Primary Science 6 Student Book PDF

PRIMARY
SCIENCE
6
Student
Book
P U B L I S H I N G
GLOBAL EDUCATION
Juxon House, 100 St. Paul’s Churchyard EC4M 8BU, London, UK
www.globalbridgepublishing.com | [email protected]
P U B L I S H I N G
Global Bridge Publishing is a part of Global Education.

© Global Bridge Publishing 2017
All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
ISBN 978-1-911533-17-7
9 781911 533177
About the Book
The Global Bridge Science Series has been developed for use in Primary Science curriculum.
The subjects in this book have been arranged in a graded approach; moving from simple
to complex (the constructivist approach).
The book is designed to be student friendly so that students enjoy science. The book uses
colour graphs, pictures and tables to make information clear and easy to remember.
Subjects are explained in simple language through clear sentences with carefully
drawn illustrations. There are plenty of examples, activities, multiple-choice questions
to improve students’ understanding in science. The activities are arranged to engage
different learning styles (such as the multiple-intelligence learning style) and encourage
student-centered learning.
Multiple-choice tests at the end of each section cover the material in the section. Uses of
scientific concepts in daily life are included together with pictures. In topics related to
math, simple numbers are used to make calculations easier. It is our sincere hope that
teachers will find this book useful.
We wish you every success on your journey into the enjoyable world of science.
How To Study Science?

Science is the subject that helps you to learn about the things that are happening around
you. To learn science better, following points can be helpful for you.
1. Science is learned by reading, searching and doing.
2. Read the topics before class.
3. Science topics are usually related to each other, so try to understand each topic
before going to next one.
4. Do not try and memorize every scientific concept. In science, understanding the
concepts is important.
5. Listen to your teacher carefully. Participate in class discussions.
6. Ask your teacher when you do not understand.
7. During laboratory, follow the instructions of your teacher.
8. Read the assigned material after class.
9. Do homework regularly. Homework gives you the opportunity to learn how science
works.
10. Participate in science projects.
Contents
Chapter 1 Reproduction, Growth and Development of Living Things

1. Life Begins With the Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Reproduction, Growth and Development in Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3. Reproduction and Development in Flowering Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chapter 2 Force and Motion

1. Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2. Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 3 Matter Is Made From Particles

1. Particles That Make Up Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2. Elements and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3. Physical and Chemical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4. Particles in Each State of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Chapter 4 Electricity in Everyday Life

1. How is Electrical Energy Carried? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter 5 Systems of Our Bodies
1. The Support and Movement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2. The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3. The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Chapter 6 Matter and Heat

1. The Particle Nature of Matter and Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2. Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3. Heat Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Chapter 7 Light and Sound

1. The Effect of Light on Materials and Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2. Mirrors and Where They are Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3. Sound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Chapter 8 Your Sense Organs

1. Your Sense Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
1. Life Begins With the Cell
Just as buildings are made up of walls, bricks are the

building blocks of walls. In a similar way, cells are the
An explanation of the discovery and building blocks of tissues, which make up living things.
exploration of the cell Cells are the smallest particles that exhibit the charac-
The common characteristics of living teristics of living things. Cells can only be seen with a
things microscope.
An explanation of the cell’s structure and
functions
An explanation of the organization of liv-
ing things

Cell Organism
Organelle
The concept of a cell was first used in 1665 by Robert Hooke.
When Robert Hooke examined cork cells with a microscope
Cells are the smallest structures that have he observed that they looked like the illustration in the
the characteristics of living things. By learn- diagram above. He called these pores “cells”, which means
ing about the cell, the processes of life can empty little rooms. Much later on, in research, it was found
be better understood. that cells are not empty little rooms, but tiny machines that
work together to produce life.
Life Starts with the Cell

You know that plants and animals
are living things. However, a stone
is a non-living thing. The small
structures that make up living
things are known as cells.
Just as buildings are made up of bricks, living things are made up of cells.
8 PRIMARY SCIENCE 6 STUDENT BOOK

Life Begins With the Cell
These are the characteristics of cells: Cells are generally made up of three parts: the cell
8 Living things are made up of one or more cells. membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
8 Cells are the basic structural and functional building a. Cell membrane: It surrounds the cell and controls
blocks of organisms. movement of materials into and out of the cell.
8 Cells reproduce by cell division.
b. Cytoplasm: Contains all the metabolic functions
8 Chromosomes, the hereditary material that carries of the cell.
the characteristics of living things, are found in
cells. c. Nucleus: Controls the cell.
Euglena and paramecium are living things made up of one

cell, while humans are composed of trillions of cells.
Cells are generally observed with a microscope. For

example leaf, skin, muscle, and bone cells can all
be seen with an ordinary microscope. The parts of
a cell and its structures can only be examined with
a special microscope, called electron microscope.
The cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm make up the basic structure of the cell.
CHAPTER 1 | REPRODUCTION, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LIVING THINGS 9

CELL STRUCTURES AND ORGANELLES
Cell membrane is the name given to the covering that surrounds every
cell. The cell membrane gives shape to the cell and protects it from various
external effects. The membrane makes it possible for certain substances to
enter the cell.
Only certain substances can enter the cell; they are ‹selected› by the cell
membrane. This type of membrane is said to be ‹permeable›. Having a
permeable membrane makes it possible to allow substances needed into
the cell. This is why the membrane is a living structure. Cell Membrane
At the same time, metabolic waste products, that are formed inside the cell,
are expelled from the cell through openings in the membrane.
Animal Cell
Lysosome
Mitochondria
Lysosome breaks down Mitochondria produces

large nutrients within the energy, using food and oxy-
cell. This is known as gen in the cell.
intracellular digestion.
Centrosome
The nucleus controls all the activities

in the cell. A cell without a nucleus
cannot live.
Chromosomes are found in the
nucleus, they carry the properties of
life. They give instructions to make
cell control and division possible. This is an organelle and is found in ani-
Nucleus mal cells. It has a role in cell division.

CELL STRUCTURES AND ORGANELLES
Ribosome found in all

cells. Its function is to
produce protein parti-
cles in the cell.
Ribosome
Chloroplast
Found in plant cells, chloroplasts produce
food and oxygen, using carbon dioxide
The endoplasmic reticulum is and water, in the presence of light. This
found in the cytoplasm. It has is called photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are
a role in the transportation of found in leaves and other green parts of
materials. plants.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Body
It is found in the cytoplasm.

Its function is to produce,
package and secrete sub-
stances outside the cell.
Cell Wall Plant Cell
The vacuole collects

waste matter and
some fluids into its
small bag.
Cell walls are found around the cell mem- In plant cells there are
brane in plant cells. They give strength to generally 1 - 2 large
the plant and protect it from the outside. central vacuoles. In
There are holes in the cell wall that allow animal cells there are
substances to pass through. Vacuole many small vacuoles.

Observing a Plant Cell
You need: A magnifying glass, 3 slides, 3 slide covers, water,

dropper, lancet, onion, black ink, green food colour and
microscope
Preparation:
1. Cut the onion into four pieces.
2. Take a thin layer of the onion and observe it with the magnifying glass.
3. Divide the thin layer of the onion into three pieces and put each piece on one slide.
Examine each slide with the microscope.
4. Add one drop of water to the first prepared slide, one drop of green food colour on the second prepared slide, and
one drop of black ink on the third prepared slide. Cover each slide.
5. Examine each slide you have prepared with the microscope.
A. Draw what you have observed in the slide in the empty spaces below:
First slide Second slide Third Slide
B. What is the shape of the plant cell?

...............................................................................
C. What parts of the plant cell did you observe in your experiments?
...............................................................................

Observing Your Inner Cheek Cells
You need: Toothpick, methyl blue or iodine, a microscope,

drying paper, water, dropper, 1 slide, and 1 slide cover.
How to make:
1. Place one drop of water on the slide.
2. Rub the toothpick inside your mouth on the inner cheek

area.
3. With the toothpick you have used, make small circles in

the water drop on the slide.
4. Cover the slide you have prepared and observe it under

the microscope. Draw what you have observed in the box
below.
5. Take the cover off the slide and pour one drop of methyl
blue (or iodine) on the prepared slide, then dry off any
extra liquid using the drying paper.
6. Examine the prepared slide again and draw what you

observe in the box given below.
First Observation Second Observation
A. Which parts of the human cell did you observe? What is the shape of the cell you observed?
......................................................................................................................................
B. Write down the differences you observed between the plant cell and the human cell.
......................................................................................................................................

The Properties of Life

All living things share characteristics: reproduction, growth, feeding, excretion, respiration, movement and
response to change. These characteristics separate living things from non-living things. Cells can divide, grow, and
develop. Some cells reproduce through cell division, grow, and develop; some cells move, and all cells produce
energy. Cells use food and oxygen to produce energy. Waste materials produced as a result of cellular activities
are removed from the cell.
Movement and behavior are Living things become more by

Living things must have food to live.
characteristics of life. reproduction.
Types of Cells
Cells have different functions, for this reason cells exhibit structural differences depending on their functions. For
example, your muscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells, cartilage cells, and bone cells have different shapes, so
that they can carry out their functions easily. You can better understand these differences by examining the
cells below.

The smallest unit in the organization of multicellular

organisms is the cell. Organisms are made up of
Activity systems, systems of organs, organs of tissues, and
tissues of cells.
Plant and animal organisms are composed of tissue.
You have learned that cells are the units of living A group of cells with the same characteristics in one
things, that these units are made up of a structure place performing the same function is called tissue.
called organelles and that every single organelle
has its own special function. In this way you can Bone tissue, muscle tissue, blood tissue, epithelial
compare a cell to a factory. However, a cell is more tissue, nerve tissue, and cartilage tissue are examples
complex than the most complex factory. of animal tissue. In plants, functions like support, trans-
port, and food storage are made possible by tissue.
Using the comparison with a factory, match the struc-
tures of the cell with the factory’s structures and work- A structure composed of two or more tissues that
ers in the diagram. carries out a function is called an organ. Lungs, liver,
kidneys, and heart are examples of organs.
Cells Constitute Living Things
A structure composed of organs performing a function
Living things are made of groups of cells that carry is called a system. Systems combined together form
out functions like digestion, respiration, excretion, and an organism (a living thing).
reproduction.

Comparison of Plant and Animal Cells

Several organelles, like the nucleus, cell membrane, mitochondria, and ribosomes, are common to both plant and
animal cells. However, many differences are also observed between. These two types of cells. These differences
are shown below for comparison.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
8 Chloroplasts are present 8 Has no chloroplasts

8 Has no centrosomes 8 Has centrosomes
8 Vacuoles are few in number and large 8 Vacuoles are numerous and small
8 A hard-structured cell boundary (cell wall) surrounds
the cell 8 Has no cell wall
8 Generally has a shape with corners 8 Has different shapes
Solution
Example
It is an animal cell because it doesn’t have chloro-

plasts or a cell wall. The presence of a centrosome

also shows that it is an animal cell. Because it
has mitochondria, it produces energy. It can divide

because it has a nucleus. For this reason we can say:-
Answer D

Which of the following choices about the cell

shown in the figure above is incorrect?
A) It is an animal cell.
B) It can synthesize proteins. The cell is the unit of living things. This means that
C) It produces the energy it needs. all organisms made up of cells have the character-
D) It can’t divide. istics of life.

ACTIVITIES
Write down the structures shown in the correct cell shape. If the structure is shared, write it down in
the shared cell space.
1
a Cell membrane a Cell wall

a Cytoplasm a Lysosome
a Chloroplast a Endoplasmic
a Mitochondria reticulum
a Centrosome a Golgi body
a Nucleus a Vacuole
True / False
Each of the sentences in the flow diagram below has a possible true (T) or false (F) response.
2 Eight possible exits can be reached along different paths, depending on the answers that you give.
However, only one of the exits is correct.
1. EXIT
4. Cytoplasm is T
non-living.
2. The cell T F
2. EXIT
membrane is a
living structure. 5. The nucleus carries 3. EXIT
F
information about T
T
the characteristics
1. The cell is the of the organism. F
smallest structure 4. EXIT
that exhibits the
characteristics of 5. EXIT
T
life. 6. Chloroplasts are found
F
T only in plant cells. F
3. Mitochondria pro- 6. EXIT
duce food.
F 7. EXIT
T
7. Vacuoles store waste
matter. F
8. EXIT

ACTIVITIES
Let’s Make Cell Models
You need: Different coloured cardboards, different coloured beads, coloured string, different coloured play dough,
a ruler, a pencil, scissors.
Divide the class into six groups. Three groups will prepare plant cells and the other three groups will prepare animal
cells.
Preparation:
1. Cut the cardboard into two pieces. Use one piece to make the plant cell, and the other piece to make the animal
cell.
2. Draw the plant cell and the animal cell borders on each piece of cardboard by using the coloured string.
3. Make the parts of the cells using the coloured play dough.
4. Stick the parts of the cell you have made inside the cell shapes, and label them correctly.
5. Write down the functions of the cell parts on one side of the cells.
6. Compare your cell model with the other group’s cell models.
A. Write down the parts of a plant cell?

......................................................................................................................................
B. Write down the parts of an animal cell?

......................................................................................................................................
C. Compare the plant cell and the animal cell.

......................................................................................................................................

ACTIVITIES
Fill in the Blanks
After finishing the topic on cells, students each took a card with a question on it.
3 They read the questions to each other and try to give correct answers.
Complete the discussion below by filling in the blank spaces.
Zahra : This is the question on my card: “What is the organelle found only in the green part of plant cells,
and what is its function?”
Oguz : It must be the ______________________. And its function is to provide for the plant’s production of food
by ______________________.
Alper : And this is my question: “Where is the control centre of the cell?”
Hatica : Of course, it’s the ______________________. It’s generally found in the cell’s ______________________.
Beyza : “Which organelle, found in both plant and animal cells, is the energy production centre?”
Alper : Since animal and plant cells have it in common, I wonder if it’s the _____________________?
Ali : No, it asks for the energy-producing region, so the correct answer is __________________________ .
Mustafa : “The organelle that’s found only in animal cells is the __________________________ .”
Taha : It’s my turn! “What is the characteristic of the cell membrane that allows some substances to pass
through, but not others?”
Zahra : This characteristic is _____________________ . Is that the end of the questions?
Bahadýr : I have another question that I haven’t asked yet. “What is the structure in the cell that looks like an
egg white?”
Mustafa : This structure’s name is the _____________________ . It’s the part of the cell where most of the
_____________________ events take place.
Fill in the Blanks

Complete the sentences below by choosing the appropriate word.
4 1. The structural unit of living things is _____________________________ . (the cell / the organelle)
2. Chloroplasts _____________________________ (are / are not) found in every cell.
3. The shape of animal cells is _____________________________ (oval / angular).
4. In the cell, food is produced in the _____________________________ . (mitochondria / chloroplast)
5. Vacuoles are _____________________________ (few in number / numerous) in plant cells.
6. The structure that controls the cell is the _____________________________ . (cytoplasm / nucleus)
7. In plants cells, _____________________________ (there is / there is not) a hard and durable structure outside
the cell membrane.
8. Plant cells _____________________________ (do / do not) have centrosomes.
9. The structure in cells that resembles an egg white is the _____________________________ . (cytoplasm / cell
membrane)
10. The cell membrane is _____________________________ . (hard / selectively permeable).

ACTIVITIES
Fill in the Blanks
5 Look at the pictures and fill in the blanks.
.......................... Cell .......................... Cell
Brick Wall Classroom Floor School

6
I II III IV V
Look at the example above and match the numbers to the letter of each concept below.
A B C D E
Organ Cell Organism Tissue System
I .................... III .................... V ....................
II .................... IV ....................

Test - 1
1. Present Absent 3. A collection of cells with the same characteris-

tics, in the same place, to carry out the same
Plant Cell Ribosome I function is called tissue.
Animal Cell II Chloroplast
Some structures that are present and absent in

plant and animal cells are shown in the table
above.
Which of the following can be placed in posi-
tions I and II of the table?
CCC
I II Which of the figures given above is not related
A) Vacuole Chloroplast to this definition?
AAA
B) Cell wall Golgi body A) I B) II C) III D) IV
C) Centrosome Mitochondria
D) Centrosome Cell wall
4. “Cells that have chloroplasts make food.”

According to the statement above, which of the
following does not make food?
BBB
2. Some structures found in the human body are A) Onion B) Chicken
shown in the figure below. C) Pine tree D) Cabbage
5. Ammar: There are few vacuoles in animal cells.

Fuad: Mitochondria are the cell’s energy pro-
duction centre.
In which of the answers below are the num-
Which of the following about what Ammar and
bered structures correctly identified?
Fuad said is correct?
CCC
CCC
I II III
A) What Ammar said is true.
A) Tissue System Organ B) Both of what they said is true.
B) Organ System Cell C) What Ammar said is false; what Fuad said is
C) System Tissue Organ true.
D) Tissue Organ System D) Both of what they said is false.

Test - 1
6. In the figure, the parts of an animal cell are 9. I. Nucleus

shown with numbers. II. Cell membrane
III. Cytoplasm
Which of the following shows the parts of the
cell above in the correct order, from outer-
most to innermost?
AAA
A) II – III – I B) I – III – II
C) III – I – II D) II – I – III
Which of the numbered cell structures is not

found in plant cells?
BBB
A) 1 B) 2 C) 5 D) 7
10. Which of the following does not show that the

cell is living?
BBB
7. Matches between some activities in a plant cell A) It can move.
and the responsible organelles are given below. B) Atoms are found in its structure.
Which of the matches is incorrect? C) It expends energy.
BBB
D) It grows and develops.
A) Chloroplast – Photosynthesis
B) Golgi body – Cell division
C) Ribosome – Protein synthesis
D) Endoplasmic reticulum – Transport of
substance within the cell
11. – Chloroplast
– Mitochondria
– Nucleus
8. Which of the following is not a correct match
of an organelle found in cells and an organ Which of the functions given below is not con-
that performs a similar job? nected to one of the parts of the cell above?
DDD AAA
A) Cell membrane – Skin A) Stores food, water, and waste matter.
B) Endoplasmic reticulum – Blood vessels B) Provides for energy production.
C) Nucleus – Brain C) Produces food.
D) Mitochondria – Stomach D) Controls the life processes in the cell.

2. Reproduction, Growth and
Development in Animals
In frogs, reproduction occurs in water. Many eggs are

laid inside water by the female, these are fertilized by

the male sperm at the same time. The larvae, called tad-
poles live in the water until they become mature frogs.
An understanding of the events that occur dur-
Once it is mature, it leaves the water to live on land.
ing the growth and development of animals.
An explanation of the phenomenon of metamor-
phosis in some animals.

Life cycle Metamorphosis
Frogs release a large number The embryo that

Animals have a very important place in the balance of eggs in the water. They are emerges from the egg
of nature and the lives of people. When details of fertilized by the sperm as soon resembles a fish.
animal reproduction, growth and characteristics are as they are released.
known it provides valuable information for people to
help maintain the balance of nature.
Reproduction, Growth and Development in

Animals
Later, by completing
The birth of animals, their growth, development into its development, it
adults, reproduction, and death is a cycle. The life turns into a frog.
cycles of each animal group is different. In chickens, for
example, as the chicken broods the egg, at the proper
temperature, after the development is completed a chick
hatches from the egg. As chicks grow and develop they Every living thing is born, grows, develops, repro-
become chickens. They, in turn form new chicks. In this duces, and dies. This process is called a life cycle.
way a cycle is formed. Each stage of this cycle is shown
below in photographs.
Mammals reproduce by giving birth. In this group of
living things, the development of the embryo is com-
pleted inside the mother’s body. The young are fed
milk for a time, and are cared for by the mother until
they are old enough to feed themselves.
Chickens, by incubating their eggs, make it possible for the

chicks to develop and hatch. Internal fertilisation and care of Internal fertilisation and internal development occur in
young is practised by all birds. mammals.

Reproduction, Growth and Development in Animals
8 The fish that releases the most eggs is the

ocean sunfish. It can release up to 30,000,000
eggs at one time.
8 The largest bird’s egg is the ostrich egg. It is
15-20 cm long and weighs 1.7 kg. This egg can
only be cooked by boiling it for 40 minutes. Frogs are amphibians. They can live
both in water and on land.
Animals That Go Through Metamorphosis

When some animals come into the world they do not look like their parents. These animals go through some
physical changes until they look like their parents. These physical changes they go through as they develop is called
metamorphosis. The metamorphosis that frogs undergo is shown below:
In frogs, the larvae take on the adult form by undergoing metamorphosis.
Insects also undergo met-

amorphosis, as shown by
the life cycle of the butter-
fly in the figure below;
Butterfly larvae (caterpillars) have hatched from eggs and pass through the pupa stage.
Later, by undergoing, metamorphosis they turn into butterflies.

ACTIVITIES
Fill In the Blanks

The way in which offspring are born to various animals, and their behaviour towards their young are
7 shown in the table below.
Fill in the table for each of the animals, as shown in the example in the first column.
ANIMALS
Silkworm
Butterfly
Mouse
Rabbit
Sheep
Whale
Snake
Horse
Goat
Frog
Owl
Fox
Cat
Reproduce by
+
giving birth.
Reproduce by
–
laying eggs
Parental care of
+
offspring
No paren-
tal care of –
offspring
Fill In the Blanks

Complete the sentences given below with the correct words from the list at the side.
8 1. Insects go through ________________________ .
3 turtles
2. ________________________ feed their young with milk for a time. 3 lizards
3. One of the common characteristics of living things is 3 metamorphosis
3 dolphins
________________________ .
3 life cycle
4. The offspring of mammals and ________________________ are cared for 3 baby
by their mothers, until they have reached a certain level of maturity. 3 by giving birth
3 reproduction
5. ________________________ and birds are examples of living things that
3 mammals
multiply by laying eggs. 3 reptiles
6. In mammals, the ________________________ develops within the moth- 3 whales
3 birds
er’s body.
7. ________________________ and ________________________ , which are sea
creatures, take care of their young.
8. In creatures like ________________________ and ________________________
there is no parental care of their offspring.
9. All living things have a ________________________ .
10.Cats reproduce ________________________ .

Test - 2
1. I. Respiration 4. – Their offspring enter the world by birth.

II. Reproduction – Their offspring are fed milk.
III. Excretion Which living things have the characteristics
Which of the activities of living things, above, given above?
is not necessary for their survival? DDD
BBB A) Birds B) Fish
A) Only I B) Only II C) Reptiles D) Mammals
C) Only III D) I and II
2. In which of the following creatures is

metamorphosis observed?
DDD
A) Chicken B) Sheep
C) Lizard D) Frog
5. The life cycle of a butter-

fly is shown to the right.
Which of the following

should go in circles I, II
and III?

3. Some kinds of newly born living things do not AAA

look like their parents. I II III
Which of the following living things is an
A) Egg Larva Pupa
example of this?
BBB B) Larva Pupa Egg
A) Chicken B) Butterfly C) Egg Pupa Larva
C) Snake D) Turtle D) Pupa Egg Larva

3. Reproduction and Development
in Flowering Plants
Reproduction in Flowering Plants

An explanation of the events in the repro- Most of the plants living on the
duction and development of plants Earth today are flowering plants.
The terms for the structure of the seed, Roots, stems, leaves, and flowers
germination, and the development of the are organs in flowering plants. The
seedling reproductive organs are inside the
An explanation of the life cycle of flowering flowers. This means that, a flower
plants is a reproductive organ.

Seed Fruit Pollination

Germination Organic agriculture

A flower is made up of the parts below.
Plants are living things that directly affect
the balance of nature and human life. Plants 1. Sepal 4. Receptacle
are used as a food source and as medi- 2. Petal 5. Male organ
cine. They also meet several of our daily
3. Pedicel 6. Female organ
needs and have many uses in industry.
Knowledge of their life cycle is important
to help humans maintain the balance of
nature.

Reproduction and Development in Flowering Plants
Pollination and Fertilization The “sperm” unites with the egg in the ovary. Remember
that this event is called fertilization.
In flowering plants, reproduction takes place after pol-
lination and fertilization.
After the grains of pollen have completed their devel-
opment, the pollen sac explodes. The grains of pollen
are scattered and many are carried by insects, birds,
water, or the wind to the stigma of neighbouring flow-
ers, or to the stigma of the female organ of the same
flower. In this way, the pollen from the anther of the
male reproductive organ is carried to the stigma of
the female reproductive organ. This process is called
pollination.
Pollen is formed in pollen sacs on the anthers of the male

reproductive organs. The pollen tube grows and sperm cells
are released as the pollen grains germinate on the stigma.
Insects play an important role in pollination. Fertilisation takes place when the sperm cell, passing
through the pollen tube, reaches the egg.
The embryo forms from the zygote that is created as

A pollen grain germinates on the stigma and a tubule
a result of fertilisation. A short time later, the seed is
called the pollen tube is formed. The sperm cells inside
formed when the embryo is surrounded by a hard
the pollen are transported to the “egg” cell inside the
shell. The embryo and nutrients are found inside the
ovary, through this tubule.
seed.

If nutrients accumulate in the ovary with the seeds then Plant dyes can be obtained from several plants. Some
a fruit is formed. The fruit ensures that the seeds are plants are used in natural medicines. Some plants that
protected and distributed. are used for this reason are shown below:
Lemon
A seed coat, nutrients, and an embryo are found inside

a seed.
Lemons, which are raised in
Mediterranean climates, are a
citrus fruit containing vitamin C.
The last step in the reproduction of flowering plants
is the formation of fruit.
Garlic Olive
Fruit is formed as the female reproductive organ Oil is extracted from the
accumulates nutrients. It lowers high blood
fruit and used in food
pressure, and is an
preparation. It is an
appetizer.
ingredient for ointments and
Crushed garlic is used to
soaps. Its leaves and shells
treat ringworm, because
are used to regulate blood
its volatile oil prevents
What Are Seeds Good For? pressure and as an anti-
production of bacteria.
worm treatment.
The new plants are formed from many seeds that have
different characteristics. Seeds in unsuitable environ-
mental conditions remain dormant stage and do not
Methods of Seed Dispersal
germinate.
Seeds are carried over a very wide area, with the
People use some seeds as food to obtain energy. help of various factors. Plants growing over such a
Some plants are used in industry for oil. This is widespread area are a source of food for people and
obtained from the seeds of olives, sunflowers, cotton, animals living there.
and sesame. The factors that help in seed dispersal are:
Carbohydrates, oil, and protein are stored in seeds. 1. Mechanical Dispersal: Some plants split open
For example: in wheat carbohydrates are stored, in their protective skin and scatter their seeds to their
sunflower seeds oil is stored, and in peas protein is surroundings. Peas are an example of this type of
stored in the greatest amounts. seed dispersal.

