldiers each
year.

• The soldiers also crossed the Save River to raid the Mutoko area.

• This area brought in a lot of taxes and those who resisted were often killed, for example, Chief
Munyarari and Chief Sweswe.

• However most chiefs were treated as vassal sub chiefs and their young men integrated into the Gaza
military system.
Political Organisation

• The king’s court was the political centre of the state.

• The Royal family and the advisers including several hundred wives of the king lived at the royal court.

• The king made the laws with the assistance of the advisers.

• The king was the judicial, religious and military commander of the state.

• The state was divided into districts each headed by a resident Induna.

• The Induna and his regiment collected taxs each year from his district as a way of ensuring control and
loyalty of the people.

• The king had kinship ties with his Indunas and marriage ties with the sub chiefs as a way of
communication and exerting control of the state.

• Daughters of sub chiefs visited the Kng’s court each year.

• Prisoners of war were brought to the king along with cattle and goods taken during the raids.

• People appealed against the Induna’s and chief’s decisions at the King’s court.

• The army was the main instrument of control as all young men were conscripted into the age regiments.

• They used traditional spears and shields but were later on armed with guns.

• The political system of the Gaza was integrative as it allowed people to retain their land as to be able to
pay taxes.
The economic organisation

• The state was basically a raiding state.

• Besides raiding the surrounding peasant communities the Shangaane also overran the Portuguese
settlements of Sofala, Inhambane and Lourence Marques.

• The Gaza was involved in agriculture.

• They grew traditional crops such as sorghum, rapoko, millet, pumpkins, beans and other vegetables.

• The king was responsible for distributing the land through the sub chiefs and Indunas.

• Cattle heading was practiced and cattle were a symbol of wealth in the society.

• Cattle were important for paying bride price and were also slaughtered in important ceremonies.

• The king received tribute from his people and also taxes from the Portuguese traders.

• Trade was a central part of the economy controlled by the king through his Indunas.

• The Gaza state traded with the Portuguese in ivory, cloth, gold and other metals as well as animal skins.
 • Hunting also contributed to the economy and welfare of the state.

• The Gaza state was thriving because different ethnic groups were allowed to continue carrying out their
economic activities undisturbed as long as they were loyal to the central state.
The social system

• The social system of the Gaza was divided into three classes.

• The first class or the aristocracy consisted of the original Nguni speaking people and their relatives.

• They called themselves Gaza, Ngumi or baNgoni.

• The second class consisted of the absorbed groups who were recruited into the Gaza ranks called the
baTshangane (the Shangane).

• These were divided into regiments with the Ngoni officers.

• However they were treated as less important people and were used in the front line in battle.

• Most senior government officials came from the fist class though assimilated subjects were allowed to
rise to positions of political power, for example, Magigwana of the Ndau origin who fought the 1895 and
1898 wars against the Portuguese.

• Those who adopted the Nguni culture enjoyed a status next to the Nguni aristocracy.

• These people identified themselves by wearing was head rings and pierced ears.

• These people also wore skin aprons and were fluent in the Nguni language.

• Assimilated people were also allowed to intermarry and they were assisted with cattle used to buy wives
for them as reward for service.

• Their children were considered true Nguni as they increased the Nguni population.

• The people who did not adopted the Nguni culture and language such as the Tsonga and Chopi formed
the lowest class.

• They were not allowed to join the regular army but sometimes served as pathfinders or guides for the
elite regiments in the lower LimpopoValley.

• The Tsonga did not wear head rings and were dressed in loin cloth instead.

• They also filled their teeth and decorated their bodies tattooing themselves.

• These were slaves and were often more oppressed than the assimilated people.
The decline of the Gaza state

• The loyalty and identity of a person were defined in terms of culture.

• As a result Soshangane did not successfully assimilate the subject peoples and cultural tension
persisted within the state.

• As Soshangane became old he believed he had been bewitched by the Tsonga for which he put many
of them to death while others fled and migrated to the south.

• Succession disputes emerged among the ruling Ngoni upon Soshangane’s death.

• Mawewe with the assistance of the Swazi took over power ahead of his competitor Mzila.

• Mawewe was unsuccessful and he later died in exile in Swaziland.

• Mzila took over the empire with the assistance of the Portuguese.

• This allowed the Portuguese to return to the Gaza state thus weakening it further.

• Mzila’s successor Ngungunyana faced both the threat of revolts by his subjects’ peoples and the threat
from European settlers.
 • Ngungunyana sought British assistance in a vain effort to ward off the Portuguese.

• He then resolved to organise the movement of his people from the middle Save to Delagoa Bay on the
coast.

• By 1895 the Gaza state was weakened by internal revolts and Ngungunyana’s soldiers were defeated
by the Portuguese.

• The king was taken captive and sent to the Canary islands off the coast of West Africa were he died in
exile.
The legacy

• Part of the Nguni language remains in the region as a reminder of this period in history, for example
piqua meaning to trick and panhla meaning clothes.

• A Nguni traditional dance called Muchongoyo still exists in which people wear fur of long haired goats
around the writs and ankles.

• A traditional meal called rubende which is a mixture of cooked blood and intestines is still eaten and
reflects a Nguni heritage.
The main reasons for the decline of the Gaza state

• Their language did not survive as a separate language as the Ndebele had done.

• This was because the Gaza did not successfully assimilate their subjects although they established their
authority over them.

• They did not absorb the subject peoples in their culture and language but left most to join willingly or
pursue their own language and cultures.

• They also did not have a comprehensive succession plan resulting in revolts and succession disputes
upon the deaths of Soshangane and Mzila.

• The main cause for the fall of the state was external interference of the Portuguese who finally defeated
the remaining Gaza people to colonize the area

Soshangane and the Shangaane:Groups that Soshangane fought on his way from Nguniland to
Gazaland

• The Tsonga

• The Chopi

• The Ndau

• The Rozvi

• The Manyika

• The Ngoni under Zvangendaba (note spellings of this name vary widely some call him Zwangendaba)

• The Msene-Ngoni of Nxaba

• The Zulu.

The Missionaries:The aims of missionaries in Zimbabwe

The missionaries who came to Zimbabwe had several aims

These included:

• The main aim of spreading Christianity.

 • To promote legitimate trade between Europeans and Africans.

• To campaign against slave trade and slavery in general.

• To promote equality among all humankind and counter the racist attitudes exhibited by some of the early
European settlers and explorers.

• To confuse Africans.

• To pave way for European colonisation of African states and kingdoms.

• To develop an indigenous middle class that would maintain and staff their local churches.

• To teach people so that they could be literate.

African Evangelists who operated in Zimbabwe in the 19th century

Missionaries: African Evangelists who operated in Zimbabwe in the 19th century

• Bernard Mizeki
• Shumba Chekai

• Johannes
• Petrus Morudu

• Joshua Morudu
• David Molea

• Petrus Khobe
• Samuel Madzima

• Isiah Khumalo

Missionaries:Roman Catholic Missionaries who came to Zimbabwe

The following Roman Catholic Missionaries (Jesuits) worked in Zimbabwe:

• Father Bartholomew Kroot

• Father Wehl
• Father Laur

• Father Depelchin
• Brother de Sadeleer

• Father Prestage

Missionaries: Missionaries who worked for the London Missionary Society

The following missionaries who worked for the London Missionary Society ( Now part of
the Council for World Mission) operated in Zimbabwe:

• Robert Moffat

• John Smith Moffat

• Charles Helm

• William Sykes
• David Carnegie

• Thomas Morgan Thomas

Missionaries: Missionaries who worked in Mashonaland between 1850 and 1900

The purpose of the dates is to exclude early Portuguese Missionaries like da Silveira from the list.

• Simon Buys

• Asser Schahabane

• David Molea

• Knight Bruce

• Gabriel Buys

• Stephanus Hofmeyr

• Beuser Wedepohl

• Isaiah Khumalo

• Petrus Morudu

• A.A. Louw

• Francois Coillard

• Knothe

• Schellenus

Missionaries: Problems faced by Missionaries in Zimbabwe between 1850-1900

• Problems faced by the missionaries included:

• Diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.

• Poor transport and communication as journeys had to be made by foot or cattle wagons.

• Language barrier: most natives only spoke their native tongues while most of the missionaries who were
of European origin could not speak these.

• Opposition from Muslims.

• Opposition from African Traditional Leaders.

• Poor Security.

• Resistance to education by the locals.

• Resistance to Christianity by the locals.

 • Some of the missionaries were killed by wild animals especially as they made journeys across untamed
lands.

• They often viewed with suspicion and distrust by the local population.

• They lacked access to proper medications

• Often faced starvation as food could be scarce.

