Marine Emergencies

This book is an influential guide to marine emergencies and the current strategies that can
be employed to cope with the immediate after-effects and ramifications of disaster at sea.
Many mariners will at some point in their marine careers become involved in one sort of
emergency or another, while in port or at sea, whether it is a fire on board, a collision with
another vessel or an engine failure threatening a lee shore. Actions to take in such incidents
can be the difference between survival and catastrophic loss.
This text provides a direct insight into some of the latest incidents and includes:

• case studies from emergencies worldwide

• checklists and suggestions for emergency situations
• everything from fire and collision right through to the legal implications of salvage.

D.J. House has written and published 18 marine titles, many of which are in multiple
editions. After commencing his seagoing career in 1962, he was initially engaged on general
cargo vessels. He later experienced worldwide trade with passenger, container, ro-ro, reefer
ships and bulk cargoes. He left the sea in 1978 with a Master Mariner’s qualification and
commenced teaching at the Fleetwood Nautical College. Retiring in 2012 after 33 years of
teaching in nautical education, David House continues to research and write for the ever-
changing marine industry.
Other Works Published by D.J. House

Seamanship Techniques, combined volume (4th edition), 2013, Routledge.

ISBN 9780415829526 (hbk), 9780415810050 (pbk), 9780203796702 (ebk)

Seamanship Techniques Volume III: ‘The Command Companion’, 2000, Butterworth/

Heinemann.
ISBN 0750644435

Marine Survival (3rd edition), 2011, Witherby Publishing Group.

ISBN 9781856093552

Navigation for Masters (4th edition), 2007, Witherby Publishing Group.

ISBN 1856092712

An Introduction to Helicopter Operations at Sea: A Guide for Industry (2nd edition),

1998, Witherby.
ISBN 1856091686

Cargo Work (7th edition revised), 1998, Butterworth/Heinemann.

ISBN 0750665556

Anchor Practice: A Guide for Industry, 2001, Witherby Publishing Group.

ISBN 1856092127

Marine Ferry Transports: An Operators Guide, 2002, Witherby Publishing Group.

ISBN 1856092313

Dry Docking and Shipboard Maintenance, 2003, Witherby Publishing Group.

ISBN 1856092453

Heavy Lift and Rigging, 2005, Brown Son & Ferguson.

ISBN 0851747205

The Seamanship Examiner, 2005, Elsevier.

ISBN 075066701X

Ship Handling, 2007, Elsevier.

ISBN 9780750685306

The Ice Navigation Manual, 2010, Witherby Publishing Group.

ISBN 9789053315989

Elements of Modern Ship Construction, 2010, Brown Son & Ferguson.

ISBN 9780851748146

Also:

Marine Technology Reference Book (Safety Chapter), 1990, edited by Nina Morgan,
Butterworths.
ISBN 0408027843
Marine Emergencies
For Masters and Mates

D.J. House
First published 2014
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2014 D.J. House
The right of D.J. House to be identified as author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
House, D. J.
Marine emergencies / D.J. House.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Ships--Safety measures. 2. Merchant marine--Safety measures. 3. Marine
accidents. 4. Ships--Fires and fire prevention. 5. Seamanship. I. Title.
VK200.H66 2014
363.12'3--dc23
2013048962
ISBN13: 978-1-138-02045-0 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978-1-315-77069-7 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon
by Fakenham Prepress Solutions, Fakenham, Norfolk NR21 8NN
Contents

Acknowledgements ix

About the Author xi

Abbreviations xiii

Terminology and Definitions Associated with Marine Emergencies xix

1 Collision (Ship to Ship) at Sea 1

Introduction 1
Collision: Immediate Effects 1
Impact Damage 4
Legal Actions of the Master (Under the Merchant Shipping Act) 5
General Actions Following Initial Response to a Collision 6
Incorporation and Use of Checklists 7
Communications Following a Collision 9
Voyage Data Recorder (Black Box Recorder) 9
Note of Protest 11
The Role of the Ship’s Chief Officer (in the Aftermath of Collision) 12
Collision Patch Construction 13
Collision Patch Materials 13
Port of Refuge 14
Port of Refuge and General Average 15
Damage Control Parties 16
Passenger Ship Collision 17
Tanker Collision 19
Collision: Typical Damage/Repair Assessment (Hypothetical) 20
Summary 22

2 Taking the Ground: Grounding, Beaching, Stranding and Docking 25

Introduction 25
Running Aground 26
Incident Report: Loss of the Riverdance 28
Incident Report: MSC Napoli (Container Vessel) 31
Beaching 32
Grounding/Beaching Summary 34
vi contents

Case Study: Running Aground 35

Immediate Actions 36
Soundings and Use of Lead Line 37
Emergency Dry Docking 39

3 The Lee Shore and the Use of Emergency Anchors 49

Introduction 49
What is the Lee Shore? 50
Loss of Steering 50
Steering Gear Operations 51
Lee Shore: Loss of Main Engine Power 57
Master’s Options 57
Relevant Anchor Work 59
Example Stern/Kedge Anchor 70
Kedge Anchor 71
Chain Cable/Stud Link: General Information 72
Heavy Weather Encounter 73
Case Study: The Loss of the M.V. Braer (89,730 dwt) 78

4 Fire on Board 81
Introduction 81
The Outbreak of Fire on Board the Ship 82
Fire Support Units 84
Fire Parties 84
Firefighting Teams 85
CO2 Maintenance 86
Security against Accidental Release of CO2 87
Example Fires 87
Case Incident 92

5 Abandonment 105
Introduction 105
Loss of the Ship 106
The Aftermath of the Herald of Free Enterprise 107
The Loss of Costa Concordia, Passenger Cruise Ship 107
Abandonment Psychology 113
Passenger Behaviour 117
Incident Report 118
Exposure to Risk 118
Evacuation by Free Fall Lifeboat 120
Totally Enclosed Lifeboats 121
 contents vii

Maintenance Programme for Life Saving Appliances 121

Evacuation by Inflatable Liferaft 121
Evacuation by Davit-Launched Liferaft 123
The Role of Rescue Boats in Abandonment 124
Rescue Boat Operations 125
Example Liferaft Operations 126
Evacuation by Means of Marine Evacuation Systems 126
Shipboard Emergency Drills 127
Evacuation by Helicopter 128
Helicopter Operations 129
Helicopter/Shipboard Operations 131
Surface-to-Air Medical Evacuation (MediVac) 132
Helicopter Hi-Line Capabilities 133
Helicopter Incident Report 134
Miscellaneous Facts (Related to an Abandonment Situation) 134

6 Marine Pollution 137

Introduction 137
Terminology and Definitions affecting Tanker and Gas Carrier Vessels 138
Pollutants Other than Oils 145
The Causes of Maritime Pollution 146
The Design of the Oil Tanker 148
Oil Tankers 149
Pipeline Connections 150
Anti-Pollution Measures 150
Oil Spills 151
Exxon Valdez, 23 March 1989 152
Lightening Operations (Ship-to-Ship Transfer) 153
Ship-to-Ship Oil Transfer 154
Recovery of Floating Oil Pipelines 155
Oil Movement 157
Incident Report: Grounding of the Drilling Rig Kulluk, 30 December 2012 158
Oil Recovery Equipment 158
Ballast Water Movement 159

7 Towing and Salvage Hazards 161

Introduction 161
Tug Operations 162
Harbour and Port Authority Tugs 163
Oceangoing Salvage Tugs 163
The Work of the Towmaster 164
viii contents

Tugs and Emergency Towing 165

Tug Approval Surveys 166
Cargo Deck Barges (Pontoons) 169
The Insurable Risk 169
Sheer Legs in Salvage Use 172
Salvage Contact 173
Quality of Information 176

8 Miscellaneous and Routine Leading to Potential Hazards 177

Introduction 177
Enclosed Space Entry 177
Fog Encounter 178
Dangers Associated with Restricted Visibility 179
Doubling Watches 180
Ice Navigation 181
Man Overboard (MoB) 183
Example Turning Manoeuvres 184
Rescue Boat Activity 186
Boarding or Disembarking Marine Pilots 186
Navigational Pitfalls of ECDIS 187
Search Patterns Associated with IAMSAR 188
Determination of Track Space 190
Duties of the On-Scene Coordinator 191
Example Checklists 192
The Activities of the US Coast Guard 193
Emergency Communications 194
The Use of Distress Signals 196

Annex 1: Question and Suggested Answers for Senior Officers: Towards Marine
Examinations 199

Annex 2: Notable Shipping Incidents 211

Annex 3: Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement: No Cure - No Pay 213

Annex 4: Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement: Salvage and Arbitration Clauses 219

Annex 5: Lloyd’s Standard Form of Salvage Agreement: Procedural Rules 225

Annex 6: International Salvage Union: Sub-contract (Award Sharing) 2001 227

Summary 235

Bibliography 237

Index 239
Acknowledgements

Brown Son & Ferguson, Ltd, Marine Publications

Bruce Anchors Ltd
Dubai Dry docks
Fleetwood Nautical Campus of the Blackpool & Fylde College
I. C. Brindle
International Salvage Union
US Coastguard
Viking A/S Nordisk Gummibadsfabrik
Lloyd’s List
Smit Maritime Contractors, Europe and Smit International
LOF and its supporting documents have been reproduced with the kind permission
of Lloyd’s

Additional Photography
Mr G. Edwards Ch/Eng., retd, MN.
Mr J. Bateman, Chief Officer, MN.
Mr S. Mooney, Chief Officer, MN.
Mr J. Leyland, Nautical Studies Lecturer.
Mr M. Ashcroft, Nautical Studies Lecturer.
Mr S. Bateman, Chief Officer, MN.
Mr Peter M. Stacey, Marine Pilot
Mr G. Swindlehurst, Chief Officer, MN.
Mr D. MacNamee, Master Mariner, MN, FNI.

IT Consultant
Mr. C. D. House
This page intentionally left blank
About the Author

David House is a Master Mariner, starting his marine career in 1962, until the present day.
He spent 15 years at sea on various ship types, from passenger liners to dredging operations,
engaged in worldwide trades. His marine experience, including a limited time on warships,
was gained aboard general cargo vessels, container ships, roll-on–roll-off (ro-ro) ferries and
passenger liners. During his working life at sea he carried a variety of cargoes, including
both dry and liquid products, reefer commodities, heavy lifts, containers, vehicles, bulk
commodities and timber products.
His time in a seagoing capacity involved him in several real-time emergency situations
which have been reflected within this work.* Engaged on worldwide trade he encountered
considerable ice experience both in the Baltic and on the North Atlantic winter trades.
Heavy weather, fog, tropical storms and a lack of under-keel clearance became influencing
factors in his continued writings for the marine industry.

