67

CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

4.1 GENERAL

Methods and models developed in the present study are briefly

discussed in the following three sections. Stochastic Dynamic

Programming Model (SDPM ) is applied to Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy

Sagar, Srisailam Project on River Krishna, Andhra Pradesh to

determine optimal operating rules and the effect on the system

performance of each of the operating policies developed is studied

through simulation. The evaluation of crop water requirement for the

command area of SLBC is done based on the Food and Agricultural

Organization (FAO) methodologies of crop water use and crop water

productivity. Main components of the SLBC design are based on the

IS code procedures.

4.2 STOCHASTIC DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING MODEL ( SDPM )

The Stochastic Dynamic Programming Model used in this study

is similar to the one described by Loucks et al., ( 1981) and

Chandramouli and Umamahesh (2003). Variables involved in the

decision process, such as the reservoir storage, inflow, and release are

discretized into a finite number of class intervals. A class interval for

a variable has a representative value, generally taken as its midpoint.

The reservoir storage at the beginning of period t and inflow during

the period t are treated as state variables.

 68

Let Qt represent the inflow into the reservoir during any time

period t. This continuous variable Qt can be descritised into several

class intervals. Any value within the range of a class interval can be

represented by a single value. Let "i" be the index to represent the

class interval for inflow during the time period t . Thus Qit is the

representative flow of i th class interval in the time period t . Similarly

" j" be the index for representing the class interval in the time period

t  1 and Q jt 1 be the representative inflow of the class interval.

Similarly the other state variable, reservoir storage at the beginning of

the time period t is S t can be descritised. Let the indices "k " and "l"

represent the class intervals for the storage at the beginning of time

period t and t  1 respectively.

Given the initial storage volume S kt , the inflows Qit , evaporation

E t and final storage volumes S lt 1 of period t , the release Rkilt is

determined by the continuity equation.

Rkilt  S kt  Qit  S lt 1  Et

The objective function is to minimize the expected sum of

squared deviations from the target storage and target release. The

model uses backward recursion starting from a year sufficiently

distinct in future to derive at a steady state to minimize the expected

value B , a measure of the system performance. The system

performance B is a function of reservoir release, Rkilt during the time

period t . The details of this function are discussed. Assuming that

 69

the values of B for a given k , i, l and t are known, the objective

function of the SDPM can be written as

Minimize EB(k , i, l , t ) for all k , i and t

 feasiblel
Where E[ ] denotes expected value over all periods of the

function contained in brackets.

To minimize the expected benefits Loucks et al.,( 1981) and

Chandra mouli & Umamahesh (2003) proposed and used the following

objective function.


Minimize E W1 Rt  TRt   W2 S t  TS t 
2 2

i.e., to minimize the expected sum of the weighted squared

deficit and excess deviations from a target release and target storages

in each time period t . Where TR t and TS t are the target release and

target storages in period t . Rt and S t are release and storage in period

t . The weight factor for release ( W1 ) equal to 0.7 and the weight factor

for storage ( W 2 ) equal to 0.3 are fixed by IWS (1994), after considering

the reservoir as a multi purpose reservoir. Since this is the rule for

the dam authorities, it is practically constant and is not subjected to

any change. Thus any sensitivity analysis on these values is not

useful to the dam authorities.

The optimal releases are related to only two state variables

namely, the reservoir storage S t at the beginning time period t and

the inflow Qt during the period t . To begin the development of the

recursive backward moving dynamic programming algorithm (Bellman

 70

(1957)), assume that reservoir operation ends at the end of season

t  T in some year in future. Define f t n as the total expected value of

the system performance with n periods to go, including the current

period t , given that in period t the initial storage volume and inflow

are S kt and Qit respectively.