2. Wind Dispersal: Seeds dispersed in this way have

a connecting structure, like a parachute. Dandelion
and milkweed are well known examples.
3. Water Dispersal: Some kinds of fruits, for example,
coconuts, have their seeds transported by water.
4. Animal Dispersal: Some plant seeds have struc-
tures that look like hooks. These attach to animals,
so that they can be carried to different places. Other
seeds are eaten by animals and excreted later, in their
faeces. This allows seeds to enter the soil over a very
wide area. The embryo in the seed cannot produce food. It can-
not undergo photosynthesis, because it has no green
leaves. For this reason, the embryo can’t use sunlight
to make food. The food stored in the seed meets its
nutritional needs for growth.
Seeds, according to type of plant are transported to

different environments by mechanical means, by wind, by
water and by animals.
From Seed to Seedling

After seed dispersal, if the conditions are right, the
seed will germinate. The process of an embryo grow-
ing into a new plant is called germination.
The right conditions for germination to take place
are:
1. enough water
2. temperature not too hot or cold
3. oxygen
At the beginning of germination, first the root and then
the shoot will develop.

By this point a lot of the nutrients in the seed have Why are so many countries using organic
been used up. The stem begins to grow straight up agriculture?
from the soil (towards the sunlight). Later, once the
Ø To ensure an increase in the quantity and quality of
leaves have matured, the plant begins to make its own
the product.
food by photosynthesis.
The plant grows and develops, and flowers form. As a Ø To increase the productivity of the soil.
result of pollination and fertilisation seeds form again. Ø To produce products that are certified and tested
After this stage the seeds fall to the soil, and a new for harmful effects on humans.
plant begins to grow. In this way, the plant’s life cycle
continues. Ø To protect the health and natural balance of the
environment, plants, animals, and people without
polluting the soil, water sources, or the air.
Organic Agriculture
Today, people feel that chemicals used in agricultur-
al production (like pesticides, herbicides, hormones
and fertilizers) are having a negative effect on human
health, increasing the number of illnesses like cancer.
In the same way, agricultural chemicals accumulating
in the soil negatively affect plant life and are a reason
for the disturbance in the natural balance.
Due to these negative effects, many countries are
cutting down on the use of chemicals in agriculture,
preferring organic agriculture instead.
The life cycle of flowering plants begins with the production of reproductive cells and continues with pollination.
The cycle is complete with the formation of fruit.

Let’s Examine Flowers
Preparation:
Visit a garden or the school yard and examine the different
types of flowers that grow there. Compare and contrast different
flowers that you see. Write down the differences and similarities
between them in the table below.
Similarities between Differences between

the flowers the flowers
Let’s Examine The Parts of a Flower
You need: A flower, a magnifying glass, a scalpel, a pencil, a

notebook, a piece of paper
1. Cut the flower down the middle into half with help from your
teacher.
2. Examine the parts of the flower using a magnifying glass.
A. Take each part of the flower and stick it on the paper.
B. Write down the names of the flower parts at the side, as
shown below:
1..........................
2 ..........................
3 ..........................
4 ..........................
5 ..........................

ACTIVITIES
9
1
Some of the structures of the flower above are numbered. Answer the questions about them below.
a. Which have a direct role in the flower’s reproduction? _________________________________________________
b. Which is the flower’s brightly colourful part? _________________________________________________
c. Which part is generally green in colour? _________________________________________________
d. Which part produces pollen? _________________________________________________
e. In which part is the egg found? _________________________________________________
f. Which part protects the flower when it is a bud? _________________________________________________
g. Which part connects the flower to the stem. _________________________________________________
Write the names of the flower parts next to their numbers below.
1 ____________________________________________________
2 ____________________________________________________
3 ____________________________________________________
4 ____________________________________________________
5 ____________________________________________________

ACTIVITIES
10
Write down the answers to the questions below in their places in the crossword puzzle.
QUESTIONS

1. Part of the flower’s male organ
2. The organ that ensures the reproduction
of some plants

3. The flower part where the egg is found
4. The male reproductive cell inside the
flower
5. It connects the flower to the branch
6. Part of the flower’s female organ
7. Protect the flower when it is a bud
8. Part of the flower’s female organ
9. Colourful and fragrant part of the flower
Draw an arrow between each sentence and the correct term below.
11 The transport of pollen Wind
Male reproductive cell Fertilisation
A factor that enables pollination Zygote
Female reproductive cell Pollen
The uniting of egg and pollen Egg
The structure that forms as a result of fertilisation Pollination

ACTIVITIES
12
GERMINATION FERTILISATION SEED FORMATION GROWTH
I II III IV
The stages in a plant’s life cycle are given above.

a. What should be written in spaces K, L, M, and N in the
diagram to the right?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

b. Which event requires water?
___________________________________________________________________________
c. In which of the stages do insects and the wind play a

role?
____________________________________________________________________________
Write the names of the foods below into the table by grouping them according to whether they are
seeds or fruit.
13
A B C D
E F G H
SEED FRUIT
______________________________________________ _____________________________________________
______________________________________________ _____________________________________________
______________________________________________ _____________________________________________
______________________________________________ _____________________________________________

ACTIVITIES
PROJECT: A Plant’s Life Cycle
14
Living things are born, they grow, and then they develop. Prepare a poster that shows the life
cycle of a plant that you see in your environment. Find pictures for this plant’s stages in life: seed,
seedling, young plant, flowering plant, and seed formation. Paste the pictures in order on a piece of
cardboard and write down information about each stage. Photos that you take yourself will add to the
originality of your project, making it more exciting.
You can design the same poster with plastic flowers, leaves and parts made from play dough. To
give you some ideas, an example poster is shown below.
Suggestion: Under the supervision of your teacher, display the poster you have prepared on the “Science
Board”, or organize a poster contest in your classroom.
T ER
LE POS
P
SAM

ACTIVITIES
15 Answer the questions below using the information from the pictures.
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
In the pictures above;
a. Which are produced from plant roots? _______________________________________________________________________
b. Which are produced from plant seeds? _______________________________________________________________________
c. Which are produced from plant fruits? _______________________________________________________________________
d. Which are produced from plant flowers? _______________________________________________________________________
e. Which are produced from plant leaves? _______________________________________________________________________

Test - 3
1. I. Fertilisation 3. Which of the following statements about

II. Pollen production plants’ male and female reproductive organs
is false?
III. Fruit
CCC
In which of the following choices are the stag- A) They produce reproductive cells
es in plant reproduction, listed above, given B) They are found in flowers
in the correct order?
AAA C) They are found in equal numbers in flowers
A) II – I – III B) III – II – I D) They produce different numbers of reproduc-
C) I – II – III D) III – I – II tive cells
2. The structures of a flower are shown in the figure

below.
I
4. Which of the sentences below,about
the development stage of the plant
II in the figure, is incorrect?
AAA
III
IV
A) The egg is forming.
B) It is the growth of the embryo.
Which structures are involved in reproduction? C) The amount of nutrients in the seed is
BBB decreasing.
A) I and III B) I, II and III D) After some time, the plant will produce its own
C) I, II and IV D) I, III and IV food.

Test - 3
5. If a large number of pollen grains is produced, 8. A flower’s parts are shown in the figure.
which of the following is made possible?
CCC
A) The growth of the seed I
B) The formation of large fruit II
C) An increased chance of fertilisation
D) The durability of the seed III
IV
a. Which part can carry out photosynthesis?

b. Which part attracts insects to the flower?
c. In which part does fertilisation take place?
In which of the following choices are the answers
to the questions above given correctly?
DDD
a b c
A) IV III I
B) III IV II
C) II I IV
6. Which of the following structures is not found D) IV II III
in a flower?
CCC
A) Male organ B) Female organ
C) Fruit D) Egg
7. Which of the statements below is incorrect?

AAA 9. Which of the following statements is false?
A) Chemical agriculture pollutes the soil. CCC
B) Chemical agriculture pollutes water sources. A) Petals are colourful.
B) More than one female organ may be found in
C) Organic agriculture increases the quality of
food. flowers.
C) Pollen is produced in the ovary.
D) Organic agriculture destroys the natural
balance. D) Sepals are on the outside of the flower.

1. Speed
Ahmed, “I took 5 hours to arrive, you took 7 hours, so

I am faster.” Murad “I travelled here through Mosul! I
travelled the longest distance, so I was the fastest”
An object’s displacement and the time it

takes
Using distance travelled and time taken
to find speed.
Objects in motion have energy called
kinetic energy.

Speed
Kinetic energy

In daily life speed has become very impor-

tant. When you travel between two places,
you want to get there in the fastest time pos-
sible. Engineers are trying to build vehicles
that are fast, but also cheap. If you know
your speed, you can plan your time better. Then Ahmed says, “neither the time taken nor the dis-
For example, in a traffic jam is it best to use tance travelled alone is enough. If our distances were
a car, motorbike, bicycle, or just walk? To the same then only the times we took would have been
find the answer to this question you need important; but our distances are both different. Now
to know the distance you will travel and the both our distances and times are important.”
time this will take; you can use these to find
how fast you can get there. This is speed.
Speed
Who is Faster?
Ahmed and Murad start from the same point in Arbil
in their cars, and drive off with their parents. Ahmed
travels through Kirkuk, Murad travels through Mosul. In athletics the 100 m race is won by the athlete who
They both meet at the same point in Baghdad. The completes this distance in the shortest time.
boys both say they were faster: This athlete is the fastest.

Speed
Speed is the distance travelled in a unit of time. To

find speed, you need the distance travelled and the Example
time it took to travel this distance. The speed of an
object is found by dividing distance by time:
Distance travelled
Speed =
Time taken
Speed is given the symbol v, distance travelled the sym-
bol x, and time taken the symbol, t. This is written as,
x
v= A car travels over a distance of 180 km in 2 hours.
t
How many km/h is its speed?
The unit of distance is the kilometre(km) and the unit
of time is the hour(h). The unit of speed is found from Solution
the speed formula: distance unit divided by time unit. A vehicle’s speed is found by the ratio,
km
Unit of speed = Distance travelled
h Speed =
Time taken
A table of units is given below:
x 180
Distance Time Speed v= = = 90 km/h
t 2
kilometre
Unit hour(h) km/h
(km)
Cars, trucks use km/h to describe their speed. Example

All motor vehicles have instruments to measure speed,
called speedometers, fixed onto them. When moving,
the speed of the vehicle can be seen. The speed
shown is the speed at that instant of time. What are the
speeds of the cars below?
car A car B
A train covers a distance of 450 km in 5 hours.

km/h What is the speed of the train in km/h?
Solution
Constant speed
If a vehicle always travels the same amount of distance
in the same amount of time, it has a constant speed.
Speedometers of the cars travelling at constant speed
always show the same value.

CHAPTER 2 | FORCE AND MOTION 43

Speed
The speed ruler on the left shows the speeds of some

moving things. The fastest known speed is the speed
of light. The distance between the Sun and Earth is
about 150 million km. It takes light from the Sun about
8 minutes and 20 seconds to travel this distance to the
Earth. The speed of vehicles changes a lot, depending
on the type of vehicle. The speed of animals in our sur-
roundings also changes a lot, depending on the type
of animal. An eagle must dive at a speed of 322 km/h
to catch its prey. Among animals, the fastest animal on
land is the cheetah, which travels at 140 km/h to catch
its prey. A tortoise travels at only 0.26 km/h.
A light breeze freshens people, but strong winds

can destroy buildings. In meteorology stations,
people calculate the speed of winds to decide if
they are dangerous. Winds with speeds of more
than 118 km/h are called hurricanes. Devices used
to measure wind speed are called anemometers.
One of these is shown in the photograph.
The direction of the wind is found using another

device called a windsock that turns around and
looks like an ice cream cone. It is made from a light
material. You can see them on motorways, viaducts
and airports.

Speed
Kinetic Energy
Example
Objects can only move if they have energy. All mov-
Ahmad rides a bicycle at a constant speed and travels
ing objects have a movement energy called kinetic
a distance of 16 km in 2 hours.
energy.
What is Ahmad’s speed?
Solution
From the speed formula Ahmad’s speed is,
x 16
v= = = 8 km/h
t 2
Objects have no kinetic When objects are moving,

energy when they are resting. they have kinetic energy.
Let’s Compare Speeds
Divide the class into two groups, each group will choose only one
of their friends to compete.
You need: Meter, chronometer or time counter.
Preparation:
1. Find a walking track about 30-40 m long in your school.
2. Let one of your friends take count with the chronometer.
3. The two students that have been chosen by their group will
walk (but not run), as fast as they can to complete the distance.
They will do this one by one.
4. All students from each group will record their friend’s dis-
tance travelled and the time taken to complete the distance Distance trav- Time
in the table. elled (m) taken (s)
A. What is the speed of the first competitor? 1st

competitor
............................................................................
2nd
B. What is the speed of the second competitor?
competitor
............................................................................

ACTIVITIES
1 True / False
Write ‘T’ for true or ‘F’ for false in the box next to each sentence.
1. The distance travelled for every second is called speed.

2. The kinetic energy of an object moving on a floor decreases, and a short time later becomes zero.
3. Objects that travel a great distance in a short time are called fast objects.
4. An instrument called a speedometer, found in all vehicles, shows the speed of the vehicle.
5. The fastest known speed is the speed of light.
6. A vehicle that travels the same distance in the same amount of time, has a constant speed.
7. A bird sitting on its nest has no kinetic energy.
2 Fill in the Blanks

Fill in the blanks in the sentences with the correct word from the list below.
1. The distance travelled in a unit of time is called ................... .
2. The unit of time is the ................... and is shown with the symbol, h.
3. The ................... of a racer who finishes first is greater.
4. An athlete who runs 8 km in an hour is ................... than another athlete who runs 7 km in the same time.
5. For any movement, the distance travelled divided by the time taken will give the vehicle’s ................... .
6. A moving object’s energy is called ................... .
spe faster
ed
d
spee spe ergy
hour
ed kinetic en

ACTIVITIES
3 4
Values of distances and times taken to travel
this distance are given in the table below for
many vehicles. Calculate their speed.
Time A car travels over the distance shown in one hour in

Distance Speed the picture.
Vehicle passed
(km) (km/h)
(h) Calculate the speed of the car.
X 100 1
Y 60 2
Z 150 5
K 80 8
L 70 5
M 80 4
N 135 15
Answer the following questions using the table

above. 5

1. Which vehicles have the same speeds?
A) X - Y B) Y - Z C) K - L D) M - N
2. Which vehicles travel the same distance?

A) Y - Z B) X - M C) K - M D) Y - N

3. Which vehicles move for the same period of
time?
A) Z - L B) Z - N C) K - N D) Y - K
4. Which vehicle is the fastest?

A) X B) Z C) N D) Y
Arrange the vehicles in increasing order of their
speeds.
5. Which of the vehicles travels the greatest
distance?
A) N B) M C) Z D) X
6. Which vehicle is the slowest?

A) Y B) K C) L D) N

Test
1. The distance between two cities is 4000 km. 4. The speeds of the cars in
the picture are as follow-
ing:

K : 75 km/h
L : 90 km/h
M : 100 km/h
A plane travels this distance in 8 hours; what
is its speed in km/h?
AA Which of the following sentences about the
A) 4000 B) 2000 C) 1000 D) 500 motion of the cars is incorrect?
DDD / Deneme 3 / Soru 2
A) The order of the speed of the cars is K>L>M
B) M is faster than the other cars.
C) K is slower than the other cars.
D) L travels 90 km in one hour.
2. Which of the following choices has no kinetic
energy?
A) B)
5. The speed of a bicycle is 20 km per hour the

speed of a car is four times the speed of the
bicycle.
C) D) What is the speed of the car in km/h?
CC
A) 100 B) 80 C) 60 D) 40
6.

3.
The car travels along the straight road, passing

through the points K, L, M, P and O, as shown

above. The distances between the points are
The blue car in the figure passes through point K equal to 30 km.
at 12:00, and through point L at 13:30. If the car moves from point K to point O in two
What is the speed of the car in km/h? hours, what is the speed of the car in km/h?
CCC
A) 20 B) 60 C) 120 D) 180 A) 30 B) 45 C) 75 D) 150

2. Force
The effects of a force on an object are as follows:

a. A Force can start motion
The unit of force b. A Force can stop motion
Measuring the force with a dynamometer c. A Force can change the direction of motion
Net force d. A Force can change the speed of motion

e. A Force can change the shape of an object

Balanced forces and unbalanced forces

Force
Dynamometer
Balanced force
Unbalanced force
Net force

Forces cause all motion in the universe, so

they affect your life. What is special about
the forces that affect your life? When any-
thing moves, it rubs against a medium; this
medium can be a solid, liquid, or gas. This
rubbing tries to stop the motion. To do this
it applies a force in the opposite direction to
motion; this is called friction. Just imagine
what would happen if there was no friction
forces.
Let’s Discover Forces

You have learnt that force is a push or pull feeling. You
do not see force, but you can feel its effects. There are
two types of force:
1. Contact forces. Example: friction force.
2. Non-contact forces. Example: gravity and magnet-
ic force.

Force
The force you use to hit a tennis
ball with your racket. The force of a jet motor.
Measuring the Size of a Force
The unit of force is the Newton,
shown with the symbol N.
Force is measured with a device
called a dynamometer.
The force caused by a mass
can be measured by fixing it to
a hook on the end of a spring.
The downwards force caused
by a mass is called weight.
The greater the weight, the The force you use to lift Your school bag is very heavy. Be
greater the stretching of the up your orange careful to use both shoulder straps.
spring along the scale.

A dynamometer can also be
used to measure forces when
lying on a surface. The photo-
graph below shows this type

of measurement. A mass is fixed to the hook of a
The force your body places into The force needed to fire a
dynamometer and is then pulled over a surface by the a chair. rocket into space.
device. Here the dynamometer is measuring the fric-
tion force of the surface acting on the mass.
The sizes of some forces you may use everyday on

objects around you are shown below.

The force you use to press the Opening the ring pull of a
on/off button of a ceiling light. fizzy drink can.

The force you use to hit a tennis

ball with your racket. The force of a jet motor.
A weighing scale and dynamometer have springs inside.

Force
Measuring Force
You need: A dynamometer, 3 books, rope, and a ruler.

Preparation:
1. Tie a rope around a book. Place it on the table. Pull it with a dynamometer. When the book starts to move, meas-
ure the force. Write down this force in the table as your first reading.
2. Now take two books and tie a rope around them. Place the books on the table and pull them with the dynamome-
ter. When the books start to move, measure the force. Write down this force in the table as your second reading.
3. Finally, take three books and repeat the same experiment. Place the books on the table and pull them with the
dynamometer. Measure the force and write it down in the table as the third reading.
Amount of force measured using dynamometer
1 st reading
2 nd reading
3 rd reading
A. What is a dynamometer?
........................................................................................................................
C. In which step was the magnitude of the force greatest?
........................................................................................................................

Force

Representing Force
Balanced and Unbalanced
Forces

A force has a direction

and size(magnitude). The
The effect of two or more
forces acting on an object is

direction of a force is shown with an arrow, the

size

called net force. The net force is a single force which
shows the magnitude. The letter F represents the word

has the same effect as two or more forces acting at
“force”.
the same time. Resultant force is another name for

“net force”.

Now let’s calculate the net force for different combina-
tions
of forces.

a. Two forces acting on
an
object in the same direction:
Forces acting in different directions on objects are

shown below.

If two forces act on an object in the same direction, you

add them to find the net force.

F NET

= 150 +100 = 250 N

b. Two forces acting on an object in opposite directions:
The direction of forces applied to objects is important.

This is because the direction of motion the object
moves in is the direction of the net applied force.

If two forces act on an object in opposite

directions,
you subtract the twoforces.
The net force is in the
direction of the greater
force.
FNET = 150 - 100 = 50 N

If a force is applied to an object from above, the object
will move downwards. If a force is applied to an object

from below, the object will move upwards.
c. Two equal forces acting on an object in opposite

directions:

Fnet = 50 - 50 = 0
To get a golf ball into its hole, the force the ball is If two equal forces act on an object in opposite direc-
struck with must be in the direction of the hole. tions the net force is zero.

Force
If the forces acting on an object are equal, but in

opposite directions, the resultant or net force is zero Example
and the object will not move. The forces are said to be
balanced.

If the resultant of the forces acting on an object is not
zero the object will move. Then, the forces are said to
be unbalanced. The object above is under the effect of four forces. The
forces are balanced, and only three of these forces are
Example shown in the diagram. What is the magnitude and
A cupboard is pushed
direction of the fourth force?
by a force of 400 N
towards the east.
If the cupboard is to
move at a constant Solution
speed, what must
the friction force be
(in Newtons) acting between the floor and the bot-
tom of the cupboard?
Solution
To be pushed at a con-
stant speed or remain at

rest, the cupboard must
be under the effect of bal-
anced forces. Since the cupboard is already moving to
the east at a constant speed, the frictional force must
balance the force of 400 N by moving in the opposite
direction (west). This mean FS = 400 N towards the
west.
Example
Read the explanations under each picture. Which
Example explanations are correct? Tick them.

The object above has two forces of 20 N acting on it,

in opposite directions.
Answer the questions below about this object.
a) Is the object under the effect of balanced forces?
Why?

b) Does the object move or not? Why?
Solution


Force

ACTIVITIES
6
What are the effects of the forces shown in the photographs below. Write your answers in the spaces
below each photograph.
a. ................................................................ b. ................................................................ c. ................................................................
d. ................................................................ e. ................................................................ f. ................................................................
g. ................................................................ h. ................................................................ i. ................................................................

Fill in the blanks in the sentences with the words in the list below.
1. Force is measured with a ..................................... .
2. The unit of force is the ..................................... .
3. A car which travels east, then turns towards the west has changed its ............................ .
4. A plane travelling at constant speed is under the effect of ...................................... forces.
5. Two forces acting on an object with the same magnitudes, but opposite directions, are called
.................................... forces.
direction balanced
Newto
n dynamometer friction

ACTIVITIES
8 True / False
Place the letter ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false in the box next to the sentences below.
1. Forces can be grouped as either contact forces or non-contact forces.
2. Force is measured with an equal arm balance.
3. If an object travels at constant speed, it is under the effect of balanced forces.
4. If a moving object has a force applied to it in the opposite direction to the motion, it will slow down.
9
The objects A to H have dynamometers attached to them, as shown in the diagrams below.
Dynamometers apply the forces shown in the figures.

Answer the following questions about these objects:
1. Which objects are under the effect of the same magnitude of force?
......................................................................................................
2. Which of the objects have forces applied to them in opposite directions?
......................................................................................................
3. Show the directions of the forces acting on objects A - H by drawing arrows on the objects below.


Test
1. 3.

Forces F1, F2 and F3 have the magnitudes and
directions shown in the table.
Object K is under the effect of forces, as shown
Which of the forces, applied to an object, will in the figure.
give the greatest net force?
What is the magnitude and direction of the
DD
resultant force on object K?
A) Only F2 B) Only F1
C) F1 and F3 D) F2 and F3 A) 4 N - North B) 7 N - North
C) 4 N - South D) 4 N - East
4. Which of the objects below is not under the

effect of balanced forces?
CC_6402
2. The objects below are on a smooth (no friction) A) B)

surface.

A full bag tied A lorry travelling

to a branch at constant speed.

C) D)
Copper bowl
Which of the objects are under the effect of

balanced forces? water
BB
A) K and L B) K and M A football rolling A copper bowl
down a hill in water
C) M and N D) K, L, and N

Test - 1
5. “If two forces are applied to an object in the 7. Amir is carrying out an experiment in the science
same direction, the resultant force will have laboratory, he wants some advice so he asks his
its .......I....... value. If two forces are applied in friends a question. Amir’s friends want to help him
opposite directions the resultant force will have with his experiment, so they answer as follows:
its .......II....... value.”
Which of the below correctly fits into blanks I
and II?
CCC - 6402 Amir
I II
A) least least
B) least greatest
C) greatest least Jamal
D) greatest greatest
Hamid
Use dynamometer M. Look!

it can measure up to 100N!
Sumayya
Safiya
Which of his friends is correct?
BBB - 6402
A) Sumayya B) Hamid C) Jamal D) Safiya
6.
An object K placed on a smooth surface is under 8.
the effect of two forces.

The following sentences are written about
this object.
I. The object is under the effect of balanced Object K is under the effect of balanced forces
forces. on a smooth surface.
II. The object moves at a constant speed. Which of the following gives the value and
III. The object’s speed changes with time. direction of the resultant force on object L
Which of the sentences above must be correct? correctly?
CCC / 6401 BB
A) I and II B) Only II C) Only I D) I and III A) 1 N, west B) 1 N, east
C) 7 N, west D) 7 N, east

3. Gravity
All these examples show that there is a force pulling

the objects downwards.
Earth has a gravitational force, called

gravity or the gravitational pull
The direction of gravitational force
Gravity affects all masses on Earth, giv-
ing them weight
Weight is a force and can be measured
with a dynamometer
A mass has different weights on different
planets
Mass and weight are different

Some meteorites fall to Earth, because the Earth pulls them
Weight towards itself.
Gravity (Gravitational force) This force is called gravitational force. The gravita-
tional force of the Earth is often called gravity and it
pulls objects downwards towards the centre of the
Earth.
Everybody is interested in the Sun, the Look at the children below; when they release the
Moon, the planets, space and the stars. balls, in which direction do they fall?
How will the planets affect you if you travel
there? Do the weights of objects get heavier
on other planets? What is gravity? Why do
objects fall onto the ground from above?
Humans must know the answers to these
questions when they travel to different parts
of the Earth and when they travel into space.
Gravity
When you release an object, it falls to
the ground. If you throw any object
upwards, it returns to your hand.
When an apple snaps off
the branch, it falls to the
ground.