Figure 0.1 The author Mr D. J.

House.
xii about the author

His later years were engaged in lecturing to marine students on most maritime disci-
plines. During this period of over 30 years, he successfully wrote 17 textbooks covering
such topics as dry docking, anchor work practice, ferry transports, general seamanship,
navigation, ship construction, heavy lift and rigging, cargo work, ship handling, marine
survival and helicopter operations.
He continues to work within the marine education arena, teaching and carrying out
ongoing research into a variety of marine-related topics. This current work has been
enhanced by continued work with the International Institute of Nautical Surveyors, the
Fleetwood Nautical Campus of the Blackpool & Fylde College and colleagues within the
maritime industries.

NB. Merchant Navy officers are expected to wear many hats on different occasions,
sometimes being a navigator, medical officer, cargo officer or naval architect. On some
unusual occasions even being a cook to a legal counsellor.

Note
* During his seagoing career, the author had firsthand experience of being aboard a ship running
aground in fog and ice conditions on a voyage towards Montreal. His vessel was also torn away
from the quayside by fast-flowing ice drifts. His ship was later to part all its mooring ropes and
was cast adrift without power, in the restricted waters of the St Lawrence River, Canada.
He later experienced a head-on collision off the Northern Ireland coastline while aboard a ro-ro
vessel. This particular incident caused contact with a cliff face at 16 knots. The subsequently
damaged vessel was then taken with tug assistance to Belfast dry dock for major repairs.
His experiences also include a fishing boat rescue in the Irish Sea and two fires on board different
ships. As the acting medical officer at the time he dealt with mental health problems in crew
members and violent outbreaks among personnel, resulting in disciplinary procedures having to be
taken.
Abbreviations

A.C. alternating current

ABS American Bureau of Shipping
ACAS Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service
ACGIH American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists
AHV anchor handling vessel
AIS automated identification system
AMVER Automated Mutual-Assistance Vessel Rescue System
API American Petroleum Institute
APM anchor position mooring
APP aft perpendicular
B&V Blohn +Voss Industrietechnik GmbH
B representative of the ship’s centre of buoyancy
B/A breathing apparatus
BHP brake horse power
BIMCO Baltic and International Maritime Council
BL breaking load
BP bollard pull
BS breaking strength
BT ballast tank
BV Bureau Veritas
C of A certificate of approval
C of G centre of gravity
CBT clean ballast tank
CD chart datum
CG Coast Guard
CMI Comité Maritime International (International Maritime Committee)
CO2 carbon dioxide
CSM cargo securing manual
CSP commencement of search pattern
CSS Cargo Stowage and Securing (code)
CSWP Code of Safe Working Practice
D.C. direct current
DNV Det Norske Veritas
DP dynamic positioning
DPA designated person ashore
xiv abbreviations

DSC digital selective calling

DSV diving support vessel
DWA dock water allowance
dwt deadweight tonnage
ECDIS Electronic Chart and Display Information System
EEBDs emergency escape breathing devices
EFSWR extra flexible steel wire rope
EPIRB emergency position indicating radio beacon
ETA (i) estimated time of arrival
ETA (ii) European Tugowners’ Association
ETA (iii) emergency towing arrangement
ETV emergency towing vessel
EU European Union
F.O. fuel oil
FLOFLO float on, float off
FPSO floating production, storage and offload vessel
FRC fast rescue craft
FSE free surface effect
FSWR flexible steel wire rope
FW fresh water
G representative of a ship’s centre of gravity
GA general average
GHz gigahertz
GL Germanischer Lloyd
GM metacentric height
GMDSS global maritime distress and safety system
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GPS global positioning system
grt gross registered tonnage
GZ righting arm (righting lever in stability)
HDFD heavy duty floating derrick
HF high frequency
HLO helicopter landing officer
HMCG Her Majesties Coast Guard
HMPE high molecular weight polyethylene
HNS hazardous and noxious substances
HP high pressure
HSE Health & Safety Executive
HSSC Harmonised System of Survey and Certification
HW high water
 abbreviations xv

IACS International Association of Classification Societies

IALA International Association of Lighthouse Authorities
IAMSAR International and Aeronautical Maritime Search and Rescue
IAPPC International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate
IGS inert gas system
IMDG International Maritime Dangerous Goods (code)
IMO International Marine Organisation
INS integrated navigation system
IOPP International Oil Pollution Prevention (MARPOL Certificate)
IPS integrated power system
ISGOTT International Oil Tanker and Terminal Safety Guide
ISM International Safety Management (code)
ISO International Organisation of Standardisation
ISPPC International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate
ISU International Salvage Union
IUA International Underwriting Association
IUMI International Union of Marine Insurers
IWS in water survey
K representative of the position of a ship’s keel
kg kilograms
kHz kilohertz
kNs kilonewtons
kts knots
kW kilowatt
LAT lowest astronomical tide
LBP length between perpendiculars
LFL lower flammable limit
LOA length overall
LOF Lloyd’s Open Form of Salvage
lo-lo load on–load off
LP low pressure
LPG liquid propane gas
LR Lloyd’s Register
LRS Lloyd’s Register of Shipping
LSA life saving appliances
LSSA Lloyd’s Standard Salvage and Arbitration
LW low water
M (i) metres
M (ii) metacentre
representative of the metacentre
xvi abbreviations

M.V. motor vessel

MA mechanical advantage
MAIB Marine Accident Investigation Branch
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Oil Pollution
MBL minimum breaking load
MCA Maritime Coastguard Agency
MCTC moment to change trim by 1 cm
Medivac medical evacuation
MEPC Marine Environmental Protection Committee
MES Marine Evacuation System
MF medium frequency
MFAG Medical First Aid Guide
MGN marine guidance notice
MHWN mean high water neaps
MHWS mean high water springs
MHz megahertz
MIN marine information notice
MLWN mean low water neaps
MLWS mean low water springs
mm millimetres
m/m mass by mass
MoB man overboard
MoD Ministry of Defence
MODU (MOU) Mobile Offshore Unit
MPCU Marine Pollution Control Unit
MRCC Marine Rescue Co-ordination Centre
M/S Merchant Shipping Act
MSC (i) Marine Safety Committee (of IMO)
MSC (ii) Mediterranean Shipping Company
MSI maritime safety information
MSL maximum securing load
MSN merchant shipping notice
MSR mean spring range
MTSA Marine Transport Security Act (US)
MW megawatt
NP national publication
NBDP narrow band direct printing (telex)
NFU non follow up
NLS noxious liquid substances
NRV non-return valve
 abbreviations xvii

NUC not under command

OBO oil, bulk, ore carrier
OCIMF Oil Companies International Marine Forum
OLB official log book
OOW Officer of the Watch
OPIC Oil Pollution Insurance Certificate
ORB oil record book
OSC On Scene Coordinator (Military On Scene Commander)
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
P&I Protection and Indemnity Association
P/V pressure vacuum
PEL permissible exposure limit
PHA preliminary hazard analysis
PIC person in charge
PNG pressurised natural gas
PPM (ppm) parts per million
PRS Polish Register of Shipping
PSC Port State Control
psi pounds per square inch
RD relative density
RINA Registro Italiano Navale (Classification Society – Italy)
RNLI Royal National Lifeboat Institution
ro-pax roll-on–roll-off passenger vessel
ro-ro roll-on–roll-off
ROV remote-operated vehicle
s.h.p. shaft horse power
SA Salvage Association
SAR search and rescue
SART search and rescue radar transponder
SBE stand-by engines
SBM single buoy mooring
SCOPIC Special Compensation Protection and Indemnity Clause
SCR (i) Shipowners Casualty Representatives
SCR (ii) Special Casualty Representative
SF stowage factor
SL summer load line
SLS serviceability limit state (design condition)
SMC Safety Management Certificate
SMS safety management system
SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea (convention)
xviii abbreviations

SOPEP Ship’s Oil Pollution Emergency Plan

SSA Ship Building and Repair Association
SSHP Site Safety and Health Plan
STEL short-term exposure limit
SU search unit
SW salt water
SWL safe working load
SWR steel wire rope
T (t) tonnes
Te tug efficiency
TEU twenty-foot equivalent unit (container)
TF tropical fresh
TLV threshold limit value
TPC tons per centimetre
TPR towline pull required
TVAS Towing Vessel Approvability Scheme
TWA time-weighted average
UFL upper flammable limit
UHMPE ultra-high molecular mass polyethylene
UK United Kingdom
UKC under-keel clearance
UKSTC United Kingdom standard towing conditions
ULC ultimate load capacity
ULCC ultra-large crude (oil) carrier
ULS ultimate limit state
US United States
USCG United States Coast Guard
VDR voyage data recording unit
VDU visual display unit
VHF very high frequency
VLCC very large crude carrier
VR velocity ratio
VTS vessel traffic services
W (i) representative of the ships displacement
W (ii) winter loadline
W/L waterline
WBT water ballast tank
WMO World Meteorological Organisation
Wp waterplane area
w.p.s. wires per strand
WPS Welding Procedure Specification
Terminology and Definitions
Associated with Marine
Emergencies

Anchor handling vessel (AHV) – A high horse-powered vessel usually constructed with a
wide, ample-spaced working deck, aft. They are frequently employed in offshore areas as
a general-purpose work boat. They carry very long anchor cables in large lockers for their
own use. These vessels are also used for transoceanic towing operations, usually having a
high bollard pull (BP) capacity in excess of 130 tonnes.
Speciality towing with offshore structures and working in the salvage role are not
uncommon. Such units are used extensively in the offshore industry for laying patterns
of anchors for positioning offshore installations. Also employed for the recovery and
deployment of anchors within the salvage sector.

Anchor warp – A wire hawser, sometimes combined with a heavy-duty fibre rope, which
acts as an alternative to the anchor chain cable as fitted to conventional seagoing vessels.
More often used on smaller or specialised craft where an all-chain cable would be considered
inappropriate.

Arbitration – Defined as a method of settling disputes between two or more parties.

Decisions from arbitration are usually binding on the parties concerned. The term is often
common to ‘charter parties’.

Arbitrator – A person designated to hear both sides of a dispute. The person is very often
a Queens Council and in the case of salvage, such a person is likely to be practising at the
Admiralty Bar under English Law relating to civil claims of salvage.
In determining any salvage award, account would have to be taken of the value of the
ship, its cargo and freight at risk. Assessment would also be made of the dangers and diffi-
culty in establishing salvage.

Archaeological salvage – A type of salvage for the recovery of either cargo or artefacts
usually submerged and may involve the use of scuba diving. This type of salvage has
evolved, with governments wishing to preserve wrecks and involve themselves in contracts
to effect recovery of property of value and interest.