• They often faced delays in being granted permission to operate.

• Their converts or potential converts were often threatened, killed or sent away e.g. Bernard Mizeki.

• The African climate was hostile and unforgiving with plenty of sunshine compared to the milder climates
of Europe.

• They were exposed to cruel African customs such as killing of twins and albinos and raiding.

: Missionaries:Inventions made in the Industrial revolution

• The following were some of the inventions that came out of Britain’s Industrial Revolution:

• The seed drill

• The steam engine

• Weaving machines

• Spinning machines such as Spinning Jenny

• Railways

• Telegraphs

• Steam boats that made travel faster

• Sewing machines

The Colonisation of Zimbabwe:Reasons why Zimbabwe was colonized

• There were several reasons why Zimbabwe was turned into a colony by the BSAC
• Some these reasons include:

• In order for Cecil John Rhodes to fulfill his Cape to Cairo dream
• The colonisers were looking for a second rand in Zimbabwe

• The colonisers were looking for new markets to sell their goods
• The colonisers were looking for raw materials

• The colonisers were looking for cheap labour

• The British wanted to encircle the Boers and their territory

• Some of the colonisers were looking for places in which to invest their additional
capital and expand their businesses and holdings

• The farmers amongst the colonisers were drawn by the rich fertile Savannah soils
• Some missionaries thought it would be easier to convert the locals if the country
became a colony
The Colonisation of Zimbabwe:The names of British nationals who helped Rhodes to colonize
Zimbabwe

• The following people helped Cecil John Rhodes to colonize Zimbabwe:

• Charles Rudd

• Francis Thompson

• Rochford Maguire

• Major Frank Wilson

• Fredrick Selous

• Allan Wilson

• Leander Starr Johnson

• John Smith Moffat

• Reverend Charles Helm

• Colonel Edward Pennefather

• A.R. Colquboun

The Colonisation of Zimbabwe:A List of the treaties signed by Lobengula and the whites in the 19th
century

• The following treaties were signed by Lobengula and various white people in the 19th century:

• The Rudd concession

• Moffat Treaty

• Grobbler treaty

• Lippert’s Treaty/Lippert’s concession

• Tati concession

• Baines concession

The Colonisation of Zimbabwe:The whites involved in the signing of treaties and concessions in
Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1891 

• These are the names of the white people who were involved with the signing of treaties and
concessions in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1890

• Piet Grobbler

• Charles Rudd

• John Smith Moffat

• Edward Lippert

• Thomas Baines

• Sir John Swinbourne

• Only the principle white signatories have been named here all the other parties such as Maguire and
Thompson have been purposefully omitted as they only appended their signatures as witnesses
 • The Colonisation of Zimbabwe:Concession seekers who visited Matebeleland between 1870
and 1900 and the treaties they signed

CONCESSION SEEKERS TREATIES SIGNED YEAR SIGNED

Sir John Swinbourne Tati Concession 1870
Thomas Baines Baines Concession 1871
Piet Grobler Grobler Treaty 1887
John Smith Moffat Moffat Treaty 1888
Charles Rudd Rudd Concession 1888
Edward Lippert Lippert Concession 1891

EUROPEAN HISTORY

Causes of the First World War 1914-1918

Introduction

• A world war is a war which is fought between many countries of the world and is geographically spread
across the borders of multiple countries. The participation of these countries has to be overt and involve
actually involve the engagement of military troops thus World War I is a world war while the fight in
Afghanistan is not because the war is in one country against a movement and not a country. It would
seem therefore in a world war there has to be multiple countries on both sides and the battlefield span
multiple countries.

• World War I was unlike any other wars recorded in history because advanced machinery and
technology such as tanks, heavy ships and artillery were used.

• A great number of people were killed (estimated at around 20 million civilians and military personnel)
and many were wounded.

• The war was fought between the Allied forces made up of Britain, France, Italy and Japan and the
Central Powers: Germany, Austria and Turkey.

• Because most of these countries had colonies and oversea empires there were a lot of battles and
skirmishes were fought in other countries and even on separate continents for example Rhodesia (now
Zimbabwe) and South Africa (Which were both British colonies) attacked Germany West Africa (now
Namibia) a Germany colony.
CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The causes of World War I can be divided into two broad categories viz:

• Long term causes- these are causes that build up over a period of years sometimes decades before
they transform into actual fighting between the parties involved.

• Short term causes-this is the immediate cause of the conflict in other words the actual trigger.
Long term causes

• The arms race and militarism (brinkmanship).

• The alliance system.

• Imperialism and colonial rivalry.

• The shifting balance of power.

• The Balkan nationalism (crisis).

• Mounting social crisis.

 • The Franco-Prussian hostility.
Short term causes

• The Sarajevo assassination or incident.

1. The arms race and militarism (Brinkmanship)

• Various European powers (notably Britain and Germany) competed to build strong armies, navies and to
manufacture weapons.

• The race was mostly between Germany and Britain a race which Britain was keen to win.

• However, Germany did her best to catch up with Britain( Britain had become the undisputed leading
Naval power when they had displaced the Spanish Armada centuries before) by expanding her own
warship production.

• In 1906 Britain designed the Dreadnought, a battleship which was touted as the most powerful in
existence at the time.

• A year later Germany developed a ship with similar capabilities to match Britain.

• The race continued up to 1914 and during this period both Britain and Germany increased their navies
significantly.

• Germany also increased her army to 5 million men during the same period.

• Other countries were also doing the same (increasing their armies) for example Russia had increased
her to 50 000 soldiers by 1913, France lengthened her military service from 2 to 3 years during the
same period.

• All major European countries had adopted the conscription (compulsory enlistment) system by 1874.

• There was a significant increase in military budgets during this period as well.

• Such developments in militarism meant that when the conflict reached its height in 1914 the countries
readily declared war on one another especially since the leaders of the various countries had become
more emboldened and practiced brinkmanship as a result of their belief in their military prowess.
The alliance system

• After 1870 Europe was left divided into two major opposing camps or alliances.

• The European powers recognized the fact that there is strength in numbers and thus began making
treaties with another based on the alignment of interests.

• From 1870 a number of treaties were signed by major powers.

• Eventually Europe was divided up into two major camps/alliances.

Triple Alliance (Formerly the Dual Alliance)

This was made among Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. It was a follow up to the Dual Alliance between
Germany and Austria in which they had promised to assist each other in case either was attacked by Russia.It
was signed in 1882. Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to help Italy if she was attacked by France. Italy also
agreed to help Germany if she was attacked by France and Austria-Hungary and Germany agreed to help each
other if either was attacked by Russia. Italy viewed the treaty as a guarantee that she would not be attacked by
Austria-Hungary rather than a military pact. In 1914 Italy later shifted her allegiance when war broke out in 1914
and joined the Allied powers.

Triple Entente ( Formerly Entente Cordiale)

Was made between Britain, France and Russia. In 1894 Russia and France made an agreement to help each
other if Germany attacked either of them. . Russia would also support France if she was attacked by Austria-
Hungary.In 1904 an agreement was singed between France and Britain.This agreement was known as the
Entente Cordiale ( French for “cordial agreement”). This agreement did not specify any enemies and it was not a
military alliance but meant as a means to foster cooperation between France and Britain. The Cordiale was
followed with the signing of the Triple Entente in 1907. It was also not a military alliance but an agreement to
work together. However by 1912 the members of the Entente had become so close that if any of them were
attacked they would help.

• Although the Cordiale was not a military pact de jure it evolved into one and later when war broke out it
became a de facto military alliance.

• On the other hand the triple alliance was a military from the beginning.

• The alliance also agreed that members should remain neutral if a member went to war with only one
power.
Mounting social crisis

• European governments encouraged aggressive nationalism as a way of keeping power for example the
unification of Germany.

• Some people in Europe were not aware of what a war would be like since there had been no major war
since Prussia had fought with France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871.

• This war gave leaders and generals the false impression that war could be swiftly fought and bring
about a glorious end to hostilities.

• This romantic view of war encouraged leaders to adopt a brinkmanship stance and act hastily and
aggressively as happened on the day the war broke out.
Mobilisation plans of various armies.

• Almost all the major European powers thought they had the ideal plan in case of hostilities.

• France had a plan called Plan XVII (Plan 17) (known in French as Plan dix-sept) drafted in 1913 to be
put into effect in the event of war between Germany and France.

• The most famous was Germany’s Schlieffen plan drafted by General Alfred Gra Von Shclieffen who
retired in 1906 and died in 1913.

• The plan was later modified by Von Moltke the Younger.

• According to the plan Germany would immediately launch a war against France and knock it out before
turning east to attack Russia all in a space of six weeks.