Gravity
All bodies in space attract all other bodies. This is a The Force Applied by Earth on Objects
very strong attraction for bodies nearby each other.
In turn, the attracted bodies also apply a gravitational (Weight)
force on all other bodies. The Earth applies a large force on large objects and a
The mass of an object has a different weight on Earth, small force on small objects.
than on the Moon. This is because Earth and the Moon
have different masses and sizes.

Look at the picture above, on which object does the
Earth apply the greatest force?
In space, the gravitational force is very low, this means
astronauts are not pulled to the ground anymore.
Instead they float.

Mass is the amount of matter an object has, weight is

the gravitational pulling force acting on this mass. The
unit of weight is the Newton (N).
In space, objects pull other bodies towards them-

selves. The Earth and Moon pull each other with equal
forces, but in opposite directions.
An astronaut has the same mass on the Earth and

the Moon, but when he goes to the Moon his weight
decreases. This means the Moon has a lower gravita-
tional force than the Earth.

Gravity
The gravitational force acting on a 1 kg mass is about 10

N. You can write this as a formula:
W=mxg
If there were no gravity?
m is the mass of the object and g is the gravitational
The Earth attracts all objects towards itself, because
constant of Earth which is about 10 N/kg.
it has such a large mass. Gravity is a non-contact
The weight of an object on Earth also depends on how force; this force of attraction gives masses a weight.
far it is above Earth. What would happen if there was no gravity? Have
you ever thought about this before?
How many minutes can you live without air? If there
were no gravity, the air that surrounds Earth would
be free to float away into space. Living things would
die; leaving Earth without life.
1000 N
300 N The water on Earth would also float away into
space. This would also cause life to die.
km Stones, dust, plant leaves and other small solid
Earth 00 objects would float around the air, making it difficult
50 150 N
to breathe.
If objects had no weight, they would not be able to
move on mediums, like floors or through mediums
10 000 km
like water by rubbing against them and using their
friction forces.
This means you would not be able to live on Earth.
Look at the picture above, on the surface of Earth the Gravity makes it easy for us to live on Earth!
weight of an astronaut is the greatest, but as she rises
upwards into the sky, her weight decreases.
Example
Which of the sentences below about weight is
incorrect? Tick them.
( ) Weight is a force and is measured with a
dynamometer.
( ) A large mass will have a lower weight than a
smaller mass at the same height from Earth.
( ) The weight of an object decreases as the object
travels away from Earth.

A 1 kg object will have different weights on each of the planets and on the Sun and Moon.

ACTIVITIES
10 True / False
Place the letter ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false in the box next to the sentences below.
1. Mass never changes, whatever its position in space.
2. Gravitational force doesn’t depend on a planet’s mass.
3. The gravitational pull of the Moon is greater than the pull of Earth.
4. The direction of gravity is towards the centre of Earth.
5. If gravitational force were very great, you would not be able to walk very well.

Fill in the blanks with the words in the list below.
1. ......................... force acts in a direction towards the centre of Earth.

2. When objects are affected by gravity they are said to have a force called ...................................... .
3. An object has a weight on the Moon that is ...................................... its weight on Earth.
4. An object’s ......................................... changes with place and position.
5. An object’s weight .............................. when it rises above Earth’s surface.
weight less than weight gravitational decreases
12
An object has its weight measured at
positions X, Y, Z and T. In the spaces
below write down the order of the meas-
urements, from the greatest to the least.
.......... > ......... > .......... > ..........

ACTIVITIES
13
Fill in the crossword with answers from

the sentences below.
1. When objects are affected by
gravity they are given a force called
......................... .
2. One of the units of ................ is the
gram.
3. Mass is measured on an equal arm
......................... .
4. An arrow shows the ........... of a force.
5. Unit of weight.
6. A device used to measure force.
7. If more than one force acts,
the single force that has the same
effect is called the ......................... .
14
Answer the following questions
a) What is gravitational force?
..................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................
b) Compare mass and weight.
..................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................

1. Particles That Make Up Matter
What is matter?

In science anything that takes up space and has mass
Matter is made from particles is called matter.
Matter has a lot of empty space
The volume and mass of matter can be measured.
The History of The Atom
Mass can be measured on an equal arm balance and
volume can be measured in different ways, depending

on the state of matter.
Atom Expansion
Notice the difference between matter and non-matter
Particle Contraction
in the descriptions below.
Matter
Ü A torch is matter, but the light spreading out
from the torch is non-matter.
When you look around, you will see that substances

have different properties from each other, but they
have some shared properties.
If you could see the inside of a substance, you would

notice that the substance is really made of much small-
er pieces.
Ü Burning coal is matter, but the heat coming from
There are also some other changes in matter. For
the coal is non-matter.
example, when it is cold outside, the inside of the
window becomes misty with tiny water droplets. When
cologne is dropped on your hand, it disappears in a
few seconds. This makes you think that matter may
change in some way. Other changes you will notice
are that, when wood or coal is burnt it changes into
ashes. Fruit and vegetables left for a long time become
mould.
Ü Metal wires are matter, but the potential differ-
These examples show that matter has different states, ence through across it is non-matter.
and that they have their own properties.

Particles That Make Up Matter
Example
Ü If you blow a balloon up a
little more, the mass of air
and its volume increase.

How many of the examples above are matter? If the amount of matter stays the same: its mass
DDD doesn’t change but the volume may change for differ-
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 ent reasons.
a. Volume Change with Temperature

Amount of Matter, Mass, and Volume
The amount of matter can change. For example, you If you suddenly pour boiling
can cut a loaf of bread in half. If you place a bowl under water into a porcelain teapot,
a leaking tap, in time, the amount of water increases. If it will probably crack.
you allow the air to escape from a blown up balloon, its
volume decreases.
When the amount of substance changes, its mass also
In summer look at the electric
changes by the same amount.
cables, they will be hanging
loosely, but if you look at
them in winter they will be
stretched or contracted.
1. Does the Volume of Matter Change? Next time you go to the train
If the amount of matter increases, so does the volume. station, look at the spaces
left between rail lines. They
Ü If a little more orange are there to allow the metal
juice is poured into the rails to increase in size or
glass, both the mass of expand in summer.
liquid and the volume
of liquid increase.
If you place a squashed table
tennis ball in hot water it will
blow up again, like a balloon.
Volume Change with Temperature
You need: One balloon, one glass bottle, some hot water, one bowl.
Preparation:
1. Fix the balloon to the mouth of the bottle.
2. Fill the bowl with some hot water.

3. Put the bottle in the hot water.
4. Wait for some time. What do you observe?
.................................................................................................
CHAPTER 3 | MATTER IS MADE FROM PARTICLES 67

Push a cold metal ball bear- This means that a solid or liquid do not change their
ing through a hole, then heat volume when they are squashed or compressed.
it, and try to push it through
Gases will change their volume when squashed;
while it is still hot. You will
though the more they are compressed, the harder it
find that it won’t fit through
gets to compress them.
anymore.
The examples given above are the effect of heat on the

volume of matter. Heat causes expansion and contrac-
tion of matter.
b. Volume Change under the Effect of a Force Special solids like sponges and cotton wool can be
squashed. This is because these materials have a
If you have three syringes, as shown in the picture
below; they can be filled with different substances, lot of empty space present inside them.
sand, water, and air. Now block the end of the syringe.
Now apply a force on the substances by pushing the
syringe downward.
2. Matter is Made From Particles Surrounded

Ü The volume of sand by Empty Space.
doesn’t change.
You learnt that, even if the amount of matter is the
same, heat can change its volume.
How does this change happen?
When the syringe squashes air, you can see that the
volume decreases. This means that matter must be
made of smaller pieces of matter, and these must have
space between them. When they are squashed by
Ü The volume of water pressing down on them with a syringe, they get closer
doesn’t change. together.
Ü The volume of air

decreases, but as it
decreases you must apply
a greater force to push it Since solids and liquids can change into gases when
further downwards. they are heated, they must also be made of particles
with space between them.

Matter appears to be joined together (continuous), a. Particles of Matter

but it is not. It is made of tiny pieces of matter called
particles with space between them. It can exist in three Ü Far above Earth, its surface looks like a sea of
different states; solid, liquid, and gas. mountains and oceans, as you come nearer you
can see great cities. Moving in a little nearer you
Since gases can be compressed they are useful for will see buildings and their windows, even nearer
many everyday things: fire extinguishers, vehicle tyres, you will see rooms between walls. If you look care-
basketballs and footballs, and safety air bags in vehi- fully at the walls, you will see that they are made of
cles. bricks lined up together, side by side.
Compression of gases is very useful.
4
Safety air bags in this vehicle depend on the
compression of gas.
3
Example
At this point, you will ask yourself:

If the substances below are placed in a syringe, I wonder what is inside the brick material. Does
which of them can be compressed? it have the same structure as I saw when I was
CC
A) Iron B) Water
looking at Earth from far above in the sky?
C) Air D) Stone

If you smash a brick with a hammer, it will break Ü If you put a spoon of salt into a glass of water and
into tiny pieces. If you smash each piece again with stir it, the salt will almost completely disappear. This
a hammer, it will become a powder. Each tiny grain is called dissolving.
of powder can be smashed again with a hammer,
to make them into even smaller grains.
How small are these grains?
If a drop of ink is dropped into a container of water,
after a while the ink will spread out over the whole
volume of water. The water will be slightly coloured
by the ink. This shows that the ink has separated
into its particles in the water. The particles have
spread out, all over the water.
The water taste has changed, it now has a salty
taste. This shows that the salt has spread out all
Activity - 1 over the water, as tiny particles of salt. The same
thing happens when sugar is stirred into hot tea.
A boy holds a bottle between his hands. In the The picture, drawn below, shows what happens
first case the bottle is full of water; in the sec- when sugar is placed into hot tea.
ond case it is full of air. Each time he tries to
squash the bottle.
a. Using the particle structure of matter, explain
why the bottle with air is easy to squash, while
that full of water cannot be squashed.
b. After the boy stops squashing his bottle of air,
why does the bottle change back to the shape water
molecules
it started with?
water
molecules
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Sugar dissolves in hot tea.
Ink in Water
You need: An eye dropper, a jar, water, red ink.
Preparation:
1. Put some water into the jar.
2. Put a drop of ink into the water and watch it.
3. Wait for a few minutes and observe what happens.
4. What do you observe?

b. What is an atom?
Since ancient times, people have been interested in
matter, and what it was made of.
Matter is made up of atoms. Atoms are the building
blocks of matter. In other words, the atom is the small-
est unit of matter. There are even smaller particles
inside the atom. An atom can be split into smaller
particles.
Atom
A brick is the The atom is the building block of matter.

building block of a
wall.
c. From Atoms to Cells
The smallest unit of an organism is the cell. Cells join
together to build organisms.
Under a microscope all the parts of the cell can be
seen, including different shapes of proteins, fats and
carbohydrates. These cell parts are also made of
atoms.
An organism is made
up of cells.

Test
1. Which one of the statements below is not cor- 3. A boy places some coloured powder in water,
rect? the powder changes the colour of water.
DDD
What is the reason for this?
A) Wood is matter. DD
B) Iron is made up of atoms. A) The powder is very heavy.
C) Losing heat can increase the volume of matter. B) The water is not hot.
D) Air has a fixed volume. C) The powder is made of invisible particles.
D) The powder does not dissolve in water.
4. Which one of the below is incorrect?

DD
A) Light is made up of atoms.
2. B) Sugar can dissolve in water.
C) All matter is made up of atoms.
D) Heat is not matter.

The syringe shows a gas before and after press-

ing down on it with the piston.
Which of the following conclusions about a
gas cannot be found this experiment? 5. Atoms are the smallest particles of .......................
CCC
Which of the words below best completes the
A) Its shape can change. sentence?
B) It can be squashed. DDD
A) time B) space
C) Its volume doesn’t change.
D) There is a lot of space between the particles. C) energy D) matter

2. Elements and Compounds
Iron Element

Properties of Elements and Compounds
The nature of molecules
Iron atom
The structure of a molecule
Iron nail

Copper Element
Element Molecule Compound
Copper atom
Copper bowl
If you compare the substances around you in your

Gold Element
daily life, you will find that most of them have different
properties. For example, light can pass through glass
but cannot pass through wood. This is related with the Gold atom
type of atoms and their combinations in a substance.
There are two types of substances:
Gold
Ü Made of the same kind of atom.
Ü Made of different kinds of atoms.
1. Elements
The type of substance made of the same kind of atoms
is called an element.
Iron, copper, hydrogen, and carbon are all elements.
Today about 115 elements are known; ninety two are

natural elements and the rest are artificial.
Properties of Elements
Ü Made of the same kind of atom.
Ü They cannot be made into simpler matter by physi-
cal or chemical means.

Elements and Compounds
Properties of Compounds:
Ü There are at least two types of atoms in its struc-
ture.
þ Substances like iron, copper Ü They cannot be changed into simpler substances
and aluminium have a regular by physical means.
pattern of atoms. Ü They can be changed into simpler substances by

chemical means.
Ü If the proportion of different atoms changes, it
If the atoms in an element are arranged in groups of becomes a different substance.
the same number and kinds of atoms, each group
Ü The atoms in the molecules are joined together.
is called a molecule.
Hydrogen, and oxygen atoms have a structure
made of groups of 2 atoms, each pair is called a
molecule.
þ Some elements have their
atoms arranged in groups
Activity - 2
2. Compounds Look at the diagrams of molecules below. Each
The type of substance made of two or more different kinds of colour shows a different type of atom. Write
atom is called a compound. down underneath each diagram whether they
If two hydrogen atoms join with one oxygen atom they make are elements or compounds.
a compound; you know this compound as water.
a)

......................... ..........................

b)
If atoms of different elements join together to make a
group of atoms, they are also called molecules.
......................... ..........................
In some elements, molecules are made of at least two
of the same kind of atoms.
In some compounds, molecules are made of at least c)
two different kinds of atoms.
Table salt is a compound made of chlorine and sodi- ......................... ..........................
um atoms.
d)
......................... ..........................

Is every substance made from molecules?

Ü The particle structure of elements like Iron, aluminium, and copper have the same type of
atoms joined or bonded to each other in a regular way, to form a crystal. These substances
don’t have any molecules.
Ü The particle structure of elements like hydrogen, iodine, and oxygen have the same type of
atoms joined to each other. These substances are made from molecules of the same type of
atom.
Ü The particle structure of substances like water, sugar, and table salt have different types of
atoms bonded to each other. These are also molecules. These substances are made from mol-
ecules of at least two different types of atoms. These may also arrange themselves in a regular
way to form a crystal.
Activity - 3
Match the substances below with their particle model.
a) Coal
(element)
b) Water
(compound)
c) Nitrogen
element, gas
d) Copper
element

Activity - 4
Look at the atomic models and fill in the table below.
Model Element Not an element Reason
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)

Test
1. Which of the atomic models below is not for 5. Which of the models below for elements and
an element? compounds is incorrect?
BB BBB

2.

Using the information above, which of the

models below is not a compound?

Answer questions 6, 7, and 8 using the particle models

below.

3. Which of the following is not a particle model

of a molecule?

6. Which particle models are elements?
BB
A) I - II B) II - III

C) II - IV D) III - IV
4.
7. Which particle models are compounds?
AA
A) I - IV B) II - III

C) Only IV D) III - IV
Using the atomic models above for substanc-
es X, Y, and Z, which of the choices below is
incorrect?
A) X is an element 8. Which particle models are elements made of
molecules?
B) Y is a mixture BB
C) Z is a compound A) I - II B) Only II
D) All three are pure substances C) Only III D) II - IV

3. Physical and Chemical
Changes
Water also effects some substances. For example,

sugar and salt dissolve in water. Ink and lemon juice
dissolve in water to colour it.
Physical changes
Chemical changes
Pure substances and mixtures

Physical change Chemical change
Identity Appearance
In your daily life, you see many substances change.

When you cut or hit an object, its shape changes. For
example, glass breaking, carrots being grated, toma-
toes being chopped, and bread being cut.
Heat also effects some substances. Fire changes sub-

stances; coal burns into ash, food changes when it is
cooked. Nature changes substances over time; toma-
toes become soft and rot, cheese becomes mould.

Physical and Chemical Changes
1. Identity of a Substance stance’s identity is different from the original sub-

stance. The particles of the new substance are differ-
Every substance has some characteristic properties. ent from the original substance.
For example, the water you use everyday is a liquid These types of changes are called chemical changes.
with the properties: it is transparent, colourless, has Frying, moulding, burning, and rotting cause chemical
dissolved minerals in it, each particle is made of two changes in substances.
hydrogen and one oxygen atoms.
However, the most important thing which is used to
identify any substance is, the type of particles it is
made up of and the number of atoms in each of these
particles.
For example, a water molecule has two hydrogen and
one oxygen atoms.
2. Physical Change
Any substance can have its appearance changed by
After the processes above, the chemical identity of the
tearing it, cutting it, squashing it, or powdering it. Any substance changes.
substance can also have its state changed by melting
it, evaporating it, condensing it, or freezing it.
Changing the appearance and state of a substance
changes only its physical identity. Example
These types of change are called physical changes. A glass bottle is filled with air and a deflated balloon
is placed over its mouth (diagram I). The bottom of
the glass bottle is heated up and the balloon starts to
inflate (diagram II).
In all these pictures the substance is water, but in different

states. The substances are the same, but their appearance is
different.

Using this information, which of the statements

below are correct? Circle it.
3. Chemical Change I. The heated air’s mass has increased
Heat causes a substance’s chemical identity to II. The heated air’s volume has increased
change;frying potatoes, making yoghurt from milk, III. The heated air’s particles have separated into
burning coal, and moulding cheese. The new sub- smaller particles.

Observing Physical and Chemical Changes
You need: Metal clips, some waste paper, mould cheese, fresh
cheese, a fresh and mould lemon, a red cabbage, fresh and mould
fruit, a blender.
Preparation:
1. Divide the class into six groups.
2. Give different shapes to the metal clips
3. Cut the paper into different sizes.
4. Compare the appearance of the mould lemon and the fresh
lemon.
5. Compare the appearance of the mould cheese and the fresh
cheese.
6. Compare the appearance of the mould fruit and fresh fruit.
7. Grind the cabbage, add some drops of lemon to the ground
cabbage. Observe the changes.
A. According to what you have observed, complete the table given
below;
Tick the first column if it is a physical change, and tick the
second column if it is a chemical change.
Changes in Matter Physical Change Chemical Change
Clips with different shapes
Paper cut into different sizes
Ground cabbage with lemon drops
Mould lemon
Mould cheese
Mould fruit

Activity - 5
A science pupil’s homework is to make a list of physical changes and a list of chemical changes in
everyday life. He has presented it as a table, which is shown below:
Physical Changes Chemical changes
1. Breaking glass 5. Freezing milk a. Frying eggs e. Melting a candle

2. Melting chocolate 6. Burning wood b. Making a fruit salad f. Folding paper
3. Moulding cheese c. Ink dissolving in water
4. Changing a piece of meat into mincemeat d. A piece of apple changing colour in the air
When the teacher checks his pupil’s homework, he notices some incorrect entries. Re-write the pupil’s
list correctly in the empty table below.
Physical Changes Chemical changes
Activity - 6
Look at the photographs below carefully, then write below, in the spaces shown, whether the changes you
see are physical or chemical.
a) b)
Water Ice Raw meat Fried meat
c) d)
Potatoes Fried potatoes Tree Wood
e) f)
Milk Yoghurt
Wheat Flour

4. Pure Substances and Mixtures Ü What substances are inside

Elements are made of only one kind of atom. sea water? Is it a pure
Compounds are made of two or more atoms joined substance or a mixture?
to form particles. If a substance has only one kind of Explain.
particle, it is called a pure substance. This means ele-
ments and compounds are pure substances.
There are not many pure substances in everyday life, ..............................................................................................
the substances you usually use are mixtures.
..............................................................................................
A mixture is a substance made of two or more pure
substances, that combine without losing their chemi-
cal identities. Mixtures are not pure substances.
Ü What substances
are in clouds? Is it a
pure substance or a
mixture? Explain.
copper
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
water
Ü What substances are
mixed together to form
lemonade? Is it a pure
substance or a mixture?
Explain.
..............................................................................................
salty water
..............................................................................................
Oxygen gas
4 nitrogen gas
dust particles
water vapour.
Ü What substances are

used to make a lamb
air
casserole? Is it a pure
substance or a mixture?
The pictures above show substances and their particle models. Explain.
Picture 1 is an element and picture 2 is a compound. These are
pure substances.
Picture 3 is salty water and, since it is made of more than one
substance, it forms a mixture. This is not a pure substance. ..............................................................................................
Picture 4 is air and is made of many different substances. So, it ..............................................................................................

is not a pure substance; it is a mixture.

Activity - 7
Some examples of changes in substances are given below. Write beneath each example whether they are
physical or chemical changes.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Test
1. Four pupils are discussing experiments they 3. I. A melting chocolate

have done. II. A rotting tomato
I folded
What kind of changes are I and II?
I cut up a
a piece of paper. piece of wire.
BBB
It was a physical It was a physical I II
change. change.
A) Physical Physical
B) Physical Chemical
C) Chemical Physical
Ahmed
I saw I melted D) Chemical Chemical
moulding cheese. candle wax.
It was a chemical It was a chemical
change. change.
Jasmen
Which of the pupils is incorrect?

CCC
A) Ali B) Ahmed
C) Esra D) Jasmen
4. Ali helps his mother in the kitchen and notes

all the jobs he does. Later he groups them into
physical and chemical changes in the table
below.
Job done Physical Chemical
2. Substances made from the same type of parti-
cles are pure substances. Mixtures can be made I Frying potatoes 3
of different types of particles.

II Squeeze orange juice 3
Using this information, which of the following
choices is incorrectly paired? III Burning wood 3
BB
Pure substance Mixture IV Boiling water. 3
A) Salty water ↔ Sugary water

Which of the above are correct?
B) Table salt ↔ Air CCC
C) Water ↔ Fruit Soda A) I and III B) III and IV
D) Iron ↔ Salty water C) II and III D) II and IV

4. Particles in Each State
of Matter

The properties of the gas, liquid and solid
states
The properties of the particles in each state

Solid state, liquid state, gas state
When you breathe, air is taken into your lungs and

causes your rib cage to increase in volume (expand),
when you breathe out the air from your lungs is pushed
Substances are made of particles called atoms and out and your rib cage goes inwards (contracts).
molecules, that are too small to see. These particles The examples given above show three different states
are in a continuous state of motion. The type of motion of matter; solid, liquid, and gas.
depends on the state of matter.
Let’s look at the properties of these three states.
If you hold a piece of stone in your hand, you will see
that it has a fixed shape, and that it is strong when you
squeeze it. 1. The solid state
A piece of stone, a porcelain plate, a metal spoon,
a piece of coal; all of these substances have a fixed
shape. This is the solid state.
In a solid state the particles are touching one anoth-
er, so they cannot move from their fixed positions.
However, they vibrate in their fixed positions.

When you look at a glass of

water, you will notice that it
flows easily, and takes the
shape of its container.

Particles in Each State of Matter
2. The Liquid State

Substances like water, cologne, and milk have no fixed
shape, but take the shape of their container. Substances in
this state are in the liquid state.
As they have no fixed shape, they slide over each other to
flow.
Gold ingots Iron
Different types of liquids

Stones Silver
Different types of solid
Properties of solids
Ü Their particles are almost touching one another.
Ü There is almost no space between the particles.
Ü Their particles cannot change position; they cannot
slide over each other. They vibrate in their fixed
Milk Orange juice
positions.
Ü They have a fixed shape.
Ü It is the most well arranged or ordered state of mat-
ter.
Ü It expands when heated.
Water Cologne
Object
When solid state substances are made into certain
Properties of liquids
shapes, they are called objects.
Ü Their particles are in contact with each other.
Solid substance Object
Ü There is little space between particles.
Copper Copper pan
Ü The liquid state is less well arranged, or less
Gold Gold statue ordered than the solid state.
Silver Silver tray Ü The particles can slide over each other and vibrate.
All objects are solid substances, but not all solids Ü They expand when heated.
are objects.

Particles in Each State of Matter
3. The Gas State

If you drop cologne on your hands, you smell it, but
Example
very soon it has disappeared. What has happened to X : Element in the gas state
the cologne? It has evaporated.
Y : Compound in the liquid state
Steam is also water, which has evaporated. It spreads Z : Mixture in the solid state
out everywhere to fill the space around it.
Using the information above decide which of the
Their particles move freely away from each other to fill choices below is correct?
all the space around them. They have no fixed shape. CCC
A) Y and Z are pure substances.
B) There is no space between the particles of substances Y
and Z.
C) If substance X is squashed its volume may decrease.
D) Substances X and Z don’t flow.
Ü They have no fixed shape.

Ü Particles have a lot more space between them,
compared to liquids and solids.
Ü They can be compressed.
Ü They flow.
Ü Particles are the least ordered state of matter.
Changes of state are all physical changes. The
Ü Particles vibrate. name given to each change of state depends on
Ü They expand a lot more than solids and liquids the type of change which is caused.
when heated. Melting : Substance changes from a solid
Ü Particles move freely. state to a liquid state.
Freezing : Substance changes from a liquid
state to a solid state.
Example Evaporation : Substance changes from a liquid
state to a gas state.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Condensation : Substance changes directly from
Can be compressed + – +
a gas state to a liquid state.
Fixed shape – + +
Sublimation : Substance changes directly from
No fixed shape – + – a solid state to a gas state without
any liquid state involved.
In the table above, some physical properties of the
different states of matter have been marked in. A ‘+’
sign means they have this property a ‘–’ sign means
they don’t.
How many of the signs are correct?
A) 4 B) 5 C) 7 D) 9

ACTIVITIES
1 True / False 2 Fill in the Blanks

Decide whether the information in each sen-
tence below is correct/true (T) or incorrect/ Place the words in boxes into the correct
false (F). Place a ‘T’ or ‘F’ in the box provided blanks in the sentences a - k below.
at the beginning of each sentence.
physical atoms chemical
a. An atom is a building block of matter that

cannot be split. elements molecule gas
b. There are no elements with just one type of liquid compounds space
atom in their structure.
c. Pure compounds are all made of mole- particles

cules.
a. All substances are made of particles called
d. Table salt has an elemental structure. ____________________ .
e. Sugar placed into tea causes a chemical b. A substance made up of more than one type
change.
of atom is called _______________ .
f. Physical changes cause the identity of a c. If two or more atoms join together they make
substance to change.
a ____________________ .
g. The structures of mixtures and compounds
d. Iron, copper and nitrogen are examples of
are the same.
__________ ______________ .
h. Tearing a piece of paper up is a physical
change. e. When leaves turn yellow in autumn they have
undergone a ____________________ change.
i. The space between particles is almost the
same in all states of matter. f. Changes in which the identity of a sub-
stance remains the same is called a
j. Solids can be compressed into smaller ____________________ change.
volumes.
g. The state of matter where the particles move
k. Oxygen is a compound. the most is the ____________________ state.
l. Elements can sometimes be found in the h. The reason why gases can have their
form of molecules. volumes compressed more than liquids
is the ___________________ between their
m. When water evaporates it undergoes a
physical change. ____________________ .
n. Lemonade is a mixture. i. Water is an example of the ____________________

state of matter.
o. Atoms can be split into smaller pieces.