Backstays – An additional feature rigged to a mast or Samson Post structure to provide

additional support when an attached derrick is expected to make a heavy lift.

Beaching – A term used to describe the deliberate action of running the vessel into shoals
to take the ground. It is usually carried out to prevent a total constructive loss from the
possibility of the vessel sinking in deep water. It would generally be expected that, following
xx terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies

repairs, the vessel could be re-floated at a more favourable time in the future. An alternative
is to break the vessel up in controlled conditions. The act of beaching would be cause for a
declaration of ‘general average’ (GA).

Bimco Towcon – A widely used contract for sea towing. This towing contract was first
introduced in 1985. It was drawn up by the Baltic and International Maritime Council
(BIMCO), the European Tugowner’s Association (ETA) and the International Salvage
Union (ISU). This type of contract tends to incorporate ‘Standard towing Conditions’, and
provides detailed and explicit conditions affecting both parties to the towing operation.

Bitter end – The opposing end of the anchor cable which is secured to the vessel in the
region of the cable locker.

Bollard pull (BP) – A measured pulling capacity associated with the towing power of a tug.
It is an influence on the charter towing rates when a tug is hired for a charter. The greater
the BP, the higher the towing rate charged. It is defined as the amount of force, expressed in
tonnes, that a tug can exert under given conditions.

Broken stowage – Considered to be that space contained between cargo parcels that remains
unfilled.

Broker (insurance) – A third party who acts between the client who wishes to insure his
operation and the underwriters who offer to take the risk on. The ‘broker’ acts to advise
the client on an appropriate level of policy. The broker is informed by the Warranty Survey
Company of changes to the operation or additional risks being incurred.

Bulk density – The weight of solids, air and water per unit volume. It includes the moisture
of cargo and the voids, whether filled with air or water.

Bull wire – A single wire often used in conjunction with a ‘lead block’, rigged to move a
load sideways off the line of plumb, to an acceptable position.

Cargo salvage – An occasion when a vessel is so badly damaged that it cannot be saved or
the hull cannot be saved economically, but the cargo or part of the cargo can.

Cargo shift – A generic term used to describe an unwanted movement of the ship’s cargo.
It is usually experienced in bad weather where the vessel experiences violent motions in
pitching or excessive rolling. The ramifications could affect the positive stability of the
vessel, causing the ship to develop a list or even go to an unstable position. Avoidance of the
problem is generally achieved by ensuring that the cargo is correctly and adequately secured
after loading, before putting the ship to sea.

Carpenter’s stopper – A heavy duty stopper employed to hold steel wire ropes (SWRs), used
within the salvage industry.

Cement box – A temporary repair method applied to minor leaks about the ship’s hull. It is
established by the construction of a box in steel or timber around the area of the leak and
fitted with a drain. It is then filled with cement and allowed to dry. The drain is led to a
bilge compartment which can be conveniently pumped out.
 terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies xxi

Certificate of approval (C of A) – A certificate issued by a competent third party (Warranty

Survey Company) in order for the insurance policy to become valid. In the event that the
insured party does not abide by the conditions of the C of A, then the contract of insurance
may become invalid. NB. Some issuing authorities use an alternative for the C of A: a
certificate of transportation, a towage certificate.

Class surveyor – That representative of the ‘Classification Society’ that inspects and ensures
that the vessel or structure remains compliant with the rules of the society and remains a
‘classed’ vessel or structure for the purpose of insurance and commercial reasons.

Cofferdam – An isolation space positioned between two adjacent compartments. Cofferdams

are common to tanker vessel construction, serving as a separation between the accommo-
dation block and cargo compartments. It may be a void space and always treated as an
‘enclosed space’ where full safety precautions must be adhered to, prior to entry.

Collision patch – An improvised repair to a breach in the ship’s hull. A generic term for a
temporary repair to the breach. A collision patch can be applied by the crew or a salvage
team as appropriate to provide a quick seal to a damaged area of a ship’s hull. Salvage teams
may employ ‘hook bolts’ to secure the patch over a damaged area.

Common law salvage – Sometimes referred to as ‘pure salvage’, where property is recovered
and no agreement or contract is drawn up. An example of such is where a ship recovers
floating cargo from the sea and a claim for salvage is made on the owners of the property.
Additional examples can be when property is found and recovered from the shoreline or
from shallows, or by a diver making a recovery from the sea bed. A claim for salvage must
then be registered against the previous owner of the property.

Composite towline – A towline which is established by coupling the ship’s anchor cable to
the towing spring of a towing vessel. The ship’s anchor can be hung off aboard the vessel or
left secured to the cable, to provide an increased ‘catena’ to the towline.

Contractual salvage – Salvage in which a salvage agreement, like ‘Lloyd’s Open Form’ is
drawn up between two parties as with the shipowners or between two ship’s Masters, for
the salvage of a ship and her cargo.

Cradle – A lifting base, usually manufactured in wood or steel or a combination of both,

employed to accept and support a heavy load in transfer. It would normally be employed
with heavy-duty lifting strops or slings from each corner.

Cutting operations – Several incidents have caused wrecks to be cut into removable sections,
including the Tricolor and the Riverdance. The method of cutting is usually carried out by a
‘diamond tipped cutting wire cable’. A sawing action is achieved by passing the cutting cable
under the casualty, between the crane or sheer legs positioned either side.

Deadweight tonnage (dwt) – That difference between the ship’s loaded and light displacement
tonnages. Namely a measure of the cargo she can carry inclusive of water, fuel and stores.

Derelict – A vessel remaining afloat but in an abandoned condition. The first person to take
possession of any derelict has the absolute right of control.
xxii terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies

Displacement tonnage – The actual weight of a ship measured by the volume of water
displaced, expressed in long tons.

Dynamometer – A load test instrument, either mechanical or in the form of an electric load
cell, providing a numerical read-out on the load being handled.

Emergency steering – A generic term which expresses an additional/secondary means

of steering in the event of failure of a main steering system. Not be confused with ‘jury
steering’.

Emergency towing arrangement – A requirement under SOLAS Chapter II, Regulation

1/3–4 requires all ships over 500  gross registered tonnes (grt) to be fitted with means of
deploying emergency towing gear in a controlled manner, both forward and aft of the
vessel’s structure. Effective from 1 January 2010.

Even keel – A description of a vessel which is not listed either to port or to starboard. Even
keel boats are easier to steer and handle than those which are hampered by an adverse list.

Fire monitor – Many vessels, especially tankers and salvage tugs, carry fixed water and
foam fire monitors. They are capable of projecting pressurised water jets to a considerable
range and height. They can be double functional for water or foam. Operating ranges vary
depending on inlet pressure, but operation to 150 m would not be unusual (see page 84).

Floating Dock – A moveable dry-docking system for ships. They can be transported, usually
by tugs, to any alternative waterborne position. The dock itself is a tank system which can
be submerged and listed to allow damaged vessels to be docked even at an angle of heel.
They are more frequently moored alongside a shipyard complex to handle any docking
overspill, so ensuring continued work for the shipyard.

Flotsam – Goods which have been cast or lost overboard which are recoverable by reason
of them remaining afloat.

Flow moisture point – That percentage of moisture content of a cargo when a flow state
develops.

Free surface moments – Partially filled tanks found in many salvage incidents are frequently
experienced, either totally flooded or breached. In such a case the positive stability of
the casualty could be directly affected due to the uncontrolled movement of the liquid so
contained in the tank, namely the ‘free surface’ movement of said liquid.
The virtual loss of stability can be ascertained by calculation using the following
equation:
I d
 1 I
V d2 n2
where: V = the vessel’s volume of displacement, d1 is the density of the liquid in the tank, d2
is the density in which the vessel is afloat, n is the number of compartments into which the
tank is subdivided and I is the second moment of area of the free surface. I can be calculated
for a rectangle by:
 terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies xxiii

B3
IL
12
where: L and B represent length and breadth, respectively.

General average – An expression of joint financial responsibility of the shipowners, the

cargo owners and of the Master and crew. Loss or damage of the ship or cargo by an Act of
God, like a severe storm, would be shared by all parties. Where a loss occurred, say, through
the fault of the Master alone, this would be termed ‘particular average’. It is an insurance
term and claims resulting from loss are usually settled by an ‘average adjuster’.

Girding (or Girting) – An accidental and dangerous force pulling in the broadside direction
on a towing line to the tug from the parent vessel. This force could be powerful enough to
cause the tug to capsize. The tug very often employs a ‘gog rope’ over the towline in order
to relieve tension in the towline to avoid the capsize.

Girdling – Increasing the stability of a vessel by increasing its beam at a position of the
waterline. Often employed by heavy-lift vessels to increase the waterplane area to provide
improved stability conditions when making an off-centre lift. Also employed during the
salvage of the Costa Concordia in 2013.

Gog (fixed) – A strengthened lead for the guidance of the towline. A steel structure that
provides a directional lead for the towline over the deck of the towing vessel. It may be used
in conjunction with a ‘variable gog’.

Gog (rope/wire) – A controlling/restraining element to the towline found in a towing

operation. It is often directly connected to a gog winch or capstan to increase or decrease
the weight and effective turning moment on a tug’s towline. May be in the form of a short
pennant to ease positioning of the towline and the influence of the main gog wire. NB. Also
widely employed on-board anchor handling vessels.

Ground tackle – May consist of chain cable and anchor(s) deliberately laid to secure a vessel
against unwanted movement. Frequently used in salvage operations where a stranded vessel
is in danger of moving with the tide or weather (see also kedging).

Grounding – A term used to describe any contact of the ship’s hull and the sea bottom,
either accidentally or intentionally. Also known as stranding.

Guest-warp – A rope or line passed from the bow region to aft to hang just above the
waterline, to provide convenience for boat crews to hold on to when coming alongside.

Heave to – A term that describes the action of holding the vessel in one position, usually
against bad weather conditions. The ship’s head is turned to meet the wind direction, while
the engine is kept at reduced revolutions to maintain a holding speed over the ground.

Holding ground – The description given to the sea bed as to its anchor-holding properties.
Mud or clay are considered as good holding grounds, whereas ooze or rock are considered
as bad holding grounds.
xxiv terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies

International Salvage Convention (1989) – IMO convention on marine salvage specific to

the needs of all parties concerned, regarding the activities of lawful salvage.

International Safety Management (ISM code) – A safety culture for shore-based and serving
marine personnel within the marine industry. A system established to ideally provide safer
ships and cleaner seas within the maritime environment.

Incompatible materials – Those materials which may react dangerously when mixed and are
subject to recommendations for segregation in stowage.