• These plans clearly show that all the major powers in Europe were itching for a fight and only waiting for
the slightest provocation to justify themselves.
The Franco-Prussian hostility

• The hostility stemmed from the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and remained the most constant factor in
international relations up to the outbreak of the war in 1914.

• After the war France lost Alsace and Lorraine in a humiliating peace treaty which caused her to view
and deal with Germany with both hatred and hostility. France and Germany became permanent
enemies as a result.

• In 1885 and 1886 there was danger of war breaking out between Germany and France as French
nationalism was whipped up for a revenge war by General Georges Ernest Boulanger whose influence
was so profound he started a movement called Boulangerism during his apogee.

• In 1905 and 1911 the continued hostility between France and Germany nearly precipitated into war over
Morrocco.

• Although on these occasions war was avoided the tension between the Triple Alliance and Triple
Entente powers increased.

• The tensions drew the alliances into a habit as Austria-Hungary found itself on the side of Germany
while Britain and Russia supported France.

• When Germany learnt of the friendship between France and Russia in 1895 she concluded that it was
aggressive and meant to create two fronts against her in the event of a war breaking out i.e. the western
front of France and the eastern front of Russia.

• Germany’s Schlieffen plan was based on the presumption that Russia would automatically come to the
 aide of France in the event of a war thus necessitating the need to defeat France quickly before turning
to a much bigger Russia.

• The plan was based on the premise that France was smaller and thus could be defeated quickly while
Russia is much bigger such that it would take longer fore her to mobilise her forces in the event of war.

• When war did eventually broke out Germany acted to this plan and she invaded France via the Belgium
(Belgium was neutral) route which made Britain to enter the war.
The shifting balance of power.

• Germany was a great emerging economic power but was not recognized by the other powers such as
Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary and France who had hitherto dominated the world’s diplomatic affairs.

• Germany’s desire to gain her rightful status upset the balance of power thus threatening stability and the
pre-established order.

• Germany built her army and navy as she protested that she was surrounded by the Triple Entente
powers who constantly sought to prevent her expansion.

• Such activities exacerbated the hostilities existing amongst Europe’s nations.

Colonial rivalry.

• There were clashes between European powers over colonies for example France and Britain over
Egypt, France and Germany over Morocco and France and Italy over Tunisia.

• However almost all these disputes were solved peacefully.

• A few of these disputes however nearly caused war and increased the tensions between the two camps.

• Also Russia and Japan were fighting over China.

• In 1902 Japan and Britain had signed The Anglo-Japanese treaty, a military agreement in which each
member assistance in the event of war.

• This could have caused war had Britain who supported Japan or France who supported Russia had
become involved in this war.

• Other European powers with interests in China would likely had joined in this war.
The First Moroccan crisis (1905) [ Crisis of Tangier]

• Britain recognized French claim in Morocco when they signed the Entente Cordiale.

• France had interests in Morocco and desired to make it part of her empire while Germany was also
interested in Morocco resulting in conflict between the two.

• In March 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm II (William II) of Germany visited Tangier in Morocco.

• He made speeches which undermined and challenged French interests:

• He proclaimed that he supported Sultan of Morocco’s sovereignty meaning he deemed Morocco free
and Independent.

• He said that all European powers had equal rights in Morocco but under the Sultan.

• He asserted that Germany had growing interests in Morocco and she was prepared to protect them.

• He declared that he was going to maintain the independence of the Sultan.

• This resulted in a confrontation with France who had Russia and Britain as her allies under the Triple
Entente who came to her aide.

• Germany on the other hand had Austria-Hungary and Italy as its allies under the Triple Alliance who
came to her aide.

• Germany’s aggression was calculated since she knew Russia would not come to the aide of France as
Russia was still recovering from her defeat at the hands of Japan in the Russo-Japanese war.
 • Germany also wanted to test the strength of the Triple Entente.

• The crisis was settled by a conference in Algeciras in Spain in 1906.

Algeciras conference.

• It was agreed that the state bank of Morocco was to be controlled by France, Germany, Spain and
Britain.

• The policing of Morocco was shared between France and Spain.

• The interests of all powers in Morocco were guaranteed.

• France was left to proceed with its peaceful penetration and Germany was given trading rights.
N.B The aggression by Germany that brought about the crisis cemented the Triple Entente resulting in the
members being closer with one another than ever before and even more ready for war.

The crisis also increased tensions amongst the major powers as it completed the diplomatic division of Europe
into two hostile camps.

The second Moroccan crisis (1911) [Agadir crisis]

• In April 1911 a revolt broke out against the Sultan and foreign nationals.

• The French with its policing powers marched to Fez to protect European residents.

• The French capitalized on the incident to annex Morocco.

• Other powers like Britain accepted the move but Germany warned France that the move was against
the agreement reached at the Algeciras conference.

• Germany send a gun boat, the SMS Panther to Agadir.

• The Kaiser demanded compensation for growing French influence in Morocco.

• Britain did not want to annex Morocco because this threatened her shipping interests and she was
supported by Russia.

• In November Germany and France signed the treaty of Paris.

Treaty of Paris

• France was given Morocco and Germany was given Guinea and Cameroon.

• Germany’s aggression frightened other powers who became closer and the crisis further strained the
relations between the Entente and Alliance camps.

Causes of World War I

Balkan nationalism.

• This is by far the largest cause of the First World War as Turkey was being destroyed
by nationalism.

• Serbia was the first to break away from Turkey in 1804 followed by Greece in 1829.
• Serbian and Bulgarian independence was recognized by the great powers great
powers in the 1878 at The Congress of Berlin.

• Austria-Hungary was also battling with fragmentation as the Magyars fought for
 independence from Austria-Hungary in 1866.

• The Slavs of Bosnia and Herzegovina also threatened to destroy Austria-Hungary as

they wanted to unite with Serbia instead.
• Serbia waned to incorporate all the Slave people into one Slave state of Kingdom of
Yugoslavia.

• Archduke Ferdinand was murdered by Slav nationalists (The Black Hand) who
wanted to break away from Austria and to join Serbia.
• The conflict between Slav nationalism and German Nationalism ultimately led to war.

• Serbian nationalism was of greater danger to Austria-Hungary because it was

backed by Russia as Russia supported Pan Slavism whilst Germany was defending
Pan Germanism of the German empire and Austria-Hungary.

• Germany and Austria-Hungary had a Pan German alliance thus Germany came into
the Sarajevo conflict because she could not allow Austria-Hungary to be destroyed
by Pan Slavism.
The Bosnian crisis of 1908

• Austria-Hungary had been given Bosnia and Herzegovina to administer at The Berlin
Conference of 1878.

• Serbia which had an interest in these two territories was disappointed and
encouraged the Young Turk revolution that sought to overthrow the Sultan Hamid II
and bring about liberal reforms.

• Austria-Hungary took advantage of the ensuing chaos.

• Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina whilst Russia annexed the
Straits.

• Serbia mobilized her troops against Austria-Hungary.

• Russia threatened to join Serbia against Austria-Hungary.

• Germany threatened war against Russia if Russia supported Serbia and this nearly
brought about the outbreak of a general war.
• Russia backed out because she had not yet recovered from the Russo-Japanese
war.

• Serbia backed out because she could not fight Austria alone.
• This increased the strain between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente camp.
The First Balkan war

• Italy went to war with Turkey over Tripoli which she had annexed and the Albanians
took advantage of the situation to revolt against Turkey.
• The Turkish Army mutinied in sympathy of the revolt.

• The Balkan nationals made up of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria took
advantage to eject Turkey from the Balkans and formed the First Balkan League to
fight Turkey.

• They agreed that Serbia would annex Albania so as to have access to the sea.
 • Greece would occupy Thrace and Salonika.

• Bulgaria would take a larger part of Macedonia and the rest of Macedonia would be
shared equally amongst the members.
• To the surprise of Europe the league won the war against Turkey.

• A conference was called in London in May 1913.

The treaty of London (1913)

• Germany and Austria-Hungary blamed Russia for causing the Balkan war.

• Austria-Hungary did not like Serbian expansion because both had large Slav
populations especially Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Germany feared that the Balkan league would continue to fight Austria-Hungary to
take back Bosnia and Herzegovina.

• At the conference Austria-Hungary blocked Serbia’s annexation of Albania and a new

state of Albania was created.
• Greece was also prevented from annexing Valona.

• Serbia and Greece gained small portions of Macedonia.

• Greece won Thrace and Salonika.

• Bulgaria acquired the largest part of Macedonia.

• At the conference Russia supported Serbia and it in turn got support from France.

• Germany and Italy supported Austria-Hungary.

• Britain pretended to be neutral.