ACTIVITIES
3 5
Order the lists of substances below from the sub- Look carefully at the particle models below and
stance with the least space between its particles, write down whether they are in ‘solid’, ‘liquid’, or
to the substance with the most space between its ‘gas’ states.
particles.
a. Salt, olive oil, carbon dioxide gas
...............................................................................
b. Milk, wood, hydrogen gas
..............................................................................
c. Oxygen gas, iron, water
..............................................................................
The words given in the green boxes below are somewhere in

the puzzle. Find them and ring them.
PHYSICAL
MIXTURE VIBRATION
CHANGE
CHEMICAL 6 Pair each of the descriptions below with the cor-

SLIDING ELEMENT
CHANGE rect state of matter.
MOLECULE COMPOUND PARTICLE a. Can be squashed into a

smaller volume.
PURE
EXPAND ATOM
SUBSTANCE b. There is a lot of space
between the molecules.

c. The particles cannot SOLID
easily move.

d. The particles can only
vibrate.

e. It is a fixed shape.
LIQUID

f. There is almost no

space between the

particles.
GAS

g. They take the shape of
their container.

h. They completely fill their
container.

Test
1. The particles of substance X: 4. Which of the following choices will change, if

– Can be squashed. a pure substance changes from a liquid to a
gaseous state?
– Have a lot of space between them.
DDD
Using the above information decide which of A) Chemical properties B) Number of particles
the following may be substance X?
C) Volume D) Mass
AAA
A) Steam B) Snow
C) Rain D) Tap water
2.

Which of the foods above have been placed

in the wrong group?
DDD
A) Vinegar - Rice
B) Milk - orange juice
C) Macaroni - cheese
5.
D) Macaroni - orange juice

3. For solids;
Changes of state of substance X are shown
I. They have a fixed volume above.
II. They cannot be squashed into a smaller
Using this diagram decide which of the fol-
volume
lowing choices is incorrect?
III. They have no fixed shape CCC
Which of these choices are correct? A) All steps are physical changes.
BBB B) Step 1 is melting.
A) I only B) I and II
C) Step 2 is condensation.
C) I and III D) I, II and III D) Step 4 is freezing.

Test
6. ï A substance in the I state can be 8. Which of the events below has only under-
squashed. gone a physical change?
ï A substance in the II state has a fixed CC_6501
shape.
ï The liquid state has a fixed volume, but not
a fixed III .
Which of the choices below fits I, II and III

correctly into the spaces above?
BB
I II III
A) Solid Gas Volume
B) Gas Solid Shape
C) Gas Liquid Shape
D) Solid Liquid Mass
9.
7.

The above three containers are similar and they
hold an iron solid, ethyl alcohol liquid and steam Nurcan pushes the arm of the syringe in diagram
as a gas. - I downwards, as shown in diagram - II.
Which of the choices below cannot be con- Which of the following choices cannot Nurcan
cluded by observing the containers? conclude by using this experiment?
CCC DD_6501
A) A solid has a fixed shape. A) There is a lot of space between the air
B) Liquids and gases have no fixed shape. particles
C) Particles in solid and liquid states undergo B) Air has no fixed shape
free motion. C) In diagram II the air particles have less space
D) A gas state spreads out equally in all direc- between them
tions (homogeneously) in its container. D) Air has no mass.

5. Density
1. Density
In your daily life you will notice that some substances
float on water, and some don’t. For example, if you
drop a piece of wood into the water it doesn’t sink, it
floats on the surface. Candle wax and plastic float as
well. However, if you drop a glass marble or spoon into
the water they both sink. Why do some substances
float and others sink?
The volume of a substance does not affect whether it

floats or sinks in water.
Wood floats on water. If you drop a piece of wood into

the water, it floats. If you drop a large wooden trunk
into the water, it will also float.
If a small iron nail and a large piece of iron are dropped
into water, they both sink.
This means that the mass of a substance does not
affect whether it floats or sinks in water.
Even though the ship is extremely heavy,

it doesn’t sink.

Density
2. If Different Substances Have the Same Density mean the mass per unit volume. So you
Volume, is Their Mass the Same? should know the mass and volume of a substance to
calculate its density.
Cut a rubber and a piece of plastic foam into cubes
of side 1 cm. Now they have the same volume. If you To find density, the mass of any substance is divided
weigh them both on a balance, you will notice that the by its volume.
rubber has a greater mass than the plastic. In the same
Mass
way a cube of iron and a cube of wood, of the same Density =
Volume
volume, will have different masses.
Substances which have the same volume as other For example the mass of a 100 mL gold ingot is 1930
substances, but with a greater mass are called denser g. Its density can be calculated as;
substances. For example, the mass of a glass of water 1930 g
Density =
is greater than the mass of a glass of cooking oil. This 100 mL
means water is denser than cooking oil.
Density = 19.30 g/mL
What is Density?
Substances with the same volume may have different
3. Substances That Float on Water and Their
masses. This means for every unit of volume, each
Density
substance has a different mass.
You can see in the table
The masses of volumes of 1mL (1 cm3) of some sub-
that the mass of 1 mL of
stances are given in the table below:
water is 1g. This means
the density of water is 1
g/mL.
Substances that float on
water like, wax, wood, and Water is denser than
oil all have a mass of less cooking oil
than 1 g for 1 mL of their
volume. They float on water because they are less
dense than water.
Substances that sink in water like, iron, copper, and
Substance Volume Mass Density aluminium all have a mass of more than 1 g for 1 mL
of their volume. They sink in water because they are
Wood 1 mL 0,60 g 0,60 g/mL more dense than water.
Wax 1 mL 0,80 g 0,80 g/mL
Sunflower
1 mL 0,92 g 0,90 g/mL
oil
Water 1 mL 1,0 g 1,0 g/mL
Aluminium 1 mL 2,70 g 2,70 g/mL
Iron 1 mL 7,80 g 7,80 g/mL
Copper 1 mL 8,90 g 8,90 g/mL

Table of densities

Density
4. Water is Denser Than Ice

If water changes to a solid (ice) its volume increases.
For example, 9 g of water has a volume of 9 mL. When
The layer of ice at the top of frozen water protects
water becomes a solid at 0 °C, its volume becomes
the life underneath, by keeping the water under-
10 mL. So the density of ice is, neath warm enough to live in. This is because the
9g ice acts like a blanket so that life can continue
Density = inside.
10 mL
If ice did not float on water, seas, lakes, and streams
Density = 0.90 g/mL would freeze from the bottom upwards. On very
cold winter days you sometimes see the surface
of water frozen because of the cold weather. If ice
was denser than water it would sink to the bottom,
making plant and animal life impossible deep inside
the water.
The density of ice is less than water. This is the reason

that ice floats on water. A frozen lake and some animals that live on its surface
An iceberg floating on water, 90% of the ice is underwater.

Density
Example Example
A piece of metal has a mass of 600 g and its volume
is 50 mL.
Which of the below is the density of the metal?

CCC
A) 60 g/mL
B) 10 g/mL
C) 12 g/mL
A beaker of water has a piece of wood and a piece of
D) 20 g/mL iron placed in it. The wood floats, while the iron sinks
in the water.
Which is the order of densities of these substances,
starting from the lowest?
CCC
A) Iron - Wood - Water
Example B) Water - Wood -Iron
Calculate the density of a liquid which has a volume C) Wood - Water - Iron
of 2000 mL and a mass of 1800 g. D) Water - Iron - Wood
What is this liquid? (Identify it from the table of
densities)
Solution
CC
1 True / False
Decide whether the information in each sentence below is correct/true (T) or incorrect/false (F). Place a ‘T’ or
‘F’ in the box provided at the beginning of each sentence.
1. (......) Objects of lower density than water float on its surface.
2. (......) Objects of greater density than water sink.
3. (......) An object’s mass per unit volume is called its weight.
4. (......) The unit of density is mL / L.
5. (......) Density of a substance is found by dividing the volume by the mass.
6. (......) Every substance has a different density.

ACTIVITIES
Fill in the blanks with correct words.
1. Objects of lower density than water ............................ .
2. Objects of greater density than water ............................ .

sink g / mL
3. An object’s mass per unit of volume is called ............................ . float volume
4. The unit of density is ............................ . density

increases
5. Density is found by dividing the mass by the ............................ . temperature
6. When water freezes, its volume doesn’t contract, it ............................ .
7. When the ........................ of a substance increases its volume expands.
3
Give short answers to the following questions.
1. What is density? Explain.

.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
2. How is density calculated? What is its unit?

.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
3. If the density of ice was greater than the density of water, what problems would it cause?
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

ACTIVITIES
Answer the following questions.
1. What is the density of an object of 4. A piece of copper has a mass of 4000 g,

mass 100 g, and volume 25 mL? and a volume of 200 mL.
What is the density of the copper?
Solution:
Solution:
2. A piece of aluminium has a mass of 600 5. A piece of silver has a mass of 2100 g,
g, and a volume of 50 mL. and a volume of 100 mL.
What is the density of the aluminium? What is the density of the silver?
Solution: Solution:
3. A piece of zinc has a mass of 350 g, and 6. What is the density of an object of mass
a volume of 50 mL. 40 g, and volume 20 mL?
What is the density of the zinc? Solution:
Solution:

ACTIVITIES
The beakers below are filled with liquids having the densities shown. Objects of different densities are dropped
into these liquids. Draw what happens to the objects. Will they sink or float?

Test
1. If the mass of a substance is divided by its 4.

volume, what property of the substance is Substance Density (g/mL)
found? K 1,5
A) Boiling point B) Volume L 0,7
C) Mass D) Density M 3
Substances of density greater than water sink,

and substances of density less than water float.
The density of water is 1 g/mL.
Which of the substances in the table above
will sink in water?
BBB
A) Only L B) K and M
C) L and M D) K and L
2. Which of the following is a unit of density?
A) Degree B) Gram / Millilitre

C) Joule D) Calorie
5. What is the density of a substance of mass

150 g, and volume 50 mL, in g/mL?
3. I. A is a solid substance of density 2 g/mL AAA
II. B is a liquid substance of density 3 g/mL A) 3 B) 30 C) 33 D) 300
III. C is a solid substance of density 4 g/mL
The densities of substances A, B, and C are
given above.
Substances A and C, are placed on the liquid
substance B. Which of the diagrams shows
what will happen to objects A and C?
DDD
A) B)

6. The densities of four liquids are given below.
On which of the liquids will an object of mass
C) D) 75 g, and volume 25 mL float?

A) 3,3 g/mL B) 2 g/mL

C) 2,5 g/mL D) 1,5 g/mL


1. How is Electrical
Energy Carried?
How is electrical energy carried?

How is electricity carried from the place where it is
made to buildings in cities and towns?
How to build circuits which test if a mate-
rial conducts electricity Electricity is produced in a power station. Cables are
used to bring electricity to towns and cities. These
What properties a material must have to
cables carry the electrical energy along
conduct electricity
closed circuits. The cables come
Some liquids and gases can conduct as far as homes, schools and all
electricity other buildings. The energy they
The uses of electrical and insulating have carried from the power stati-
materials ons are then shared in each buil-
How to protect yourself from electric ding’s ho use hold cab les. The se
shocks household cables are spread
out inside a home, school or buil-
ding into every room.

Electrical Conductors and Insulators

Conductor Insulator Do all materials around you conduct electricity? How
Electric shock do you find out? The answer can be found using the
simple circuit shown below.

Water from a source flows downwards

through rock, soil, and sand until it reaches
the sea. Does electricity from a source flow

through all substances? How is it carried?
Can different states of matter conduct elec-
tricity? Are insulators just as important as To test whether a material conducts electricity, place
conductors? The answers to these ques- it between the test points. If the bulb lights up, the
tions have helped in the development and material has closed the circuit by allowing electricity to
safe usage of our most important source of flow through it. This means that the material is a con-
energy, electricity. All modern technology ductor. If the bulb doesn’t light up, the material is not a
uses electricity. conductor. This means that the material is an insulator.
Materials can be placed into two groups: conduc-

tors and insulators.
Materials that conduct electricity are called con-
ductors and those that don’t conduct electricity are
called insulators.

How is Electrical Energy Carried?
Metals like Iron, copper, aluminium, and zinc all con- When salt is added to water, the bulb lights up.
duct electricity. If an iron nail is touched by both test If sugar is added to pure water, instead of salt the bulb
points the bulb lights up. still does not light up. The bulb lights up when vinegar
or lemon juice is placed in the beaker, instead of pure
water.
wate
r Salt
wate
Pure r
Examples Examples
of liquid Sugar water Water with of liquid
insulators lemon conductors
Rain r
wate wate
r Tap

When the test points K - L touch a plastic comb, the Example

bulb does not light up. Some circuits are shown below. Which of the circuits has its
bulb lit up? Tick them.

It is not only solid substances that can be grouped as
conductors and insulators, some liquids also conduct
electricity. If the test points are placed inside a beaker
of pure water the bulb doesn’t light up.

Identify the Conductor?
You need: A bulb, cables, pure water, a beaker, two metals (electrodes), two clips, a battery, vinegar, salt,
paper, paper clips, and toothpicks.
Preparation:

1. Connect the battery and bulb as shown in the figure.
2. Fill the beaker with pure water. Does the bulb light up?

3. Dissolve some salt in the beaker. Does the bulb light up?
4. Put vinegar in the beaker instead of water. Does the bulb light up?
5. Put paper between the clips (K and L). Does the bulb light up?
6. Put the other materials between the clips one by one and check the bulb. What do you observe?
7. Make a list of materials that you think are conductors or insulators.
CHAPTER 4 | ELECTRICITY IN EVERYDAY LIFE 103

Insulators and Their Uses

Example
Are the tools, devices or goods you use in your daily
life insulators or conductors? The answer depends on
why you are using these products. For example, the
test screwdriver shown, checks whether there is elec-
tricity flowing in a circuit. Its handle lights up to show
there is electrical current. Its end is a metal conductor,
so that electricity can flow through it to the light bulb
at the top. Its handle is plastic, so that when held by a
person they will not get an electric shock.

Group the objects above into conductors and insula-
tors in the table below. You can add more materials.

Type of material Conductor Insulator To stop people getting electric shocks on devices that
use electricity, insulators are used to cover the con-
ducting parts, so they are safe to touch.
Plastic ruler
Gold ring
Wooden spoon
Nylon string
Rubber
Aluminium foil
Electric cables are also covered in plastic insulator, so
that you don’t to uch the me tal con duc tor in si de when
Rubber ball electricity flows through it.
Glass
Pottery vase
Wool cloth
Iron nail

There are many electrical goods around you that use

both conductors and insulators. For example, radios, Activity - 1
electric ovens, toasters, sockets, plugs, switches, exten-
si on cab les, irons, elec tric fi res, and TV’s.
For each device below, write down the name of the
parts which are conductors and the name of the
parts that are insulators.

plug
switch
circuit breakers
For devices such as TV’s and light bulbs, glass is used

as an insulator.

Example
Three students below talk about what they have
learned from their teacher about electric conductors.
Bahar Abdullah Esra
Which of the students are correct?

Are Gases Conductors? READING

Benjamin Franklin, as well as
Has lightning ever struck when you
being the president of the USA,
were looking out on a stormy night? This electrical was one of the scientists who
energy comes worked on electricity. He made
Look at the shape of the lightning
bolt in the picture. It is clear that from electricity in many discoveries in electricity;
some energy is flowing from the clouds, flowing he found that lightning was really
the clouds to the ground. You through the air to electricity, and electricity could
the ground. Dry air is
see a path of light energy, but be positive or negative. He devel-
really it is a path of electrical an insulator, so how
can electricity flow oped many electrical devices that
energy. As it flows, some
through air? The answer are still used today; e.g. lightning
of the electrical energy is
changed to light ener- is that there is an enormous rods and the Leyden jar.
amount of electrical energy
gy. In 1752 he discovered that lightning was electricity
in the clouds. Also the air is
not dry, it is wet, remember that flowing through air to the ground; this is called an
water conducts electricity, so the electrical discharge. To find this out, he waited
air nearby becomes a conductor for for stormy weather and when lightning appeared
a very short time. In this short time it he flew a kite high into the sky with a metal key tied
produces a closed circuit, and flows to its string. His aim was to collect sparks from the
to the ground.
clouds. It is reported that he saw sparks on the key,
when it was high in the sky.
Franklin explained this as caused by electrical dis-
charge of the electricity collected on the kite. He
knew that this was a very dangerous experiment,
This idea from nature is used to make fluorescent lamps
since the string gets wet in the rain and becomes
and the neon lamps in signs you see on funfairs and
a conductor. You have already learned that water
restaurants. There is a gas inside that is forced to be a
can become conducting easily. If such a wet string
conductor, just like the air. These lamps are much bright-
is held, the electricity will run through this wet string
er than normal lamps.
and give you an electric shock. Around this time
three scientists died of electric shocks when they
tried a similar experiment!
Electrical Safety
Devices like mobile
phones, MP3 play-
ers, torches, and
radios work with only
a little electrical energy.
This means there is no danger of electric
shocks from these types of devic-
es. There are electrical goods that use
Neon signs are much cheaper than fluorescent lamps,
much more electrical energy, such
so they are used a lot for advertisements, like this one.
as TV’s, fridges, washing machines
and irons. These types of goods
must be used with care, since
any damage to them can cause
electric shocks.
In all these devices, conductors and
insulators are used together; con-
ductors let electricity flow through to
make the goods and devices work,
but are covered with insulators for
safety.

Electric shocks happen DON’T use electric devices in damp

when electric energy flows places, like bathrooms where there
through your body from con- is a lot of water. This is because tap
ductors. This happens when water is a conductor, and will close
you touch the conductors. circuits to the ground through your
The human body is also a wet hands.
conductor and so closes
a circuit, that flows to the
ground. When the current
flows through the human
body, it causes burns and NEVER touch sockets, switches,
does a lot of damage. or plugs with wet hands.
There are some rules you can follow to make electricity

flow safely, without danger of electric shocks, fires,
and leaking electricity. Electricity safety rules are as
follows:
NEVER place heavy objects on

NEVER push sharp metal the top of electrical cables, this
objects into electric sock- causes tearing of plastic insula-
ets. tors around the cable, and may
cause the conducting wires to
ALWAYS read the instruc- come out a little; enough to give
tions of an electrical device you a shock.
before using it.
REMEMBER wires without insu-

If you notice any strange lation cause fires and electri-
smell or noise from a appli- cal shocks when current flows
ance tell an adult. through them.
NEVER try to repair electrical
appliances or goods by yourself.
ALWAYS ask an electrician to
repair them.
DON’T use a cable, plug
or socket if it is damaged,
or if the metal wires have
come out. KEEP electrical cables far-
away from hot applianc-
Have them repaired straight es, such as electric fires or
away. irons. These cause melting
and damage of cable insu-
lation. DON’T keep cables
near lamps, which also
heat up a lot.

DON’T move electrical appliances around when they ASK an electrician to check your
are plugged in. household circuit breakers.
ASK an electrician to check
your household wiring is
correct, that sockets and
cables are high quality, and
that there is no electricity
leaking out. These are all
causes of house fires and
electric shocks. Example
Some pupils have prepared electric safety posters
below. Which of the posters below are correct? Tick
DON’T drag electrical devices them.
around by their cables; after
a few weeks this will slowly

damage them.

NEVER do experiments with

mains electricity. Always
use low energy batteries for
experiments.
NEVER climb up electric

transmission posts, or fly
kites nearby.

If you see kites stuck on

these lines, or if you see lines
that have fallen down or are
damaged, tell the electricity
service straight away.
NEVER connect too many Activity - 2

appliances to the same
socket. People often do Determine whether the following behaviour of
this by using extension children are True “T” or False “F”.
cables with many sockets.
1. Othman’s brother is pretending he is an elec-
This causes too much elec-
trician, by pushing a wire from his toy into a
tric energy to flow, which
socket. ...............
causes a lot of heating.
This may cause a fire. 2. Zahra is very cold and asks her mother to
switch on the fire. ...............
3. The children are playing hide and seek around
an electrical power sub station. ...............
NEVER push sharp metal 4. Mother told me not to make toast in the morn-
objects into electric devices, ing, because the insulation on the toaster cable
this will touch the conductors was damaged. ...............
inside completing a circuit 5. Asma tries to mend a broken hairdryer. ...............
through your hands.

ACTIVITIES
1

Mark which items below can be placed between points A and B in the circuit to make the lamp switch on.
glass copper wire aluminium foil
iron nail porcelain plate

wet cloth
toothpick coins
metal spoon cardboard metal cleaning pad
2
Fill in the table below by placing a (4) sign in the correct column.
Solid conductor Liquid conductor Solid insulator Liquid insulator

Dry paper
Metal key
Glass
Wooden spoon
Syrup
Gold ring
Iron
Salt water
Plastic comb
Vinegar
Balloon
Pure water
Porcelain

Test
1. 3. Which of the following electrical problems

does not cause a fire?
BB

A) A cable with torn plastic insulation.

B) Connecting plugs and sockets which have no
damaged parts.
C) A cable near a heater.

D) An electric cable with a heavy object on it.
Each schoolgirl is describing one of the ideas
about electricity below.

4. A student builds a circuit in the science laborato-
ry, to find out which materials are conductors and

which are insulators.
Which of the electrical ideas is not described Which of the following circuits did she build?
by these schoolgirls?
BB
A) I B) II C) III D) IV

2. Which of the objects below is made of both

conducting and insulating materials?

CC

5. The cables in your house are covered in plastic

insulating sleeves.
What is the reason for these sleeves?

BBB
A) To stop electricity leaking out
B) To stop the flow of electricity
C) To stop too much use of electricity
D) Electric energy can be carried more easily in
materials like plastic

Test
6. Which of the following objects are conduc- 9. Which of the items below
tors? will cause the bulb in
CCC this circuit to switch on?

A) Dried wood B) Rubber
C) Aluminium foil D) Glass

BBB / Deneme 7 / Soru 6

A) Wooden spoon B) Copper stone
C) Glass jar D) Plastic comb
7. Which of the groups below only contains

insulators?
AA 10. Which of the following substances will con-
A) Porcelain, glass, plastic duct electricity?
DD
B) Zinc, copper, silver
A) Glass B) Metallic spoon
C) Plastic, wood, copper
C) Pure water D) Air
D) Air, silver, gold
11. Which of the following sentences about con-

8. The circuit at the side ducting and insulating materials in electric
has been built by Cemil. circuits are correct?
CCC
He changes the liquid
in the beaker and A) Only conductors are important.

watches the bulb, to B) Only insulators are important.
check whether it switch- C) Both are important.
es on.
D) None of them are important.
Which of the questions
below can Cemil answer
with this experiment?
AAA / Deneme 1 / Soru 1
A) Can you group liquids into ‘conductors’ and
‘insulators’?
B) Does the brightness of the bulb change with
the temperature of the liquid?
12. Which of the following substances will con-
C) Does the number of batteries affect how well duct electrical energy?
the liquid conducts electricity? DD
D) Does the amount of liquid affect how well it A) Paper B) Sugar water
conducts electricity? C) Pure water D) Salt water

1. The Support and
Movement System
The skeleton and the muscles associated with it pro-

vide the support your body needs to help it move.
An understanding of our skeletal and The support and movement system is made of two
muscular systems, which ensure our
support and movement sections:
The variety and structure of the bones
1. Skeletal System
that make up our skeletal system
An explanation of the structure and func- 2. Muscular System
tion of joints
The types of muscles and their work
The relationship between your support
and movement system and other sys-
tems
How to keep your support and move-
ment system healthy

Bone Joint
Cartilage Muscle
— In a person weighing 70 kg, the total weight of the

bones is 7 kg.
Why Learn About the Support and Movement — The longest bone is the femur (76 cm). Its bearing
System? If you know how this system works capacity is 1.65 tons.
and its structures, you can better protect — The smallest bone is the stirrup (2.6-3.4 mm),
them. This will lead to a better, healthier life. found in the ear.