Jetsam – Goods which have been lost or cast overboard from a ship which are recoverable
through being either washed ashore or by remaining in relatively shallow water.

Jury steering – An improvised method of steering a vessel when designated systems to

control the rudder have failed. A ‘jury rudder’ is one which is constructed of unrelated
equipment like drag weights being deployed on either side of the ship to provide a turning
effect.

Kedge anchor – An additional anchor, usually carried at the stern of the vessel. Employed
for laying well astern of the vessel in the event that the ship has run aground. It would be
used for the practice of ‘kedging’, i.e. pulling the vessel astern off the shoal.

Kilindo rope – A multi-strand rope having a non-rotating property often employed for crane
wires. (Sometimes referred to as ‘wirex’.)

Lagan – Goods cast overboard which are buoyed so as to be recovered at a later time.

Life salvage – Previously the salvor was not paid for saving human life. However, the law
has now changed and where life is saved, as well as property, then ‘life salvage’ can be paid.
Where salvage takes place to a British ship or a foreign ship inside British waters and the
property salved is insufficient to pay the reward, then a discretionary payment may be made
out of public funds by the Marine Authority.

Lifting beam – A long steel beam usually constructed as an ‘H’ section, employed to spread
the weight of a long or awkwardly shaped load when being lifted.

Lloyd’s Agency – An agency that manages marine insurance in three key areas:

1 A Lloyd’s Agency Network, which operates with 330 Lloyd’s agents operating worldwide
with a similar number of subagents, to provide marine surveying and claims adjustment
service for the global insurance industry.
2 A certificate office which produces certificated evidence of cover of marine insurance, in
both paper and electronic formats.
3 A Salvage Arbitration Branch, which conducts the administration of Lloyd’s Open Form
of Salvage Agreement.

Lloyd’s Open Form – A generic term employed widely throughout the maritime industry
to describe the Lloyd’s Standard form of salvage agreement. This agreement is now almost
 terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies xxv

universally employed and is based on the principle of ‘no cure – no pay’, where the
remuneration to the salvor is paid from the value of the property saved. It is a contract made
between the party in peril (the shipowner and their representatives) and the salvor. It is an
open contract where no monetary value is stipulated. The subsequent amount of any award
would be determined by an arbitrator.

Load density plan – A ship’s plan which tends to indicate the deck load capacity of cargo space
areas. Used to ensure overloading of a deck area does not take place.

Lost buoyancy – The term given to a space on the vessel which has been breached and
become flooded with water. For all intents and purposes, this compartment is no longer
supporting the vessel and the added water inside the compartment becomes added weight.

Luffing – A term which denotes the movement of a crane jib or derrick boom to move up
or down: luff up, luff down.

Lutine bell – A ship’s bell salvaged from the ship Lutine which sank in 1799. It currently
hangs in a room at Lloyd’s of London and is traditionally rung prior to making an important
announcement like a disaster at sea.

Mousing – An operation carried out to a shackle pin or the jaw of a hook to prevent
accidental loss of a secure holding. When a shackle bolt is ‘moused’ seizing wire is employed
between the bolt and the body of the shackle to prevent unforeseen movement of the bolt.
Where a hook is ‘moused’ small stuff (cordage) is used under the bill of the hook and around
the neck of the hook to prevent any load jumping off the bill. Larger hooks are often fitted
with a spring-loaded ‘mousing tongue’ to achieve the same objective.

Not under command – The description given to a vessel which through some exceptional
circumstance is unable to manoeuvre as per the regulations for the Prevention of Collision
at Sea.

Oceangoing tugs – The largest of the tug categories and defined by size. Frequently employed
in salvage towing operations, having a capacity range from 4,000 hp to 22,000 hp. They
tend to have the higher BP capacity of all the tug groups.

Oil skimmer – A specially designed vessel to clean and recover oil slicks spilled to the surface
of the water.

Outreach – A term used with crane operations to express the maximum working distance
of a lift operation, measured from the pivot position of crane or derrick. The distance is
directly influenced by the length and angle of the crane jib (boom).

Overhauling – A term used to describe the correct movement of a block and tackle, (lifting
purchase) arrangement. The term indicates that all sheaves and wire parts are moving freely
without restriction.

Parbuckle – An old system employed for raising and lowering loads by use of two or more
ropes around an object. One end of the ropes is secure and the load is moved in the bight,
xxvi terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies

by hauling or easing from the other end. The system has been used in the salvage industry
to right a capsized vessel when laying on her side, e.g. the Herald of Free Enterprise and
the Costa Concordia.

Particular average – A loss of a ship or cargo as caused by an Act of God, it can be related
to a ship stranding, in collision or on fire (see also general average).

Permeability – A measure of the ship’s space that if flooded can be occupied by water.
The nature of cargo as carried by the vessel will generate a different permeability factor.
Expressed as a percentage.

Permit to work – A procedural safety checking system which operates within the maritime
industry (and other industries), wherever electrical work, high levels, hot work or enclosed
space entry is required to function.

Pollution boom – A barrier or floating boom which when deployed around a stranded vessel
is meant to act as a restrictive measure to prevent the spread of oil or similar pollutants.
Frequently referred to as a barrier for restricting oil spills, otherwise known as boom
equipment.

Proof load – That tonnage value that a lifting appliance, e.g. crane or derrick, is tested to.
The proof load equates to the safe working load plus an additional percentage.

Ramshorn hook – A heavy-duty, double lifting hook capable of accepting slings either side.
Extensively employed in heavy-lift work within the salvage sector of the industry.

Receiver of wreck – A person of a district who is appointed on behalf of the Treasury of

the United Kingdom. The Maritime Coastguard Agency would normally take charge of any
incident and act as the receiver. However, they may appoint a customs officer or a repre-
sentative from the Inland Revenue to act as ‘receiver of wreck’, or any other person deemed
suitable.

Release note – A signed note by the Master of the casualty on the completion of salvage
services. Usually administered when the ship is safely afloat at an agreed location and the
Master accepts re-delivery and satisfaction of the salvage services given.

Risk assessment – A detailed, investigative report conducted prior to the commencement of

practical operations. It should contain such elements as the manpower involved, prevailing
weather conditions, equipment reliability, emergency communications and any other
elements that could generate an intolerable risk as opposed to an acceptable risk.

Rope gauge – A handy measuring device used to ascertain the diametric size of a rope or
wire.

Safe working load – An acceptable working tonnage used for a weight-bearing item of
equipment. The marine industry uses a factor of one-sixth (1/6) of the breaking strength to
establish the safe working value.
 terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies xxvii

Salvage (maritime) – A term which describes the actions of a third party where property
is saved from a peril of the sea. It can also be represented to define the money paid to a
‘salvor’ as remuneration for his/her services. When related to a marine insurance policy a
‘salvage award’, or part thereof, which is determined as recoverable under the policy. NB. In
non-marine practice the term salve is used to represent goods saved from a land-based fire.

Salvage agreement – An express agreement entered into by parties to a salvage operation.

Lloyd’s Open Form of Salvage is a widely used standard agreement. Such agreements are
usually based on a ‘no cure – no pay’ basis and provide either a fixed sum or a derived sum,
settled by arbitration.

Salvage Association – The world’s leading organisation of marine casualty and investigation
surveyors. It was established in 1856 in London to serve the interests of underwriters,
shipping and cargo activity.

Salvage craft – A generic term which describes a variety of designated salvage vessels. They
are often equipped with heavy-duty lifting devices like sheer legs or heavy-duty cranes with
associated deck and barge type carriage space.

Salvage lien – A maritime lien on property salved, which gives the right to arrest the
property even if it has changed hands. The purpose of the lien is to allow the property to be
sold in order to meet legitimate claims.

Salvage operation – Any act or activity undertaken to assist a vessel or any other property
in danger in navigable waters or any waters whatsoever (definition by the International
Maritime Organisation).

Salvor – The name given to that person claiming and receiving salvage for rendering services
to save the vessel and cargo, or any part thereof, from an impending peril, or for having
recovered the same after actual loss.

Seaworthiness – A vessel is deemed seaworthy when reasonably fit in all respects to

encounter the ordinary perils of the sea. It is also an implied warranty clause when in the
format of an ordinary marine insurance policy.

Secondary pollution – Second-stage pollution which may occur from an initial incident site.
A typical example of secondary pollution was experienced with the MSC Napoli container
vessels where some of the containers when removed were found to be leaking and contami-
nated with oil. These cargo parcels had to be separately held in a safe area for cleaning to
avoid secondary pollution occurring.

Shackle of cable – A measure of anchor chain cable set at 15 fathoms, 90 feet or 27.5
metres. Where ground tackle is employed a number of ‘shackles’ would be employed.

Sheer legs – An ‘A’ frame type lifting structure mounted to a floating pontoon barge. They
are usually self-propelled and fitted with an accommodation block. Although not originally
designed for salvage work they have become well known to be active in salvage operations,
with a lifting capacity to 3,000 tons. Although they act in the way of a crane, sheer legs
xxviii terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies

can be fitted with an extension fly-jib to its main lifting jib, so providing an extending lift
capability.

Ship-to-ship transfers – Salvage methods vary considerably, but many operations include
reducing a casualty’s load by the transfer of cargo to another vessel, so lightening the initial
load. Such ship-to-ship transfer can be a double achievement for the salvor: (1) cargoes can
be recovered and salved, while (2) the ship itself can be lightened and caused to re-float.

Shore – A term used to describe a support, given to decks, bulkheads or cargo. They are
usually in timber but may be in the form of a metal adjustable stanchion, depending on
usage.

Skeg – A centre line construction extending the aft-most part of the keel. It is a common
structure to modern twin-screw ships. In some cases it is large enough to accommodate stern
thrusters. When a vessel trims by the stern, as most do, the lower part of the skeg could well
be the lowest depth of the vessel and as such is the most vulnerable to grounding.

Sounding – A method of measuring the liquid amount inside a tank. The term is also used
to ascertain the depth overside from the ship.

Stowage factor – The volume occupied by unit weight of cargo. It is an expression which
indicates the cubic capacity that 1 ton of cargo will require. It should be noted that this
is not the actual cubic capacity of 1 t of cargo as the stowage factor takes account of the
design and shape of the cargo package and special stowage arrangements required, e.g. use
of dunnage.

Territorial waters – Those waters which lie adjacent to a country’s shoreline and over which
that country claims jurisdiction.