The second Balkan war

• The other states were jealous of Bulgaria’s acquisition of a large part of Macedonia.

• Serbia and Greece asked Bulgaria to share Macedonia with them but Bulgaria
refused.

• Greece and Serbia formed the Second Balkan League and declared war on Bulgaria
in June 1913.
• They were joined by Romania.

• Turkey rejoined the war on the side of Bulgaria to regain lost territory and managed
to regain Adrianople.
• The war was ended by the treaty of Bucharest 1913.
The treaty of Bucharest (1913)

• Bulgaria lost her former gains of the Aegean coast and Adrianople to Turkey.
• The war pushed Europe closer to the Great War.

• Russia supported Serbia and the success of the Balkan war was interpreted as
Russian success against Austria-Hungary and Germany.
 • Bulgaria supported the Triple Alliance and joined them immediately when the war
broke out in 1914.

• Serbia had gained the most territory and had used French artillery in the war which
was a clear assistance by the Triple Entente powers.
• Austria-Hungary was troubled by this and made up her mind to destroy Serbia as
soon as possible.

• This explains why the events of the Sarajevo assassination led to an all out war.
• The events of of the contributed greatly towards the outbreak of the war but the
Sarajevo assassination was the proverbial match that sparked the outbreak of war.
Sarajevo assassination

• In June 1914 Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne toured

Bosnia.

• On June 28 he and his wife were murdered by a Bosnian nationalist called Gavrilo
Principe
• Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and issued an ultimatum to her.

• The demands in set in the ultimatum were:

-Serbia was to ban all nationalist movements in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

-Serbia was to investigate and hand over the culprits of the assassination.

-Serbia was to sack all government officials which Austria-Hungary opposed.

-Serbia was to allow Austrian officials into Serbian to oversee and ensure that the ultimatum
was complied with.

• Serbia accepted all the terms except the fourth which effectively meant her losing her
independence.
• On July 28 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.

• On July 30 Russia mobilized her forces in support of Serbia.

• On July 31 Germany demanded that Russia demobilize within 24 hours.

• Russia failed to demobilize and Germany declared war on Russia on August 1.

• On August 3, Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium on 4 August.

• Germany followed the Schlieffen plan as it invaded Belgium in order to attack France.

• Britain then declared war on Germany.

Aims of the Schlieffen Plan

• To avoid fighting war on two fronts i.e the western front of France and the eastern
Front with Russia.
• To defeat France in 6 weeks.
 • To capture French channels so that the British army would not land on the greater
continent of Europe.
• To concentrate German troops in the attack and defeat Russia after the defeat of
France.

• To pass through Belgium on the way to France.

The Schlieffen Plan.

• Germany believed that in the event of war with Russia, France would assist as it was
a member of the Dual Entente.

• It also believed that any war with France would bring Russia to her aid.
• In the plan Germany would have to defeat France first in a within a period of 6 weeks
as it was smaller and concentrated then divert its forces to the East to deal with
Russia.

• Germany believed that Russia would take time to mobilize.

• Germany would invade France through Belgium which was a neutral country at the
time.
• The violation of Belgian neutrality brought Britain into the war.

• France came into the war immediately because she had been attacked.

• From this it is clear that the Schlieffen plan contributed to the war also as it brought in
more countries into the conflict.
The role of individual countries in the outbreak of the war.

Serbia

• Her extreme nationalism could be blamed for the outbreak of the war. It backed
terrorist movement in Bosnia leading to the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand.
• She did not fear her neighbor Austria-Hungary since she had had victory in the
Balkan wars with the support of Russia and France thus emboldening her.
France

• She wanted to avenge the defeat she had suffered at the hands of Germany in the
Franco-Prussian war so as to recover Alsace and Lorraine.

• France gave unconditional support to Russia and it also took part in the arms race.
Austria-Hungary

• It caused a lot of tension with its involvement in the Balkan wars especially the
annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

• Austria was also the first to declare war and attack Serbia.
Britain

• She competed fiercely with Germany for naval supremacy and the arms race which
worsened international relations.
 • Britain declared war on Germany when Germany invaded Belgium thus bringing
herself in a multidimensional war.
• Britain gave Russian unlimited support.
Germany

• Some blame her for solely causing the First World for because of her many acts of
aggression for example the naval race and the Agadir crisis.

• She gave unconditional support to Austria-Hungary.

• She declared war on Russia and France.

• She invaded Belgium which was a neutral country.

• She had planned for the was as early as 1905 as evidenced by the Schlieffen plan.
• German desired a raise in her status in the world which led to tensions and
competition.
Why Britain joined the war?

• Because Germany violated Belgian neutrality.

• This may have been a pretext and the real reason could have been fear of Germany.

• Britain feared Germany’s growing ambitions.

• These were shown by Germany’s participation in the naval race with Britain.

• Germany’s move in Turkey shown by the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad were

viewed suspiciously by Britain.
• Germany was giving the impression that it was on a course to conquer the world.

• Britain did not allow Germany to conquer the channel as it was doing via the invasion
of Belgium.
• If the France had been defeated the Channel would fall into the hands of Germany
and Britain would be in danger.
• Britain therefore entered the war for her own security.

• However, this security was tied with the rest of Europe thus she joined the rest of the
Entente powers.
• Britain wanted to maintain her status as the leading global power and economic
powerhouse.
Why Russia joined the war?

• It had to secure its economic interests in the Balkans.

• It wanted to build and maintain its status as a powerful nation.

• It felt it had the obligation to assist the Triple Entente so as to maintain its status as a
great power and so it would not be isolated.
Why Germany joined the war?
 • She wanted to achieve permanent security on the western and eastern fronts.

• She also wanted to fulfill her expansion program of annexation and expansion.
Why Austria-Hungary joined the war?

• It wanted to maintain its status as a great power in the world.

• It wanted to end Slav nationalism that was being led by Serbia.

War on the western front.

• The war began according to the Schlieffen plan on the western front however it was
to change following unexpected challenges.

• Germany invaded France through Belgium and hope to force France to surrender
within six weeks.

• Germany also according to plan invaded through the north east and veered around
to the south towards France.
• Belgian resistance to the Germans proved stiffer than expected thus delaying their
progress in the process.

• The French also mobilized their troops faster than the Germans had anticipated.
• The British also came to the assistance of the French earlier than had been
anticipated by Germans further hindering Germany’s progress.

• The Russians mobilized faster than expected forcing the Germans to abandon the
plan and send a lot of troops to the western from earlier.
• Bulgaria joined the war on the side of the central powers in 1915.

• Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary by the secret treaty of the Entente allies in
August in 1916.
• Romania joined war on the Entente side but was quickly defeated by Germany and
Austria-Hungary.

The course of the First World War

The Battle of Marne River

• For close to a month the German forces moved across Belgium down into France.

• It was a difficult march in hot wealth travelling distances of about 64 km/day.

• The Germans were stopped by the French at the battle of Marne River by General
Geoffrey and General Gallieni.

• At the battle of Marne the French called everyone to the front including ordinary
women and men to try and force the Germans back to the River Aisne.
• Soldiers and other fighters were rushed to the battle front by all means of transport
available.
 • The French used the famous battle cry “Ils ne passeront pas!“ ( They shall not pass!)
as they impeded German progress.
New weapons

• Two battles were fought in Belgium i.e. the First and Second battle of Ypres.
• In 1915 the second battle of Ypres the Germans used poisonous gas.

• At the battle of Somme the British used the Tank successfully for the first time.

• Both Britain and Germany used airplanes in the war for the first time.
• Flame throwers were also used extensively in the First World War.
Trench Warfare.

• When the Germans were defeated at the battle of Marne River they retreated to the
River Aisne about 48 km from Paris and dug trenches as a defensive mechanism
against further advances by the French.

• The French and the British also dug their own trenches to protect themselves from
machine gun fire and explosions from artillery shells.
• Battles were fought from trenches resulting in what has been known ever since as
trench warfare.

• Trench warfare prolonged the war: it was fought on the western front from December
1914 to November of 1918.

• The trenches were surrounded by barbed wire and snipers shot at the enemy if they
ventured out.
• Soldiers died in the trenches and it was difficult to bury them.

• It was also difficult to supply food and medicines to the soldiers.

• Disease and hunger afflicted soldiers on both sides.

• No side made any gains as any attack was quickly followed by a counter attack.

• As a result the war on the western front became a stalemate and took longer than
expected.
The battle of Verdun and Somme

• This was planned battle in which the Germans led by Von Moltke tried to break
through Verdun, a French pivot since the beginning of the war.
• A bout 4 million men faced each other in the trenches.

