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Reference Models
KHAWAR BUTT
CCI E # 12353 [R/S, SECURI TY, SP, DC, V OI CE, STORAGE & CCDE]
Overview
 The Need for Reference Models
 The Layered Approach
 OSI Reference Models c

 IP Reference Model
The Need for Reference Models
 Initially when networks came about, different technology companies like IBM, DEC, Apple,
Novell etc starting developing their own protocols for communications.

 These lead to networks that only allowed devices to communicate to each other if they used
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devices of the same vendor. Inter-vendor communication was not possible.

 This restricted the growth of networks. Hence, Reference Models came about.

 Reference Model offered a means of standardization networking and network technologies

 A reference model provided a way how these devices can communicate regardless their
architecture.

 We have two main reference models, OSI and the TCP/IP model. The OSI model is a
hypothetical one. The TCP/IP model is the model that is implemented and used in todays
networks.
Layered Approach
 A layered networking approach use a model in which a task, such as data communications is
broken into a series of tasks, activities, or components, each of which is defined and developed
independently.

 A layered model defines each layer separately.

c As long as the interconnections between layers
remain constant, protocol designers can specialize in one area (layer) without worrying about
how any new implementations affect other layers. They need to have the protocol communicate
to the layer above and below and corresponding layer on the remote device.

 The layered approach reduces a very complex set of topics, activities, and actions into several
smaller, interrelated groupings. This makes learning and understanding the actions of each
layer and the model generally much easier.

 The protocols, actions, and data contained in each layer of the model relate only to the purpose
of that layer. This enables troubleshooting efforts to be pinpointed on the layer that carries out
the suspected cause of the problem.
OSI Reference Model
 Open Systems Interconnetion (OSI) is a conceptual model developed by
International Organization of Standardization (ISO) that standardizes the
communication functions of network communications without regard to its
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underlying internal structure and technology.
 The OSI model consists of seven layers. Each layer has a specific function,
however each layer needs to communicate to the layer above and below it. It
also needs to provide information for the peer layer on the remote device.
 The information for the peer layer on the remote device is added to the
normal data. This added information is known as the “Header”. Each layer
adds its own header meant for the peer layer.
OSI Reference Model
 The application on the sending device will send data to the Top layer of the Reference Model. This layer is
responsible for communicating the Client and Server applications/services. This layer is known as the
Application Layer as it communicates with the End-user Application.

 As this layer needs to send the information to the layer below it and needs to let the remote peer layer which
application was communication meant for, it will c add information to the original data. This added
information for communication is called the Header.

 At this point the original data will have the added Header information. This is known as the Protocol Data
Unit (PDU) for the top layer which includes the original data and header.

 This PDU is passed to the layer below it. The layer below it will treat the entire PDU as Data and add
additional header as processing information for the remote peer layer. This becomes the PDU for this layer.

 Each layer will repeat the process as the communications goes down the layers of the Reference Model.

 This information is send to the remote device. The layers on the remote device will read the header
information for its layer and peel off the header. Each layer will continue doing the same until the
Application on the remote layer receives the data in the same format as the sending application.
OSI Reference Model – PDUs
Sender
Application Layer (Layer 7) L7 Header Data
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Presentation Layer (Layer 6) L6 Header L7 Header + Data
Session Layer (Layer 5) L5 Header L6 + L7 Header + Data
Transport (Layer 4)
L4 Header L5 + L6 + L7 Header + Data
Network (Layer 3) L3 Header L4 + L5 + L6 + L7 Header + Data
Data Link (Layer 2)
L2 Header L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 + L7 Header + Data
Physical Layer (Layer 1) Media Transmission
OSI – Application Layer
 The Application Layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means
both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software
application.
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 This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating
component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model.

 An example of an Application Layer protocol is HTTP. HTTP is a protocol that

interacts with the client (Browser like Mozilla) and the server on the other end
(Web Server like Microsoft Web Server).