Let the terminal period t be T . In this case, the minimum

squared deviation F k , i  associated with each possible initial state
T
1

vector k and i , with only one period remaining to go is

FT1 k , i   MinBkilT 
l
And once this is solved for each k and i in the period t  T , the next
recursive equation for the expected sum of the squared deviations
with two periods remaining before the end of reservoir operation is
 
FT21 k , i   Min  BkilT 1   PijT 1 * FT1 l , j 
 j 
l
Where Pi T, j1 is the probability of inflow Q jt in period T , where the

inflow in period T  1 equals Q jT 1 . The general backward recursive

equation for this model can be written as

 
 
Ft n (k , i )  Min  W1 Rt  TRT   W2 S t  TS T    Pijt * Ft n11 l , j 
2 2

j 

 feasiblel
Above equation is solved recursively, until a steady state

solution is reached, defining the optimal policy l * k , i, t  for all values

of k , i and t . The steady state is reached when the expected annual

system performance, [ f t nT k , i   f t n k , i ] remains constant for all values

of k , i and t . SDP model flow chart is shown in Fig.4.1.

 71

Start

Read no. of time periods, no. of inflow states, no. of storage

states, capacity of the reservoir, minimum release,
maximum release, target releases in each time period, target
storages in each time period, representative inflows for all
inflow states in each time period, representative storages for
all storage States in each time period, transitional
probabilities, total demands, irrigation demands, power
demands in each time period, evaporation losses in each
time period

Program uses backward recursive equation

First stage = Last period

Calculate releases Rkilt  S kt  Qit  S lt 1  Et

Compute benefit for all feasible states


Minimize E W1 Rt  TRt   W2 S t  TS t 
2 2


Perform recursion
 
 2 2 
Ft n (k , i )  Min  W1 Rt  TRT   W2 S t  TS 2    Pijt * Ft n11 l , j 
No  j 
 feasiblel

Yes
next cycle
Optimize benefit for remaining stages

Repeat, starting at last period

and proceeding towards first

No Converge
criteria
satisfied

Yes

Summary table of decision for all sets

of conditions (storage and inflow
classes in each stage)

Stop

Fig. 4.1 Flowchart for SDP model Formatted: Font: Bookman Old Style,
11 pt
 72

4.2.1 Methodology for Simulation

Simulation is the modeling technique that is used to

approximate the behavior of the system. In the present study

simulation is used jointly with Stochastic Dynamic Programming

Model to evaluate the system performance. Flowchart for simulation

is shown in Fig. 4.2.

For the given initial storage and inflow, the optimal final storage

from the operating policy has been developed. In the present study,

the operating policy is from Stochastic Dynamic Programming.

By knowing the initial storage, inflow and final storage, the

release in that time period will be calculated using the continuity

equation as below.

Rkilt  S kt  Qit  S lt 1  Et

For the next time period, the final storage in this time period will be

the initial storage and the rest of the procedure will be repeated for all

years of the data.

From the releases obtained through simulation, the reliability

and resilience of the system will be computed. When an optimal

reservoir operation policy is derived based on objective function, the

policy itself does not indicate how the system would actually perform.

To have an insight into the behaviour of the system under a given

operating policy, it is necessary to simulate the reservoir operation for

a set of likely sequences of inflows.

 73
Start

Define years

Read generated inflow data, optimal data from SDP,

demands in each time period, representative storages in
each time period, Representative inflows in each time
period evaporation losses in each time period

Enter any value of storage

Search for storage state k for the

entered value of storage

Attach the representative inflows for

each time period

Search for the inflow state i for the

generated inflow data

Search for the final storage state l from

the optimal SDP data

Calculate of release for the given storage and inflow

based on optimal operating policy from SDP
Release Rkilt  S kt  Qit  S lt 1  Et

Check the total releases, power

releases and irrigation releases
according to demand

Storage state k = Storage state l

Repeat for defined years Formatted: Font: Bookman Old Style,

11 pt
Summary table: year, season, inflow,
release, power release, irrigation release

Stop

Fig. 4.2. Flowchart for simulation Formatted: Font: Bookman Old Style,
11 pt
 74

In order to obtain the representative statistical characteristics of

the system performance, simulation is carried out with monthly

sequence of inflow. Reliability, Resilience levels obtained for different

objectives are used as indicators to evaluate the performance of the

reservoir under a given operating policy.

The system reliability (r1 ) under a given operating policy is the

probability that the system output is satisfactory (Hashimoto et al.,

1982). The system output in this study is considered as satisfactory

in given period t , if the water available for irrigation or hydro power is

at least equal to the total irrigation or hydro power requirements in

that period. In the present study, the reliability (r1 ) is calculated as

Number of seasons the release is satisfactory

r1 
Total number of seasons the reservoir is simulated

The resilience (a) gives the likelihood of the system recovery

from a failure, once a failure occurs. Mathematically the resilience of a

system is defined as the inverse of the expected value of the length of

time that the system output remains unsatisfactory after a failure.