Towing point – A variety of vessels in the maritime sectors are often engaged in towing and
the vehicles, like barges, offshore rigs, floating cranes, etc., are usually fitted with designated
towing points. Tanker vessels are generally fitted with emergency towing devices in the form
of ‘Smit brackets’ or similar arrangements. Other towing points are specifically designed to
accommodate a chain securing or may employ double bollard sets where a purpose-built
towing point is not available. Many arrangements actively engage a chain bridle, fixed
between towing points to spread the load of the tow.

Towing spring – An element of the towline which has a high breaking load but also has a
stretch ability to act as a shock absorber in the event that the towline is ‘snatched’ and takes
an abnormal load to that expected. The towing spring is usually secured to the end of the
towing wire or directly onto a ‘bridle’, if employed.

Towline – That line which is secured between the towing vessel and the vessel being towed.
The composition, length and cross-section of the towlines are variables and reflect the
overall weight that the towing operation will expect to experience in differing weather and
sea conditions. Weight for weight, the world’s strongest material is UHMPE, and permits
size-for-size replacement of SWRs. It is lighter and easier to handle than alternative towlines,
which require equivalent strength.
 terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies xxix

Trimming – A manual or mechanically achieved adjustment to the surface level of a bulk

cargo as stowed in a cargo space. This is usually carried out to provide greater stability and
prevent cargo from ‘shifting’.

Tug approval survey – An inspection survey of the towing vessel conducted by the warranty
surveyor. The purpose of this survey, usually conducted by a checklist, is to ensure that the
tug is fit for purpose and without defects.

Ullage – That measurement above the sounding, taken from the surface of liquid inside a
tank to the underside of the tank top.

Underwater salvage (wet salvage) – A common method of salvage of a variety of select

products which employs the numerous advances in technology, inclusive of remote-operated
vehicles (ROVs), dynamically positioned vessels, divers and/or diving bells, together with
the use of underwater cameras.

Underway – A vessel is said to be underway when not at anchor, made fast to the shore or
aground.

Underwriter – A person who is authorised to carry out insurance business on behalf of the
insurance company or a Lloyd’s syndicate. He or she will take an underwriter’s commission
and will find other applicants through sub-underwriters to spread the risk of the insured
commitment.

Underwriters – Those people or organisations that provide insurance cover. This is achieved
in two ways: (1) by the wealth of an insurance company to meet subsequent claims, or (2)
Lloyd’s syndicate members providing a capital base to meet subsequent claims.

Warranty survey company – A specialised company providing consultancy services to

the offshore and marine industries. Depending on the size of the practice it will generally
contain expert personnel in any or all of the following disciplines: marine engineering,
meteorology, seamanship, naval architecture, hydrography and marine law.

Warranty surveyor – A designated person from a warranty survey company.

He or she will be supplied with a ‘job package’ inclusive of contact details for the client,
together with instructions as to the inspection criteria and guidelines relevant to the
operation on hand.

Wreck – A ship or parts of a ship that remains and is no longer serviceable or capable of
navigation, found on the sea bed or the shoreline. It may or may not have accompanying
cargo.
xxx terminology and definitions associated with marine emergencies

Commercial Shipping Ship Types

DRY CARGO LIQUID CARGO PASSENGER MISCELLANEOUS

Cargo Liner Oil Tanker Cruise Ships Dredgers

Bulk Carrier OBO-Oil Bulk Ore Cargo/Passenger Liner Cable Ships

Timber Carrier Chemical (Products) Carrier Ferries O/S Stand-By

Rail/Passenger/Vehicle & Supply
Container Liquid Containers (Coastal & Short Sea) Anchor Handling

Car Carrier Fruit Juice Tankers HSC: Hovercraft Research &

Hydrofoils Gas Carriers Submersibles
Refrigerated
Tugs, Pilot v/ls.
Heavy Lift
Work Boats,
Ro-Ro's (Freight only) Ice Breakers
Floating Cranes
Floating Dry Docks

Specialist: Fishing v/ls, Factory ships, Auxiliaries for warships, Light vessels, Sail Training, Harbour craft,
Tenders & bunker barges, Oil Recovery vessels, Emergency Support and Salvage craft.

Figure 0.2 Ship types and carriers of the Mercantile Marine.

1
Collision (Ship to Ship) at Sea

Introduction
With any collision at sea the number of variables will not only influence the
outcome but generally means no two collisions are ever the same. Each collision
will be unique because of the position of contact, the weather prevailing at the
time, the geography, a loaded or light condition, Masters’ experience, day- or
night-time scenario, etc. So many factors will differ that no one, least of all this
author, could hope to provide an answer to every situation. The very best that
can be produced is to develop a general format that would be acceptable for
the typical, average incident.
Clearly, the avoidance of collision in the first place is the obvious way to
go, on the premise it is better to prevent than to cure the after effects. However,
we do not live in a perfect world and accidents do occur. The point of impact
in a collision and the subsequent damage will differ accordingly. Subsequently,
the immediate and long-term corrective actions will differ in accord with each
scenario. A noticeable example can be readily seen where two similar colli-
sions take place. One vessel is struck below the water line and would probably
require pumps to be activated on the affected area, whereas another vessel is
struck above the water line and doesn’t lose water-tight integrity and has no
need to put pumps into operation.
The law of providence could have major ramifications for casualties so
involved in collision incidents. What cannot be left to chance are the legal
aspects surrounding a collision, or the medical treatment required by any
casualties so involved. Masters and senior officers receive little or no experience
in dealing with a real-time casualty incident until they find themselves in the
thick of it. Potential background training can have a limited effect, but a
strong belief in the first principle of the Safety of Life at Sea is by far a greater
motivator to do what is right and necessary.

Collision: Immediate Effects

Reactions following any collision at sea are bound to generate a certain level
of shock among personnel on board any vessel so involved. This sudden shock
2 marine emergencies

experience can expect to last an indefinite period of time. The

ramifications of not acting positively as soon as practical after
this initial period of shock are not worth contemplating. In other
words: get over it and let the training kick in.
Certain ranks within the shipping industry have usually had a
degree of emergency training and hopefully will react positively
and practically. Actions being based on the first principle of ‘The
Safety of Life at Sea’ are paramount. If the position of the Master
is considered, he has a legal obligation to stand by to render assis-
tance to the other vessel. This is all very well, but could a man or
woman think only of a third party’s needs, in isolation to his own
ship and own crew’s safety?
Any actions by the Master or Officer in Charge of either vessel
can only be made from a position of strength. Therefore, unless he
or she wants to escalate the situation, certain basic needs have to
be fulfilled quickly. An immediate requirement for the person in
charge is to take the ‘conn’ of the vessel and establish a command
chain. Sounding the general alarm as soon as possible if it has
not already been initiated could be seen as the most immediate of
activities. However, it should be realised that no single individual
can expect to do everything himself; he must delegate activities to
NB. This assumes Masters
realise best effect.
and ship’s officers are alive
A history of drills during routine voyages can prepare officers
and capable of conducting
and crew members for that unexpected emergency incident. If
emergency operations.
personnel know their stations, then the chain of command can
expect to permeate through any catastrophe. Activities need to be
prioritised; there is no point in sending a distress message before
obtaining a position or gaining knowledge of the immediate
problem(s).
A series of activities should take place, probably starting with
ship’s officers reporting directly to the bridge following impact
damage. The Master would expect to order his Chief Officer to
carry out an initial ‘damage assessment’, while the Second Officer
(Navigator) would probably take over as the Officer of the Watch
and obtain the ship’s position. (Different companies/ships employ
different ranks in differing roles.)
Personnel could be expected to take up the duties of helmsman
and lookouts, while a third mate could be designated as communi-
cations officer. Each incident would expect to generate exceptional
activities, over and above normal routine. Certain activities on
certain ships can be coordinated quickly, like the closing of water-
tight and fire doors. Or, for example, placing engines on ‘stand-by’
for immediate readiness where the ship is not fitted with bridge
control capability.
Correct interpretation of data will allow critical activity to
reduce casualties and loss of life. Incoming information should
fit into an acceptable framework which takes into account all
eventualities.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 3

An example collision framework could include any or all of the

following immediate actions: NB. Under GMDSS, a
dedicated Communications
For the role of Master (after collision impact at sea) Officer is appointed. Where
officers are limited in
1 Move immediately to the navigation bridge and take the conn. numbers this may not be a
2 Stop the ship’s own engines if underway and making way, practical option to isolate
depending on the position of the collision and how the vessels an officer to this duty alone
have struck. A few revolutions on engines could reduce the – handling communications
permeability by keeping the bow plugged into the damaged to the detriment of all else.
area. Peace of mind will
3 Sound the general emergency alarm if not already activated. certainly not occur until the
4 Order a roll call and check the ship’s complement for casualties. ship’s Chief Officer provides
5 Close all watertight doors. the outcome from his initial
6 Close all fire doors. damage assessment. Even
7 Order the engineers to stand by and go to an alert status in the then such a report may
machinery space. bring additional problems.
8 Obtain the ship’s position in latitude and longitude by any Any Master will have the
reliable means. role of communications
9 Turn the ship’s ‘deck lights’ on and display the vessel’s ‘not immediately following a
under command’ (NUC) lights. collision, but he needs to
10 Designate an immediate Communications Officer. know the subject matter of
11 Order the Chief Officer to obtain an interim ‘damage expected communications.
assessment’. We have already seen the
12 Order the muster of ‘damage control parties’. catastrophic outcomes of
13 Activate deck parties to turn out lifeboats and a rescue boat. mixed communications in
14 Bring a bridge team together to include lookouts and helmsman. the incident of the Costa
15 Order a local weather forecast to be obtained as soon as Concordia.
practical.

Miscellaneous 1. Where a vessel has incurred collision in such a

manner as to be left embedded into the other vessel, then it may be
appropriate to leave the vessels in contact rather than separate the
two ships. This could be achieved by maintaining a few revolutions
on the engines of the striking vessel.
The reason not to separate is to retain one ship acting as a plug
to the other and so reduce the permeability factor. Effectively this
action could stop excessive flooding to the damaged vessel.
Another reason to stay in close contact could also be if one of
the two vessels involved is a tanker-type. Clearly a full oil tanker, if
damaged, is unlikely to sink, on the basis that oil floats on water.
However, tearing metal hulls, when separating the two ships, could
cause ignition to the fumes and gases being released from tanker
cargoes. Collision with any ship is bad, but with a tanker the real
danger of fire as a result of lack of thought could be even more
threatening.
Miscellaneous 2. Where a vessel has been struck below the water
line and the watertight integrity of the hull has been breached,
4 marine emergencies

flooding will take place. A prudent Master would without doubt

direct the engineers to activate the pumps to any effected area.
The pumps would probably not be able to handle a continued,
major ingress of water, but the use of pumps could buy valuable
time before the ship loses buoyancy.
The circumstances of each incident will influence subsequent
actions. For example, if a vessel is struck in one of its sides, at
a water line position, then the action of adding ballast to the
opposite side may be sufficient to raise the damaged area above the
waterline by deliberately giving the ship an adverse list, so reducing
water ingress.