The Support and Movement System
1. Skeletal System Red bone marrow is found in the top (head) of short,
The skeletal system is hard and strong. It is formed flat, and long bones. Blood cells are produced in this
from 206 bones of various sizes. bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow is located in the
The skeleton’s functions, in general, can be listed middle of long bones. Yellow bone marrow contains a
as follows: lot of fat. Red bone marrow is found in almost all the
bones of children. In adults, a large part of the red
8 It supports and gives a regular shape to the body. marrow turns into yellow bone marrow, which then
8 Together with the joints and muscles, it makes stores fat.
movement of the body possible.
Cartilage: Elastic, connective tissue found in many
8 It protects sensitive internal organs, like the brain, parts of the body. For example, at the head of long
lungs, and heart, from external forces and holds bones. Allows the easy movement of bones. Prevents
them in place. bones from wearing out.
8 Blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow,
found inside bones. Blood vessels Hard bone tissue
8 It functions as a store of minerals.
Skull
Sternum red bone yellow bone

marrow marrow periosteum cartilage
Rib cage
Vertebrae (spine) Long bones are found in the arms and legs.
Pelvis There are three main groups of bones in the human

body: long, flat, and short bones.
Long Bones: Found in the legs and arms. The swollen
Femur ends of long bones are called heads, while the region
between the heads is called the shaft. There is spongy
bone tissue in the head regions of long bones.
Flat Bones: Includes the sternum, ribs, pelvis, knee
cap, and skull. These bones, from the outside inwards,
are made up of: periosteum, compact and spongy
Foot bone, and red bone marrow.
The human skeleton is made up of about 206 bones. Short Bones: Typical examples are the vertebrae, wrist,
and ankle bones. The structure is similar to flat bones.
The bone’s structure
The surface of bones is covered with a bone mem-
brane, called the periosteum. This membrane is rich
in blood vessels that carry nutrients and oxygen to the
bone cells. It provides for the bone’s lateral growth and
it helps in the repair of broken or damaged bones.
Compact bone (hard bone) is found under the mem-
brane. It is strong, and made up of minerals and pro-
tein fibers.
The head region of short, flat, and long bones is com-
posed of spongy bone tissue.
A structure called marrow is found in the interior parts of
bones. There are two kinds of marrow in bones, red and
yellow. Type of bones found in the human skeleton.
CHAPTER 4 | SYSTEMS OF OUR BODIES 115


2. The Muscular System

The muscular system is the name given
to the system made up of cells that ena-
ble the bones, and internal organs to
move. Our muscles, under the control of
our nervous system, make possible our
voluntary and involuntary movements.
TYPES OF MUSCLES FOUND IN OUR BODIES
1. Heart Muscle (Structure and Function)

8 In structure, heart muscle looks striped (striated) but it works without you
trying; this means involuntarily. These muscles are called cardiac muscles.
8 The contractions and relaxations of the heart muscle allow blood to be
pumped through the body.
8 Heart muscle cells, have more than one nucleus in the middle of the cell.
8 Heart muscles need more energy to work. So they consume much more food
and oxygen compared to other muscles. Heart muscles are also rich in blood
vessels.
2. Smooth Muscle (Structure and Function)

8 Smooth muscle is white, because there is no substance in the smooth muscle
cells to give colour to them. For this reason it is also called white muscle.
8 Works involuntarily.
8 It is found in the internal organs such as: blood vessels, stomach, and
intestines. It makes their proper working possible.
8 They are long and narrow in shape, with tapered ends.
3. Striated (Skeletal) Muscle (Structure and Function)

8 Striated muscle is also called skeletal muscle because it is connected to the
skeleton by tendons.
8 About half of your body mass is made up of striated muscle.
8 They work voluntarily (you move them).
8 Striated muscle contracts and relaxes quickly, but tires quickly.
8 The muscles of the arm, leg, head, neck, finger, chest, back, abdomen, eyelids and
tongue are striated muscles.
8 Striated muscle is rich in blood vessels.

How Do Muscles Work?

Skeletal muscles cause movement, by
affecting the joints. Most of the mus-
cles are found in pairs. These work in
opposition to each other. For example,
as can be seen in the picture on the
left, one group of muscles bends the
arm, the other extends it.
As your arm moves, the biceps muscle
shortens, and swells when the elbow is
bent. Meanwhile, the muscle in the back
of the arm relaxes and lengthens.
When the bent arm opens, the oppo-
site of the first condition occurs. In this
situation the biceps muscle lengthens,
and relaxes while the muscle in the
back of the arm contracts and thick-
ens.
Muscles, by working in this matched
opposition, ensure that your move-
ment occurs more easily.
As can be seen in the diagram, pulling
an oar or lifting an object are move-
ments you knowingly make. However,
breathing, and the beating of the heart
occur involuntarily (without you trying).
The Health of the Support and Movement There is a continuous exchange of minerals between the
System blood and bones. The amounts of these substances are
One of the most important factors in the development affected by minerals in the food you eat as well as by
and health of the support and movement system is balanced nutrition. If there is not enough minerals in the
nutrition. For the health of the bones, especially during food eaten, the minerals are taken from the skeleton. If
periods of growth, eating the following foods needed this happens often, the end bones weaken, becoming
are very important: vegetables, fruits, milk, and dairy brittle and soft.
products.
Vegetables and fruits are storehouses of minerals

and vitamins. Sports and regular exercise are very
You should consume sufficient amounts of milk and dairy
important for the health of your bones and muscles.
products, especially during growth and development.
Activities like these strengthen the bones.

Vitamin D deficiency reduces the absorption of calci-

um and phosphate. Thinning or softening of the bones
and teeth is observed. As a result, a disease called
Activity
rickets arises. PROJECT: Preparing a Poster That Shows the
Tight clothes and high-heeled shoes negatively affect Amazing Body Systems
your development. As seen in the diagram, high- Your body is a wonderful structure, composed of
heeled shoes can cause damage to joints in the foot. different systems. Some of these are: the support
and movement, circulatory, and respiratory sys-
tems. Prepare a poster that shows these systems.
Arrange the structures that belong to these systems

on poster board and label them. Now prepare a
brief explanation of these systems. To give you an
idea, an example project is shown below.
Information: You can make the structures of these

Not sitting up straight in your seat when studying, systems by cutting them out of cardboard and
always carrying your bag with the same shoulder, and drawing the structures on it. That way, you can
trying to lift heavy objects without bending your knees have the effect of a three-dimensional poster. You
all affect your support and movement system nega- can improve on this effect by making the internal
tively. In addition, sudden movements and strains can organs out of sponge or white styrofoam.
cause breaks in the bones.
A suggestion: Under your teacher’s supervision,

display the poster you have prepared on the
“Science Board”.You can also organize a poster
competition in your classroom.

ACTIVITIES
1
Look at the picture of the bone, shown below. Write down the functions of the parts shown in the boxes.
2
The words given below are placed in the table. Find the words and circle them.
S E M I M O V A B L E C R MOVEMENT
K U O H A R D B O N E A U BONE
E I V U D U I D N U O R I JOINT
L D E R O H R T E W N T J CARTILAGE
E N M O V A B L E T P I O MOVABLE
T W E P H U N N U K P L I HARD BONE
O O N W S U P P O R T A N SEMI-MOVABLE
N P T D T Q N D O K H G T SUPPORT
R H W R D N Q Q I U Q E D SKELETON
U Y E L L O W M A R R O W YELLOW MARROW

ACTIVITIES
3
Write down the name of the part of the bone described next to each sentence.
1. Helps repair the bone. Periosteum

_________________________________________________________
2. The place where white blood cells are produced. _________________________________________________________
3. Red marrow is found inside this. _________________________________________________________
4. Found in the area that forms joints on some long bones. _________________________________________________________
5. Helps in the lengthening of bones. _________________________________________________________
6. Gives hardness to the bones. _________________________________________________________
7. Located in the head of long bones. _________________________________________________________
8. Covers the outer surface of bones. _________________________________________________________
9. Found in the middle of long bones. _________________________________________________________
10. Prevents bones from wearing out. _________________________________________________________
11. The part that produces red blood cells. _________________________________________________________
12. Forms an attachment surface for muscles. _________________________________________________________
13. Stores various minerals. _________________________________________________________
14. Helps bones move easily . _________________________________________________________
15. Helps the bone’s growth. _________________________________________________________
4
Match the structures given below with their function or characteristic.
Prevents bones from wearing out. Yellow bone marrow
Found in the middle of long bones. Periosteum
Produces red blood cells. Red bone marrow
Provides for bones’ growth. Hard bone
Various minerals are stored in its structure. Cartilage

ACTIVITIES
Complete the concept map below with the correct concepts.
found in
found in
found in found in

Complete the sentences below with the correct words from the list at the side.
legs
1. We can move _________________ voluntarily. striated muscles
2. ________________ is found in internal organs like the food pipe, ________________ bones
and small intestines. stomach
3. The ____________ is made of bones. smooth muscle

4. Muscles work together with _________________ to allow movement. relax
5. Striated muscles are found in the _________________ . skeleton
6. Foods with _____________ should be eaten for the muscles to be able to develop. protein
7. The muscles that form the heart are called _________________ . heart muscle
8. The muscles in our body contract and _________________ .

ACTIVITIES
7
In the spaces below, write down whether there is contraction or relaxation. Write down the characteristics
of the muscles shown with numbers in the pictures above.
1 2
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
3 4
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
8
A B C D E
F G H I
Some organs and structures of our bodies are shown above. According to the pictures:
1. In which ones is striated muscle found? _______________________________________________________________
2. In which ones is smooth muscle found? _______________________________________________________________
3. In which ones is heart muscle found? _______________________________________________________________
4. In which ones is muscle not found? _______________________________________________________________

Test
1. Which of the following structures of bones are 4. Which of the following is incorrect?
found in all types of bone? CCC
A) Striated muscle à Found on top of the skeleton
I. Periosteum
II. Yellow bone marrow B) Smooth muscle à Found in internal organs
III. Spongy bone C) Heart muscle à Contracts slowly
C D) Striated muscle à Contracts voluntarily
A) I only B) III only
C) I and III D) II and III
5. Which of the following pairs of bone and mar-

row is correct?
BBB
Yellow marrow Red marrow
A) Short bone Flat bone
B) Long bone Short bone
2. Some of the organs in your body are shown
C) Flat bone Long bone
in the pictures.
D) Flat bone Short bone
6. The joint between the pelvic bone and the femur

Which of the following do the organs have in
is illustrated in the figure below.
common?
D
Cartilage
A) Striated muscle is found in the structures
B) Found in the chest cavity
C) Contract quickly, tire slowly
D) Work involuntarily
Which of the statements below about this joint

is incorrect?
CCC
A) It is a fully movable joint.
3. Which of the following is not one of the func-
B) The cartilage structure on the surface of the
tions of the bones of your body?
CCC bones prevents the bones wearing out .
A) Produce red blood cells C) A similar structure occurs in all the other joints
B) Provide support to the body of your body.
C) Protect the body against microbes D) The joint fluid found in the joint space helps the
joint work.
D) Give shape to the body

2. The Circulatory System
The circulatory system in humans is a closed system

consisting of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, and
An explanation of the structures and
blood.
functions of the circulatory system
The structure and the work of the heart These are some of the
functions of the circulatory
An explanation of the different kinds,
system:
structures and functions of blood vessels
8 Transporting the nutri-
An explanation of blood’s structure, its ents from digestion to
duties and blood types. the cells.
8 Transporting oxygen
acquired by the respira-
tory system to the cells.
Heart Blood vessel 8 Transporting metabolic
Blood Blood donation waste from the cells to
the excretory system.

8 Transporting carbon
dioxide formed in the
Your circulatory system is directly involved cells to the respiratory The human circulatory
in all of your cells. This means the health of organ. system is made up of the
this system concerns all of your cells. heart, arteries, veins, and
Blood is a life-saving substance. It carries capillaries.
nutrients to the places they are needed all
over your body; keeping you healthy and
alive. Blood donation has given many peo-
ple a chance to live. By raising awareness of
this fact you should encourage your friends
to make blood donation a habit.

The Circulatory System
1. Heart The heart is made up of four chambers: the left and

8 A muscular organ that pumps blood through the right atria on top, and the left and right ventricles on
body. Your heart is about the size of your fist. the bottom. Veins empty into the atria, which have thin-
8 It is found under the rib cage, between the two ner walls than the ventricles, and lower pressure. The
lungs. your heart is protected by your rib cage. ventricles, which have thicker walls, pump the blood
8 Your heart works rhythmically and involuntarily. into arteries.
A valve composed of three leaflets is found between
the right atrium and the right ventricle. There are valves
with two leaflets between the left atria and ventricle.
Each of the two valves prevent blood that has passed
from the atrium to the ventricle, from going back into
the atrium when the ventricle is pumping. That is, the
The arteries that nourish the valves ensure that the blood moves in one direction
heart are found in the cardi- only.
ac muscle. As can be seen
in the illustration, when the
artery is blocked or con-
stricted, not enough blood
goes to the cardiac muscle.
This means that it cannot
carry enough oxygen and
nutrients to the heart, so
its working rhythm is upset. This event is called a
“heart attack”.
Oxygen-rich blood is found in the left side of the heart
and carbon dioxide-rich blood is found on the right.
The contracting and relaxing of the heart, and the
filling and emptying of the chambers takes place in
order. After a short moment of rest, they contract
again. Rhythmic contracting and relaxing of the atria
and ventricles continues regularly.
2. Blood Vessels
Blood vessels transport blood from the heart to the
body cells, and from the cells back to the heart.
When the blood leaves the ventricles, it passes into
arteries and later into capillaries. The capillaries are
structures that allow the exchange of matter between
the blood and tissue cells. Blood returns to the heart’s
atria by travelling from the capillaries into the veins.
Three kinds of blood vessels are found in your body:
8 Arteries 8 Veins 8 Capillaries
The heart’s structure and sections

3. Blood
8 Blood is a red liquid that fills the blood vessels. It
reaches all the cells through the blood vessels.
8 About 5 litres of blood are found in a normal,
healthy person.
8 Blood is composed of 55% plasma and 45% blood
cells.
Arteries
8 Vessels that transport blood from the heart to tis-
sues and organs. They are connected to the heart’s
ventricles. Valves, that prevent the blood from
going back into the heart, are found in the parts that
are connected to the heart.
8 Walls are thick compared to other vessels.
8 Blood movement and speed are faster than in other
vessels.
8 Transport oxygen-rich blood.
Veins
8 Vessels that transport
blood from the body
to the heart.
8 The veins that bring Blood is made up of two parts, plasma and blood cells.
blood from the body’s
lower region to the a. Plasma
heart, have valves on 8 The light yellow liquid in which the blood cells are
their inner surfaces found. Plasma is not made up of cells.
that open towards the 8 Immune proteins (antibodies), protein, glucose,
heart. waste matter, and mineral salts are found dissolved
8 Transport carbon dioxide-rich blood. in the plasma. Digested nutrients are transported in
Capillaries the plasma to the cells.
8 Vessels that connect the veins with the arteries.
Walls are thin and porous. This means that the
capillaries can easily exchange matter between the
Example
blood and the tissue cells. The circulatory system consists of blood, the heart,
and blood vessels.
In which of the following is the organs of the circu-
latory system given in the correct order? Tick (✔).
q Artery - Heart - Vein - Capillary
q Heart - Artery - Vein - Capillary
Exchange of matter between the blood and body cells

q Artery - Heart - Capillary - Vein
occurs through the capillaries. q Heart - Artery - Capillary - Vein

b. Blood cells Leukocytes(white blood cells)

Blood is composed of about They have no definite shape.
45% blood cells. Blood cells Protect the body from
are produced in red bone microbes. Their numbers can
marrow, and transferred to increase, if microbes enter
the blood. Each blood cell the body.
has a different function.
Leukocytes are found in the
Three different groups of blood and in body fluids out-
cells are found in the blood: Blood cells side the blood.
erythrocytes, leukocytes,
and platelets. Platelets
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Produced in red bone mar-

row. They have no definite
These cells are the most numerous in the blood. They
shape. They cause blood
contain the hemoglobin molecule, which gives the
clotting when there are
blood its red colour. Oxygen and carbon dioxide bind
wounds on the body.
to the hemoglobin molecule, and are carried to places
they are needed in the body.
Their function is to transport oxygen and carbon diox-
ide molecules.
Blood’s Responsibilities:
8 Ensures the transportation of nutrients.
8 Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules.
8 Ensures blood clotting.
8 Regulates body temperature.
The Composition of Blood
You need: Microscope and prepared blood slide.

Preparation:
1. Estimate what is present inside the blood.
2. With the help of your teacher, observe the prepared
slide and draw what you observe in the box given
below
A. Compare your observation with the picture given on the right.

What are the differences?
…………………………………………………….........…………………………………………………….....

4. Blood Groups The Benefits of Donating Blood

Four blood types, A, B, AB and O, are found in humans. 8 It keeps the blood structure in the bones alive.
Blood types are determined based upon the presence 8 It reduces discomforts like headache, stress, such
of special proteins in erythrocyte cell membranes. as blood pressure, and fatigue.
8 If the erythrocyte has the “A” protein ⇒ the blood is 8 It gives many people a chance to live.
Type A
8 If the erythrocyte has the “B” protein ⇒ the blood is
Type B
8 If the erythrocyte has both “A” and “B” protein ⇒ the
blood is Type AB The Health of the Human
8 If the erythrocyte has neither of these proteins ⇒ the Circulatory System
individual is in blood Type O. The circulatory system plays an important role in the
Transfusion of blood. ongoing health of your organs. Problems in the heart
and blood vessels have a negative effect on the other
The purpose of a blood transfusion is to build up eryth-
tissues and organs as well.
rocytes. Since the blood proteins in the erythrocytes
vary, transfusion is carried out between people with Heart attack occurs as the result of the blood ves-
the same blood type. sels, that nourish the heart, becoming constricted or
blocked.
Blood transfusions are carried out between people as
shown below.
Blood type A ⇒ to blood type A
Blood type B ⇒ to blood type B
Example
Blood type O ⇒ to blood type O
Blood type AB ⇒ to blood type AB To protect the health of the circulatory system
which of the following should you plan?
I. Do regular exercise.
The Benefits and Societal Importance of Blood
Donation II. Start a balanced nutrition habit.
Every year thousands of individuals lose their lives in III. Stay away from harmful habits.
D
surgery, birth, and illness because blood is not availa-
A) I only B) III only
ble. Many patients with blood disorders are waiting to
be restored to health through blood transfusions. C) I and II D) I, II and III
Its a fact that many ill or injured and bleeding people Cholesterol accumulating on the inner surface causes the
could die because blood is not available. For this rea- blood vessel to narrow. That’s why, to protect the health of
son, healthy people should be encouraged to give your heart and blood vessels, you should avoid too much
blood at regular intervals. cholesterol in your diet.

ACTIVITIES

Complete the flow diagram below with the appropriate terms.
composed of composed of
found in its
structure
functions functions functions
10
A human heart is shown in the figure below. State the names of the parts indicated by the arrows.

3. The Respiratory System
The energy necessary for life is produced in the mito-

chondria of the cells.
The chemical equation below, shows how energy is
The purpose of respiration
produced in the cell.
An introduction to the organs that make
up the respiratory system
Nutrient + Oxygen → Water + Carbon + Energy
How breathing occurs Dioxide
How respiratory gases are transported
The health of the respiratory system, and Taking in oxygen is necessary for this reaction, and
ways to protect it carbon dioxide is produced by the respiratory system.
The relationship between the respiratory
system and the other systems The respiratory system consists of the nose,
windpipe and lungs.

1. Nose
Alveoli Bronchi
Diaphragm Bronchioles The nose inhales air allowing it into the body. It cleans,
moistens, and warms the air. Nose hairs filter out solid
particles from the inhaled air.
Nose hairs make sure very small dust particles and
Respiration is the movement of oxygen into
microbes are filtered out. In this way, most microbes
your body and tissues and the movement
of carbon dioxide from your body to the and harmful particles cannot enter the air way.
environment. Larger animals have larger
body volumes, and greater need for gaining
oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. Res-
piration allows animals to gain enough oxy-
gen and eliminate enough carbon dioxide.
Increased exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide is made possible by hemoglobin,
since oxygen attaches to it. Your circulatory
system brings oxygen from hemoglobin to
your tissues. You do not consciously control
your respiration, your brain does; depen-
ding on the concentrations of oxygen and
Windpipe -
carbon dioxide in your blood. When there
is too much carbon dioxide, or too little
oxygen, your respiratory rate increases to
help eliminate or increase these substan-
ces. Respiration is essential to life. Knowing
about this system helps humans treat res-
piratory problems from mild colds to more
serious diseases.

The Respiratory System
Air is inhaled from the nose to the windpipe.

Bronchi Alveoli
Once the trachea enters The lungs are made up

the lungs it splits into of air sacs, called alveoli,
two branches, called which serve to increase
bronchi. Each branch then the lungs’ surface area.
splits into side branches. The alveoli are located
Each side branch is within a web of capillaries.
called a bronchiole. The It is here that oxygen
bronchioles are connected and carbon dioxide are
to air sacs called alveoli. exchanged .
The respiratory system consists of the nose, windpipe,

and lungs. For the health of your respiratory system, you
should be careful to breathe clean air.
2. The Windpipe (Trachea)
The windpipe is a long tube that carries air to and from
the lungs. At its end, it is divided into two parts, each
part is connected to one lobe of the lung. How Does Breathing Happen?
The diaphragm, is found between the ribs. It is made
of flat-shaped diaphragm muscle and is connected to
3. Lungs
the lower parts of the lungs. The diaphragm becomes
straight when it contracts, and air fills the lungs as the
ribs open.
When the diaphragm relaxes, the rib cage becomes
smaller, the lungs are compressed and the air in the
lungs is expelled.
Inhalation
8 The diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs
contract.
8 The volume of the chest cavity increases.
8 The lungs expand and the internal pressure
The lungs are found inside the rib cage. There are two of
them, called the right and left lung. The heart is located decreases.
between the lungs. Since the heart is just under the left 8 Oxygen-rich air fills the lungs.
lung, it is smaller than the right lung.This means that the left
lung is made up of only upper and lower lobes, while the 8 Oxygen moves into the blood and carbon dioxide
right lung is made up of upper, middle, and lower lobes. moves into the air sacs.

The number of alveoli are arranged to increase the

respiratory surface. There are about 300 million alve-
oli in each lung. This gives the lungs a surface area
of 70 to 100 m2. There is always a certain amount of
air in the alveoli. Very little of this air is exchanged
during breathing. Air starts to fill the lungs of new-
born babies with their first breath.
How Can You Protect The Health of Your Respiratory

System?
Exhalation Air pollution, cigarettes, alcohol use, and some chem-
8 Muscles between the ribs, and diaphragm muscles ical substances negatively affect your respiratory
relax. organs.
8 The volume of the chest cavity decreases. As a result, diseases like bronchitis, pneumonia,
8 The lungs become smaller, and internal pressure tuberculosis, asthma, and lung cancer may develop.
increases. Today, diseases like these can be diagnosed and
8 Carbon dioxide-rich air from the alveoli is expelled. treated early. A tool called a bronchoscope is used in
the treatment of lung cancer.
Harmful gases pumped out of the automobiles and
factories that make our lives easier, cause diseases of
Experiment the respiratory system, unless filters are used.
Cigarette smoke enters
You can prepare this activity as shown in the figure your lungs directly, the
below. numerous harmful sub-
Prepare a Y-shaped pipe. Connect balloons to the stances it contains pass
ends of the pipe, as shown in the figure. Fix the into the blood, harming
apparatus you have made to a plastic container, the body. Tar and nico-
as shown in the figure. Push the top of the pipe tine from cigarettes fill the
through a rubber stopper, pushed inside the mouth alveoli, decreasing the lungs ability to perform their
of the container. The base of the container should function.
be completely cut off, so it is open. Cut a balloon
and secure it to the open part of the container. To safeguard the health of the respiratory system
When you pull the
8 You should avoid areas where cigarettes are
balloon (a), the smoked.
pressure drops 8 You should wear a mask if you work in an environ-
and air fills the ment with chemicals.
balloons (which
act as lungs). The
8 You shouldn’t inhale
unknown substances.
stretched balloon
plays the role of 8 You should take regu-
the diaphragm lar exercise and follow a
When you release balanced diet.
the balloon (b),
the volume decreases and air is expelled by the
compressing balloons.

Volume of Lungs
Let’s carry out an experiment to find out what volume of air your lungs can hold.
You need: Clean plastic tubing, a ruler, a large plastic bottle, water, large bowl.
Preparation:
1. Half fill the large bowl with water.
2. Fill the plastic bottle completely.
3. Cover the top of the bottle with your hand to stop water escaping.
4. Turn the bottle upside down. Place the top of the bottle in the water
in the bowl, then remove your hand.
5. Push one end of the plastic tubing into the bottle.
6. Inhale as much air as possible, and hold your breath.
7. Breathe out as much air as you can through the tubing.
8. The air inside the bottle is the air in your lungs.
9. Measure the volume of air in the bottle.
10. Let your classmate do the same experiment, with a new piece of tubing.
11. Compare the volume of your lungs with your friends’ lung volume. Who has a greater lung volume?
There are more than 4000 harmful substances in a cigarette.