Hashimoto et al., 1982. In the present study the resilience (a) is

calculated as

 R is satisfactory 
a  P t 1 
 Rt is unsatisfactory 

Where R t is the release made from the reservoir in time period t .

Expressed in words, resilience is given by the probability that the

 75

system output in time period t  1 is satisfactory, given that it is

unsatisfactory in time period t .

4.3 FAO METHODOLOGIES ON CROP WATER USE AND CROP

WATER PRODUCTIVITY

The Food and Agricultural Organization FAO  and Land and

Water Development Division has played an active role during the past

three decades in developing and promoting guidelines and

methodologies on crop water management at the field level that have

become as widely-used standards. This particularly applies to the

methodologies for the calculation of crop water requirements and crop

water productivity in irrigated and rain fed agriculture. These

methodologies include guidelines on Crop Water Requirements by

Doorenbos and Pruitt (1973) published as Irrigation and Drainage

(I&D) Paper No. 24 and on Yield Response to Water by Doorenbos and

Kassam (1979) as I&D paper No. 33.

Updating the procedures for estimating Crop Water

Requirements CWR  was undertaken by an expert committee meeting

at Rome held in 1990. New procedures were elaborated including a

revised method for estimating reference evapotranspiration ET0  and

crop evapotranspiration ETc  , published in 1998 as I&D paper No. 56

by Allen et al., 1998 .

Crop water management, applications for planning and

management in irrigated and rain fed conditions were further

 76

facilitated by the development of computerized procedures in

CROPWAT, published as I&D paper No. 46 by smith (1992)

Food and Agricultural Organization FAO  methodologies are

used for the computation of crop water requirements, crop water

productivity under adequate/deficit water supply and for irrigation

requirements/scheduling.

4.3.1 CROPWAT: I&D paper Nos. 46 and 49

CROPWAT is a water balance based computer programme to

estimate crop water requirements (CWR) and irrigation water

requirements (IWR) from climatic and crop data. The programme also

allows the development of irrigation schedules for different

management conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply

for varying cropping patterns.

The procedures for the estimation of crop water requirements

(CWR) and irrigation water requirements (IWR) are based on

methodologies presented in I&D paper Nos. 56 and 33. The

programme is meant as a practical tool to help carryout standard

calculations for design and management of irrigation schemes, and for

improving irrigation practices and the planning of irrigation schedules

under varying water supply conditions. Water balance procedures also

allow an assessment of effective rainfall and an evaluation of rain fed

production through calculated yield decreases through water balance

procedures. Water balance procedure CROPWAT model is applied to

crop & cropping pattern of SLBC command area and flow chart is

shown in Fig. 4.3.

 77

4.3.1.1 Guidelines on Crop water Requirements: I&D paper No. 24

I&D paper No. 24 on Crop Water Requirements was first

published in 1973 and subsequently revised in 1977. It became an

international standard for calculating crop water requirements,

extensively used by irrigation engineers, agronomists, hydrologists,

economists and environmentalists.

The estimation of crop water requirements (CWR) were derived

from estimating crop evapotranspiration ETc  according to

standardized crop and climatic conditions. A range of empirical

methods was developed to estimate potential crop

evapotranspiration ETc  from readily available climatic parameters.

The crop water requirements (CWR) of a given crop were derived

through a crop coefficient K c  that integrates the combined effects of

crop transpiration and soil evaporation into a single crop coefficient,

according to the following relationship:

ETc  K c * ET0

Where: ET0 is reference crop evapotranspiration

K c is crop coefficient

ET c is the crop evapotranspiration

Reference evapotranspiration ( ET0 ) is defined as ―the rate of

evapotranspiration from a hypothetical reference crop with an

assumed crop height of 0.12m, a fixed surface resistance of 70 secm -1

and an albedo of 0.23, closely resembling the evapotransporation from

an extensive surface of green grass of uniform height, actively

 78

growing, well-watered, and completely shading the ground‖. In the

reference evapotransporation definition, the grass is specifically

defined as the reference crop and this crop is assumed to be free of

water stress and diseases. In the literature, the terms ―reference

evapotranspiration‖ have been used interchangeably and they both

represent the same evapotranspiration rate from a short, green grass

surface.