 Another example would be SMTP. SMTP communicates to the E-mail client on

sender side and the Server (E-mail Server like Exchange) on the other end.
OSI – Presentation Layer
 This layer makes it sure that the information is delivered in such a form
that the receiving system will understand and use it.

 This layer provides independence from

c data representation by translating
between application and network formats.

 The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application
accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is
sometimes called the syntax layer.

 The presentation converts an EBCDIC coded text file to an ASCII coded file.
OSI – Session Layer
 The session layer controls the connections between computers.

 It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local

and remote application. c

 It establishes procedures for checkpointing, suspending, restarting, and

terminating a session.

 In the OSI model, this layer is responsible for gracefully closing a session.

 The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application

environments that use Remote Procedure Calls (RPC).
OSI – Transport Layer
 The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation, and error control.

 Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented.

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 The transport layer creates segments out of the message received from the
application layer. Segmentation is the process of dividing a long message into
smaller messages.

 This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-
transmit those that fail delivery.

 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.
OSI – Network Layer
 The Network Layer provides connectivity and path selection between 2 host
systems that may be located on geographically separated networks.

 The network layer protocols determinec which route is suitable from source
to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.

 In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer

defines an addressing scheme.

 The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
OSI – Data Link Layer
 The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message.

 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from
one node to another, over the physicalc layer.

 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it

to the Host using its MAC address.

 Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :

• Logical Link Control (LLC) – It communicates with the Network Layer.
• Media Access Control (MAC) – It is responsible for encapsulating the Sender and
Receiver’s MAC Address in the header.
OSI – Physical Layer
 The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.

 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.

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 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.

 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.

 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it
into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the
frame back together.
TCP/IP Model
 The OSI Model is just a logical model. It was designed to describe the functions
of the communication system by dividing the communication procedure into
smaller and simpler components.
 But when we talk about the TCP/IP cmodel, it was designed and developed by
Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It
stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
 The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four
layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Access/Link Layer
TCP/IP – OSI Comparisions
OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Model
Application Layer (Layer 7)
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Presentation Layer (Layer 6) Application Layer
Session Layer (Layer 5)

Transport (Layer 4) Transport Layer

Network (Layer 3) Internet Layer

Data Link (Layer 2)

Link Layer
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
TCP/IP Model - PDUs
Sender

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Application Layer Data
L7 Header Data

Transport (Layer 4) L4 Header L7 Header Data Segment

Internet (Layer 3) L3 Header L4 Header L7 Header Data Packet

Link Layer (Layer 2) L2 Header L3 Header L4 Header L7 Header Data Frame

Application Layer
 It maps over to the top 3 layers of the OSI Model.

 Protocols at this layer on the IP Model are responsible for communicating

with the End-User applications, translating
c data representation between
application and network formats and setting up the session parameters.

 An example of an Application Layer protocol is HTTP. HTTP is a protocol

that interacts with the client (Browser like Mozilla) and the server on the
other end (Web Server like Microsoft Web Server).

 Another example would be SMTP. SMTP communicates to the E-mail client

on sender side and the Server (E-mail Server like Exchange) on the other
end.
Transport Layer
 The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation, and error control.

 Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented.

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 The 2 main protocols in the IP Model for the transport layer are TCP & UDP.

 The transport layer creates segments out of the message received from the application
layer. Segmentation is the process of dividing a long message into smaller messages.

 This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit
those that fail delivery.

 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.
Internet Layer
 The Internet Layer provides connectivity and path selection between 2 host
systems that may be located on geographically separated networks.

 The network layer protocols determinec which route is suitable from source
to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.

 In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer

defines an addressing scheme.

 The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Link Layer
 The link layer covers the same processes as the 2 lower layers of the OSI layers,
the Data Link and Physical layers.

 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from
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one node to another, over the physical layer.

 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of this layer to

transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.

 Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :

• Logical Link Control (LLC) – It communicates with the Network Layer.
• Media Access Control (MAC) – It is responsible for encapsulating the Sender and
Receiver’s MAC Address in the header.
Whiteboard