• 19 divisions of heavily armed Germans bombed Verdun with artillery.

• The French forces led by General Petain resisted.

• The British rushed to assist the French.

• In that battle the French lost 350 000 men while the Germans lost 330 000 men but
the Germans failed to capture Verdun.

• In July 1916 the British attacked Somme a German fortress in order to reduce
 pressure on Verdun.
• The British had invented the tank and used it for the first time against the Germans.

• At this battle the Germans had heavier casualties losing 500 000 men while the
British had lesser casualties losing about 200 000.
• The British however failed to make a breakthrough and the war remained a
stalemate while trench warfare continued.
The Gallipoli campaign

• In November 1914 Turkey joined the war on the side of the Central Powers.
• Turkey subsequently closed the straits to the Russian ships such that the supplies
from western allies could not reach Russia.

• Russia as a result faced a shortage of weapons and food thus edging closer to
defeat.
• The western allies therefore decided to capture the Straits to open up supply lines
and ease pressure on Russia.
• In March 1915 Britain and France sent a powerful naval expedition to the
Dardanelles but it was heavily defeated.

• In April the allies tried to land on the Gallipoli peninsula to capture the Straits through
the Black Sea but Turkey already knew of the plans and destroyed the allied forces
as they landed.
• The allies lost 250 000 men but the Straits remained closed.

• Russian remained without food supplies and weapons.

The war at sea ( The battle of Jutland)

• The greatest tension before the war had been caused by Germany’s ambition to build
a navy that was stronger than that of Britain.

• As such when war broke out there was great expectations of great seas battles
between Germany and Britain.

• This did not happen as the two navies just watched and threatened each other
without much warfare between them.
• Germany feared to move into the high seas.

• The first major sea battle was fought at Jutland in May 1917.
• The British fleet stationed at Scupa Flow and Rosyth was to be tested by the German
high sea fleet stationed in the north seas of Germany.

• The British and French navies had up to now maintained their supremacy on the high
seas and kept their routes open.
• At the same time they had successfully blockaded the Central powers and stopped
their trade with the outside world.

• To break this cycle Admiral Sheer of Germany tried to destroy the Grand fleet in May
1916.
• A small force under Admiral Hipper went out to sea and made contact with Admiral
 Beatty’s force of the same size and went into battle.

• The main forces under Jellico (British) and Sheer (Germany) rushed to the battle
field.

• The British suffered heavier losses than the Germans.

• The Germans withdrew back to their bases under cover of the darkness on the night
of May 31 and remained inactive until 1918.

• The main contribution of the navies was the blockade of the Central Powes by the
British and French navies.
• The French protected their interest in the Mediterranean Sea whilst the British
protected theirs and French interests in the English Channel and North sea.

• The British also blockaded the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans to protect their trade
routes.
• The Central powers lost their markets, trade and important sources of raw materials
as they were prevented form reaching German ports.
• This caused serious shortages, high food prices and unrest among citizens.
Submarine warfare.

• In response to the Anglo-French supremacy Germany embarked on submarine

warfare against her enemies.
• Since Britain depended on foreign trade Germany decided to destroy this on the high
seas to collapse her economy and force her to surrender.

• The submarines operated in the Red Sea, the English Channel and the North Sea
and especially in the Atlantic to cut off British and French trade with America.
• In April 1915 the submarines sank a British ship Lusitania with 200 people.

• 118 of them were American citizens.

• America protested and this strained relations with Germany.

• In 1916 and 1917 the goods sank by the German submarines increasingly
threatened the British economy and security.
• Britain developed minesweepers and the convoy system to combat the submarine
menace.

• In response Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare to destroy both

combatant and neutral shipping indiscriminately.

• For this reason America entered the war on the side of Britain.
Collapse of the Central Powers.

• Russia had collapsed and left the war in 1917.

• The Germans therefore diverted their attention to the western front to deliver a knock
out blow on France and Britain.
• Germany calculated that with the use of U-boats and the bringing of all the soldiers to
the western front Britain and France would be knocked out before Americans arrived.
 • The Americans were also brought into the war by the Zimmerman telegraph
intercepted and decoded by the British.
• The Telegraph had been sent to Mexico by the German foreign minister intending to
assist Mexico to recover Texas, Arizona and New Mexico conquered by the USA in
1848.

• Germany stepped up its submarine warfare destroying 870 000 tonnes of shipping in
April alone.

• Britain was left with food that would last only for six months.

• Britain used the new anti-submarine devices such as hydrophones, depth charges
and airplanes to spot submarines as well as armed escorts to protect merchant ships
to reduce the U-boat menace.

• America was assisted by the British and French navies to carry American troops to
Europe.
The effect of American entrance into the war.

• The start of 1918 provided a turning point in the war as American power was being
felt in Europe.
• Her industries manufactured weapons, ammunition and food for the allies.

• Fresh American troops assisted the exhausted French and British troops.

• The allies reorganized their forces under one high command.

• The Americans in Europe were placed under General Pershing.

• The British forces were under General Haig but all the forces were under General
Foch (of France).

• By September 1918 the Germans were retreating and they were never given a
chance to reorganize.
• The Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed in October and Germany was left to fight the
war alone as Italy had been revived and defeated Austria-Hungary in the south.
• The Germans fought hard but lacked manpower as compared to the allies with
increasing American forces.

• The Germans had no reply to the effective tanks that were operating against them.
• The attacks on Germany went according to plan and on November 9 the Kaiser
abdicated and went to Holland, a neutral country.

• Germany surrendered on November 11 1918 and the First World War came to an
end.
Reasons for Germany’s defeat.

• Germany fought the war on two main fronts. With the Russians on the Eastern Front
and the French and British on the western front which meant dividing her army into
two. She also had to assist Austria-Hungary to defeat Serbia and fight Italy on the
southern front which drastically increased the number of fronts. Had Germany’s army
been concentrated in one place, she might have won the war well before the
Americans joined it.
 • The two Sick Man of Europe: Turkey and Austria-Hungary became liabilities rather
than allies to Germany. The people in Austria showed little enthusiasm to fight for
their masters being more concerned with their own independence rather than the war
against the allies with whom they had no problem. Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia
and Yugoslavia caused the disintegration of Austria-Hungary leading to Germany’s
defeat. By 1914 Turkey had lost most of its European territory. The Arabian countries
of The Persian Gulf, Arabia, Palestine, Lebanon and Syria were assisted to gain their
independence by the British. Instead of fighting the allies Turkey spend most of its
time fighting with its own people.
• The control of the High Seas by the allies led to Germany’s eventual defeat. The
allies blocked Germany trade and deprived her of essential raw materials while they
retained their own access. The allies managed to get reinforcements from the
colonies while they blocked Germany from doing the same. Shortages of food began
in Germany, prices increased, and the Germans starved. On the other hand arms
and ammunition flowed from America giving the allies an advantage.

• Allied High command allowed the allies to place their troops under unified control in
order to provide them with a concentrated strategy under General Foch. Coordination
increased effectiveness and offense and defense were synchronized to ensure the
Germans never got time to recover.
• The major reason for Germany’s defeat was the entry of America into the war on the
side of the allies. Russia’s defeat and subsequent withdrawal had weakened the
allies but the US more than filled in the gap with her vast industrial power, an
increasingly powerful navy and fresh soldiers. By the time the war ended the U.S.
had over 2 million men deployed in Europe. America also lend her allies money to
buy essential materials for the war time needs. Weapons and money were sent on
credit. The merchant navies delivered essential supplies and grains were also sent to
her European allies. Her warships helped to escort merchant fleets across the
Atlantic.

Results of the First World War

Results of the war.

Political effects

• The collapse of four dynasties in Europe and their replacement by new governments. Turkey ( The
Ottoman Empire) collapsed and it was turned into several states. Austria-Hungary became two states
and the Hapsburg Empire collapsed and in the process Greece, Serbia, Poland and Romania gained full
independence. Germany’s Empire collapsed into the Weimer Republic and the Bolsheviks seized power
in Russia.

• Change from dictatorships took place in countries like Germany, Italy and Yugoslavia. These were later
replaced with other dictatorships for example Fascim in Germany and Italy.

• Change in balance of power as Russia, Japan and the USA became new world powers.

• Spread of nationalism outside Europe as it spread into India and Africa.

Social effects

• Loss of lives as nearly 17 million people died in the war.

• Breaking down of families as fathers and sons left their homes to go to war.

• War inflicted injuries with an estimated casualty of 30 million.

• Women gained the right to vote in elections after the war.

 • Homelessness as a lot of homes were destroyed during the war.

• he use of family planning techniques emerged after this period.

• Women became emancipated as they started to work in factories due to labour shortages.