I&D paper No. 24 provided four methods for computing

evapotranspiration ET0 , according the availability of climatic data, as

well as procedures to determine K c for different crops and growth

stages, as briefly reviewed below.

The procedures for estimation of ET c through K c and ET0 over

the growing season, as introduced in I&D No. 24, became the

standard which was widely followed. Crop Evapotranspiration ETc  is

determined by the typical crop morphological and physiological

characteristics and increases over the growing season with the growth

of the canopy surface.

The ground surface soil evaporation decreases gradually as the

crop grows, due to increase of shaded crop canopy. The combined

effect of crop transpiration and soil evaporation are integrated into a

single crop coefficient K c incorporating crop characteristics and

average effects of evaporation from the soil. Daily soil evaporation

values show wide variations as the wet soils after rain or irrigation will

show high evaporation rates, decreasing rapidly with the drying of the
 79

soil surface. Average values for the crop coefficients is enough for

development of irrigation schedules, irrigation planning and

management purposes and for hydrologic water balance studies.

The calculation procedure included in I&D paper No. 24 for ET c

consists of:

1. Identification of crop growth stages, determination of their

lengths, and selection of the corresponding K c coefficients;

2. Adjusting the selected K c coefficients for frequency of wetting or

climatic conditions during the stage;

3. Plotting the crop coefficient curve (allowing one to determine K c

values for any period during the growing period); and

4. Calculating ET c as the product of ET0 and K c

I&D Paper No. 24 provide a standardised range of crop coefficients

for a large number of crops.

4.3.1.2 Revised Guidelines on Crop Evapotranspiration: I&D paper

No 56

In 1990 (Rome), an expert committee examined the options to

revise the procedures introduced in ID paper no. 24. The need for

revision of I&D paper No. 24 is to attain more accurate procedures in

determining crop water requirement (CWR).

The study by Jensen et al., 1990 comparing a range of 20

different ET0 estimation methods demonstrated clearly the superior

performance of the procedures introduced by Monteith 1965 in the

Penman equation.
 80

By introducing the aerodynamic and canopy resistance in the

Penman-Monteith combination method, a better simulation of wind

and turbulence effects and of the stomatal behaviour of the crop

canopy was achieved (Monteith 1965).

4.3.1.3 Yield Response to Water: I&D paper No. 33

The consumption of soil water by the crop to meet evaporative

demand, results in reduced water content in the soil. When full crop

water requirement is not met, water deficit in the plant can develop to

a point when stomatal closure would occur to reduce further water

loss and water stress and if soil and plant water content is not

restored by either rain water or irrigation, the closure of the stomata

results equivalent reduction in the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ),

photosynthesis and biomass production. Plant water deficits can

therefore develop into reduced crop growth, and crop development and

yields may be affected depending on the extent of the water deficit and

the impact on vital phonological and growth processes. Crop water

deficit affects development, growth and yield varies with crop and crop

type, and crop growth stage.

The evaluation of crop water deficit on yield published in the

Food and Agricultural organization (FAO 1979) in which a linear crop-

water production functions was introduced to predict the reduction of

crop yield when crop stress was caused by a shortage of soil water

according to the following relationship:

Ya  ET 
1  K y 1  a 
Ym  ETc 
 81

Where: K y - Yield response factor

ETa - Actual evapotranspiration

ET c - Crop evapotranspiration for standard conditions (no water

stress) (maximum evapotranspiration ETm in I&D paper No. 33)

Ya - Actual crop yield

Ym - Maximum expected crop yield under no biotic stress.

