Piston Engines, GasTurbine Engines, Propellers PDF

Contents
Part 1 Piston Engines

Section 1 Aircraft Piston Engines 1
Classification 1 General Functional Description 2 The Engine
Structure 2 Engine Mounting 3
Section 2 Four-Stroke Piston Engines 4

Introduction 4 The Four-Stroke Cycle 5 Principle of
Operation 5 The 'Otto' Cycle 7 Valve Timing 8 Piston Engine
Components 10 The Cylinder II The Piston 12 Valves 13
Valve Gear Construction and Opera tion 13 Crankcase 15
Crankshaft 16 Connecting Rods 16 Swept Volume and
Clearance Volume 17 Test Yourself 2- Four-Stroke Engines 18
Section 3 Piston Engine Lubrication 21

Introduction 21 Film Lubrication 21 Lubricant Requirements
22 Lubrication System 22 Principle 22 Operation- Dry Sump
Type 23 Wet Sump Type 27 Test Yourself 3 -Piston Engine
Lubrication 27
Section 4 Piston Engine Ignition 30

Introduction 30 Electricity 30 The Electrical Circuit 31
Magnets and Lines of Force 32 Production of Electricity 34
Electro-Magnetic Induction 35 Magnetos General 36
Description 36 Magneto Operation 38 Distribution 38
Rotating Armature Magneto 39 Rotating Magnet Magneto 40
Internal Timing 42 Magneto Speed Ratios 44 Dual Ignition 44
Contact Breaker 44 Magneto Couplings and Ignition Timing 45
Vernier Type Coupling 45 Variable Ignition Timing 46 Ignition
Cable 47 Ignition Harness 48 Screening 48 Bonding 48
Sparking Plugs Genera149 Auxiliary Ignition Devices for Engine
Starting 49 High Tension Booster Coil 50 Operation 50 Low
Tension Booster Coil 51 Test Yourself 4 -Piston Engine
Ignition 51
Section 5 Fuel Systems 54

Introduction 54 Fuel Tanks 54 Fuel Pumps 54 Gear Type
Pumps 55 Rotary Vane Type Pumps 55 Diaphragm Type
v
PISTON ENGINES
Pumps 56 Booster Pumps, Transfer Pumps and Transfer

Systems 57 Fuel Tank Pressurisation 58 Electrically-Operated
Pumps 58 Hand-Operated Priming Pumps 59 Electrically-
Operated Priming Pumps 60 A viation Gasoline Fuels 60 Test
Yourself 5 -Fuel Systems 62
Section 6 Cooling Systems 64

Introduction 64 Air Cooling 64 Liquid Cooling 65 Operation
of Typical Liquid Coolant System 66 Test Yourself 6 -Cooling
Systems 68
Section 7 Float Chamber Carburet tors and Fuel Injectors 69

Introduction 69 The Simple Float Type Carburet tor 69
Modifications to a Simple Carburet tor 71 Carburet tor Heating
78 Injection Carburettors 79 Fuel Injectors 81 Fuel Cut-Off
84 Key Points -Piston Engines 84 Test Yourself 7 -
Carburet tors and Injectors 93
Section 8 Supercharging 95
Introduction 95 Supercharger 95 Automatic Boost Control 98
Supercharger Automatic Boost Control Operation 99
Operational Example 100 Variable Datum Cam 101 Variable
Datum Cam Operation 102 Full Throttle Height 102
Automatic Boost Control Override 103 Supercharger Losses 104
Control Settings for Maximum Efficiency 104 Two-Speed
Superchargers 104 Two-Stage Superchargers 106 Test Yourself
8 -Supercharging 107
Section 9 Turbocharging
Introduction 108 Turbocharger Location and Drive 108 The
Turbocharger 109 Turbocharger Operation 110 Operation of
the Waste Gate 112 Variable Pressure Controller 113 Dual
Control Unit System 113 Key Points -Superchargers and
Turbochargers 115 Test Yourself 9- Turbocharging 119
Section 10 Piston Aero-Engine Operation and Performance