Impact Damage
Figure 1.1 An offshore all-purpose
stand-by vessel is seen in dock to
effect repairs on its starboard side.
The damage is on and about the
waterline, into the topsides and ‘boot
topping’ paintwork lines. The scale
of the damage would suggest that a
collision patch could be appropriate
immediately after occurrence.
Long-term, the watertight integrity
of the hull is lost and the ship is
inevitably docked to undergo repairs.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 5

Legal Actions of the Master (Under the

Merchant Shipping Act)
The legal obligations of each Master or Officer in Charge involved
in a collision is to ‘Stand by the other vessel to render him assis-
tance’. This is not an easy task if your own vessel is badly damaged
and the safety of your own crew is in question.
M/S 1995 Section 92, states:

In every case of collision between two ships, it shall be the duty

of the Master of each ship, if and so far as he can do so without
danger to his own ship crew and passengers (if any) –

a) to render to the other ship, its master, crew and passengers

(if any) such assistance as may be necessary to save them from
any danger caused by the collision, and to stay by the other ship
until he has ascertained that it has no need of further assistance.

This activity could clearly be directly influenced by the Master’s

second legal obligation, ‘To establish communications and exchange
information’. Although it is specified what information must be
exchanged, it stands to reason that additional items related to the
collision will also probably be discussed, if time allows:

b) To give to the master of the other ship the name of his own
ship and also the names of the ports from which it comes and
to which it is bound.

NB. Communication and exchange of information would not

seemingly be a difficult task, provided both parties speak a
common language. Even though ‘English’ is the international
language of the sea, there are no guarantees that both parties to a
collision have this fluent commonality.

It should be borne in mind that the Master has four legal obliga-
tions in the event of collision:

1 Stand by to render assistance to the other vessel.

2 Exchange information with the Master or Officer in Charge of
the other vessel.
3 Cause an entry of the incident to be entered in the official log
book.
4 Report the incident to the MAIB of the Marine Authority as
soon as practicable after the incident (Ref., MGN 289).
6 marine emergencies

Commonsense should prevail when senior officers complete

Immediate damage necessary paperwork. There is a time and a place, which tends
assessment to not to be when casualties need immediate attention. It is normal
permit external practice for Masters to make a note of timings and occurrences in
a pocket note book before making direct entries into log books.
communications
This tends to ensure greater accuracy when making final reports.
On:
• watertight integrity of
the hull General Actions Following Initial Response to
• engine room wet or dry a Collision
• casualty report
• indications of pollution. Assuming both vessels are standing by each other, the Master of
each vessel would probably be looking to obtain more detail on
the initial damage assessment. This could be enhanced by all or
any of the following:

• Obtaining a full set of internal tank soundings to confirm

broached tanks and intact tanks of one’s own vessel.
• A full stability assessment with the existing/worsening condi-
tions. Assess continued positive stability even after subsequent
flooding.
• A detailed list of casualties, if any, together with an assessment
of injuries and injury-related deaths. There should also be a
report of any persons lost. (Life-threatening injuries could
determine the grade of communications, whether to go to a
Class 1 Priority MAYDAY or to a grade 2 URGENCY.)
• Checks to be made on essential machinery and power supplies,
the results of which could dictate the use of the emergency
generator.
• Checks to be made on essential navigation equipment to ensure
that course, speed and position monitoring can all still be
achieved. (Even if it becomes necessary to get underway under
NUC signals.)
• Inspect the area for fire risk or chemical incursion, both from
one’s own vessel and from the other vessel. It would be essential
to obtain a weather forecast and determine the local wind
direction in most cases. This is especially relevant in the case of
toxics being blown down onto one’s own ship from the other
vessel.
• The initial position of the collision should be confirmed as soon
as possible after the impact. Subsequent monitoring of that
position should be regularly ascertained for communication
purposes, especially in a sea area affected by tides or currents.
• Communications with the other vessel should reveal the possi-
bility of any associated dangers from: explosion, toxics or fire.
One must assume that each Master would wish to know the
nature of each other’s cargoes, which may influence the action
of both ships involved.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 7

• One’s own crew would be expected to be ordered to respective

damage control parties. These may vary from maintaining
boundary cooling, to actions to reduce the ingress of water.
Other personnel could be delegated to operating as stretcher
parties/first-aiders, depending on circumstances.
• Depending on the severity of the situation, a Master must
consider the possibility of abandoning the vessel. This would
result in the need to turn out survival craft to the embarkation
deck.
• The Master would also investigate navigation towards a port
of refuge. This would clearly depend on the ability of the ship
to get underway. Depending on circumstances and the time
element, an alternative to making the port of refuge may be the
possibility of beaching the vessel.
• The option to beach the vessel is only possible, of course, if
a beach scenario is within range and the capabilities of the
damaged vessel. Beaching is carried out generally to prevent
a total constructive loss (see Chapter 2 for extended detail on
beaching/grounding).
• Where delaying tactics and/or damage control efforts are not
showing positive outcomes, the Master must transmit either
a MAYDAY or URGENCY signal. In the case of a passenger
vessel the decision is made for the Master – it is clearly a
MAYDAY.
• The option to send an URGENCY signal must always be
considered as prudent on the basis that this can always be
upgraded to a MAYDAY.
• It should be noted that a MAYDAY signal can be downgraded
to an URGENCY situation.
• In any event, Masters must cancel a MAYDAY signal once
the situation is resolved.
• If it is ascertained that the vessel can remain afloat despite
damage sustained, then the option to take a towing offer
may have to be considered. There should be a realisation that
accepting a towline could leave the vessel and cargo liable to a
claim for salvage (see Chapter 7 on marine salvage).

NB. Masters need to consider the ramifications of not taking a tow

from a capable vessel against the immediate threat to his/her own
crew and passengers.

Incorporation and Use of Checklists

Prior to the introduction of the International Safety Management
(ISM) system, many tasks on board many vessels were covered by
company standing orders and/or formalised check lists. ISM, once
8 marine emergencies

established, placed a greater emphasis on the use of checklists for

many routine incidents as well as for specific emergency situations.
Officers in Charge were encouraged to employ the use of check-
lists as an everyday item even for routine tasks such as testing and
checking bridge navigation equipment prior to leaving port, testing
emergency steering gear or conducting emergency drills. The use
of a checklist ensures that all items and actions are adequately
covered, but at the same time it makes personnel more familiar
with operational systems. The checklist is now also seen as another
method of on-site training for individuals.
Specific incidents like collision or grounding are generally
one-off scenarios and personnel cannot expect to be as familiar
with the needs of such an irregular occurrence. A communication
contact may easily be missed in an emergency, whereas if a
checklist is used emergency contacts might not be forgotten in the
anxiety of the moment.
It is a requirement that passenger ships carry an emergency
SAR plan on the navigation bridge. It would follow that associated
checklists for relevant activities and communications to conduct
SAR operations would be attached or close to hand. A checklist,
once completed, would remove the worry in an emergency situation,
that everything that could be done has been done.
A well-prepared company will have checklists for virtually every
occasion and for each specific shipboard task. Having said that, they
should not be treated as ‘dummy cards’ and persons in authority
must also think outside the box where different circumstances may
not fit the order of the checklist. Specific criteria will normally
incorporate a level of flexibility and should not be contained in a
rigid format without taking prevailing conditions into account.
Even with the use of a checklist, systems are not infallible
and should be employed with experience and an open mind. Our
industry is influenced by many variables, not least the weather and
geography. No checklist can have built-in accommodations for
every eventuality and should always be used with an element of
caution and in conjunction with the letter of the law.
Example scenarios usually covered by shipboard/company
checklists include:

• collision with another vessel;

• collision with a fixed obstruction;
• running aground;
• operation of total flood CO2 system;
• preparations when encountering heavy weather;
• search and rescue (SAR) operations;
• fire on board;
• helicopter operations;
• a death on board the ship at sea.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 9

Communications Following a Collision

The decision to either transmit a MAYDAY or an URGENCY signal
is one that is not always easy to define. By way of providing a guide,
it is suggested that where a Master has death or injuries likely to
result in death a MAYDAY signal is justified. If abandonment of
the parent vessel is ordered and persons are entering a hazardous
situation by taking to survival craft then, again, a MAYDAY signal
would be justified. Based on the fact that the authorities would
rather know sooner than later in order to initiate their response to
reduce the subsequent loss of life, a MAYDAY signal or MAYDAY
relay would be anticipated in every case where a passenger vessel
is involved.

MAYDAY relay – Action taken to transmit a MAYDAY, where the

vessel in distress is unable to despatch the signal by his own
means. The MAYDAY relay being sent on behalf of a third party,
e.g. where the other vessel has lost all power.

Figure 1.2 Example of GMDSS

communications console to satisfy
the requirements for all vessels over
300 grt on international voyages
to carry specific satellite and
radio communication equipment
for the sending and receiving of
distress alerts and maritime safety
information (MSI), inclusive of
navigational and meteorological
warnings and forecasts.

Voyage Data Recorder (Black Box Recorder)

It is now a requirement under SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 20,
that all passenger ships and all vessels over 3,000  grt which are
engaged on international voyages must be fitted with a voyage data
recording unit (VDR).
10 marine emergencies

The Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) has also agreed that

VDRs are to be fitted to all existing roll-on–roll-off passenger
(ro-pax) vessels and high speed craft already in operation.
The principle of marine ‘black box technology’ has come about
because of the transport relationship with the aviation industry,
which has been operating with black box technology on all
passenger aircraft for many years. The monitoring of all principal
elements within the mode of transport has shown itself indispen-
sable in resolving aircraft accidents and subsequently improving
long-term industrial safety.
The revised Chapter V of SOLAS has made carriage mandatory
for certain types of vessels. The International Marine Organisation
(IMO) has stipulated the data that VDRs are expected to record,
which includes the following:

• date and time

• ship’s position and speed
• course/heading
• bridge audio – one or more microphones situated on the
navigation bridge to record conversations near the conning
position and at relevant operational stations like radar, chart
tables, communication consoles, etc.
• main alarms and PA systems
• engine orders and responses
• rudder orders and responses
• echo sounder recordings
• status of watertight and fire doors
• status of hull openings
• acceleration and hull stress levels (only required where a vessel
is fitted with response monitoring equipment).
Figure 1.3 An example of a voyage
data recorder (black box) seen
fitted to the external decking of the
‘Monkey Island’ above the navigation
bridge of the ro-ro vessel Clipper
Point.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 11

The information should be stored 24 hours a day over a seven-day

period. It should be contained in a crash-proof box, painted
orange and fitted with an acoustic device to aid recovery after
an accident. The system will be a fully automatic, memory unit
being constructed to be ‘tamper free’ and always watching, even
when the vessel is tied up alongside. VDRs are expected to provide
continuous operation for at least two hours following a power
failure and are also alarm protected in the event of malfunction of
any of the VDR’s elements.
In the event of a marine accident or where the loss of a ship
occurs, the marine authorities or the shipowners would expect to
recover the unit and at least the last 12 hours of recorded data.