K y is a factor that represents the reduction of relative yield

according to the reduction in ET c caused by soil water shortage. Ky

value depends on the crop and vary over the growing season according

to growth stage.
 82

Start

Input irrigation
Management basic data

Crop Meteorological Soil

1. Growth dates 1. Temperature 1. Soil texture
2. Crop coefficient 2. Wind speed 2. Initial soil moisture
3. Root zone 3. Sunshine hours 3. Infiltration rate
4. Crop yield coefficient 4. Relative humidity 4. Available soil moisture
5. Rainfall

1. Calculate reference evapotranspiration

( ET0 ) : Penman Monteith method
2. Calculate effective rainfall: Dependable rain
formula FAO/AGLW

Cropping Pattern
Input each crop’s planted area, date of planting
C and harvest date within an irrigation scheme

Crop Irrigation Requirements

Simulate each crop’s parameters within root growth seasons, including 1. Crop
coefficient, 2. Leaf index, 3. Crop evapotranspiration, 4. Effective rainfall, 5.
Percolation, 6. Irrigation requirement

Irrigation Schedule
Five options to choice:
B 1. Defined times, date, depth by users
2. Irrigation at percentage of soil moisture depletion (% RAM)
3. Irrigation at fixed intervals per stage
4. Irrigation at given ET or yield reduction
5. No irrigation, only rainfall

Calculate Actual Crop Irrigation Requirement

Estimate the actual crop irrigation requirement, including
1. Irrigation times, date and depth, 2. Soil moisture
depletion, 3. Actual evapotranspiration, 4. Deep
percolation, 5. Irrigation depth, 6. Crop yield

A
 83

Satisfy
No irrigation
B
results or not

Yes

Irrigation requirements of irrigation scheme to estimate the

monthly irrigation requirements of irrigation scheme with
different cropping patterns

Changing
Yes cropping
C
pattern or not?

No

Printout irrigation
results

End

Fig. 4.3 Flowchart for CROPWAT model Formatted: Font: Bookman Old Style,
11 pt
 84

4.4 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF MAIN COMPONENTS

4.4.1 Canal Head Regulator

The various aspects of a canal head regulator‘s design are

discussed in this section. The Bureau of Indian standards code IS:

6531-1994 ―Canal Head Regulators - Criteria for design‖ recommends

the details for the layout and design of these structures and important

aspects from this code have been included herein.

Location and layout

The location of a canal head regulator is interlinked with the

location of the diversion work. The head regulator should be located

close to the diversion structure as far as possible and preferably at the

end of the outer curve (convex bend), if available at same portion of

the river. The general location of a head regulator in relation to the

barrage may be seen from Figure 4.4.

Fig. 4.4 Typical location of a canal head regulator in relation to a barrage

(Adapted from IS 6531:1994 Canal Head Regulators – Criteria for Design)

While the location of the head regulator which is adjacent to the

abutment of the diversion structure is preferred, it may not sometimes

 85

be possible to locate it there due to topographical features such as

hills, and others. In that case, the head regulator may have to be

located upstream near the periphery of the pond, but not very far from

the main structure. If the discharge requirements are small,

sometimes the head regulator is provided in the form of an opening in

the wing wall of the abutment.

The head regulator has to be properly aligned with respect to

the barrage axis, so as to reduce the quantity of silt entering the canal

and also to avoid back flow and formation of stagnant zones in the

pocket. To achieve this, the axis of the regulator may be kept at an

angle varying from 90 0 to1100 as shown in Figure 4.5.

Fig. 4.5. Relative inclination of head regulator & barrage axes

Though this angle recommended, the final layout is invariably

tested in a model study, which checks the different flow combination

of the undersluice gates and the canal regulator gates. A typical layout

of a canal head regulator may be seen in Figure 4.6. A longitudinal

section through the structure is shown in Figure 4.7.

 86

Fig. 4.6 Typical layout of a canal head regulator

Adapted from IS 6531: 1994 Canal Head Regulators – Criteria for Design

Fig 4.7. Sectional view through a canal head regulator

Adapted from IS 6531:1994 Canal Head Regulators – Criteria for Design
 87

Hydraulic design

The hydraulic design of a canal head regulator consists of the

following:

• Fixation of pond level of the pool behind the barrage

• Fixation of crest level, width and shape of sill

• Fixation of waterway, number and width of spans and height of

gate openings, requirement of breast wall and others

• Shape of approaches and other component parts

• Safety of the structure from surface flow condition

• Safety of the structure from sub-surface flow conditions, and

• Energy dissipation arrangements

These aspects are discussed in the following paragraphs in detail

Pond level

The pond level in the under sluice pocket upstream of the canal

head regulator may be obtained by adding the working head to pass

the canal design discharge through the regulator with the water level

in the canal at full supply level, and the head losses in the regulator.