Introduction 122 Precautions Before Engine Starting 122
Take-Off 124 Engine Temperatures 124 Mixture Setting
(Manual Mixture Control) 125 Automatic Mixture Contro1125
Climbing 126 Some Common Faults 126 Practice Paper 1 128
Part 2 Gas Turbine Engines

Section 1 Basic Theory, Principles and Intakes
Introduction 137 Basic Principle 137 Principle of Operation
VI
CONTENTS
137 Thrust and Propulsive Efficiency 139 The Effects of Ram,

Density and Temperature 142 Intake Design 144 Intakes for
Supersonic Flight 144 Intake Shapes 146 Critical Conditions
147 Variable Intakes 148 Test Yourself I -Basic Theory,
Principles and Intakes 150
Section 2 Compressors
Introduction 152 Design 152 Centrifugal Compressors 153
Centrifugal Compressor Airflow 153 Compressor Design
Variations 156 Diffuser System 158 Multi-Stage Centrifugal
Compressors 159 Axial Flow Compressors 160 Compressor
Rotor 161 Airflow Through an Axial Compressor 162 Reverse
Flow Compressors 162 The Main Features of the Axial Flow
Compressors 162 Compressor Surging 163 Axial Compressor
Surging 164 Effects ofCompressor Surge 165 Variable Position
Guide Vanes 165 Air Release Valves (Bleed Valves) 165 Multi-
Spool Engines 167 Compressor Icing 167 Comparison of Axial
Flow and Centrifugal Flow Compressor Engines 168 Test
Yourself 2 -Compressors 170
Section 3 Combustion Systems

Introduction 172 Basic Types of Combustion Chambers 172
Multiple Combustion Chambers 174 The Cannular Type
Combustion Chamber 174 The Annular Combustion Chamber
177 Can-annular or Tubo-annular Combustion Chamber 178
Fuel Injection and Vaporisation 178 Atomisation of the Fuel 178
Burners 179 Test Yourself 3- Combustion Systems 183
Section 4 Turbines
Introduction 184 Turbine Principle of Operation 185 Turbine
Losses 188 Construction 188 Reduction in Loss of Efficiency
191 Compressor and Turbine Matching 192 Turbine Blade
Creep 192 Free Turbines 193 Test Yourself 4- Turbines 194
Section 4a Exhaust System

Introduction 196 The Basic Exhaust System 196
Section 4b Reheat/Afterburning
Introduction 199 Afterburner Operation 200 Thrust Increase
with Afterburning 200 Afterburning Contro1201
Section 4c Thrust Reversal

Introduction 202 Turboprop Aircraft 202 Principle of
Operation 202 Thrust Reverser Position Indication 204 Cold
Stream Reverser System 204 Test Yourself 4a, b & c 206
VII
PISTON ENGINES
Section 5 Fuel Systems

Introduction 207 Basic Fuel System 207 Engine Fuel Manifold
213 Water Injection 213 Test YourselfS -Fuel Systems 217
Section 6 Engine Starting Systems 218

Introduction 218 Start Sequence 218 Methods of Engine
Starting 220 Ignition 220 Relighting 223I Test Yourself 6 -
Engine Starting Systems 223
Section 7 Lubrication Systems

Introduction 225 Recirculatory Lubrication System 225
Expendable Lubrication System 229 Lubricating Oils 230 Test
Yourself 7- Lubrication Systems 232
Section 8 Fire Protection

Introduction 233 Fire Prevention 233 Fire Detection 234 Fire
Containment 234 Fire Extinguishing System 235 Extinguisher
237 Directional Flow Valves 238 Test Yourself 8 -Fire
Protection 239
Section 9 Ice Protection Systems

Introduction 240 Types of Ice Protection Employed on Gas
Turbine Engines 240 Hot Air System 240 Hot Air System
Operation 240 Electrical System 242 Electrical Ice Protection
Operation 243 Electrically Heated Propeller Ice Protection 244
Test Yourself 9- Ice Protection Systems 245
Section 10 Engine Performance and Handling