ACTIVITIES
OXYGEN’s JOURNEY
I am an oxygen molecule. I am found in the air along with a host of my friends. I’m very curious about an
experience I’ve heard about from my friends and that will probably happen to me one day: a trip through
the human respiratory system.
At last, the day I’ve waited for has arrived. I’m starting my journey with the breath a person has just
inhaled.
My first stop is the ________1_________. It’s a little warm and damp in here; but I get cleaned here. Most of
the dust and microbes can’t continue on from here. The second place I pass by is the ________2_________.
Both food and air travel through here. Then, I move in ________3_________. After that, I can see the road
split into two. I’m choosing the right road. Now I’m in the right ________4_________. My path has split
up and narrowed. At the end of one of these very narrow paths there are little sacks. My friend, carbon
dioxide, who’s travelled here before, explained everything to me. These narrow roads found in the lungs
are called ________5_________ They are connected to ________6_________, which allow oxygen to travel
into the blood and the ________7_________ in the blood to travel into the lungs.
That’s the end of my journey in the respiratory system. From here I’m moving on through the
________8_________ to a cell in the body.
Place the terms below into the blanks in the story above.
pharynx bronchiole
bronchi
windpipe alveoli
capillary
e
nose carbon dioxid

Test
1. Which of the two events below occur together 3. In which part of the lungs are oxygen and
in a normal person to cause them to inhale? carbon dioxide gases exchanged?
A DD
A) Contraction of the diaphragm muscle - A) Brochi B) Alveoli
Contraction of the muscles between the ribs C) Windpipe D) Bronchioles
B) Contraction of the diaphragm muscle -
Decrease in the volume of the chest cavity
C) Relaxation of the muscles between the ribs -
Decrease in the volume of the abdominal cavity
D) Relaxation of the diaphragm muscle - Increase
in the volume of the abdominal cavity
4. What is the correct order in which the follow-

ing structures perform their duties in causing
respiratory gases to reach the cells human
tissue?
2. Organs of the respiratory system are illustrated in
the figure below. I. Trachea
II. Bronchioles
III. Pharynx
IV. Air sac
CC
A) I – II – III – IV B) II – III – IV – I
C) III – I – II – IV D) III – I – IV – II
Which of the following statements about the

lungs is incorrect?
A
A) All of the air in the lungs is exchanged during 5. Which of the following improve gas exchange
breathing. in the lungs?
B) The diaphragm, a muscular structure, plays I. A moist inner surface
an important role in breathing. II. Being made up of alveoli
C) The muscles between the ribs cause the III. The presence of a large number of capillaries
chest cavity to expand and contract. around the alveoli
D) In order for respiration to be realised, a differ- DD
ence in pressure between the air in the envi- A) I only B) II and III
ronment, and the chest cavity must occur. C) I and III D) I, II and III

Test
6. Which of the following changes that occur in 9. Which of the following organs is not found in
the diaphragm, rib muscles, and volume of the your respiratory system?
chest cavity during INHALATION is correct? BB
BB A) Lung B) Kidney
Chest cavity C) Trachea D) Diaphragm
Diaphragm Rib muscles volume
A) Relaxes Contracts Increases

B) Contracts Contracts Increases
C) Contracts Relaxes Decreases
D) Relaxes Relaxes Decreases
7. In a healthy person, the sequence of quantity of 10. In which organ does exchange of respiratory
blood cells in blood is in the order: gases in the blood occur?
BB
Erythrocyte > platelet > leukocyte
A) Kidneys B) Lungs
During illness, which type of blood cells
increase in quantity? C) Heart D) Blood vessels
BB
A) Only erythrocytes
B) Only leukocytes
C) Erythrocytes and platelets
D) Leukocytes and platelets
11. I. Ensure passage of substances needed to the

8. I. Provide for blood clotting tissues.
II. Transport respiratory gases II. Takes unclean blood to the heart
III. Protect the body III. Transports clean blood from the heart to the
rest of the body
In which of the following choices are the func-
tions above and the blood cells given below Which blood vessels have the functions indi-
correctly matched? cated above?
BB CC
I II III I II III
A) Erythrocyte Platelet Platelet A) Artery Vein Capillary

B) Platelet Erythrocyte Leukocyte B) Capillary Artery Vein
C) Leukocyte Erythrocyte Leukocyte C) Capillary Vein Artery
D) Platelet Leukocyte Erythrocyte D) Vein Capillary Artery

1. The Particle Nature of Matter
and Heat
The direction of Heat Flow

Heat flows from hot objects to cold objects. For exam-
ple, if a hot teapot is placed on a marble top, the tea
The relationship between the particle pot has cooled, and the marble has warmed
nature of matter and heat up. The arrow in the photograph shows
The physical meaning of heat that the direction of heat flow is
from the hotter, to the cooler
object.

Atom Molecule

Particle Heat

What kind of changes does heat cause in

particles? What does heat really mean?
What types of motion do solids, liquids and
gases make? How does heat affect them?
Particle Structure and States of Matter
Answers to these questions help people to
control and use it. Heat is a type of energy, Matter is made up of very small particles, and they form
which flows through the objects around substances that you use everyday. All particles are in
you. It directly affects particles which are a constant state of motion. Each substance can have
the building blocks of matter. It is just as three states; gas, liquid, and solid. The particles are
important as matter itself. arranged differently in each state.
Solid Substances: The particles in a solid are closely

Matter and Heat packed. There is almost no space between particles,
so they can only vibrate in their fixed positions.
When matter gains or loses heat,
some changes occur in the matter
particles. Matter may expand, or
change its state. For example, ice
will melt, electric cables that are
tight in winter, will expand and
hang down in the summer.
together.
Ice absorbs heat to melt, and change state

The Particle Nature of Matter and Heat
Liquid substances: The particles can slide over each This shows that heating water causes motion. What
other, and there is a little more space between the direction does heat flow go in? What direction does the
particles than in a solid. The particles can both vibrate movement of heated water go in?
about a fixed position, and slide over each other.
The heat from the Bunsen burner first travels to the

glass of the beaker, and then to the water at the bot-

tom of the beaker, where the cotton wool pieces lie.

By following the path of the cotton wool pieces, you
can see the direction that heat flows; from the bottom
to its surface.

The path followed by the heat is shown in the diagram

below:
Gas substances: There is a lot of space between gas

particles. They can vibrate about a given position, slide
over each other, and move from one place to anoth-
er(translate). Gas particles move at very high speeds. Look at the experiment in the diagram below. In the
left hand diagram, the electric grill isn’t working and
the torch shines a beam of light onto the wall opposite.
When the electric grill is switched on the light beam on
the wall is no longer plain, it has a wave-like pattern
moving within it.

This shows that air molecules in the path of the torch

beam have been speeded up. Although you cannot

see air molecules with your eyes, this experiment
shows that air molecules absorb the heat energy and
speed up to carry heat away from the electric grill heat
Heating Causes Movement source.
Some tiny pieces of cotton wool are placed inside a

beaker of water, which is then heated. On heating, the

tiny cotton wool pieces are seen to float to the surface.
CHAPTER 6 | MATTER AND HEAT 141

The Particle Nature of Matter and Heat
Heat and Particle Movement

When particles of a substance absorb heat, their motion Activity - 1
becomes faster. When they lose heat, they slow down.
This is shown in the diagram below:
Match the substances below with the substance’s
particle speed.
Everyday example Particle speed
1. Some heated butter ï

2. Particles of ice cream
placed in the freezer ï ï Slow

3. The air particles ï Fast
Particle Collisions and Heat Flow inside a hot balloon ï
When substances absorb or lose heat, heat flows by.
4. The particles on a hot
This can be seen in the experiment below with mar- ï
iron’s surface
bles. A fast moving marble (speed 2v) collides with a
slower marble (speed v) and causes the slower marble
5. The particles of a
to speed up. ï
piece of hot iron

If there is a difference in temperature between two The numbers I - IV show a change of state.
places, energy is transferred to the slower particles in
the colder places by faster particles in the hotter places
when they collide with them. This energy is called heat.

These collisions carry on until all particles have the
same speeds. This only happens when all places, in
a medium have the same temperature. The diagram
below shows this idea.
1. In which of the changes is heat absorbed?
................................................................
2. In which of the changes does the distance
between the particles increase?
................................................................
3. In which of the changes does the distance
between the particles decrease?
................................................................
4. In which of the states can the particles move
in vibration and sliding motion?
................................................................

Test
1. The particle 3. I. Particles that absorb heat speed up

models at the II. Heat flows from a cold substance to a hotter
side show one
water, in III. For heat to flow between two substances that
three different touch each other, they must be at different
states. temperatures
What is the order of these states from solid to Which of the above remarks is correct?
gas? BB
BB
A) I only B) I and III
A) I, II, III B) III, I, II C) II and III D) I, II and III
C) I, III, II D) III, II, I
2.

4. In which of the choices below have the parti-
cles speeded up?
CC
Emirhan wants to show that heat flows between
A) An ice cream placed in the freezer at the
substances which have different temperatures.
same temperature as the freezer.
Which of the two experiments above should he
use? B) An egg removed from boiling water.
CCC C) Water removed from the fridge.
A) I and IV B) II and III D) A ball moved from a cold place to an even
C) I and III D) II and IV colder one.

Test
5. The direction of heat flow is 7.

shown by an arrow in the dia-
grams.

Which of the choices below
may be the temperatures of
substances K, L, M, and N?
BB
K (°C) L (°C) M (°C) N (°C)
A) 10 20 30 40
B) 40 30 10 20
C) 50 60 50 60
D) 100 80 60 55

Which of the remarks below about heat flow

between the particles in diagram 1, 2, and 3
are correct?
DDD 9. deneme 3. soru
1 2 3
A) Heat is Heat is lost Heat is lost
absorbed
B) Heat is lost Heat is Heat is lost
absorbed
C) Heat is lost Heat is Heat is
absorbed absorbed
D) Heat is Heat is lost Heat is
absorbed absorbed
6.

8. Which of the
A student carries out two experiments on a ball remarks below
bearing. about the particle
Which of the remarks about these experiments
models is
is incorrect? incorrect?
CC
AA
A) In experiment 1 the ball bearing’s volume A) In state L, the particles move very quickly in
increases. every direction.
B) In experiment 2 heat flows. B) Particles that change from state M to state K
C) The water molecules’ kinetic energy decreases. increase their speed.
D) In experiment 1, the particle speed, in the C) Particles in state M can slide over each other.
material of the ball bearing, increases. D) In state K, particles are moving at high speed.

2. Heat Transfer

1. Heat Flow by Conduction
If you hold the handle of a metal spoon inside hot soup,
The meaning of heat conductor and heat
it burns your hand.
insulator
How heat flows
What heat absorption means

Conduction Radiation
Heat conductor Convection
Heat insulator

Heat flows through solids in a short time interval.
What changes are caused in the motion
Particles of a solid substance, which is heated, vibrate
of matter particles when heat flows? How
more quickly than a substance that is not heated. These
does heat flow into the objects around you?
How does the Sun heat the Earth? Why are faster vibrating particles strike particles next to them
light coloured clothes preferred in Sum- (their neighbours), making them vibrate faster also. In
mer? Why are solar panels painted black this way the vibrations spread from one end of the sub-
inside? Answers to these questions are to stance to the other end. If particles strike each other or
do with the different ways that heat flows. collide with each other, to spread heat energy from one
This allows us to control and use heat as an place to another, the heat is said to flow by conduction.
energy source.
Which One Will Fall First?

You need: A piece of copper wire, 4 thumbtacks (drawing pins), a candle,
a match.
How to make:
1. Melt some candle wax and drop it onto the copper wire, as shown in
the figure.
2. Stick the thumbtacks on the dropped pieces of wax.
3. Put the end of the copper wire on the candle flame and heat it.
A. What happened to the thumbtacks when the copper wire absorbed heat?
B. Did you feel the heat when you were holding the copper wire?

Heat Transfer
The diagram below shows how heat flows from one

end of a solid, that is heated, to the other end. Activity - 2
The particle model below shows heating of a solid.
Draw in the direction of heat flow. Compare the
motion of the particles numbered I - V.

Order particles I - V from the fastest to the slo-

west, in the spaces given below.
...... , ...... , ...... , ...... , ......

Activity - 3
Draw in the direction of heat flow for the metal
rods in the diagrams below.
Heat doesn’t flow with the same
speed in all solids. This can
be observed if you place rods
of different materials inside a
beaker of hot water, as shown in
the diagram on the right. When
you touch the end of each rod,
one of them will be hotter than
the others, one cooler than the
others.
Since all matter, gases, liquids,
and solids are made of particles,

heat can travel by conduction in all states of matter.
However, since the distance between gas particles is
so large, the conduction in gases will be poor. There
is more heat conduction in liquids, as the distance bet-
ween particles is much smaller. However, particles of
a solid are the closest, with almost no space between
them. This means that heat conduction is very high in

solids.

Substances that conduct heat well are called heat
conductors. Metals are good heat conductors. Subs-
tan ces that don’t con duct he at well are cal led heat
insulators. Wood, plastic, and air are good heat

insulators. In these substances, there is more space
between particles. As the distance between particles
increases, the heat conduction decreases.

Heat Transfer
2. Heat Flow by Radiation

Activity - 4 On a cold, but sunny day your bedroom is still heated
by the Sun. If you touch the glass, you will notice that
Look carefully at the pictures below and write it is still cold. The Sun’s rays that he at yo ur ro om pass
down whether the substances shown are heat straight through the window. To find out why this hap-
insulators or conductors. pens you can do an experiment.
Use a hot light bulb as a heat

source in front of a pane
of glass. Place a black
(painted) beaker
full of water on
the other side of

the pane. Place
a thermometer
inside. When the
bulb is turned
on, the water

gradually heats up. There is no contact between
the heat source and the beaker, but its temperature
increases. This experiment shows that heat , from the
light rays is transferred through air and glass.

Heat flows as rays; just as light
travels as rays.

Heat flows from electric fires,
ovens, or light bulbs mainly
by radiation. Every substance
loses heat to its surroundings
by radiation.

How is our World Heated?
The distance between the Sun and the Earth is about
150 mil li on ki lo met res. The Sun’s rays carry he at, as
well as light. This heat spreads out from the Sun in all
directions into space; including towards Earth. Since
there is no matter in space, this type of heat flow does
not need matter particles to transfer it from one place
to another, it is much faster than heat conduction; it

moves at the speed of light.

Heat Transfer
The colour of material surfaces and heating

by radiation
Dark coloured objects mainly absorb radiati-
on, while lighter coloured objects mainly reflect
radiation. This is the reason darker colo-
ured objects heat up more

than lighter coloured ones.
The diagrams at the side

and below show some of the
experiments you can build

to see the effect of colour
on lighter coloured and
black objects.
In the daytime, a room that

faces the Sun is warmer
than a ro om that doesn’t
face the Sun. This is a good
example of how the Sun
heats Earth by radiation.
Why Does Our World Cool At Night?

At night-time, sin ce the Sun’s rays can not fall on to the
land, heat energy absorbed from radiation during the
daytime is lost to the surroundings at night; causing
the land to cool down.
The at mosp he re aro und Earth pre vents all the Sun’s
rays from reaching the ground, so that the ground is
not heated to very high temperatures. Gases in the
atmosphere also prevent some of the heat radiation
from the ground reaching space. This is called the
greenhouse effect.
Which one of these men feel hotter?
In order for life to survive on Earth, the temperature

of the lithosphere must be kept below a certain value.
However, if the amount of gases in the atmosphere
are increased, the land temperature will also increase.
This will destroy the balance of the lithosphere and the
balance of life, leading to the melting of the polar ice
caps. Other gre at chan ges to the world’s cli ma te will
also occur. Why are the houses in the picture painted white?

Heat Transfer
Shiny Surfaces and Heating

Some substances have shiny
reflecting surfaces. This pre-
vents them from heating up
Why are toasters black inside?
too much, since they reflect
light rays. Examples of the The black colour of the inside of a
use of this idea are in thermos toaster heats up more than a lighter
flasks. These have shiny sur- colour and cooks food faster. The
faces inside, to prevent heat same is true for pans that are coat-
from leaving or entering the ed with black teflon.
flask. This keeps hot liquids
hot and cold, liquids cold for
a long time. Shiny surfaces reflect
light rays
The space between the The long winding copper pipes, that
inside and outside are fixed to the back of a fridge, are
surfaces is a vacuum. Shiny
inside also painted black. Inside the pipes a
Shiny surface liquid absorbs the heat from one part
outside
surface of the fridge, and carries it away.
Outer
body Cold
liquid
Insulator
Insulating
support
3. Heat Flow By Convection
Hot air has a lower density than the cooler air. This fact
The large device shown at is used in hot air balloons. The air is heated, using a
the side is made of a concave heater below the open end of the balloon. As the air is
shiny surface, which reflects heated, the air particles move faster and farther apart.
sunlight into the black colour- This means they occupy a greater volume, and have a
ed pan below it. This heats up lower density than air which is not heated. It also means
a meal inside the pan. that the hot air inside the balloon will float above unheat-
ed air. As the air is heated the balloon starts to rise.
Some large buildings are covered in reflective glass.

Why?

Heat Transfer
Liquid particles have more space between them than

solids, so heat is conducted more slowly through them
than through solids. However, when water is heated in
a kettle, it doesn’t take a long time to boil. This means Convection Currents and Blood
that, heat flows in a different way to conduction radia- There are about 100 trillion cells in your body. These
tion. cells continuously interact with organelles. Food
is burnt in cells and heat energy is given out from
Look at how the water in the beaker heats up. these cells. Some of this heat is used to warm your
body up. The rest of the heat is lost to the surround-
ings by convection, to prevent your body from over
heating. Normal body temperature is 36,5 °C, any
higher than this and cell activities will be prevented.
You will die.

The bottom of the beaker is in contact with the heat

source. The bottom layer of water particles are in con-
tact with the bottom of the beaker, so they are heated
first. The bottom layer of water particles start to move
faster and so they occupy a greater volume, and are
less dense than water particles in the upper part of
the beaker. This means they can float above the water
For life to continue, blood is very important; it is the
particles in the upper part of the beaker; the bottom
liquid which carries the extra heat to the veins under
layer of water particles rise to the water surface. The the surface of your skin. These will then give away
layer of water that was above the bottom layer at the the heat to the surroundings.
beginning now falls to the bottom. The cycle repeats On hotter summer days, extra heat is carried by
blood in your veins, and must be given out from your
itself until all the water in the beaker is heated. This
skin with the additional help of sweating. To help in
kind of heat flow is called heat flow by convection. The removing body heat from your skin, you feel you
flow of particles caused inside the beaker is called a need to look for cooler places in the shade, drink
convection current. cold water, and swim in the sea.

Heat Transfer
Heating a Room
A room is heated by convection from radiator fins. As
shown in the diagram, below the radiator, fins heat air
particles that are in contact with them. This causes the Why do you Feel Cooler when you Sweat?
air particles to rise and the colder air to fall onto the One of the ways you remove extra heat from your
radiator. This cycle of heat flow continues. Heating of body is by sweating. When sweat comes out of the
the room is caused by convection currents of hot air. pores on your skin, it takes the heat from your body
out with it. Sweat is a liquid which evaporates at the
surface of your skin. To evaporate it needs extra
heat so that it can change state from a liquid into a
gas. This extra energy is taken from the surface of
your skin; making you cooler. However, too much
sweating may cause too much water and salt loss
from your body.
When It Is hot, Why do you Prefer
to Find a Breezy Place?
If you stand in front of a fan, air
molecules contact your skin and
remove heat from it quickly, cooling
you down. Heat is removed by both
conduction and convection.
A room heated by convection
Winds and Warming of the Weather

The weather is also warmed by convection currents.
The Sun’s rays heat the ground, and air particles
that are in contact with the ground heat up and rise
upwards, to the higher layers of air. This motion of the
air causes winds and breezes.


Heat Transfer
Conduction, Convection and Radiation

In everyday situations the flow of heat occurs in three Activity - 5
different ways; conduction, convection, and radiation.
For example, a pan placed on an electric heater, which How does heat flow in the situation shown
heats by radiation causes heat to flow to the bottom below? Draw the direction of heat flow on the
and sides of the pan by conduction. Heat flows in the diagram.
liquid by convection to heat the eggs. As the eggshells
are solid, heat flows into the eggs from the water by
conduction to cook them. During the cooking, the han-
dle of the pan is also heated by conduction.

Heat flows in three

different ways to heat
the surroundings.
Rays from the Sun
heat the ground
by radiation. Air
particles in contact
with the ground
are heated by
conduction, the
rising air particles
cause a convection
current, which heats
the rest of the air
molecules.
Heat flows from

an electric heater
by radiation. A
pan placed on the
heater is heated
by both radiation
and conduction. If
water is inside the
pot it is heated by
convection.

ACTIVITIES
1
How does heat flow in the situations shown below. Write down your answer underneath the pictures.

a. ................................. b. ................................ c. ...................................... d. ..................................
2
Fill in the sentences with the words from the list below.
1. Particles at a higher temperature are .................... than lower temperatures particles.
2. Heat flows through solids by .................... .
3. If one end of a substance is heated, the faster the heat reaches the other end, the better a .................... it
is.
4. Wood, glass, wool and cloth are .................... .................... .
5. The Sun heats Earth by .................... .
6. The .................... .................... is when the atmosphere prevents heat from escaping into space.
7. The difference in temperature between daytime and night-time is 3 radiation

3 heat
greater on Mercury than on Earth because Mercury has no 3 black insulators
.................... .
3 rises 3 absorb
8. If two pieces of cloth, one black and one white, are placed in 3 heat 3 conduction
front of sunlight, the black one will .................... more of the light conductor
3 atmosphere
rays than the white one. 3 colder
3 gr ee nh ou se
ef fe ct
9. Solar panels are painted .................... so that they absorb more
3 faster
of the Sun’s rays.
10. Heat flows from a hot substance to a .................... substance.
11. Heated air .................... .

Test
1. Esat heats a metal 4. Two identical rods at the

pot of water inside same temperature are
a room. placed under the Sun.
One is painted white, the
Since he feels the
other is painted black.
heat, how does it
mainly flow from If they are left under the Sun for the same
the fire and pot to amount of time, which of the comments below
Esat? are correct?
BBB
I. The temperatures of the rods increase by the
A) Only radiation
same amount.
B) Convection and radiation II. The black rod expands more than the white
C) Convection and conduction rod.
D) Conduction and radiation III. The black rod absorbs more heat energy
than the white rod.
CC
A) I only B) II only
C) II and III D) I, II and III
2. Which of the objects below is a good conduc-

tor of heat and electricity?
BBB
A) Wooden spoon B) Silver spoon
C) Glass D) Cotton
5. Asma watches her moth-

er take a pot of food off
the electric heater and
leave it to cool on a table.
What should Asma
remember from her
3. Why are wooden spoons preferred to stir hot science lessons about
food during cooking? how the heat flows to
DD cool the pot?
A) Wood doesn’t expand with heat. DD
A) It cools by convection only.
B) Wood has a large volume.
B) It cools by convection and conduction.
C) Wood is less dense than the water in the
C) It cools by radiation and conduction.
cooking pot.
D) It cools by convection, radiation, and
D) Wood is a poor heat conductor.
conduction.

Test
6. 8.

K, L, and M are particle models showing the
three states of matter.
Some parts of the household goods above have
Which of the following choices below about been numbered.
the models above is correct?
Which grouping is correct?
CCC - Deneme 2 / S - 3
CCC - Deneme 1 / S - 6
A) State K is a good conductor.
Heat conductor Heat insulator
B) State M conducts heat well.
A) 1 and 2 3 and 4
C) State L is a better conductor than M.
B) 1, 2 and 3 4 only
D) State K conducts heat better than state L.
C) 2 and 4 1 and 3
D) 2, 4 and 3 1 only
9.
7. Marva takes a pot of hot tea

off its electric heater and plac-
es it on a marble surface to
cool down. She goes to finish
off her homework, but when
she returns she notices the
tea has cooled down.
How is heat lost by the teapot?
I. By conduction Which of the students’ comments are correct?
AAA - Deneme 4 / S - 6
II. By convection
A) Selcan and Noora are correct, Fatih is not.
III. By radiation
DDD - Deneme 3 / S - 5 B) Selcan and Fatih are correct, Noora is not.
A) I only B) II only C) Fatih and Noora are correct, Selcan is not.
C) I and III D) I, II and III D) They are all correct.

3. Heat Insulation

What a heat insulator is

Which materials are heat insulators
The relationship between heat insulation

and saving energy

Insulator Vacuum Insulation

Plastic foam Glass wool The diagram shows how the flow of heat is reduced
using the heat insulation material.
Blankets and quilts also have this property. The heat
from your uncovered body heats the surrounding air,
which rises to be replaced by cooler air, so that you
feel cold.
Humans and many animals need to be
kept warm to survive. However, heat is very
quickly lost to the surroundings. You need

to know about heat insulation to learn how

to prevent heat being lost. Do thick clothes
like wool coats, socks, and gloves warm
you or do you warm them? How do birds
protect themselves from freezing on cold
winter days? What special properties do
polar bears, seals, and penguins have that As you sleep your body
protect them from the ice and snow? How heat is lost, and you feel
are freezers kept cold? Does heat insulation cold. If you are covered
protect the environment? Answers to these with a blanket, the cool-
questions depend on heat insulation. er air is prevented from
replacing the heated air
around you.
Substances that are poor heat conductors are called
heat insulators. Examples of these substances are
plastic, wood, cotton wool, and air. These are used to
slow down the flow of heat and are called heat insu-
lation materials.
Heat insulation materials usually contain a lot of air.
Air is a mixture of gases and there are a lot of space
between air particles, meaning that heat flow by con-
duction is very slow in gases. This is the reason air is a
poor conductor of heat, or a good heat insulator.

Heat Insulation
Fridges and Heat Insulation

A fridge has a large body. The inside is made of plas- Example
tic and the outside is made of metal. There is a layer Which of the following comments
of plastic foam or glass wool between the inner and about the thermos flask are
outer surfaces. The door of the fridge has the same correct?
inner plastic and outer metal structure. This is why
I. Air acts as an insulator between
magnets are attracted to the outer surface of the door.
the inner and outer surfaces.
The doors close firmly because magnets are placed
around the door edges inside plastic covers; you may II. The inner surface has a double
notice that they are surrounded by air channels. The layer of glass with a vacuum
air insulation prevents heat entering the fridge. between them. It prevents the
flow of heat to and from the
liquid inside.
III. The shiny inner surface prevents heat flow by con-
vection.

A) I and II B) II and III
C) II only D) I, II and III

Woollen clothes don’t

warm us up, since they

are not heat sources.

The opposite is true,
we heat them up! The main
job of woolly clothes is to trap a
layer of air between your body and the
What is a Vacuum? environment. The air layer acts as an
Some double glazed windows and thermos bottles insulator!
have an empty space between their inner and outer
surfaces. This space is called a vacuum. It prevents
heat flow because there is not enough particles inside
it to allow heat to flow. It is a very good heat insulator.

How do birds know air is an insulator?

Birds fluff open their

feathers in the winter
to protect themselves

from the cold. Air gets

trapped inside their
feathers and acts as an
insulator to warm them.
Birds’ oily skin also acts as an insulator.

Heat Insulation
Where is Heat Conduction Needed?

Nearly all metal appliances
you use have a plastic insu-
lator handle for you to hold,
Insulation of a Polar Bear so you don’t get burnt, look at
A polar bear lives its life in these appliances: irons, cook-
a frozen land. How can it ing pans, and toasters.
swim in frozen, icy water
and live on snow and ice
without getting cold?
The answer lies in the thick layer

of fat underneath its skin. This is a
very good insulator. There is also
a lot of air space inside the fur
of polar bear, this is also a good
insulator and prevents the bear
from losing heat from its body.
Insulating substances
Heat flows from a hot object (or body) to a colder
object (or body). If a heat insulator is placed between
two bodies at different temperatures, it will prevent
heat flow. Example

Which of the following choices does not use heat

insulation properties?