If under certain situations there is a limitation of the pond level, the

full supply level should be fixed by subtracting the working head from

the pond level.

Crest level, width and shape of sill

The sill, crest level and waterway are interrelated. The sill level

should be fixed by subtracting from the pond level the head over the

sill that is required to pass the full supply discharge into the canal at

a specified pond level. To obtain control on the entry of silt into the
 88

canal it is desirable that the sill of the head regulator be kept higher

than the sill of the under-sluices, as much as possible, and at least by

a difference of 1.2 m to 1.5 m . If silt excluders are provided, then the

crest level of the sill should be kept at about 0.5 m higher than the

top surface of the silt excluders.

The required head over sill, H, for passing a discharge Q, with

an effective waterway L, has to be worked out from the following

formula, which is meant for flow that is uncontrolled (with out any

gate control).
3
Q  Cd Le H e 2

Where Q = discharge in m3/s, Cd = coefficient of discharge

Le = effective waterway, He = required head over crest for passing

discharge Q, in meters

The coefficient Cd is not constant but depends on many factors

(refer Figure 4.8) such as head above sill, shape and width of sill (W),

upstream slope (Zu) and downstream slope (ZD) of the sill, height

above the upstream floor (P) and roughness of the surface.

A typical set of curves for finding C d at different values of H e P

but for Z1=0 and Z2=2 is shown in Figure 4.8. Different sets of curves

are available for Z1=0 and Z2=3, the details of which may be found in

IS: 6531-1994. Of course, as the submergence increases, that is

H d H e tends to 1, the coefficient of discharge C d also reduces. (Here,

Hd is the downstream water depth above crest and H e is the

upstream total head above crest).

 89

Fig 4.8. Recommended values of coefficient of discharge for varying

He, P and W (Adapted from IS 6531: 1994 Canal Head Regulators –
Criteria Design)

Determination of waterway; number and width of spans

The waterway should be adequate to pass the required

discharge through the head regulator without difficulty. After deciding

the effective waterway the total waterway between the abutments

including the piers have to be estimated from the following formula

Lt = Le + 2(N Kp + Ka) He +W

Where

Lt = total waterway, Le = effective waterway, N = number of piers

Kp=pier contraction coefficient,

Ka=abutment contraction coefficient

He = head over crest, and, W = total width of all piers

The recommended values of Kp and Ka have been shown in Figure 4.9.

 90

Fig. 4.9 Recommended values of Kp and Ka

Shape of approaches and other component parts

The upstream inlet should be provided with circular, elliptical or

hyperbolic transitions. The splay may be of the order of 1:1 to 3:1. At

the downstream end, straight, parabolic or hyperbolic transitions may

be provided with the splays ranging from 3:1 to 5:1 (Figure 4.10). All

dimensions have to be tested in model studies for final estimates.

The wing walls should be normally kept vertical up to the end of

the impervious floor beyond which they should be flared from vertical

to the actual slope of the canal section.

Safety of the structure from surface flow condition and energy

dissipation arrangements

For head regulators located on non cohesive and erodible

foundations, the unlined portion of the floor has to be protected

against scour. However, if the head regulator is located on non-

erodible beds, then these precautions may not be necessary.

 91

Fig 4.10. Transitions for upstream inlet

On the upstream edge of the head regulator floor, a cutoff (or

sheet pile) has to be provided and taken to the same depth as the

upstream sheet pile of the main barrage structure (Fig. 4.11).

Fig. 4.11. Sheet pile on the upstream of head regulator floor

On the downstream side of the sill, the head regulator shall

have to be provided by a proper energy dissipating arrangement,

which is usually done through the formation of a hydraulic jump for

different discharge conditions. For various gate openings with pond

level on the upstream (in the pool), the discharges through the head

regulator have to be worked out. From these values, the cistern levels
 92

and lengths would have to be calculated and the governing values

adopted for a profile. Additional energy dissipating devices such as

chute blocks, friction blocks, end sill or dentated sill, and others could

also be provided wherever necessary. For head regulators with small

discharging capacities, additional energy dissipating devices, except

an end sill may not be necessary. Details of energy dissipation devices

based on hydraulic jump considerations may be had from Bureau of

Indian Standards Code IS: 4997-1968 ―Criteria for design of hydraulic

jump type stilling basins with horizontal and sloping aprons‖.