Introduction 246 Pre-Starting Precautions 246 Starting 246
Failure of the Engine .to Start 247 Wet Start 248 Engine
Resonance 248 Immediately After Starting 249 Warming the
Engine Up 249 Taxying 249 Take-Off 250 Climbing 250
General Handling 251 Centrifugal Compressor Engines 252
Axial Flow Type Engines 252 High Altitude Surge 253 Variable
Position Inlet Guide Vanes (Variable Position Swirl Vanes) 253
Mechanical Failure in Flight 253 Engine Icing 253 Effect of
RPM on Rate of Icing 254 Effect of True Air Speed on the Rate
of Icing 254 Approach and Landing, Turbojet Engines 255
Stopping the Engine 255 Relighting Turbojet Engines 256 Gas
Turbine Engine Ratings 256 Test Yourself 10 -Engine
Performance and Handling 258
Section 11 Gas Turbine Controls and Instrumentation

Introduction 261 Engine and Engine System Controls 261 Gas
Turbine Instrumentation 262 Instrumentation for Measuring
viii
CONTENTS
Thrust (and Power for Turboprops) 267 Turbine Discharge

Pressure Indicator 267 Engine Pressure Ratio Indicator
267 Torquemeter (Turboprop Engines) 268 Related Terms 269
Key Points -Gas Turbines 270 Construction 271 Systems
274
Section 12 The Modern Gas Turbine Engine

Introduction 279 Turbojet 279 Twin-Spool Bypass Turbojet
(Low Bypass) 280 Twin-Spool Bypass Turbojet (High Bypass)
280 Twin-Spool Turboshaft (with Free Power Turbine) 283
EICAS -Primary and Secondary Engine Displays 284 EICAS
-Status Mode Display 285 EICAS -Maintenance Mode
Display -ECS/MSG Formation Real Time 287 EICAS -
Operational Format 291 EICAS -Alert Messages- Interface 292
EICAS -Alert Message Levels -Definitions 292 EICAS -
Master Caution Lights/Cancel and Recall Switches 294 Practice
Paper 1 295
Part 3
Propellers
Section 1 Basic Principles of Propellers
Introduction 303 Blade Terminology 304 Geometric Pitch 304
Forces on a Propeller 305 Propeller Design 307 Propeller
Design Conclusions 308 Propeller Mounting 308
Consolidation 310 Test Yourself 321
Section 2 Types of Propeller

Introduction 323 Fixed Pitch Propellers 325 Variable Pitch
Propellers 325 Basic Operation ofa Variable Pitch Propeller 325
Single-Acting Variable Pitch Propeller (Constant Speed) 326
Double-Acting Variable Pitch Propeller (Constant Speed) 326
Test Yourself 326
Section 3 Basic Variable Pitch Requirements

Introduction 328 Extra Fine or Fully Fine Pitch 328 Constant
Speed Range 329 Feathered Position 329 Test Yourself 330
Section 4 Single-Acting Variable Pitch Propeller

(Piston Engines)
Introduction 332 Principle of Operation 332 Propeller Blade
Control 333 Operation 334 Feathering 334 Centrifugal Latch
335 Test Yourself 336
Section 5 Piston Engine Constant Speed Unit

Introduction 338 Description 338 Operation 340
PISTON ENGINES
Section 6 Double-Acting Propellers

Introduction 341 Construction and Operation 341 Distributor
Valve 342 Operation 344 Test Yourself 347
Section 7 Feathering Propellers (Piston-Engined Aircraft)

Introduction 349 Typical Feathering Procedure 349 Reduction
of Drag 350 Feathering Action 350 Feathering Operation
(Piston-Engined Aircraft) 350 General Variations 350
Unfeathering 351 Unfeathering in Flight 351 Unfeathering on
the Ground 352 Practice and Test Feathering 352 Test Yourself
353
Section 8 Electrically-Operated Variable Pitch Propellers

Introduction 355 Description 355 Operation 356 Emergency
Hand Operation 356 Electric Governor Unit 356 Operation
357 Test Yourself 358
Section 9 Turbopropellers 360