Note of Protest
The Master of a ship involved in a collision incident would also
consider making a Note of Protest through a ‘Proper Officer’, i.e.
the British Consul. Below is an example Note of Protest:

MARINE NOTE OF PROTEST

On this …….. day of …………… 20**…., personally appeared

and presented himself before me ………………. (insert name of
Master), Master of the ……… (insert name of vessel) of …………..
(insert name of Port of Registry), official number ………. and ……
net tons, which sailed from …………… on or about the ………….
(insert date) in ballast/with cargo of ……………. (insert brief
description of cargo if any) bound for …………….. (insert desti-
nation port), and arrived at port of …………..
……………. on (insert port name and date) and declare
that during the voyage having experienced a collision with the
…………………….. (insert name of colliding vessel) at about
….…… hrs on … … (insert date of collision) in …….. (insert general
location of collision, e.g. ‘in Black Sea’) and fearing damage to the
vessel’s hull, rigging, machinery and/or cargo, he hereby Notes his
Protest against all claim, losses, damage etc., reserving the right
to extend the same at time and place convenient.

Sworn and sign before me ……………………, Captain (insert name

of Master)

At ………………….. Notary Public.

Notes
_____________________________
12 marine emergencies

A similar Note of Protest would be applicable for other situations

like ‘Stranding’, where the word ‘collision’ would be changed for
‘stranding’ or ‘fire’, whatever was relevant to the circumstances.
A Note of Protest would also be registered in all cases of general
average (GA) being declared.

The Role of the Ship’s Chief Officer (in the

Aftermath of Collision)
The associated noise and movement of a collision would generally
be expected to alert persons of an incident. In any event, the
sounding of the general alarm would without doubt confirm the
unexpected has occurred. Provided crew members have been
practised with drill procedures, most would be expected to take up
their emergency stations.
In the case of the Chief Officer it would be expected in the
majority of cases for him/her to report to the navigation bridge.
It must be anticipated that little certain information about the
incident is as yet known. It is usually the Chief Officer who will
be ordered by the Master to carry out an initial and immediate
damage assessment.
The purpose of the Damage Assessment is twofold: first, to
provide information on the accident to the Master, to allow him to
make informed external communications. The second is to provide
insight as to the extent of the damage and so give an indication of
subsequent actions to provide a positive way forward.
The Initial Damage Assessment must provide detail on the
following topic areas:

1 watertight integrity of the hull;

2 the condition and state of the machinery space;
3 a casualty report;
4 indications of any marine pollution.

The essential four topics will allow the Master to formulate the
detail of his external communications, which may need to be
despatched sooner rather than later.
The Chief Officer would expect to leave the Master on the
‘conn’ of the vessel and return to either damage control duties or
preparations for going into an abandonment phase.
He would certainly order a full set of tank soundings as soon as
is practical, so as to carry out an early stability assessment. The use
of ‘damage stability information’ must be anticipated, especially
where bilged compartments are present. The Chief Officer will also
order the lifeboats and/or other survival craft to be turned out,
ready to allow a speedy evacuation if this becomes necessary.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 13

He or she would also direct operations towards the wellbeing

of any casualties and work closely with any instructions and direc-
tions from the Master.
Depending on the nature and position of the impact and the
developments from such a collision, the Chief Officer’s orders to
manufacture a ‘collision mat’ or move to effect temporary repairs
may be needed. Delegation of duties to Petty Officers and senior
men and engineers could be expected in order to reduce the effects
of the collision escalating.

Collision Patch Construction

Support rope or wire Figure 1.4 Collision patch
construction.

Damaged shell plate of hull

Shackle passed through
steel plate patch

Rope pudding
stapled to plate
patch

Tightening nut on
screw thread bar

Angle bar
stiffener to steel
plate patch

Screw thread bar

to accommodate
Brace and screw
nut

Bracing plate
Canvas waterproof cover

Shell plate

Collision Patch Materials

Not many vessels will carry designated collision patch materials.
Therefore the majority of ships would be expected to improvise,
should a collision patch become necessary. Customised equipment
would probably include steel plate and a welding set, together
with additional equipment in the way of steel angle bar or marine
plywood.
Where designated equipment is not carried, improvisation could
be the name of the game. Virtually all vessels would have bottom
14 marine emergencies

plates to the engine room. Such steel plate could act as a substitute.
The average ship would carry waterproof plastic sheet or canvas.
With these items the collision patch itself could be manufactured.
Plates can be welded or bolted together to provide a covering patch
to mask any hull damage. Such a plate would be fitted with a centre
shackle and waterproofed.

NB. Waterproofing could be achieved by providing a pudding

around the perimeter of the plate/patch and covering the whole
with waterproof sheet. The exposed shackle is positioned facing
inboard, to the central area of the patch.

The task to position the patch over a damaged area would probably
be challenging. If the assumed damage is on one side or the other,
listing the vessel over to raise a damaged area over and above the
waterline would lend to positioning any patch. Once constructed,
the waterproofed plate could be lowered over the gunwale and
allowed to slide down the ship’s side to cover the damaged area
from the outside.
Once the central shackle is seen in the centre of the damaged
area a wire on the bight could be passed through the shackle and
tensioned to bring the patch inward to the hull plate and achieve a
compressed seal around the damaged area.
Such improvisation is not meant as a permanent seal, but could
be managed by regularly pumping bilges until a ‘port of refuge’
could be realised in order to instigate more effective repairs.
Good seamanship is very often improvisation of materials that
are available at the time.

Port of Refuge
In many incidents of collision or grounding, ships may find
themselves in immediate peril. So much so, that the wellbeing
of the ship and the continued voyage could lead to loss of life
or property. When such an event occurs, Masters or Officers in
Charge may be forced to seek out a ‘Port of Refuge’.
The Port of Refuge is defined by the ship’s need to deviate to
another port other than the designated destination or when the ship
has to return to the port from which she departed. The reason for such
action must be genuine to fulfil insurance rights and other contracts
and may include effecting necessary repairs after an incident.
The vessel could also seek the port of refuge to take bunkers,
provided that when she left her last port she had an adequate
reserve on board. An incident may have caused the loss of bunkers
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 15

or it might have been found that the bunkers were contaminated

in some way, where it becomes necessary to obtain suitable and
adequate bunker oil.
In the event that a Master seeks a ‘port of refuge’ he/she must
communicate with the following parties:

• shipowners – to advise of the selected port and the reasons for

the deviation;
• the port authority – to request free pratique;
• the customs authority – to obtain clearance inwards;
• a ‘Proper Officer’ – to note protest;
• owners – to advise of safe arrival;
• underwriters or Lloyd’s agent – to inform them of the accident
in accordance with the ‘Tender Clause’.

The ship’s Master would need to ascertain the following details:

1 the costs of any damage to cargo;

2 the costs of discharging any cargo parcels;
3 the cost of fuel and stores necessary to effect repairs to the
vessel and instigate required surveys;
4 damage surveys for hull and machinery and repair tenders for
the same;
5 agreement with underwriters for repair tenders;
6 port costs, light dues, pilotage and berthing overheads;
7 costs of reloading cargo parcels, fuel and stores for onward
voyage;
8 any storage and insurance costs incurred;
9 costs of any towage involved;
10 wages and maintenance costs of the Master, Officers and crew,
and the ship’s day-to-day upkeep;
11 where necessary to proceed to a second port of refuge, all costs
involved;
12 any costs of transhipment of cargo to a second port.

Following repairs to the vessel, made to the satisfaction of

the Classification Society, the surveyor would issue an ‘Interim
Certificate of Class’. In the event of the survey being conducted
by a private surveyor, preferably one recommended by the under-
writers, a Certificate of Seaworthiness would be issued. Either
document would normally be acceptable to underwriters to allow
the vessel to proceed on her voyage.

Port of Refuge and General Average

In some circumstances where a ship deviates to a port of refuge,
a declaration of ‘general average’ may be made where the ship,
16 marine emergencies

cargo or freight are in dire peril. Other occasions involving a port

of refuge, where general average may be declared are:

• where the vessel is experiencing fire, cargo shift, collision,

grounding or leaking during a loaded voyage;
• where a vessel has to effect essential hull or machinery repairs;
• when necessary to take a tow after machinery failure.

NB. The intentional act of beaching a leaking ship, when loaded

with cargo (i.e. voluntary stranding) to prevent the vessel from
foundering is also generally allowed for in a ‘general average’
claim.

General average is a marine insurance term (under the York–

Antwerp Rules) which is used for adjustment of loss when cargo
on board a vessel, belonging to one or more owners, has been
sacrificed for the safety of all those party to the venture.
The actual loss is shared by all those who have shipped
cargo in the vessel. The claim for ‘general average’ to be made
is when the loss has been voluntary, not accidental or caused
by any fault on the part of the owner who is claiming the
general average. The deliberate action taken, being to save the
remainder of the cargo, must have been successful and made by
order of the Master.

Damage Control Parties

The activity of any damage control party will be decided by the
nature of the emergency incident. The ship’s Chief Officer would
expect to deploy manpower where it will do the most good. Some
damage control parties are designated beforehand – e.g. vent
closure party in the event of an internal fire. However, the nature
of the incident dictates what must be done and very often the order
in which actions should be prioritised.
After a collision, men could well find themselves building a
collision patch while others may be operating pumps to combat
flooding. Actions would clearly depend on the severity of damage
and the type of incident. If abandonment becomes a possibility
then men could easily be deployed alternatively to turning out
survival craft and getting them ready to launch.
Communications, both internal and external, will become an
essential element of any incident. The Communications Officer
goes to an immediate stand-by situation, ready to transmit urgency
or distress messages as required by the Master or Officer in Charge.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 17

Contact between the coordinating Chief Officer and damage

control parties is maintained through walkie-talkie radios. The
navigation bridge would, by necessity, be kept in the communi-
cation loop, as respective decisions must be made by the Master.
The main engine control would also be linked via the ‘conn’ and
the bridge position. Such arrangements would provide access to all
the vessel’s on board facilities.
Specialised equipment is often located at various stations
around the vessel – e.g. in the UK, ro-pax vessels must now carry
an emergency equipment locker above decks, on either side. (Ref.
S.I. 1988 No 2272). It must be anticipated that the location of
tools, ropes and similar equipment would be dispersed about the
vessel for use by damage control teams. An example is the heli-deck
landing area, which must carry a crash equipment box. Fire axes
are also usually readily available at designated fire stations. The
bridge will usually contain the emergency safety lamps, alongside
portable radios.