For evaluating the thickness of the floor of the head regulator,

the hydraulic jump profiles for different flow conditions have to be

plotted. Flow conditions would vary for different discharges in the

canal with a corresponding gate opening of the regulator. The average

height of the jump trough should then be obtained by deducting the

levels of the jump profile from corresponding subsurface hydraulic

gradient line. This will be taken as the unbalanced head for which

safety of the impervious floor (glacis, cistern) has to be ensured. As a

rough guide, the unbalanced head may be assumed to be ½(d2-d1)

Where d1 and d2 are the conjugate depths at the beginning and end of

the hydraulic jump.

Safety of the structure from sub-surface flow condition

Similar to the design of the main barrage floor, the floor of a

head regulator has to be checked for critical sub-surface flow

conditions, if the head regulator is located on a permeable foundation

(Fig 4.12). The factors that have to be checked are as follows:

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Fig 4.12 Critical subsurface flow at head regulator

The exit gradient for the upward rising seepage flow just

downstream of the solid apron has to be determined. The exit gradient

has to be safe according to the type of bed material as per the

guidelines.

The total floor length can be decreased by increasing the depth

of the downstream cut-off and vice versa, but increase in depth of

downstream cut-off should result in increase in the concentration of

uplift pressures, especially in the downstream half of the floor. A

balance between the two should have to be arrived on the basis of

economic studies.

Of course, the depth of downstream cutoff shall have to be

worked out for the floor length decided to ensure safe exit gradient. If

the depth of downstream cutoff so calculated is excessive, it can be

reduced by increasing the upstream floor length.

Also, the uplift pressures at the key points on the floor have to

be determined from the formula and graphs corresponding to the

condition of a high flood level in the river at the upstream of the head
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regulator and with the gates of the regulator all closed and no water in

the canal downstream.

Just downstream of the solid apron of the head regulator, an

inverted filter 1.5D to 2D long has to be provided, where D is the

depth of scour below bed level determined from Lacey‘s formula. This

layer has to be overlain with 1.5/1.5/0.9m concrete blocks with open

gaps of 75 mm width in between the blocks and filled with coarse

material like stone chips. The graded inverted filter may range in

thickness from 0.5m to 0.8m and should conform to the following

design criteria:

d15 of filter d15 of filter

4
d15 of foundation d 85 of foundation

When d 15 and d 85 represents grain sizes. d x is the size such

that x % soil grains are smaller than that particle size where x may be

15% or 85%. Downstream of the inverted filter, loose apron 1.5D long

consisting of either boulder weighing not less than 40 kg or gabions

made of wire crated has to be provided.

On the upstream of the solid floor of the canal regulator, blocks

and loose stone apron may be provided which should be similar to

that provided upstream of the main barrage structure.

4.4.2 Tunnel

Tunnels need to be designed and constructed in an efficient

manner for the best performance. The Bureau of Indian Standards

code IS: 4880-1976 ―Code of practice for design of tunnels conveying

 95

water‖(Parts 1 to 4) [ 41] provide guidelines for design of a tunnel under

various situations.

The size or cross sectional area can be determined from the

amount of water that is to be conveyed under the given head

difference. Circular and modified horse shoe shaped tunnel sections

geometric details are shown in Fig 2.10.

Circular shaped tunnel section

The circular section is most suitable from structural hydraulic

considerations. However, it is difficult for excavation, particularly

where cross-sectional area is small. For tunnels which are likely to

have to resist heavy inward or outward radial pressures, it is desirable

to adopt a circular section. In case where the tunnel is subjected to

high internal pressure, but does not have good quality of rock and/or

adequate rock cover around it, circular section is considered to be the

most suitable.

Modified Horse-Shoe shaped tunnel Section

These sections are strong in their resistance to external

pressures. Quality of rock and adequate rock cover in terms of the

internal pressure to which the tunnel is subjected govern the use of

these sections. Modified horse-shoe section offers the advantage of flat

base for constructional ease and change over to circular section with

minimum additional expenditure in reaches of inadequate rock cover

and poor rock formations.