Introduction 360 Basic Construction and Operation 360
Feathering 362 Reverse Pitch 363 Beta Control 364 Test
Yourself 365
Section 10 Propeller Inspection and Limitations

Introduction 367 Limitations of Damage to Blades 367 Test
Yourself 369
Section 11 Propeller De-Icing

Introduction 371 Glaze Ice 371 Rime Ice 371 Hoar Frost 371
Effects of Ice 371 De-icing System Types 372 Fluid De-icing
372 Overshoes 373 Electric De-icing 373 Heating Contro1373
Section 12 Performance and Design

Introduction 374 Counter-Rotating Propellers 374 Contra-
Rotating Propellers 374 Braking Propellers 375 Handling 375
Failure to Feather 376 Turboprop Engine Handling 377
Turboprop Synchronizing of Propellers 379 Turboprop
Synchrophasing ofPropellers 379 Propeller Slipstream Effect 379
Gyroscopic Effect 381 Swing on Take-Off 382 Propeller Effects
on Nose Wheeled Aircraft 383 The Modern Propeller 384
Summary of Propeller Development Types 386 Advanced
Propellers or Ultra High By-Pass 388 Propeller Spinners 388
Propeller Contamination 390 Test Yourself 390
Final Practice Questions 392
x
1
1.1 Classification.
The cylinder configuration of aircraft piston engines takes many forms.
Figure I-I shows some of the layouts that may be used.
~ (
'" '---
INVERTED IN LINE
"V" IN LINE
FLAT "H" IN LINE
SINGLE
u
ROW RADIAL
Figure 1-1 Typical Cylinder Arrangements.
It is usual to classify a piston aero-engine by its method of cooling and the

arrangement of its cylinders, for example, air cooled radial; liquid cooled
in-Iine; etc. Engines may be further classified by stating the number of
cylinders, whether normally aspirated, supercharged or turbocharged.
PISTON ENGINES
1.2 General Functional Description.
All internal combustion piston engines consist of the following systems

or sub-systems:
(a) Mechanical System.

For converting the heat of combustion into power. It consists of
the cylinders, valve gear, pistons, connecting rods, crankshaft,
propeller shaft, etc. The pistons and crank assembly convert the
combustion pressure to torque, which is transmitted to the
propeller either by direct drive, or through a reduction gear .
(b) Lubrication system.

Ensures the efficient lubrication of all moving parts. The work
wasted in overcoming friction is thus reduced, and the heat gener-
ated by friction kept within reasonable limits.
(c) Cooling System.

For dissipating excess heat and maintaining effective control of
engine temperature. Air or liquid is used as the cooling medium.
(d) Fuel System.

To supply a correct fuel/air mixture to the cylinders. The correct
mixture is ensured by metering the fuel, by means of a carburet tor
or injector, in proportion with the amount of air inducted into the
engine. The induction system directs the mixture to the cylinders.
(e) Ignition System.

To ignite the inducted charge. The fuel/air mixture within each
cylinder is "ignited by two spark plugs. High tensiop voltage,
generated by two magnetos and distributed to the sparking plugs,
produces the spark at the plug points. The ignition system is
controlled by ignition switches; when the switches are in the
'OFF' position, the magnetos are rendered inoperative and the
engine will not run.
1.3 The Engine Structure.

All aero-engines are made up of units and sub-assemblies arranged for
convenience of dismantling, rig testing, and assembling. Each unit has
provision for its assembly to its parent sub-assembly, which has similar
provisions for assembly to the crankcase or to another sub-assembly.
The layout of sub-assemblies making up an engine, and the number of
them, varies considerably according to the engine type etc, but general
2
AIRCRAFT PISTON ENGINES
layout, taken from front to rear, for a geared and supercharged engine is
as follows:
(a) Propeller shaft and reduction gear assembly.
(b) Crankcase, which houses the crankshaft and connecting rods etc.
{c) Supercharger assembly.