• Orphans were left by parents who died in the war.

• There was hunger due to food shortages as agricultural and manufacturing production had been
destroyed by the war.
Economic effects

• War debts accumulated as European powers borrowed heavily to finance the war effort.

• High unemployment rates as agriculture and manufacturing were disrupted while many people returning
from the war needed employment.

• Infrastructure such as buildings, roads, ports and industries were destroyed.

• There was a decline n European economic dominance as the U.S, Japan and Asia took over African
markets.

• High taxation and inflation as taxes were increased to finance the war and also to pay back the war
debts.

• Food shortages resulted as industries and the agriculture sector had been re-purposed to cater for war
needs.

• Trade unions resulted with workers trying to fight the bad working conditions in the industry.

• Scientific developments to develop equipment for the war and also mass production of goods.

The Peace Treaties

The treaties of World War I

The following major treaties were signed at the end of the First World War.

• The treaty of Versailles. (Germany 1919)

• The treaty of Saint Germaine (Austria 1919) otherwise known as the treaty of Saint-
Germain-en-Laye.
• The treaty of Trianon (Hungary 1920)
• The Treaty of Sevres (Turkey 1920) replaced the treaty f Luasanne.
• The treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria)
The treaty of Bret-Litovsk was signed between Russia and Germany in 1918 to end Russia’s
participation in World War I.

Important figures/countries at the peace treaties.

• Woodrow Wilson (U.SA)

• Lloyd George (Britain)

• George Clemenceau (France)

 • Victor Orlando (Italy)
• Von Stressman (Germany)
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points.

• There should be no more secret treaties.

• There should be freedom of navigation of the high seas.

• Countries should encourage free trade.
• Armaments were to be reduced.

• The interests of the people living in colonies shall be taken into account whenever
determining the fate and countries’ claims on colonies.
• German troops should leave Russia.

• German troops should leave Belgium.

• Alsace and Lorraine should be returned to France.
• A readjustment of the borders of Italy should be made along clearly recognizable
lines of nationality.
• The people of Austria-Hungary should be given the opportunity to be independent
and sovereign.
• Serbia, Montenegro and Romania should be evacuated and their territories restored
and Serbia should be granted access to the sea.
• People of the Turkish empire who were not Turks should be given independence.
• An independent Poland should be created and given access to sea.

• An international organisation should be set up to protect the independence of all

states.
The main interests of the major representatives at the peace treaties

Georges Clemenceau

• He wanted to see Germany crippled economically, politically and militarily so that

Germany would no longer be a threat to France again.
• He saw this as an opportunity to revenge the humiliation France had suffered as a
result of the Franco-Prussian law.
Woodrow Wilson

• He wanted a more peaceful world.

• He suggested his 14 points be used as guiding principles by the peace makers at the
Paris Peace conference to achieve lasting peace.

• He did not want Germany to be treated harshly because he foresaw the problems of
such actions.
David Lloyd Geroge

• Please note that his surname was Lloyd-George and his first name David. Most
history textbooks make the mistake of mentioning his name as Lloyd.
• He wanted Germany to recover so she could trade with Britain.
• He agreed with Clemenceau that Germany should be punished but not the extreme
extent that Clemenceau wanted.
Victor Orlando (Italian name: Vittorio Emanuele Orlando)

• Often known by his anglicized name Victor in history textbooks. You can use this
name or his actual Italian name.

• He wanted land promised to Italy by the Allied Powers before he joined the war on
the side of the allied powers.
Problems encountered by the statesmen during the peace conference.

1. Lack of unity of purpose.

-The statesmen lacked unity as Wilson and Clemenceau were on extreme opposites and
Lloyd George acted as a voice of reason between the two.

2. Pressure from the people back home.

-The statesmen had to make decisions which met with the expectations of the people at
home for example Lloyd George had promised to deal harshly with Germany during the
1918 elections so he was compelled to fulfill the promise.

-The French wanted revenge against Germany and the venue in Paris exerted more
pressure on the conference since it was on their homeland resulting in an environment not
conducive to the peace talks.

3. The attitude of the United States of America.

-The Americans were not interested in European affairs so Woodrow Wilson was there
against the wishes of his people.

4. Chaotic Environment

-The general situation in Europe was tumultuous at the time the conference was being
conducted.

5. Fear of Communism

-The statesmen feared that communism which had started in Russia, would spread to other
nations in Europe so they wanted to quickly make pace before communism spread in
Europe.

The peace treaties.

The Treaty of Versailles (Germany 1919)

• It was singed by Germany in 1919 after six months of negotiation at the Paris Peace
Conference.
• The terms of the treaty of Versailles are divided into the territorial and non territorial
terms.
Territorial terms

• Alsace and Lorraine were to be handed back to France.

• The Rhineland was to be demilitarized and to be occupied by allied troops.

• The Saar basin was to be administered by the League of nations commission for 15
years.
• Poland was to receive Upper Silesia and Possen.
• Poland was to become independent.

• Poland was to get Polish Corridor giving her access to the sea.
• Part of Danzig was placed under the League of Nations as a free city.
• Eupen, Morenset and Malmedy were to be taken by Belgium.

• North Schleswig was to be given back to Denmark.

• Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland were to be independent.
• Memel was given to Lithuania.
• The union between Austria and Germany was forbidden

• The Carolyn Islands (sometimes spelt Caroline Islands), were to be transferred to

Japan while Cameroon and Togoland were to be given to France.
• Samoa went to New Zealand.

• Germany lost most her territories in Europe and all her overseas colonies.
Non teritorial provisions

• The disarmament clause-Germany was to reduce her army to 100 000 men, with
no conscription, no heavy artillery and no poison gas.and to reduce her battleships to
6 light cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and no submarines. The navy was
limited to 15 000 men. Germany was also to disband its air force.
• The war guilt clause-Germany was made to accept that she was responsible for
causing the outbreak of the First World War and the resulting destruction of
European infrastructural destruction and loss of life.

• Germany was supposed to pay £6 600 million to the allies for the losses and
damages incurred during the course of the war.
Fairness of this treaty

• Germany had done the same thing to the Russians after the Russians had conceded
defeat at the treaty of Bret-Litosvk and which might be taken as proof that had
 Germany won the war she would have extracted the same concessions from the
allied powers.
• Germany gave unconditional support to Austria-Hungary which encouraged the later
to act aggressively to other countries contributing to the outbreak of the war.

• Germany was partly responsible for bringing about the outbreak of the war: she had
a war plan (the Schlieffen Plan), participated aggressively in an arms race and naval
race with Britain signifying that she wanted war.

• Germany’s aggressive actions such as the First and Second Moroccan crisis spurred
other powers to form alliances against her.
• Germany can be blamed for declaring war on Russia and attacking Belgium on her
way to attack France.
• Germany’s harsh treatment of France in The Treaty of Frankfurt were turned around
on her in this treaty.
Unfairness of the treaty.

• Germany was not represented at the peace conference yet she was asked to accept
and sign the treaty so the terms were dictated to her.
• Nationality was not considered when Germany lost her territories which had German
nationals.
• The amount of reparations imposed on Germany was impractical and un-affordable
and resulted in the complete collapse of the Germany economy a fact Hitler seized
upon to rise into power.
• Germany was not the only country that caused the war: Britain, Russia, France,
Austria-Hungary, Serbia among other countries all played their part.
• The unification of Germany and Italy created large states which led to competition
and aggression between European states thus leading to war.

• The Berlin conference of 1878 which divided European territory also contributed to
the outbreak of the war.
• Germany was unfairly forbidden from joining with Austria.

• Germany was forced to reduce her army to about 1/3 of its original size leaving her
feeling vulnerable.
• The seizure of her colonies was a clear act of sharing the spoils of war rather than an
act of justice.
The treaty of Saint Germain (Austria 1919)

Territorial terms

• Hungary became independent of Austria.

• A new state of Czechoslovakia was created from the Austro-Hungary empire.
• Galicia was given to Poland.

• Bukovina was given to Romania

• Istria and Tyrol were given to Italy.
 • Austria lost about 4 million Germans to her neighbors.

• Dalmatia and Carniola were ceded to Yugoslavia

• Her total area was reduced from about 300 000 square kilometers to about 78 000
square kilometers.
Non territorial provisions

• Autocracy was banned and Austria became a republic.

• The Austrian army was reduced to 30 000 volunteer men with no navy.
• She was to pay reparations of a “large some of money” but the amount was never
set because the country went bankrupt before the amount could be determined.
• Austria was also forced to accept causing World War I
• An alliance with Germany was forbidden.
Fairness of the treaty

• As with Germany Austria had played a big role in bringing about the outbreak of
World War I for example the invasion of Serbia over the death of just one man!
• However she was not the only party responsible as Germany, Britain, Russia, France
and Serbia played their own parts.