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Circular Modified Horse shoe

Area  r2 3.254 r 2
Perimeter 2 r 6.426 r
A  0.78 r , B  1.56 r ,   310 22'
Fig. 4.13 Tunnel sections

The geometric elements and hydraulic elements in general may

y
be expressed in terms of the ratio; k  , where k = non dimensional
H

depth parameter, y =depth of flow of water, and H =height of the

conduit. The position of the free surface indicating the depth of flow is

given by the expression y  kH . In a similar manner, wetted perimeter

' Pk ' is non dimensionalized with reference to ' H ' , where as the area of

flow ' Ak ' with reference to H 2 , Hydraulic radius Rk with reference to H

giving

Pk A a A /H2 R
pk  , ak  k2 , rk  k  k  k
H H pk Pk / H H
1 2 1
Discharge through the tunnel Q  AR 3 S 2
n

4.4.3 Design of Unlined Canal

The Bureau of Indian Standard code IS: 7112-1973 ―Criterion

for design of cross-section for unlined canals in alluvial soils‖ is an

important document that may be consulted for choosing various

parameters of an unlined channel, specifically in alluvial soils. There

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are unlined canals flowing through other types of natural material like

silty clay, but formal guidelines are yet to be brought out on their

design. Nevertheless, the general principles of design of unlined canals

in alluvial soils are enumerated here, which may be suitably extended

for other types as well after analyzing prototype data from few such

canals. The design of unlined alluvial canals as compared to lined

canals is more complex since here the bed slope cannot be determined

only on the basis of canal layout, since there would be a limiting

slope, more than which the velocity of the flowing water would start

eroding the particles of the canal bed as well as banks. The problem

becomes further complicated if the water entering the canal from the

head-works is itself carrying sediment particles. In that case, there

would be a limiting slope, less than which the sediment particles

would start depositing on the bed and banks of the canal. Maximum

permissible velocity also known as non erodible velocity is the highest

mean velocity that will cause no erosion in the channel body.

When compared with the design process typically used for lined

channels, the design of stable, unlined or erodible, earthen channels

is a complex process involving numerous parameters, most of which

cannot be accurately quantified. The complexity of the erodible

channel design process results from the fact that in such channels

stability is dependent not only on hydraulic parameters but also on

the properties of the material which composes the bed and sides of the

channel.
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Following Steps are used for Designing

Given a particular soil type, the channel is designed so that the

design velocity does not exceed Vmax for that soil and the channel side

walls are with appropriate side slopes.

General guidelines: Froude number should be less than 0.35

Step 1: For the given kind of material, estimate the roughness

coefficient n side slope m , and the maximum permissible velocity.

Step 2: Hydraulic mean radius is computed by using Manning

formula.

Step 3: Area of flow is obtained using continuity equation.

Step 4: The wetted perimeter is computed using the information

obtained in steps 2 and 3.

Step 5: Solve simultaneously for B and D .

Step 6: Add a proper free board. Modify the section for practicality.

1 2 1
Q AR 3 S 2
n

Where A is area of cross section of canal and R is hydraulic radius,

functions of the geometric elements of the canal. S is the longitudinal

slope of the canal. Irrigation canal is usually in trapezoidal cross

section

Q  f n, D, S , B, m
Where m is the side slope
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4.4.4 Design of Lined canals

The Bureau of Indian Standards code IS: 10430 -1982 ―Criteria

for design of lined canals and guidelines for selection of type of lining‖

(Reaffirmed in 1991) recommend trapezoidal sections with rounded

corners for all channels-small or large. However, in India, the earlier

practice had been to provide triangular channel sections with rounded

bottom for smaller discharges. The geometric elements of the

trapezoidal channel are shown in Fig 4.14.

Fig 4.14 Geometric elements of the channel

For the Trapezoidal channel section, the corresponding expressions

are:

Area of Cross Section A  BD D 2   cot 

Wetted Parameter P  B  2D  cot 

A
Hydraulic Radius R 
P

1 2 1
Discharge Q  AR 3 S 2
n

Where S = Bed slope, B = width of the canal, D = Depth of the water,

 = angle of side slope