(d) Wheelcase or rear cover assembly, on which are mounted the
magnetos, various fuel and oil system components, and other acces-
sones.
(e) The cylinders mounted on the crankcase; either individually or in
blocks depending on the design of the engine. In addition to the above
assemblies, a front cover is interposed between the reduction gear
assembly and the crankcase to house the valve operating mechanism.
The carburet tor or injector is normally mounted on the rear of the
engIne.
1.4 Engine Mounting.

Aircraft piston engines are normally attached to the airframe via an
engine bearer assembly. The engine bearer is then attached to the front
bulkhead of the aircraft fuselage, in the case of a single-engined aircraft,
or to engine bulkheads in the case of engines mounted on the wings.
The bulkhead not only serves as a mounting point for the engine but
also provides a fire resistant wall between the engine and the cockpit or
area behind the engine. Figure 1-2 shows an example of the engine bearer
and firewall or bulkhead.
FIREWALL
~
ENGINE BEARER
Figure 1-2 Engine Bearer and Firewall.

2
2.1 Introduction.
An internal combustion engine consists basically of a cylinder closed at
one end, a piston, which slides up and down inside the cylinder, a
connecting rod and crank by which reciprocating movement of the piston
is converted to rotary movement of the crankshaft. The closed end of the
cylinder, known as the cylinder head, includes an inlet and exhaust valve,
and a sparking plug. Figure 2-1 shows the basic arrangement of a single
cylinder .
Figure 2-1 Basic Components of the Piston Engine.
The purpose of a piston engine is to convert heat energy into mechanical

energy, by burning fuel in the cylinder, and utili sing the resultant pres-
sure of combustion to drive the arrangement of piston, connecting rod,
and crankshaft.
4
FOUR-STROKE PISTON ENGINES
2.2 The Four-Stroke Cycle.

The sequence of operations, by which the heat energy is converted into
mechanical energy, is known as the four-stroke cycle. A mixture of fuel
and air, known as 'tile mixture', is introduced into the cylinder, the
mixture is compressed, and when at maximum compression the mixture
is ignited; the heat thereby generated causesa rapid and immense increase
in pressure which drives the piston down the cylinder. This cyclic
sequence can be divided into four separate, but mechanically related,
operations normally referred to as INDUCTION, COMPRESSION,
POWER and EXHAUST.
2.3 Principle of Operation.

The basic principle of operation of the four-stroke engine is as follows
(a) Induction. (See Fig. 2-2).

At the start of the induction stroke, the inlet valve is opened, and
the piston descends down the cylinder thereby causing a drop in
pressure which results in the mixture being driven by atmospheric
pressure into the cylinder through the inlet valve. The power
output of the engine depends on the weight of mixture introduced
into the cylinder or cylinders.
Figure 2-2 Induction Stroke.
(b) Compression. (See Fig. 2-3).

ical As the piston completes its induction stroke, it now starts to move
res- up the cylinder. The inlet valve closes and the mixture is
-ad, compressed. By compressing the mixture into a smaller space, the
pressure it exerts when burnt is proportionally increased.
"
PISTON ENGINES
When the piston is at its lowest point of travel (ie maximum

space in the cylinder) it is known as being at Bottom Dead Centre
(BDC). When the piston is at its highest point of travel (ie
minimum space in the cylinder) it is known as being at Top Dead
Centre (TDC).
The ratio of the cylinder volume, when the piston is at BDC, to
that when at TDC, is known as the COMPRESSION RA TIO. It
should be noted that this is a ratio of volumes, and not a measure
of increase of pressure in the cylinder. As the mixture becomes
compressed, it is heated adiabatically, as well as by conduction
from hot surroundings, the pressure consequently rises to a higher
value than that to be expected from volumetric reduction alone.
Figure 2-3 Compression Stroke
(c) Power or Ignition. (See Fig. 2-4).

A spark at the sparking plug ignites the'compressed mixture and
combustion causes a rapid expansion of gas pressure in the
combustion chamber. As both valves remain closed, the increased
gas pressure forces the piston down the cylinder .
Note: As the piston is forced down the cylinder the gas temperature will
reduce.
(d) Exhaust. (See Fig. 2-5).