A) Covering yourself with a blanket
B) A hard plastic handle of a pan
C) Drinking tea in a metal teacup
In the summer, heat from outside flows into your D) Carrying a cold drink in a thermos flask
house, in the winter the heat from your home flows out
of your house. This is shown in the diagram below.
In In
summertime wintertime
heat heat flows
flows outwards
inwards

Heat Insulation
Insulation Materials and Energy Saving

The house below has different amounts of heat escap-
ing to the outside.
How does water keep cool in earthenware pots?
Earthenware is made of clay, and has
many air holes in its structure, called
pores. When water is placed inside, it
very slowly starts spreading into the pore
structure towards the outside, where it
evaporates. This change of state from a liq-
uid to a gas needs energy which is taken from the
surface of the container, cooling it down.
In the same way, watermelon is kept cool in the hot
summer. A wet cloth can be placed over the
melon in the Sun. The evaporating water
cools down the watermelon surface.
This heat loss increases in winter as coal, natural gas,

and electricity are used more.
Burnt fuel pollutes the environment by producing
carbon dioxide, and other chemicals. If a building is
insulated, only a little heat is lost to the outside, less Saving energy: Our daily lives are made comforta-
energy and fuel is used, and money is saved. Pollution ble by the production of energy, but it must be used
of the environment is also prevented. carefully without waste.
Activity - 6
In the figures, the heat

flow out of two houses is

shown both in winter and

summer. One house is
heat insulated the other
is not heat insulated.


ACTIVITIES
3
Complete the parts of the sentences numbered 1-4 with its ending a. - d.
1. Shiny surfaces ... ï— a. ... they are covered with a good heat insulator
2. When fridges are warm on the outside, their b. ... and money
insides are not because ... ï—
c. ... don’t heat up much, since they reflect light
3. The body of a cooking pan ... ï— rays
4. The heat insulation of a building saves both d. ... is made of a good heat conductor
energy ... ï—
4 True / False
Read the sentences below and place a ‘T’ for true/correct or an ‘F’ for false/incorrect in the boxes at
the start of the sentences.
1. Wood is a good insulator.
2. All the materials used to make a thermos flask are heat insulators.
3. Buildings in very hot climates usually have their outside surfaces painted white.
4. Liquid substances also conduct heat.
5. If the atmosphere’s heat conduction were higher, Earth would be hotter than it is in the daytime,
and cooler than it is at night-time.
6. Water heated in a container stays at the bottom.
7. Bricks used to build homes have air gaps inside them to increase heat conductance.
8. Glass is a good heat insulating substance.

Test
1. Why is double-glazing used for windows? 4. Which of the choices below is increased by
BB heat insulation?
A) To prevent them getting dirty
I. Energy savings
B) For heat insulation II. Cost of bills
C) To get less light III. Pollution of the environment
D) To prevent people looking inside BBB
A) I only B) I and II
C) I, II and III D) III only
2. The names of 6 dif-

ferent heat insula-
5. How many heat insulators are there in the
tors and conductors
puzzle in question 2?
are hidden some- BBB
where in this puzzle. A) 5 B) 4 C) 3 D) 2

How many are con-
ductors?
CCC
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5
6.

3. On a hot day Sibel wants to place

some cold milk inside the flask in

the area X, shown in the diagram.
Mahmut wants to put hot tea into A girl places equal amounts of ice into two iden-
the same area on a cold day. tical glasses and covers glass I with aluminium
foil. She then places them in the sunlight for the
Which of the substances in the same amount of time.
choices below must be placed into area Y, to
What will she see when she looks at them
allow both of them to use the flask?
CCC / Deneme 5 / S - 5
again?
DD
Sibel Mahmut
A) The ice has not melted.
A) Plastic foam Sand B) The ice in glass II has not melted.
B) Water at room temperature Plastic foam C) The same amount of ice has melted in each
C) Glass wool Glass wool glass.
D) Glass wool Water at room D) The ice in glass I has not melted as much as
temperature that in glass II.

1. The Effect of Light on Materials
and Reflection

When light falls on matter it can be

reflected
Why you can see objects that are not
light sources
The angles of incidence and reflection
are equal
Specular and diffuse reflection
Some objects give out light to their surroundings.
Why some surfaces are shiny and oth- These objects are called light sources. A natural
ers are dull object which produces its own light is called a natural
light source. Examples of such sources are the Sun,
stars, and fireflies. Man – made light sources are called
artificial light sources. Examples of such sources are
Reflection torches, light bulbs, and candles.
Specular reflection There are so many objects around you that appear to
Diffuse reflection be light sources, but they simply reflect light coming
from a natural source. For example, the Moon is not a
light source, it only reflects light.
Light is a type of energy that allows you to

see objects. Light is used in many ways
in modern technology; lighting, medicine,
communication, instruments, and space
technology. Without light you would not
be able to see the world around you. You
would be blind. Your eyes see objects by
observing light rays from light sources, and
from light reflected from objects that are not
light sources. You notice the shapes, sizes
and colours of these objects depending
on how they reflect light incident on them.
Light is the main way that humans and
most animals experience the world about
them.
Light travels in straight
lines. That is why an object
Light has the same shape as its
shadow. The light rays trav-
Light is a kind of energy el in straight lines in all
that allows us to see objects directions.
around us.
The Sun lights up the Earth

and allows you to see nearly
every object on its surface.

The Effect of Light on Materials and Reflection
The Effect of Light on Materials Light that falls on a shiny surface like a mirror, will
return back to the same medium from which it came.
After light rays arrive from the Sun, they pass through This is called reflection.
the atmosphere and travel in a straight line until they
fall upon a non-transparent object. There are three
possible results when this happens. A light ray:
1. may pass through the object
2. may not pass through the object
3. may return, travelling in the opposite direction, to
the medium from which it came. (reflection)
There are three different types of materials:
Some objects, which are not
1. When light falls on light sources, spread light out
a piece of glass, it by reflection, they appear to
passes through it. In be light sources.
the same way, light
For example, the Moon
will also pass through
appears to be a source of light
air and clear water.
in the sky, but it only reflects
These substances
light from the Sun.
are all transparent.
This means you can Each medium reflects different amounts of light. For
easily see through Glass is a transparent substance
example, paper reflects less light than mirrors, alumin-
them. ium foil, and CD’s. The amount of light reflected from
an object is a property of its surface. A shiny surface
2. When light falls on a reflects more light than a dull surface.
piece of frosted glass,
some of it passes
through and some of
it doesn’t. In the same
way, light will only part-
ly pass through clear
plastic covers and deep
water. These substanc-
A plastic file is a translucent es are all translucent.
substance This means you can-
not see through them
This glass window is transparent, and allows you to see
clearly.
outside. The wall is concrete; light cannot pass through it,
so you cannot see through it.
3. When light falls on
a piece of wood, none
of it passes through. It Water is transparent and
will not pass through light passes through it, so
wool or metal either. you can see through it. If
These substances are you add dust, soil or saw-
all opaque. This means dust to the water the trans-
you cannot see through parency decreases.
them at all.
Wood is an opaque substance
CHAPTER 7 | LIGHT AND SOUND 165

Light and Different types of materials
You need: Mirror, CD, aluminium foil, metal spoon, smooth

glass, metal spoon, frosted glass, cardboard, wood, water, marble
tracing paper, white paper, greasy paper, a torch.
Preparation:
1. Make the room dark enough to carry out your experiment.
2. Shine light from your torch onto each material.
3. Observe which material allows light to pass through and
which materials do not.
4. Draw up a table, as shown in the figure, and fill it in with the
results of your experiment.
Substance Light passes through Light doesn’t pass through
Smooth glass
Metal spoon
Frosted glass
Cardboard
Aluminium foil
Mirror
Wood
Water
Marble
Tracing paper
Example Example
Which of the following sentences about light is Which of the matched pairs below is incorrect?
incorrect?
A) Glass → Transparent
A) It spreads out along a straight path. B) Tracing paper → Translucent
B) It can pass through all objects. C) Frosted glass → Transparent
C) It is a kind of energy D) Wood → Opaque
D) It can brighten an object it falls upon.

Reflection of Light If the angle of incidence to a plane mirror is along the

normal, light will be reflected back along the normal.
Light falls upon a surface and is reflected from it. The Here the angle of incidence and reflection are both 0°.
light ray that travels towards the surface is called the
incident ray. The light ray that is reflected from the
surface is called the reflected ray. A perpendicular line
to the surface where reflection occurs is called the
normal to the surface. The diagram below shows the
reflection of light from a mirror surface.

Example

If the angle between the incident
and reflected rays shown is 70°,

find the incident angle.
“the normal (N) to the surface” is the reference line

from which the angles of the incident and reflected Solution
light rays are measured.
The angle between the incident and
The angle between the normal and the incident ray is reflected rays is 70°.
called the incident angle and the angle between the A + B = 70°
normal and the reflected ray is called the reflected
The incident angle A and the reflect-
angle
ed angle B are equal, A = B.
We can write;
A + A = 70°
2A = 70°
A= 70° / 2
A= 35°
There are two laws of reflection:

Example
1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflec-
tion The angle between the incident
a1 =a2 and reflected rays is 90°. What
is angle θ?
2. The incident rays, reflected rays, and the normal
are all in the same plane.
If the angle of incidence to a plane mirror is (60°) the Solution
reflected angle must be the same. This means that the The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
angle that both rays make with the mirror surface must This means each of these angles must be 90°/2 = 45°.
be (30°).
The normal is at 90° to the surface.
This means angle θ is found by sub-

traction θ = 90° – 45° = 45°.


How Light Helps you to see Objects

Activity - 3
Ü Draw in the reflected rays for the surfaces below.
Light travels out from a source and falls upon an

object. In the picture, the rose is the object. Some of
the light is reflected from the surface of the rose. A
small part of the reflected light gets into your eyes and
you see the rose object.
Objects which are not light sources cannot be seen in
Ü Draw in the incident rays for the surfaces below. the dark. Black objects do not reflect light.
There are two reasons why you see an object:
1. Light falls upon the object.
2. A small part of the light reflected from the object
must get into your eyes.
Ü In which of the reflections from plane mirrors

below does a reflected ray pass through point
K?

Light passing between the branches of trees on a foggy day
appear to travel in straight lines that are called rays.

At night-time there
is no Sun, so there
Ü In which of the reflections from plane mirrors is no light source;
below is a ray reflected back along the path of so how do you
the incident ray? still see the Moon?
This is because some of
the Sun’s rays still light up the
surface of the Moon. These rays
are then reflected off it, allowing
a very small part of it to reach your eyes. This is the
reason you can still see the Moon at night.

Specular and Diffuse Reflection
Examples of surfaces that are rough are: wavy water

surfaces, rough walls, and road surfaces.
On shiny surfaces, like the pond this swan glides on,

you can see objects reflected well because of specular
reflection. On rough surfaces like this wavy water it
is more difficult to see the shape of the swan object,
because of diffuse reflection.
It is easy to see the boy through the smooth surface because

of specular reflection. It is very difficult to see him though the
rough surface because of diffuse reflection.

Shiny Surfaces and Matt (Dull) Surfaces

If parallel light rays fall upon a smooth surface, they
will all be reflected parallel to each other. This is called
specular reflection.
Examples of surfaces that are smooth are: mirrors, alu-

minium foil, and clear water. Light is regularly reflected
from these surfaces.
The same amount of light falls on the objects below:
the metal spoons look shinier than the wooden ones.
New cars appear shinier than older cars; this is
because they have smoother surfaces and reflect light
regularly. Older cars have rougher surfaces and so
reflect light diffusely.

If parallel light rays fall upon a rough surface, they will

all be reflected at different angles to each other. This is
called diffuse reflection. Dashboard of cars have rough surfaces. This causes light to
reflect diffusely not to disturb driver’s eye.

ACTIVITIES
1
Give short answers to the following questions in your notebook.
1. Explain how you are able to see objects around you.
2. What is reflection?
3. What are the laws of reflection?
4. What kinds of reflection are there?
2 True / False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false in the boxes at the beginning of each sentence.
1. Candles are brightened objects.
2. Light is a kind of energy.
3. Fireflies are a natural light source.
4. The reflection from a plane mirror is specular.
5. Incident rays, reflected rays, and the normal to a surface may not always be in the same plane.
6. If the incident angle is zero, the reflected ray will travel back along the same direction as the incident ray.
7. The incident angle equals the reflected angle.
8. If a ray is reflected, it will follow the direction of its incident ray.
9. Reflection shows that light travels in straight lines.

Place the words in boxes below into the empty spaces left in the sentences 1 - 6.
1. ........................... is when light rays fall upon an object, and return into the medium they came from.
2. There are two types of reflection ........................... and ........................... reflection.
3. The line drawn perpendicular to the surface of a medium that reflects light is called the ...........................
.
4. The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the ........................... angle.
5. The angle between the ........................... ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection.
6. The angles of ........................... and ........................... are always the same.
lection
r reflecti ce, ref
specula on reflecte
d inciden
t diffuse
norma
l inciden

Test

1. The incident ray at a plane 4. When your car is dirty, you cannot see yourself
mirror follows the path in it. After it is washed, you can see yourself
shown in the diagram. quite well.

Which of the angles Which of the sentences below explains this?
shown must be equal to each other? AAA
A) Light rays are reflected from plane smooth
I. K and L
surfaces.
II. L and M
B) Light rays don’t travel at the same speed
III. K and P
DD
through all materials.
A) Only II B) Only III C) Light rays travel in straight lines.
C) I and II D) II and III D) Light rays pass through transparent materials.
2. 5. I. Light spreads out in all mediums.

II. When light falls upon an object, it is reflected.
III. Light travels in straight lines.
Which of the above sentences is always cor-
Which of the incident rays K, L, M, P, and O rect?
shown in the diagram above is reflected back CC
upon itself? A) I only B) I and II
AA
A) P B) M C) L D) K C) III only D) I, II and III
6. The diagram shows light

rays being reflected from a
3. Which of the incident
plane mirror.
rays striking a plane
mirror will reflect Which of the sentences
through point K? below about this diagram

is incorrect?
CCC / Deneme 1 / Soru 4
A) K, is the incident ray
B) a, is the incident angle
C) c, is the reflection angle
DD
A) Only 1 B) Only 2 C) Only 3 D) 1 and 3 D) d is the normal to the mirror surface

Test
7. Which of the diagrams below show light being 10.

reflected from a plane, smooth surface?
CC

K, L, M, and N are plane mirrors which have

incident rays, I, reflected from them, as shown in
the diagrams.
Which of the incident rays has the greatest
angle of incidence?
AAA / Deneme 9 / Soru 8
A) K B) L C) M D) N
11. A plan view of a room is

8. If the angle between the
shown at the side.
incident ray and the
mirror surface is 80°, At which of the points
what is the angle of
shown will a lamp not

reflection? light up the whole room
AA directly?
CCC
A) 10° B) 20° C) 30° D) 60° A) M only B) P and M
C) L, M and P D) K and N
12. Noora is testing some

materials to see which of
them light can pass

9. Two plane mirrors L through. He is using a

and K are shown in torch as the light source.

the diagram. Three Noora places the torch
rays X, Y, and Z in front of aluminium foil,
reflect off mirror K. plane glass, a mirror, a piece of wood, thin plas-
Which of these rays tic, a metal plate, and a glass plate. The experi-
may have come from mental diagram is shown above.
mirror L? Through how many of these materials will he
CC
observe light passing?
A) X only B) Y only AAA
C) Z and Y D) X and Y A) 3 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6

2. Mirrors and Where
They are Used
Mirrors can be placed into three groups:

1. Plane mirror

2. Convex mirror
3. Concave mirror
Rays are reflected from plane, concave,
and convex mirrors. 1. Plane Mirrors
For a clear reflection, light rays must be
These are mirrors with a plane
reflected at a smooth surface
surface; they are also called flat
Images of objects are made by plane,
mirrors. Parallel light rays incident
concave, and convex mirrors. These
upon a plane mirror are reflected
images may be larger or smaller than the
back in a parallel direction.
object. An image can also be upright or
upside down/inverted compared to the Household mirrors are usually plane mirrors. If an object
object. is in front of a plane mirror, a light rays from each
Where these different types of mirrors are point of the object are reflected from the mirror, they
used in daily life. then spread out slightly before entering your eyes.
Your eyes follow the rays
backwards. These rays

seem to come from a point
Plane mirror Concave mirror behind the mirror. This is
a point image. This means
Convex mirror
each point on the object
in front of the mirror will
act in the same way and
produce their own point
images. These also appear to come from behind the
Mirrors are everywhere in your daily life. In
mirror. All of these point images join together to make
the morning when you brush your teeth,
a complete image of the object , like a jigsaw puzzle.
wash your face, and comb your hair. On the
way to school in the morning on the bus, 1. The image in a plane mirror is virtual. This means
the driver watches the road behind him with that, if you put a piece of paper (screen) at the
a mirror, your dentist uses a mirror to look place the image appears to be, the paper will not
at your teeth. However these are different show any image. The image only exists in your
types of mirror. Each has its own properties mind.
and areas where it can best be useful. Once
you know these you will be able to tell which 2. The image appears to be the
type of mirror to use for each purpose? same distance behind the mir-
ror that the object is in front.
(xobject = ximage)
The surfaces of all objects reflect different amounts of 3. The size of the image is the
light. The best reflector is always a shiny surface. same as the size of the object.
(hobject = himage)
A special device used to reflect as much light. as pos-
sible is called a mirror. 4. The image is the same shape
as the object. Mirror
The type of mirror made of a plane glass surface is
called a plane mirror.

Mirrors and Where They are Used
5. The object and image positions are symmetric

about the mirror. Example

A barber cuts a little boy’s hair. The
6.
little boy wonders what time it is and
looks in the mirror at the clock. The

clock appears as shown at the side.

How many hours forward does the
clock seem to be?

A) 2 hours B) 1 hours C) 25 minutes D) 5 minutes
A person standing in
frontof a plane mirror has
a reversed image. This
means as he lifts his right
arm, the mirror will show
his left arm being lifted.
Example
The candle in the diagram
is placed between two mir-
If an ambulance is rors, at the position shown.
behind you on the road What is the distance in cm
the word on the front of between the first image of
the vehicle is not the candle made by mirror
AMBULANCE but the I, and the first image of the

reverse image is candle made by mirror II?

ECNALUBMA.
Example
A floor is divided up into equal sized squares. Objects
Uses of Plane Mirrors are placed at different positions on the floor. Draw the
Periscopes are devices shape and position of their images?

used by submarines,

under the sea, to see

objects above them on
the surface. They have
a plane mirror at an

angle of 45 degrees
inside each end. The
eye looks into one mirror, and at the reflected image
of the image formed by light from an object far above.
This reflection is carried along a long tube onto the
mirror next to the eye.

Spherical Mirrors An object placed in front of a concave mirror forms

If a plane mirror is bent into a spherical shape, the an image that depends on the position of the object
inside or outside reflecting surfaces can be called from the focal point. If the object is farther away from
a spherical mirror. There are two types of spherical the mirror than the focal point, F, the image will be
mirror: real and upside down/inverted. If you place a piece
of paper (screen) between the focal point and the
1. Concave mirror
object, the image of the object will appear on it. This
2. Convex mirror is a real image. If the object is moved past the focal
The inwardly curving reflecting surface is called a point towards the mirror the image becomes virtual,
concave mirror (like a cave); the outwardly curving turns the right way up/is upright; as the object moves
reflecting surface is called a convex mirror. In the right towards the mirror its image gets larger.
hand diagram, the blue layer shows the reflecting sur-
The inner surface of a metal spoon is a concave mirror.
face of the mirror, the striped pattern shows the back
of the mirror.

The inner surface of a The image is the right way up

1. Concave Mirror metal spoon and bigger than the object.
To find the focal point of a concave mirror, a bunch of
parallel rays must be sent to the mirror. The rays reflected
at the mirror keep getting closer to each other. They are
said to diverge. The rays always meet at a special point
on the principal axis called the focal point, F.
The image formed by a concave mirror depends
on the object position compared to the focal point.
Nearer to the mirror than the focus; it is virtual,
larger than the object, and upright. Farther than
the focus; it is real, smaller than the object, and
inverted.
The Daily Uses of Concave Mirrors

Another use of concave mirrors is to collect light you

cannot see/invisible light, like radio waves, and micro-
Parallel light is reflected from a concave mirror in a
direction that goes through the focal point. waves at their focus. These concave mirrors are called
antennas or radio telescopes.


Concave mirrors are
used as make-up

mirrors, shaving
mirrors, or just to
make larger reflected
images of objects.
A convex mirror reflects light so that the rays diverge
Wherever an object is placed in front of a convex mir-
ror the properties of the image formed by the mirror
don’t change.
ï The image is virtual
ï The image is upright
ï The image is smaller than the object
Dentists use concave
mirrors to look at teeth ï The image is behind the mirror between the focus
in difficult-to-see areas and the mirror.
of your mouth. Doctors
wear concave mirrors around their heads to look into
ears, noses, and throats.
Pets like dogs and cats have ears shaped like a con-
cave mirror. This helps them collect sound more easily
than you, and hear better.
2. Convex Mirrors
When parallel rays of light fall upon a convex mirror,
they are reflected in such a way that all the rays keep
spreading apart from each other. The rays are said to
diverge; as shown in the diagram. If dotted lines are
drawn backwards from these rays they will all meet
at a point behind the mirror on the principal axis. To
your eyes the reflected rays appear to follow the dot-
ted lines and meet at this point behind the mirror. This
point is the focal point of a convex mirror. The outside surface of a metal ladle and the back of this
tanker form the same kind of reflected images.
The outer surface of a metal spoon is a convex mirror.

Convex mirrors form a wide field of view. This means

that you can see more of the surroundings in it com- Activity - 4
pared with a plane or concave mirror. Convex mirrors
are very useful on vehicles to help the driver see the full
width of the road behind them. Convex mirrors are also
used in shops, to help the shopkeeper see what is hap- PROJECT: Mirror, mirror, on the wall which
pening all around the shop (large field of view). is the nicest of them all?
Crazy Mirrors
Have you ever been in the hall of mir-
rors at a funfair? These are distorted
Why not have a poster competition about
mirrors that change your image. In one
mirrors in your class! Form groups of 6
you look like a giant, in another you are
pupils and make a poster about the differ-
as wide as a tyre. The mirrors are made
ent uses of mirrors. Groups should find as
of surfaces that are mixtures of plane,
many photographs or pictures of mirrors
concave and convex surfaces.
being used in all sorts of ways. Explain each
Many reflecting surfaces you see picture. The more colourful your pictures are,
around you everyday also act like crazy mirrors. For the better!
example, look in a shiny pan’s surface or a teapot
surface. They are also made of a mixture of concave,
plane, and convex surfaces. What does your image look
like on a shiny metal tap, shiny doorknob, or shiny ball?
Some code words are placed in front of a

Example plane mirror. Can you decode them?
I. Plane mirror
II. Concave mirror
III. Convex mirror
Which of the mirrors above always forms an upright
image smaller than the object.
Example
A fat person would like to see how she would look if
she lost weight. Which type of mirror would help her?
A) Plane mirror
C) Convex mirror
B) Concave mirror
D) Magnifying mirror

The image formed by a convex mirror is upright,

and smaller than the object.

ACTIVITIES
Curved Mirrors
You need: Aluminium foil, cardboard, sticker, torch, comb, play dough.
Preparation:
1. Prepare two curved pieces of cardboard.
2. Take the first piece of cardboard and stick the aluminium foil onto the
inside.
3. Take the second cardboard and stick the aluminium foil onto the outside of
the curve.
4. To get a sheet of parallel rays from the torch, place the comb in front of the
torch.
5. Reflect the light off the aluminium foil on the first piece of cardboard.
Observe what happens.
6. Reflect the light off the aluminium foil on the second piece of cardboard.
Observe what happens.
A. Write down what you observed as the differences between the two mirrors.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
1
Some class pupils are talking about light. They have been learning about it in their lessons this week.
Group their understanding of light into the correct and incorrect lists below.
Hanar: Light travels in straight lines.
Sara: You should never look at the Sun with your naked eyes.
Mahmud: Aluminium foil reflects light.
Yara: Convex mirrors make light rays converge
Mustafa: Rays of light arriving parallel to a concave mirror all meet at the focus.
Briwa: Bowl shaped antennas focus invisible light in the same way that concave mirrors focus light
you can see.
Ahmad: Convex mirrors form images that are inverted, and larger than the object.
Correct Understanding Incorrect Understanding

ACTIVITIES
2 True / False
Read the sentences, below then place a ‘T’ for true or an ‘F’ for false in the boxes at the start of each
of them.
1. Your left hand appears to be your right hand in a plane mirror.
2. The front of a metal spoon is a convex mirror; the back of the spoon is a concave mirror.
3. Parallel rays of light incident on a concave mirror are reflected through the focal point.
4. The image formed by a convex mirror is always upright, and larger than the object.
5. The focal point of a convex mirror is behind its surface.
6. If you can see somebody in a plane mirror, this person can also see you in the same mirror.
7. A ray incident at a plane mirror has the same angle to the mirror’s surface as its reflected ray.
8. Light is reflected in equal amounts at all surfaces.
9. A firefly is a man-made light source.

10. A plane mirror has no focal point.

Fill in the spaces in these sentences with the correct word from the list below.
1. Light rays ..................... from an object allow us to see it.

2. Light rays leaving a light source spread out in ..................... .
3. Incident rays, reflected rays, and the ..................... are always found in the same plane.
4. When light falls on a plane surface the incident and reflected ..................... are equal.
5. Light rays falling on a smooth, plane surface are reflected ..................... . Light rays falling on a rough
surface are reflected ..................... .
6. The rays reflected from a concave mirror diverge at a special point on the principal axis called the
................... point.
7. Instruments like telescopes and the ..................... work by using mirrors inside them.
reflecte specula diffuse l straigh

ope focal angles norma t lines
perisc d rly ly

Test
1. A room is divided into 4. A room is divided into

equal sized squares, equal sized squares and
and two plane mirrors an object is placed in

K and L are hung on front of plane mirror K,

the wall. as shown in the dia-

gram. Which of the
If Emre enters the
choices below correct-
room, which square
ly shows the image
should he stand on
formed.
to be able to see
DD
himself in both mirrors.
A) I B) II C) III D) IV
2. I. Plane mirror
II. Convex mirror
III. Concave mirror
Which of the mirrors above produce an image
that may be a different size to the object?
C) I and II D) II and III
5. A lamp is burning

in a closed dark
3. room, as shown
in the diagram.