• She was not represented at the conference but she was just forced to sign.

The treaty of Trianon (Hungary 1920)

Territorial provisions

• Slovakia and part of Lithuania were given to Czechoslovakia.

• Bosnia and Croatia were also given to Czechoslovakia.
• 3 million Magyars were placed under foreign rule.

• Transylvania was given to Romania.

• Burgenland was given to Austria.
Non territorial provisions

• She lost about two thirds of her territory and populations from about 20 million to 8
million.
• Her army was reduced to 35 000 volunteer men and 3 patrol boats.
• She was to pay reparations of 200 million gold crowns to the allies as she was found
guilty of causing the war.
• She was forbidden to unite with Austria.
Fairness and unfairness of the treaty
 • Hungary’s aggressive behavior was partly responsible for the outbreak of the war.
• As with the other treaties Hungary was not solely responsible for causing the war.

• Nationality was not considered when giving out her territories to other countries.
• She lost access to the sea.
• “Tolls” made railway transport for Hungary expensive.

• She lost her most important financial institutions with the loss in territory.
The treaty of Sevres (Turkey 1920)

Territorial provisions

• Syrian and Lebanon were given to France.

• Iran and Transjordan were taken by Britain.
• Arabia gained Independence.

• Eastern Thrace went to Greece.

• Cyprus went to Britain.In
Non territorial provisions

• The army was limited to 50 000 soldiers, seven sail boats and six torpedo boats.
• They were forbidden to have an air force

• There were no reparations to be paid.

• The allies had the right to reform the electoral system of the Ottoman empire.
The treaty of Laussane later replaced the treaty of Sevres

• Turkey regained some of her territory at the expense of Greece.

• River Mamsta was declared to be a frontier between Greece and Turkey.

• Eastern Thrace was returned to Turkey.

• Italy kept Docleconese Islands and Britain’s ownership of Cyprus was affirmed.
• A customs union for former Turkish people was created and taxes were abolished.
• Arrangements were made to send all Greeks in Turkey and all Turks in Greece to
their respective countries.
Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria 1919)

Territorial terms

• Bulgaria lost her territories along east-western boundary to Yugoslavia.

• She lost access to the Auegean sea to Greece.
Non-territorial provisions

• Her army was reduced to 20 000 volunteers, four torpedo boats and no air force.
• She was to pay reparations of 2.25 billion francs.
N.B All the terms of these treaties were harsh, vindictive and dictated to the defeated central
powers and their allies
Origins and Formation of the League

• The League of Nations (LON) was set up in Geneva the capital of Switzerland.
• It was the brainchild of Woodrow Wilson’s 14th point.
• It was an association of countries which were brought together by their common
ideas to maintain peace in the world.
• However, some important nations did not join the league when it was formed
although it was an international organisation for example Germany was not allowed
to join the league until 1926 because she had been deemed to be guilty of causing
the First World War.

• Germany later left the league in 1933 when the armament exercise was initiated.
• The USA never joined the league in line with their aversion and fear of being
entangled in European affairs.
Aims of the League

• To maintain peace and security through out the world

• To reduce armaments to the lowest level.
• To prevent secret diplomacy in treaties or alliances a thing that had caused The First
World War.
• To control drug trafficking.
• To give financial support to countries in need.
• To promote general labor interest.

• To supervise the administration of mandated territories like Danzig.

• To safeguard the welfare of minorities and refugees.
Organisation of the League

1. The General Assembly

• Was the main body made up of representatives from member states.

Functions

• Was the debating chamber of the league and each member had one vote.

• It met annually and discussed issues affecting world peace.

 • It handled the finances of the league and drafted the budget.
• It elected the non-permanent members of the council (see below).
• It decided on general policies of the league.

• It admitted new members of the league.

• It was supposed to raise an army for the league when needed.
2. The council

• It was a much smaller body which met more often, at least 3 times a year.

• It had 5 permanent members i.e. Britain, Fance, USA, Italy and Japan. ( Do not
confuse this with the members of the Security Council. The USA never joined the
League)

• There were 3 non-permanent members which were elected by the General Assembly
and had a 3 year tenure.
Functions of The Council

• It passed decisions on matters referred to it by the General Assembly

• It decided on punishments for members found guilty of threatening peace for

example imposing sanctions, take military action.
• It submitted recommendations to the General Assembly.
3. The Secretariat

• It was headed by the Secretary General.

• Worked at the headquarters of the League.
Functions of the Secretariat

• It looked after the paper work of the league.

• kept minutes of meetings of the proceedings of the league’s various sectors.

• It implemented decisions of the League.

• It carried out day to day chores of the League, for example the preparations of
agenda.
4. The Court of International Justice

• It was based in The Hague in the Netherlands.

• It was made up of 15 judges from different countries.
Functions of the ICJ

• Dealt with legal disputes amongst nations.

• It interpreted treaties.
 • It advised the Council and the General Assembly on any matters brought to it.
5. International Labour Organisation

• Dealt with matters involving employment relations on a global scale.

• Met once a year.
• Members states sent 4 representatives ( 2 government officials, 1 worker
representative and 1 employer representative)
Functions of the ILO

• To improve working conditions by doing things such as fixing working hours, setting
minimum wages, leave days, employment and unemployment benefits,
compensation and old age pensions.
6. Special Committees.

• Refugee commision-which was responsible for monitoring the welfare of refugees.

• Minorities commission- which was responsible for taking care of interests of small
ethnic groups.
• Health committee-carried out Research and Development in health and monitored
diseases.
• Mandates commission-oversaw the administration of the mandates.
Successes and Failures of the League

Successes

• The ILO improved worker’s working conditions for example working hours, leave days etc

• The health commission performed invaluable work during pandemics that beset the world after the First
World War most famously the influenza pandemic.

• The League provided much needed help to needy states (the League rescued Austria from a financial
crisis in 1924) and carried out essential famine relief work

• It carried out resettlement and helped refugees for example Jews fleeing from Hitler, Greek refugees
and some Russians fleeing from the often bloody Bolshevik revolution.

• Major powers managed to sign treaties guaranteeing the right for minorities to practice their own
cultures and religions and use their own language.

• Established international control over dangerous drugs for example opium.

• It succeeded in abolishing all forms of slavery

• From 1920 up to 1929 the League was largely successful in solving disputes among states for example
the dispute between Finland and Sweden.

• In 1920 it solved the border conflict between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia.

• In 1921 it solved the conflict between Albania and Yugoslavia.

• In 1925 it solved the dispute between Bulgaria and Greece.

• In 1926 it solved the Mosul conflict between Turkey and Iraq and Mosul was given to Iraq.
Failures
 • In 1920 the League failed to stop the Russo-Polish war.

• in 1920 it failed to stop the Polish-Lithuanian war.

• In 1923 it failed to solve the border dispute between Albania and Greece over Corfu Island

• In 1931 it failed to stop Lithuania over the annexing of Memel.

• In 1931 it failed to stop Japan from seizing the Chinese province of Manchuria (called Manchukuo in
Japanese)

• It failed to stop Italy from invading Abbyssinia.

• It failed to stop Germany from invading Austria in 1938

• It failed Germany from invading part of Czechoslovakia in 1938 and the remainder in 1939

• It failed to stop Germany from invading Poland in 1939

• It failed to stop the outbreak of World War 22

Weakenesses of the League and reasons for some of its failures

• It had no standing army so it was powerless to intervene in cases where powerful nations were
aggressors (which was often the case) for example Germany’s invasions of Austria, Czechoslovakia and
Poland.

• The absense of major powers such as the USA meant that it lacked the proper political clout to carry out
global policing duties.

• It could not force nations to disarm as it had no means to do so.

• The League was linked with the treaty of Versailles which led some of the nations (especially the
defeated powers like Germany who had been forced to accept harsh terms) to view it as a club of
conquerors bent on imposing their will on everyone else.

• The desire to establish unanimous decisions limited the League’s operations.

• The General Assembly’s timetable of meeting once a year gave it little time to discuss all the complex
issues affecting the world.

• Britain and France lacked the will and power to make the League an effective organisation.

• Britain and France often disagreed on how to run the League

• Member states pursued their own selfish ends to the detriment of greater good.

Benito Mussolini

Post war Italy was chaotic and plagued by a lot of problems creating a fertile hotbed for the rise of Fascism and
dictatorship under Benito Mussolini and his Black Shirts.