The exhaust valve opens and the ascending piston forces the
gases,now at a much reduced pressure, out past the open exhaust
valve into the exhaust manifold and thence to atmosphere.
6
Figure 2-4 Power Stroke.
INLET VALVE CLOSED -EXHAUST VALVE OPEN
Figure 2-5 Exhaust Stroke.
2.4 The lOttO' Cycle.

The basic principle of the four-stroke cycle explained in paragraph two
of this chapter is termed the 'Otto' cycle, after Dr N.A. Otto who built
the first successful engine working on the four stroke cycle in 1876.
7
PISTON ENGINES
2.5 Practical Application of the lOtto' Cycle.

It is important that the inlet and exhaust valve open and close at the
correct time to ensure efficient operation of the engine. In the theoretical
four stroke cycle explained in paragraph 2.2 these requirements are met
by admitting mixture through the inlet valve orifice from TDC to BDC,
and expelling the burnt gasesthrough the exhaust valve orifice from BDC
to TDC, but practical considerations necessitate a slight departure from
this timing.
2.6 Valve Timing.

The diagrams in Figs 2-5a & b illustr ating the four-stroke cycle show that
the opening and closing of the inlet and exhaust valves is related to the
position of the piston in the cylinder and hence the position of the engine
crankshaft.
(a) Inlet Valve.

Early opening of the inlet valve ensures that the valve is fully open
at the beginning of the induction stroke, there is then no time lag
between the piston moving down and the mixture flowing into the
cylinder as would otherwise occur due to the inertia of the
mixture. The inflowing mixture is therefore able to keep up with
the descending piston. The momentum of the mixture increases
as the induction stroke progresses, and at the end of the stroke, is
such that the gases will continue to flow into the cylinder even
though the piston has passed BDC and is starting to move
upwards. The closing of the valve is therefore delayed until after
BDC when the gas pressure equals the gas pressure in the induc-
tion manifold. By allowing such a delay in closing the inlet valve,
the maximum possible weight of charge is introduced into the
cylinder .
See Figs 2-5a & b
(b) Exhaust Valve.

Towards the end of the power stroke, the temperature and pres-
sure of the burnt gases have decreased, the crank angle becomes
less effective, and little purpose would be served in keeping the
exhaust valve closed until BDC. It is advantageous, however, to
open the exhaust valve before BDC and use the residual gas pres-
sure to commence the scavenging operation before the piston
starts moving up the cylinder. This reduces back pressure on the
piston during the exhaust stroke when it has to push the gasesout.
The valve will close a little after TDC because the gas will
8
continue to flow out due to its momentum -even after the upward
movement of the piston has ceased.
See Figs. 2-5a & b
(c) Valve Overlap.

There is a period during which both valves are open at the same
time, this is known as V AL VE OVERLAP. During this overlap
period, the action of the exhaust gasesflowing out of the cylinder
tends to reduce the gas pressure in the induction manifold. The
mixture in the induction manifold commences to flow into the
area of low pressure and assists in displacing the remaining burnt
gases.
See Figs. 2-5a & b
(d) Effective Ignition and Valve Timing.

There are critical conditions that affect timing. They are:
(i) The limit to the speed of opening and closing of valves,
beyond which excessive stresses would be imposed on the
operating gear.
(ii) When a valve is almost closed mixture flow is minimal.
(iii) Time lag between ignition and the build up to maximum pres-
sure.
There are two periods during one crankshaft revolution, when the
piston movement is so small that little work is done in either
induction, or exhaust. These periods occur in the top and bottom
regions of the stroke, when the crank is within the range known
as the INEFFECTIVE CRANK ANGLE (See Fig. 2-5a.)
INEFFECTIVE
AREA OF MIN
CRANK
~ PISTON MOVEMENT
ANGLES
~ '
, /
7/ 1--=1
, "
CRANKSHAFT
,,",
ROTATION , 1
,,~'
'~~
Figure 2-5 Crank Angle~
9
PISTON ENGINES
These two periods offer a suitable opportunity for the valve oper-
ation, without excessive accelerations, and following the
compression stroke, the mixture may be ignited before TDC, so
that the maximum pressure build up is realised at the early part
of the power stroke.
The practical timing, is as shown, and can be followed using
Figs. 2-5a & b.
(e) Ignition Timing.