Which of the
choices below
Guven sends parallel rays of light onto two clear correctly shows
glass boxes I and II. The light rays are reflected the mirror positions needed for the eye to see
as shown in the diagram. the light through the pipe?
Which mirrors are inside the boxes?
I II
A) Plane Concave

B) Concave Convex
C) Convex Concave
D) Convex Plane

Test
6. 9. A shopkeeper wants to see a greater field of view

at the back of his shop.
Your mother wants to see just around the corner
when she drives to the top of the road.
Your teacher wants to use a mirror to make an
upside down image to show you.
Which mirrors will they buy?
BB
Shopkeeper Your mother Your teacher
Which of the mirrors has its reflected rays
drawn incorrectly? A) Concave Convex Concave
DD
B) Convex Convex Concave
C) Concave Concave Convex
C) I and II D) I, II and III
D) Convex Concave Convex
10. Burhan laughs at an

image he sees when
he crawls in front of a
7. Some instruments work using mirrors. strange mirror.
Which of the instruments below does not? Which type of mir-
AA ror is he interested
A) Ultrasound B) Periscope in?
BBB
C) Torch D) Car headlights
A) Convex mirror B) Concave mirror
C) Plane mirror D) Crazy mirror
11. A concave mirror with a

focal point K reflects the
parallel, incident rays
back towards the plane
mirror.
8. A convex mirror has a wide field of view.
After being reflected
How many of the jobs below can it do? from the plane mirror,
ï Security camera in a shop how do the rays travel?
BBB
ï A make-up mirror
ï A vehicle side mirror
ï Car headlights
BBB
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4

3. Sound
People make sound by vibrating their throat muscles

using air from their lungs. When playing music sound
energy is used. Sound travels as waves; they are sim-
ilar to water waves. When sound waves are incident
Sound propagates in all directions as on an object, they make the object vibrate; this means
waves energy has been given to the object.
The reflection of sound
Echoes
How sound reflection can be used in
science and technology
Absorption of sound
The amount of sound absorbed depends
on the properties of each material
Sound insulation
A material’s properties affect the amount
The children above are playing musical sounds with the
of light travelling through it. Sound can
cymbals, tambourine, and triangle.
be reflected from a material and
absorbed by it.
Objects that produce
sound without being
helped are called natural
Sound waves Propagation sound sources.
Echo Absorption For example, rivers,
streams, and thunder are
Sound insulation Acoustic
natural sound sources.

A waterfall is a natural sound
Have you ever thought what it would be like source
if humans and animals couldn’t make any
sound? How would we understand each
Some objects can be made to produce sound. These
other? Today sound and sound technology
are called man-made sound sources. For example,
are very important for the development of
musical instruments, car motors, car horns, and school
our society. In the fine arts, one of the most
bells are all man-made sound sources.
beautiful ways of communicating emotions
and feelings is by playing music. This is why
you must understand how sound conducts,
reflects, and absorbs and how sound insula-
tion can be used to control sound.
1. How does Sound Travel?

A frog is a natural
You often enjoy listening to sound, but sometimes it sound source.
is annoying. Wherever sound begins, it means that
there is an object vibrating backwards and forwards or
upwards and downwards.

Sound
Bees make sound by flapping

their wings very quickly, caus-
ing air particles on their wings
to vibrate These, in turn, cause
the air particles next to them to
vibrate.
There is a big difference between light spreading out

and sound spreading out. Light does not need a mate-
rial to travel through, it can travel through empty space
with no gas, liquid, or solid. Sound can only spread out
in a material. To spread out, it makes matter vibrate.
If there is no gas, liquid, or solid sound cannot be
produced.
If you place an alarm clock
inside a large vessel, and
suck out all the air with the
If you throw a stone in the water. The wave circles pipe shown in the diagram,
travel away from the source, getting larger in size, but there will be a vacuum
smaller in height until they disappear. inside. At the alarm time you
will see the alarm vibrating,
Sound waves travel in but you will not hear it. This
a similar way to water is because the sound vibra-
waves. They travel from tions cannot travel outwards
point to point as waves; from the clock since there
since the source causes the are no air particles.
particles next to it to vibrate,
which strike particles next
to them, causing them to
vibrate and so on. As the
vibration waves get farther from
the source, they get weaker and dis- Example
appear. This is why sound is loudest
near its source and as you get further Three students are talking about the lesson they have
away, the loudness decreases. just had about sound.
Sometimes when lightning strikes, you cannot hear

the sound of thunder. The reason for this is that the Which of the students understand sound properly?
source of the disturbance that causes the storm is too
far away.
Ahmad Murad
By shouting you can increase
the loudness of your voice, by
putting more energy into it. Fatima
Like the boy in the photograph,
if you place your hands on
either side of your mouth, like a
megaphone, you can make your
Solution
voice go in any direction you
choose.

Sound
Sound can be heard better in an empty room than

Example a fully furnished room. This is because more sound
is reflected back into the empty room. In a furnished
A flow diagram SOUND room, most sound is conducted and absorbed through
about sound is
the soft furniture and is not reflected back.
shown at the
a kind of the way they travel
side. Which of the
choices below will
correctly fit into space
the empty places
I, II and III.
BB
I II III
A) Wave travel frequency
B) energy cannot travel waves
C) motion cannot travel rays
D) music travel air
2. What Happens When Sound Strikes an

Object?
You can hear sound from outside your closed window.
This is because sound waves travelling through the
particles of air outside, strike the glass of your window.
This makes the particles of glass vibrate, these then
make the particles of air inside your room vibrate which
then travel to your ears as waves. This sound is con- In a conference hall, the ceiling is curved in steps to
ducted through the glass. Some of the sound incident allow listeners to hear better. The sound travelling
on the glass window is also reflected. upwards is reflected back from the ceiling, directly
onto the listeners.
When sound waves, spreading out from a source,
strike an object, part of them are reflected. This is called
sound reflection.
A Sound Game: echo
If sound is reflected from an object and returns to your

ear it is called an echo.
If you shout inside a cave or valley, you will hear an
echo of your voice. If you are too near the reflecting
object you will not be able to tell the echo and your
shout apart.
If a speaker in a meeting talks without a microphone,
she will sound louder in a closed room, than in open-
air. The reason for this is that the sound waves are
reflected from the walls and ceilings, to return to the
meeting in a closed room. In open air there is no sound
reflection, because there are no walls and ceiling.

Sound

Bats can tell if they are near objects by listening to Use In Medicine
reflections of the sounds they make; look at the pho-
Ultrasound is widely used in medicine to try to take
tograph to see this.
images of the inside of the human body. Sound waves
This shows that sound can be used to find out how far are sent for reflection off the organ that the doctor
away an object is. Sound waves travel at a speed of wants to look at. The reflected waves can be changed
340 m/s in air. to images on a computer screen. Doctors can use
Sound Reflection In Technology ultrasound on pregnant women to watch if their baby
is healthy and growing well.
Sound is used in many areas of technology.
1. Medicine
2. Communications
3. Industry
4. Space technology
Absorption of Sound
Echoes can be heard in an empty room, whilst ech-
oes can hardly be heard in a furnished room. This
means the soft furniture doesn’t reflect sound, but
allows sound to be conducted through it. During this
conduction through the object, the loudness of the
sound energy decreases. This is called the absorption Industrial Areas Which Use Ultrasound
of sound.
Breaking up metals into powder
Separating gases from mixtures
Breaking down dirt in gases and liquids
Cleaning exhaust gases entering factory chimneys
Making holes in hard materials
Ultrasonic welding machines, used for making con-
ducting channels in electronic circuits
When sound waves are incident on solid surfaces, Ultrasonic washing machines and dishwashers
sound waves behave as follows:
1. Part of the sound is reflected
2. Part of the sound is conducted through the sur-
face
3. Part of the sound is absorbed by the solid.

Sound
In very noisy environments sound insulation must be If you strike a drum skin with a drumstick, you give
used, for the protection of people’s health. To control energy to the drum skin to make a sound by vibration.
the loudness of sound, the sound conduction, absorp- The drum skin vibration first goes inwards, squash-
tion, and reflection properties of materials must be ing air particles between the drum and its skin, then
known. outwards, allowing the air particles to expand. As the
Sound travels fastest in the order: solid > liquid > gas. drum goes inwards and outwards it makes the air par-
It is slowest through gases. This is because gases are ticles vibrate. This is how you can hear, but not see,
poorer conductors than liquids or solids. sound waves.
Most sound is absorbed when it is incident on soft

materials or porous materials, which have many holes
in them.
When sound is incident on rough surfaces it is diffuse-
ly reflected, which causes it to be reflected in many
directions.
To decrease the loudness of the engine sounds,
glass or wool materials are used in cars. These are
sound insulators.
TV and radio studios have sound insulation materi-
als on all their walls.
Snow is also a sound insulator. Listen next time it
snows. The surroundings are quieter than on other
days.
Why Do Sound Waves Travel in Material

Mediums? Strike two wooden spoons together in the air, then do the
same thing under a tank of water. The sound can be heard
better underwater.
Underwater you can hear the sound of stones banged

together much better than when they are at the water
surface. This is because sound travels faster in liquids.
Particles are necessary to carry the energy of a sound The speed of sound is different in each state of mat-
wave from one place to another. ter in the order: solids > liquids > gases. The space
between the particles is the main reason.
You can think about the propagation of sound waves
like a line of pieces of woods. If the first piece of wood If you think about particles of matter as tiny balls, each
is pushed forward it falls onto the next and so on. In state of matter is shown in the diagram below:
this way the slight push of a finger is propagated from
the first wood piece through the row of wood pieces.

Sound
READING
Acoustics
Today cities are so crowded that the sound caused by so many people makes you uncomfortable. One of
the ways that sound can be controlled is by acoustics.
When cities and towns are planned, the acoustic properties of the buildings are checked to decrease
echoes and sound reflections. Acoustics is the science of sound. It is the study of sound sources, their
propagation, and how they are heard.
The control of sound using acoustics was important even in ancient times. The acoustics of Aspendos,
ancient theatre and Mimar Sinan’s Sulemaniye mosque can still be heard today.
Acoustics in public buildings like cinemas, theatres, and concert halls are specially made to decrease
echoes. Reflected sound mixes with incident sound, so that it cannot be understood.
The opera house in Sydney, Australia is world famous for

its acoustics.
One of the best-known sights of Istanbul. Designed by the

architectural genius Sinan Pasha, it was finished in 1558.
Aspendos is known for having the best-preserved theatre

of antiquity. With a diameter of 96 metres, the theatre
provided seating for 7,000. Until recently, the theatre was
still in use for concerts and festivals.

ACTIVITIES
Which Materials Absorb more Sound?
You need: A mechanical wind up clock, a shoe box, a piece of

fabric, sheets of newspaper, foam pieces.
Preparation:
1. Place the clock inside an empty shoe box.
2. Listen to the sound of the clock.
3. Cover the clock with the cloth, place it inside the box, cover
the box and listen to the sound.
4. Cover the clock with the newspaper, put it inside the box,
cover the box and listen to the sound.
5. Place the clock under the foam pieces inside the box, cover
the box and listen to the sound.
Compare the loudness of the sound you have listened to in each step;
A. Which material absorbs sound more?

..................................................................................................................
B. What would happen if the box was made of wood?
..................................................................................................................

Fill in the empty spaces below in the sentences with words from the list at the bottom of the page.
1. If the loudness of sound, incident on a material, decreases as it propagates through it is called
---------------------- .
2. The medium that conducts sound best is a ----------------------.
3. Sound coming from a source propagates as ------------------------.
4. Particles pass on ------------------------- to each other so that sound propagates.
5. Sound cannot propagate in mediums without ---------------.
6. Sound waves which fall upon a hard surface and are reflected back are called an ------------------.
7. When everywhere is covered in snow, sound from the environment is -----------------------.
absorp sound ed particle

echo tion waves energy solid absorb s

Test
1. Which of the sentences about sound below is 4. Ali, Bahri, and Derya are at different distances
incorrect? from a sound source. The times it takes them
DDD to hear sound from the source are given by:
A) If sound could propagate through space you tBahri > tDerya > tAli
would be able to hear explosions occurring All three children have good hearing. Which of
on the Sun’s surface. the diagrams below correctly shows their posi-
B) Sound propagates through materials by tions away from the source?
vibration of its particles.
C) Sound propagates as waves

D) Echoes are absorbed by materials

2. Which of the following diagrams shows sound
propagating from its source?

DD

5. Betul and Asma stop

in the school play-
ground in the posi-
tions shown. Betul
finds that though she
can hear Asma’s
3. voice, she cannot
see her face.
Which of the follow-
ing cannot be found
out by Betul in this
The matter above is shown in three different position?
DD
states.
A) Light travels in straight lines.
What can be said about the speed of sound
B) Sound propagates as waves.
propagation in these states of matter?
BBB C) Sound also travels through air.
A) I > II > III B) II > I > III D) The speeds of sound and light are not the
C) III > II > I D) I > III > II same.

1. Your Sense Organs
1. The Eye: Your Organ of Sight

Your light-sensitive organ, the eye, is made up of sen-
An understanding of the sense organs sitive receptors, the lens, nerves, and accessory struc-
Terms and concepts about the sense tures (eyelids, eyelashes, tear glands, and eye muscles).
organs
The kinds of stimuli felt by the sense
organs

Receptor Stimulus

Your sense organs are very important in

your life.
You use them to tell direction and com-
municate with people and objects in your
surroundings. However, you must take
care of them to protect their health.
The effects on the body of changes arising in the envi-

ronment are called stimuli. The organs that enable
perception of these stimuli are called sense organs.
Special cells in the sense organs, that sense stimuli
coming from the environment, and transfer them to the The eye muscles fasten the eyes to the body and provide
nerves are called sense receptors. coordinated movement of the eyeballs.
Receptors that sense stimuli are found in your sense

organs. The eye balls are connected to the eye sockets with
n Cells sensitive to light in the eyes muscles.
n Cells stimulated by physical changes in the skin and From the outside inwards, the eye is composed of the
ears sclera, the choroid, and the retina.
n Sense cells stimulated by chemical substances in
the tongue and nose a. Sclera
n Cells stimulated by heat changes in the skin This is a white structure, on the outside of the eye, that
protects the eye from the environment. The eye mus-
cles connect to the sclera.
Light enters the eye, and is collected by means of the
cornea.
Sense organs

Your Sense Organs
b. Choroid In the course of seeing an object, these events take

place.
This is found under the sclera. Blood vessels that nour-
ish the eye are located here. n Light rays reflecting from the object are refracted by
the cornea, and brought together in the pupil.
Iris: A thickening of the choroid in front of the retina
forms the coloured part of the eye called the iris. The n Light rays entering the pupil are refracted by the
pupil, a hole allowing light to enter the eye, is found in lens, and form a reverse image on the macula of
the middle of the iris. the retina.
Lens: The lens is alive, transparent, and convex. It n The reverse image is picked up by sense receptors
causes the light entering the eye to be refracted and to in the macula, and converted into a nerve signal or
fall on the retina. The lens is connected to the choroid message.
with muscles.
Light → Cornea → Pupil → Lens → Retina

→ Macula → Vision centre of the brain
The eye has many parts.

In order for a sharp image to be produced in your
c. Retina brain, a sharp image needs to be focused onto
the retina. This happens when the rays of light are
The innermost layer of the eyeball is the part where refracted. The cornea and lens carry out this focus-
light-sensitive receptors are found. ing of the light.
Nerves that carry the signals coming from the recep-
tors in the eye are called optic nerves.
How Do You See Objects?

The eye is similar to a camera. You can compare the
Eye Defects
retina to the camera’s film, the lens of the eye to the
camera lens, and the iris to the camera’s diaphragm. There are many defects of the eye that are passed on
from parents (inherited) or caused by the environmen-
tal. Some eye defects and ways of treating them are
given below.
CHAPTER 8 | SENSE ORGANS 193

Your Sense Organs
1. Myopia (Near-sightedness): The image of a dis- Today, lasers can be used for the treatment of eye dis-
tant object is formed in front of the retina. orders. They can be used to shape and make correc-
tions to the surfaces of the lens and cornea.
Image forms in front of the retina.
A colour-blindness test
With the help of concave lens, the image forms on the retina.
A person with myopia sees near objects clearly but
distant objects appear blurred. Myopia is easily cor-
rected by using a concave lens.
2. Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness): The image of a
nearby object is formed behind the retina.
Myopia (Near-sightedness) Hypermetropia

(Far-sightedness)
Image forms behind the retina.

2. The Ear: Your Organ for Hearing
The ear is your sense organ for
detecting sounds.
Sound is taken in by sense
receptors found in your ear.
It travels to the brain through
nerves and the sensation of
With the help of convex lens, the image forms on the retina. hearing is felt.
A person with hypermetropia sees distant objects
clearly but near objects appear blurred. Hypermetropia
can be corrected by using a convex lens.
Colour-blindness (Daltonism): This is an inherited Sections of the ear
eye defect, present from birth. It occurs at a higher The ear is made up of three regions: the outer ear, the
rate in men than in women. This defect stems from an middle ear and the inner ear.
inability to distinguish the colours red and green. There
is no treatment.

Your Sense Organs
The Skin’s Functions are as Follows:

n Protects the body from physical and chemical influ-
ences.
n Prevents microbes from entering the body.
n Protects the cells from the harmful effects of ultravi-
olet rays found in sunlight.
n Regulates the body temperature.
n Assists with excretion of waste substances (salts,
water) through the sweat glands.
In humans, the skin is divided into two layers: the epi-
dermis and the dermis.
The ear is made up of three regions: the outer ear,

middle ear, and inner ear.
How Do You Hear?

Hearing of sound takes place as follows:
n Sound waves are collected in the outer ear and
cause the eardrum to vibrate.
n Sound waves pass through the hammer into the
middle ear.
n Sound vibrations move from the middle to the inner
ear, by changing them into electrical messages.
n These messages are sent to the hearing centre in
the brain, so you can hear the sound.
Skin: Made up of structures with different functions.
Because sound waves in the environment come to

each of your ears at different times, you can find the
direction of the sound. Activity - 1
Label the parts of the skin.
Sensory cells that sense sound are found in the inner ear.
Sound waves are sensed by these cells, electrical signals
are passed along nerves to the brain and the sense of
hearing is experienced.
3. The Skin: Your Organ of Touch

The skin is our largest organ and sensory neurons are
found here.

Your Sense Organs
4. The Nose: Your Organ of Smell

The nose is an organ that is supported with bone and
cartilage. It has the function of allowing us to smell and
Dogs have a sense of smell that is twenty times
breathe.
more sensitive than humans. Due to this charac-
teristic, dogs are used to detect substances like
drugs and explosives. German shepherd dogs
have been successful in finding more than one
hundred and fifty leaks in natural gas pipeline
equipment.
5. The Tongue: Your Organ of Taste

Your tongue is made up of muscles. Taste buds,
taste-sensitive neurons, are found on the tongue. A
sense of taste is felt when these stimuli are carried by
nerve cells to the brain.
How Do You Smell?
Neurons sensitive to sweet flavours are located on the

tip of the tongue, those sensitive to salty flavours are
at the sides behind the sweet sensing neurons, those
sensitive to sour flavours are on the sides of the tongue,
and those sensitive to bitter flavours are in the middle of
the back of the tongue.
n Odour particles enter the nose with inhaled air. How Do You Taste?
n By dissolving in the mucous layer in the nasal n Flavoured substances dissolve inside the taste
cavity, odour particles stimulate the smell receptors buds in the mouth, and stimulate the sense neurons
there. on the tongue.
n Odour stimuli perceived by the receptors produce n Electrical messages formed in the sensing neurons
an electrical message. The electrical messages are are carried by nerves to the taste sensing centre of
transported to the smell sensing region of the brain, the brain, where they are evaluated.
through nerves and a smell is sensed.

The Health of the Sense Organs
To lead a healthy life, you need to pay attention to the
health of your sense organs. If they are unhealthy, your For tongue health:
life becomes difficult.
Infections, causing
For eye health: inflammation are
1. The eyes should be kept common and may
clean, protected from dirt be seen on the
and dust and washed with tongue as coloured
water. spots.
2. Eye drops should not be 1. Make sure you
used without asking the doc- don’t let your tongue touch unclean objects, such
tor. as fingers, pencils, or toys.
2. Very hot and very cold foods or drinks should be
3. Eyes must be protected from harmful rays and
avoided.
bright lights. Don’t sit near the television or watch
television for a long time. 3. Alcohol and cigarettes destroy the sense of taste.
Cancer of the tongue occurs more often in smokers
4. When reading or writing, there should be enough
than in non-smokers.
light coming from an indirect source.
5. Regular and balanced nutrition is needed for the Skin health:
health of the eyes (for example, enough vitamin A 1. Protect skin from injuries and irritations.
should be in your diet). 2. Cleanliness is basic to the health of the skin, so
bathe frequently. The hands should be washed with
For ear health: soap. When the pores in the skin are open they
1. Importance should be given to the ears’ cleanli- help with respiration and excretion.
ness. Hard objects that will damage the eardrum 3. Exposure to the Sun is necessary for vitamin D for-
should not be put in the ears. mation. However, staying under the sun longer than
2. The hearing nerves become tired when used a lot. necessary can cause skin cancer. The Sun’s rays
This may cause hearing loss in people who are in are among the main causes of skin cancer.
loud places a lot. Avoid these places or if not possi- 4. Make sure clothes are made from natural material.
ble, wear ear protection. Synthetic (man made) clothes can cause fungi to
3. A doctor should be seen when there is inflamma- form, giving rise to inflammation.
tion, or pain in the ear. 5. Dry skin cracks in the cold weather. This leaves the
4. Decayed teeth may cause middle ear inflammation, skin open to infections. So, it should be protected
so take care of dental health. from the cold.
6. After using detergent, hands should be washed
5. Earmuffs should be worn in cold weather to protect
with enough amount of water and soap whenever
the ears from cold. possible.
For nose health:
1. Don’t put fingers in your nose or pluck nose hairs.
2. Medicine should be used, only under a doc-
tor’s supervision, to relieve stuffy nose caused by
illnesses like cold and flu.
3. Keep your nose clean with tissues.
4. You should see a doctor when your nose is
inflamed, or if you have repeated nose bleeds.
5. Don’t inhale dangerous substances.

ACTIVITIES
1
Label the parts of the ear.
BIOLOGICAL IDENTITY CARD:

FINGERPRINTS
Fingerprint is the name given to the patterns of
lines at the end of your fingers. Every person has
their own special pattern visible to the eye. As
long as there are no deep cuts or wounds, the
lines of the fingerprints don’t change throughout
a person’s life. Your fingerprint carries the same
characteristics at every stage of your life.
These characteristics mean that they are widely
used to identify people. They have been used as
important evidence in crimes for almost a century.

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the list at the bottom of the page.
1. People with the eye defect called ..................... see 5. The consumption of ..................... can destroy the
near objects well but distant objects are blurred.
health of the stomach and liver.
2. The ..................... is the layer that nourishes the
eye’s structures. 6. The ..................... is the place where sound waves,
3. The flavour of foods like baklava, jam, and honey is entering the ear, are turned into electrical messages
sensed more by ..................... . and transmitted to nerves.
4. To keep the ..................... , healthy exercise should
be carried out regularly, depending on the age and
7. The ..................... ensures enough light enters the
level of health of the person. eye to see an image.
the ti
myopia p of s
tongu the drug
a e ol
retin brain pupil
alcoh

ACTIVITIES
3
Structures that have a role in the process of smelling a flower’s fragrance are given below. Briefly write down the
responsibilities of these structures.

4
How do we see objects? Fill in the blanks below.

ACTIVITIES
Look at the pictures about eye defects and fill in the blanks.
5.
Eye defect : ...........................................................................
The type of lens to correct the defect : .............................
6.
Eye defect : ...........................................................................
The type of lens to correct the defect : .............................

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PRIMARY

Global Bridge Publishing is a part of Global Education.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized

How To Study Science?

Chapter 1 Reproduction, Growth and Development of Living Things

2. Reproduction, Growth and Development in Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3. Reproduction and Development in Flowering Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Chapter 2 Force and Motion

Chapter 3 Matter Is Made From Particles

2. Elements and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3. Physical and Chemical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4. Particles in Each State of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Chapter 4 Electricity in Everyday Life

2. The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

3. The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Chapter 6 Matter and Heat

2. Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

3. Heat Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Chapter 7 Light and Sound

2. Mirrors and Where They are Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 8 Your Sense Organs

 Just as buildings are made up of walls, bricks are the

Life Starts with the Cell

8 PRIMARY SCIENCE 6 STUDENT BOOK

Euglena and paramecium are living things made up of one

Cells are generally observed with a microscope. For

CHAPTER 1 | REPRODUCTION, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LIVING THINGS 9

Lysosome breaks down Mitochondria produces

The nucleus controls all the activities

10 PRIMARY SCIENCE 6 STUDENT BOOK

Ribosome found in all

It is found in the cytoplasm.

Cell Wall Plant Cell

The vacuole collects

CHAPTER 1 | REPRODUCTION, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LIVING THINGS 11

Observing a Plant Cell

You need: A magnifying glass, 3 slides, 3 slide covers, water,

1. Cut the onion into four pieces.

5. Examine each slide you have prepared with the microscope.

B. What is the shape of the plant cell?

12 PRIMARY SCIENCE 6 STUDENT BOOK

Observing Your Inner Cheek Cells

You need: Toothpick, methyl blue or iodine, a microscope,

1. Place one drop of water on the slide.

2. Rub the toothpick inside your mouth on the inner cheek

3. With the toothpick you have used, make small circles in

4. Cover the slide you have prepared and observe it under

6. Examine the prepared slide again and draw what you

First Observation Second Observation

CHAPTER 1 | REPRODUCTION, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LIVING THINGS 13

The Properties of Life

Movement and behavior are Living things become more by

14 PRIMARY SCIENCE 6 STUDENT BOOK

The smallest unit in the organization of multicellular

Plant and animal organisms are composed of tissue.

Just as buildings are made up of walls, bricks are the

Frogs release a large number The embryo that

Reproduction in Flowering Plants