NB. Ro-pax equipment lockers are expected to contain:

1 crowbar; 1 lightweight collapsible ladder (minimum 3 metres);

4 sets of waterproof clothing; sealed thermal blanket; 5 padded
lifting strops for adults; 2 padded lifting strops for children; 3
hand-powered lifting arrangements; first aid kit; torches or lamps;
1 × 7 lb maul; 1 short-handled fire axe; 1 long-handled fire axe; 1
× 10 m rope ladder.

Such lockers are subject to inspection by the examining surveyor

prior to the issue of a Passenger Ship Safety Certificate.

Figure 1.5 Example of emergency

Passenger Ship Collision equipment locker.

A collision between two vessels is a dramatic event in its own right,

with its own associated problems. A collision at sea involving a
passenger vessel raises the potential for greater loss of life and the
ramifications are far more extensive.
The MS Estonia encountered heavy weather in the Baltic Sea in
1994, wind force 7–8 and wave heights of 4–6 metres. The bow
visor to the ro-pax vessel separated from the ship and the bow
door gave way. Subsequent flooding took place and the vessel listed
initially by 30°–40°, then after about an hour she angled to 90°.
A loss of life of 852 persons, mostly Swedish and Estonian citizens,
occurred in this disaster.
18 marine emergencies

Although this was not a ship-to-ship collision, but one of struc-

tural failure, the effects would be parallel to a passenger vessel
sinking. In the case of the Estonia, the list would not have helped
survivors evacuate the doomed vessel. But the weather conditions
and the sea temperature in the Baltic, in September, would have
been detrimental to survival.
Collisions are not planned and can occur at any time, anywhere
and in any weather conditions. With this in mind, ship management
and crew training must be effective.
In the event of a major incident, passenger vessels are vulnerable
to incurring high loss of life because of the business they are in.
Fortunately, major incidents are few, but the fact that they still
occur is a reality, and the industry must be prepared for that
one-off situation.

Figure 1.6 Passengers seen wearing

lifejackets in ‘crocodile formation’.

The Larger Passenger Vessel

Figure 1.7 The Star Princess,
seen in Alaskan waters, in front
of a glacier. The high freeboard
and the position of the boat deck
are prominent features of such
vessels. Such reasons present the
need for regular drills to prepare
crew members for abandonment
at any time. The ice scenario is an
attractive but deadly adversary in the
event of misadventure.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 19

Managing an abandonment with large numbers of personnel

will never be easy. Such an operation would need to be ‘stage
managed’ and to do that crew members need to be well-practised
in seamanship and crowd control. (Further information on the
subject of abandonment can be found in Chapter 5.)

Tanker Collision
The tanker sector of the shipping industry is one of, if not the,
largest of all the sectors. It is therefore feasible that a tanker loaded
or in ballast has every possibility of being involved in a collision.
History has provided us with relevant examples.
On 11 May 1972, off Montevideo, the Roystan Grange was in
a collision with the Liberian tanker Tien Chee. Every member of a
61-person crew, plus 12 passengers, died on the Roystan Grange.
Six out of a 40-man Chinese crew on board the tanker also died.
The collision occurred in thick fog conditions and the enquiry
determined that once the tanker caught fire there followed several
explosions and the flames were blown down towards the Roystan
Grange. She was a refrigeration vessel using Freon gas as a refrig-
erant. The heat and ensuing fire probably burnt up all the oxygen,
and persons probably died in their sleep from carbon monoxide
poisoning. The Roystan Grange was towed to Barcelona, Spain,
where she was scrapped in 1979.
Accidents occur when least expected and it may or may not
be blamed on any one individual. Fog is frequently a contributing
factor, as in the example of the Roystan Grange. The fact that it
was a reefer vessel may have been a contributory factor also, but
the involvement of the tanker and subsequent fire must always be
considered as an inherent danger with such vessels.
In the event of a collision in which a tanker is involved, keeping
the two ships close together without tearing damaged metal struc-
tures apart could possibly prevent ignition of the tanker cargoes’
vapours. It is suggested that a blanket of foam could be beneficial
to cover the contact area prior to deliberately trying to separate the
two vessels.
Sea conditions may not allow the vessels to remain close
together in any event, and a Master of a non-tanker would not
want to remain in proximity of toxics or additional explosion risks
to his own vessel. There are legal reasons for them to stay close
together for mutual assistance, but a Master could not be expected
to leave his vessel in close proximity to a known and expected
danger.
Where fire is an outcome of the collision, the smoke from
burning oil can be expected to be highly toxic. Dense black smoke,
where present, can and will reduce visibility and fire fighters with
breathing apparatus will experience great difficulty on approach
20 marine emergencies

to an oil blaze. Where power remains with the vessel, allowing

it to be manoeuvred may allow the ship to be turned downwind
to let smoke blow overboard rather than inboard. Such an action
may prove beneficial to firefighters to attain an attack position in a
reasonable smokeless area.
The release of hydrocarbons in the vicinity of personnel from
whatever means is never a good thing. In the case of a tanker
collision a release of oil or gas is uncontrolled and may have the
side-effects of fire and toxicity for both crews to deal with.

Collision: Typical Damage/Repair

Assessment (Hypothetical)
Overview
Following a collision in the English Channel in June 1996 the
general cargo M.V. Unlucky suffered considerable impact damage
on the starboard side, aft of the collision bulkhead and inward to
the centre line of the vessel.
The main damage was incurred in the way of number one cargo
hold to the outer hull plating between frames 75 to 115.
As this was a side impact, most of the damage was sustained by
the outer shell plating.
Upper deck stringers were input and distorted to the edge of
the hatch coaming, but the coaming itself suffered no structural
damage. This would be confirmed by a monitored hose test when
all other repairs are complete.
The keel was not damaged in any way, but the garboard strake,
together with bottom plates and side strakes up to the sheer strake
and the gunwale, have all experienced varying degrees of damage
from the collision.

The following hull plates are required to be cropped

and replaced:
• The garboard strake ‘A’ (11) in way of frames 95 to 100.
• Strake ‘E’ (16 to 19), crop residual and damaged plates and
renew in way of frames 85 to 105.

The following plates need to be cropped, faired and

renewed:
• Strake ‘B’ (8 and 9) in way of frames 90 to 100.
• Strake ‘C’ (6) in way of frames 85 to 95.
• Strake ‘F’ in way of frames 80 to 85 and 100 to 105; renew and
joint all plates between frames 85 to 105.
 collision (ship to ship) at sea 21

• Strake ‘G’ in way of frames 80 to 85 and 100 to 110; renew

and joint all plates between frames 80 to 110.
• Strake ‘H’ in way of 80 to 85 and 105 to 110; renew and joint
all plates between frames 80 to 110.
• Strake ‘J’ in way of frames 75 to 80 and 105 to 110; renew and
joint all plates between frames 75 to 110.
• Sheer strake in way of frames 75 to 85 and 110 to 115; renew
sheer strake and gunwale between frames 75 to 115.

Miscellaneous
• Crop and replace fore peak pipe section in way of frames 95
to 105.
• Crop and fair deck stringers in way of frames 75 to 115.
• Crop and fair tween deck stringers in way of frames 80 to 110.
• Crop and renew bilge keel from frames 80 to 95.
• Crop, fair and renew sounding pipe in way of frame 85.
• Crop and replace deck gooseneck ventilator in way of frame
95, with associated pipe.
• Crop and replace the gunwale in way of frames 75 to 115.
• Scaffolding erected as required to effect all side repairs.
• Block removal to suit bottom plate repairs.

Additional
• Following inspection, plate keel remains intact.
• Replace starboard side, No.1, double-bottom tank plug.
• Watertight test to be placed on collision bulkhead, in way of
frame 115.
• Pressure test double-bottom tanks in way of frames 60 forward
to 115.
• Hose test deck stringer and hatch coaming connection in way
of No. 1 cargo hatch.

Surface Coatings
• All renewed surfaces to be primed at paint shop.
• All welds to be re-coated.
• Respective protective coats to be applied as programme permits.
• Prime and coat with anti-foul coatings of all new steelwork
between keel plate through strakes from ‘A’ to ‘E’ in way of
frames 75 to 110.
• Coatings (boot topping) strakes ‘F’ and ‘G’ in way of frames
80 to 110.
• Coatings (topsides) strakes ‘G’ to sheer, in way of frames 75
to 115.
 Sheer Strake

J
H
G

F
22 marine emergencies

D1 D2 D3 D4
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5

B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8

Bilge Plating
Bottom Plating
Keel Plate

15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Plates are lettered from the keel towards the Sheer strake and numbered from aft to forward, as a means of Identification.
Prominent features like Bilge Keels or shell openings are also highlighted.

Figure 1.8 Shell expansion plan example (line diagram).

 collision (ship to ship) at sea 23

Summary
Following any incident where a vessel receives damage it would
be expected practice that the company/owners would conduct a
damage assessment by employing their own superintendents. This
would be in virtually all cases, especially where the seaworthiness
of the vessel is impaired. This would be further supported by a
damage survey conducted by the Classification Society Surveyor.
The damage survey would detail the necessary repairs and
these would be approved as they were completed by the repair
yard inspection authority and finally by the Society’s Surveyor. An
interim Certificate of Class would then be issued to ensure that the
damaged area has been repaired to the surveyor’s satisfaction.
Full Certification of Class could be expected to be restored at
the next complete scheduled survey of the vessel.
This page intentionally left blank
Bibliography

SOLAS Consolidated Edition (2009), IMO.

House, D.J. (2002), Anchor Practice: A Guide to Industry, Witherby.
House, D.J. (2005), Marine Heavy Lifting & Rigging Operations, Brown Son
& Ferguson Ltd.
House, D.J. (2011), Marine Survival (3rd edn), Witherby.
House, D.J. (2014), Seamanship Techniques (4th edn), Routledge.
IMO (2013), IAMSAR Manual, volume III, IMO.
Maclachlan, M. (2013), The Shipmaster’s Business Self Examiner, Nautical
Institute.
The Mariners Handbook (9th edn) (2009), Admiralty.
MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships) (2012), Amendments to Annexes I, II, IV, V and VI.
This page intentionally left blank