Ignition is so regulated to advance as the engine speed increases
in order to ensure that adequate burn time is provided for the
mixture in the cylinder. Equally, as engine speed reduces the igni-
tion is retarded. It must be noted that the spark, even in its fully
retarded position, will occur before top dead centre.
Study Fig. 2-5b.
Induction. The inlet valve opens before TDC of the exhaust
stroke, and remains open during some 70° of the compression
stroke. This delay, or valve lag, is to enable the momentum of the
mixture to add to the weight of charge, thus increasing volumetric
efficiency.
Compression. On the compression stroke, the spark occurs
before TDC to allow the build up of pressure from the burning
charge to reach its maximum early in the power stroke; this is
known as ignition advance.
Power. Before BDC on this stroke, the exhaust valve opens
(valve lead). This induces pressure scavenging of the combustion
chamber (cylinder).
Exhaust. As can be seen, the exhaust valve remains open until
some 30° into the induction stroke, this is known as valve overlap.
The partial vacuum left in the cylinder by the rapid exit of the
burnt gases, induces the fresh charge to enter.
2.7 Piston Engine Components.

Aero-engines are constructed of units and sub-assemblies arranged
mainly for the convenience of dismantling when replacement and/or recti-
fication becomes necessary. The number of units, or sub-assemblies,
varies with the type of engine, but a general breakdown is as follows:
(a) Engine block, housing the cylinders, pistons, valves and valve gear
operating mechanisms.
(b) Crankcase, housing the crankshaft and connecting rods.
Other units comprise components to be dealt with in subsequent chapters.
10
TDC
~ p.L"E OVEI/l.,q"Soo
INLET OPENS EXHAUST VALVE

-1- .
CLOSES
::::( \ --i-- ,. "
SPARK
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.,, ' \' 0" " .
' "'
-' b -J ,,
r ~'.",w!,:/ ,.'
, uJ- "
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\ -'"> ' ~
~'"'
, .i ;' IGNITION
I'., AOVANCE
,,
"-
I ".
i i
\ \
\ ,
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--\ VALVE LAG VALVE LEAD
INLET
VALVE
CLOSES
70"
I
62"
y EXHAUST
VALVE OPENS
~ I
1- - /
--+---
BDC
Figure 2-5b Ignition and Valve Timing
2.8 The Cylinder .

The cylinder provides the combustion chamber and the working bore for
the piston. Although considered as one unit, cylinders are in fact in two
sections, the cylinder barrel, and the cylinder head, the latter being bolted
and sealed gas-tight to the former. The cylinder barrels are usually made
of steel, and may have a hardened bore to increase their resistance to the
wear of the piston. Cylinder heads are usually made of a light alloy -
aluminium -primarily for lightness ofweight, and heat conductivity. The
.ged head also comprises the valve seatings, and valve guides to form a bearing
"rti- for the valve stems. The seatings are made of material strong enough to
withstand both the constant hammering of the valves and the corrosive
action of the exhaust gases. Threaded inserts, of a more durable metal,
are fitted to take the spark plugs. The cylinder head also supports valves
and rocker gear, and sometimes the camshaft and its drive. To facilitate
cooling the cylinder heads of air-cooled engines are finned to increase the
surface area exposed to the airstream, whereas in liquid-cooled engines
the heads have generous passages for the coolant fluid. Cooling is dealt
with in Chapter 6.
~
PISTON ENGINES
2.9 The Piston.