Post War problems

Economic Problems

• High unemployment rate, inflation ( hyperinflation), high prices of goods, low wages, high cost of living,
food shortages, low industrial output, war debts and land seizures by ex-soldiers.
Social Problems

• Poverty, hunger, diseases and death, industrial actions like strikes, lawlessness including robbery and
banditry, looting and property seizure, overpopulation, prostitution, homelessness and poor health
facilities.
Political problems
 • Political instability as a result of too many political parties, political violence. weak governments,
inefficient and corrupt civil servants, disappointment by the peace treaties, conflict between church and
state and fear of communism and socialism especially by the capitalists.
The rise of Mussolini and the Fascists party.

• Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 at Dovia and his mother was a school teacher.

• He was once a socialist journalist, teacher and a soldier.

• When Italy joined the First World War in 1925 Mussolini became a soldier.

• After the war in June 1919 Mussolini formed the Fascist party at a meeting held in Milan.

• The word Fascist was derived from the word fasces (a bundle of wooden sticks or an axe) carried by
magistrates in the old Roman (Italian) Empire.

• This was a symbol of authority and power.

• The party’s name had links to the idea of force

• Soon after the First World War, Mussolini supported factory seizures by workers so he was hated by
capitalists and property owners.

• Later on he opposed the seizure of property and land by workers and peasants thus gaining the support
of property owners.

• The Fascists militia (The Voluntary Militia for National Security) put on black shirts and were thus
referred to as the “Black shirts.”

• In May 1921 the Fascists won 34 seats on parliament.

• The Fascists used violent campaigns and in August 1922 they won more support when they crashed the
general strike which had been organised by the Socialists.
The methods used by the Fascists to gain support.

• The use of force-They used violence to kill off prominent opposition members.

• Intimidation-those with debts were threatened with harsher and exotic punishments and some where
forced to drink castor oil or eat live frogs.

• Political rhetoric was used in speeches were Benito promised solutions to Italy’s problems.
The march to Rome.

• In October of 1922 Mussolini demanded that power should be given to him or he will seize it.

• The Fascists began to plan a march on Rome after the government failed to respond to their demands.

• On October 27 about 5 000 well armed Black Shirts prepared their march on Rome.

• The Prime Minister resigned after Victor Emmanuel refused to declare a state of emergency.
How Mussolini established total control in Italy between 1922 and 1930

Benito Mussolini took several steps to establish and consolidate his power in Italy.

• In 1923 he passed the Acerbo law which stipulated that a party which had the majority votes in national
elections should be given 2/3 of the seats in parliament.

• In 1924 the Fascists party used violence and intimidation such as beating up and killing opponents to
win elections.

• In 1925 he introduced press censorship and anti-Fascists newspapers and magazines were banned and
the party controlled the media. Editors were replaced by Fascist supporters.

• Education in schools and universities was closely monitored.

 • Teachers had to wear uniforms and new textbooks were written to glorify the Fascists system.

• In 1926 local government elections in towns and cities were banned and members were elected by
National Party representatives.

• Persistant opponents of the regime were either exiled or murdered for example Glacemo Mathias and
Giovanni Amendola were put to death by Fascist thugs. Another socialist leader Matteoti was killed.

• Although parliament still met by 1926 all important decisions were taken up by the Fascist Grand
Council which always did as Mussolini told them.

• Mussolini adopted the title Il Duce and the slogan “Mussolini is always right.”

• Children were encouraged to criticize teachers who did not show enthusiasm for the party.

• Children and young people were forced to join the government Youth organization which indoctrinated
them with fascist ideas and glories of war.

• Trade unions were controlled through the corporate state.

• Strikes and lockouts were banned.

• Mussolini also had a state police called OVRA.

• To compensate for their loss of freedom workers were assured of may benefits like free Sundays,
annual holidays with pay, social security, sports and theater facilities, cheap tours and holidays.

• A new electoral law was passed in which the Fascist Grand Council chose and provided the electorate
with a list of names to vote for.
Main features of Fascist Dictatorship

• Anti-democratic tendencies.

• Propaganda

• Self sufficiency.

• Totalitarianism.

• Extreme nationalism.

• Emphasis rather than an individual.

• Anti-communism.

• Supremacy of state.

• National unity.

• One party state.

• Racism and autocratic tendencies.

One of Mussolini’s major aim was economic self-sufficiency with policies like the battle for grain, the battle for
babies and the battle of the LIRA.

Battle of Grain

• Mussolini encourage wheat production.

• Some vine yards and olive yards were turned into wheat fields.

• Useless land was reclaimed and the Pontine Marshes were drained and land put to wheat production.
Battle of Babies/Births

• Mussolini encourage large families and babies were valued as the nation’s future manpower.
 • Bachelors were heavily taxed and parents of large families rewarded.

• Contraceptives were also banned and couples with 6 or more children were exempt from taxation.
Battle of the LIRA

• Mussolini revalued the Lira and attempted to strengthen it by controlling wages and inflation but the
revaluation had adverse effects especially on exports as Italian goods became expensive on the world
markets.

• As a result orders of Italian goods decreased, many industries operated for only 3 days a week, the
number of tourists declined and wages were reduced by 10%-20%.
Public works

• Mussolini reduced unemployement by embarking on public works such as roads, railways, canals,
draining marshes, constructing buildings such as flats, schools and hospitals.

• In 1926 trade unions were banned and replaced by organized worker’s and employer’s cooperations.

• In 1929 Mussolini signed the Lateran treaty (Lateran Accords) with the Pope which ended hostility
between the Church and the Sate.
Details of the Treaty

• The Church was to be exempt from tax.

• Catholicism was recognized as the official religion of the state.

• Religious education was placed under the Church.

• In return the Church recognized Mussolini’s rule of Italy.

Other policies brought about under Mussolini’s dictatorship

• New industries were built under the government’s Industrial Reconstruction Program.

• The government also funded big industries for example car manufacturing, iron and steel and
production, ship building and fertilizer production.

• Education in schools and universities was controlled by the state.

• Textbooks were rewritten and teachers were to wear uniforms to work.

• Children could report teachers to the party.

• In August 1926 all children were conscripted into the Youth brigades which involved quasi-military
training and taught Il Duce was always right. (indoctrination)

• The Fascist party also controlled sports like tennis and soccer.

• The party controlled the Olympic Games committee.

• When the depression hit Italy in 1933 Mussolini enlarged the army in a bid to reduce unemployment.
Benefits of Mussolini’s domestic Policy

• Employment creation through the public works and other employment schemes in the army and in
industries.

• Transport and communications were improved through the construction of roads and railway lines.

• Mussolini was able to restore order in Italy preventing things like the seizure of property and the
destructive strikes.

• Hydro-power was developed.

• Pensions schemes, social security and compensation for workers were introduced.
 • Schools were constructed and education was made compulsory.

• There was peace and unity between the Church and State following the Lateran Accords.

• Inflation declined.

• Promotion of health, for example malaria cases declined significantly.

• The battle of grain increased grain production cutting the wheat imports on which Italy had hitherto
depended.

• Mussolini provided security to the industries, middle class and land owners by banning socialist and
communist parties.
Negative effects of Mussolini’s domestic policies.

• People lost their freedom of expression because of censorship.

• There was lack of individual freedom.

• Not all Italians were employed.

• Loss of lives as those who opposed Fascim got killed or exiled.

• Early marriages took place as bachelors feared the high taxes exacted on them.

• It made children disrespect their parents and teachers by placing high priority on the Fascist
government.

• Overpopulation resulted from the Battle of Babies.

Mussolini’s Foreign policy.

Foreign expansion

• As things got difficult at home Mussolini started embarking on foreign adventures.

• He praised glories of war and promised the recreation of the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean.

• He undermined the League of Nations by attacking Abyssinia a fellow member of the League.

• The attack was in fulfillment of Mussolini’s declaration of an overseas campaign by Italy.

• The policy was aimed at reducing poverty, unemployment and encouraging emigration.

• The invasion of Abyssinia was also aimed at avenging a humiliating defeat suffered by Italy at
Adowa( Adwa) in 1896.

• Mussolini was emboldened by the fact that France and Britain were anxious for his support thus would
not take any action against her.
Alliances and Friendship

• He signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Adolf Hitler, an alliance that enabled them to work together in the
future.

• The alliance was in contravention of the Versailles treaty and undermined the League of Nations.

• The Rome Berlin Axis expanded to included Japan in 1939 thus resulting in the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis.

• The alliance was termed as an Anti-Comintern pact against communism.

• The alliance was stronger than Britain and France’s alliance under the auspices of the League of
Nations.

• In addition Mussolini joined Hitler in the support of General Franco to fight the Spanish government.

• During the Spanish Civil war Italian submarines sank vessels trading with the Spanish Republic