The piston (Fig. 2-1) forms a gas-tight plug in the cylinder, and is made
of a forged aluminium alloy to increase strength, and for lightness in
weight and heat conductivity. Due to the higher linear expansion of
aluminium relative to steel, pistons are tapered slightly towards the crown
to enable parallel operation (to the cylinder wall) at operating tempera-
ture~. The crown of the piston may be shaped to suit the cylinder and to
give valve head clearance. Pistons are fitted with piston rings (gas rings)
fitted into grooves around the head to maintain a gas seal between piston
and cylinder. The rings are made usually of cast-iron, which retains its
springiness at high temperatures, and due to its low coefficient of linear
expansion, only a relatively small 'gap' is required. The rings when new,
have a slight taper of the face which contacts the cylinder, giving a rapid
initial wear that allows the ring to wear to the bore quickly and does away
with 'running in'. Another type of ring fitted is the scraper ring, which
prevents an excessive amount of oil passing from crankcase to combus-
tion chamber. Scraper rings are designed in various sections according to
the action required- heavy or light; it is usual to have a single-action ring
on the skirt allowing some oil to pass to the thrust face of the piston, and
a double-action scraper above the gudgeon pin for final heavy scraping.
As can be seen in Fig. 2-6 pistons are formed with bosses to accept the
gudgeon pin, linking the connecting rod to the piston. Gudgeon pins
'float' inside the piston for even wear, being retained by circlips. They are
made of steel, and are hollow, thus increasing rigidity and the bearing
surface of the small end, without strength decrease for the same cross-
sectional area. On multi-cylinder engines, pistons are of matched weight,
to ensure balance, and minimise vibration.
CROWN
2.10 Valves.
Valves (Fig. 2- 7) open and close the gas ports, and are either of two types:
sleeve valves, or poppet valves. Sleeve valves take the form of a ported
sleeve, moving within the cylinder between piston and wall. The poppet
valve is the more commonly used. It is made of special alloy steel, of great
strength at high temperatures, non-scaling, and resistant to corrosion.
The exhaust valve may be sodium filled, which assists in valve head
cooling.
Figure 2-7 Poppet Valves.
2.11 Valve Gear Construction and Operation.

As can be seen in Fig. 2-8 the valves are operated by what is collectively
termed the valve gear, a detailed drawing of which is shown in Fig. 2-9.
The valve operating mechanism is driven by the engine crankshaft
through a cam, push rod, and rocker arm assembly.
It should be noted at this point that as each valve opens only once
during the four-stroke cycle, through gearing reduction the camshaft
rotates at half the speed of the crankshaft.
The opening of the valve is carried out by the rocker forcing the valve
stem down against the resistance of the valve spring. The closing of the
valve is activated by the valve spring as pressure by the rocker is reduced.
When the valve is fully closed and the rocker is in its fully up position
there is a gap between the top of the valve spring and the rocker (Fig. 2-9).
This gap allows for expansion during the full operating temperature range
3
PISTON ENGINES
of the engine, and permits oil from the engine lubrication system to lubri-
cate the two faces.
Normally valve springs are duplicated by fitting one spring inside the
other. The primary purpose of this is to reduce valve bounce, but it also
has a certain safety value should one spring break while the engine is
runnIng.
INLET EXHAUST
ADJUSTER - CQ ~
TAPPET AND
VALVE AT END
TAPPET- OF DOWNWARD
MOVEMENT.
CAMSHAFT
TOE OF CAM '"
BASE CIRCLE DWELL
Figure 2-8 Valve and Cam Operation on

Induction Stroke.
The exhaust valve is subjected to very high temperatures and to assist in

its cooling it is manufactured with a hollow stem which is partially filled
with sodium.
The valve operating mechanism consists of: camshaft (or a cam drum),
tappets, push rods and rocker arms. The profile of the cam lobe controls
the period (in crankshaft degrees) of opening, the rate of opening and the
lift of the valves. Camshafts always run at half engine speed. In direct
contact with the cams are the tappets, these being kept in contact by
means of the valve springs. The tappets translate the eccentricity of
14
the cam into a reciprocating motion, this motion being transferred to the
valves by the push rods and rocker arms. Play is always present when
the tappets are on the 'dwell' of the cam, which will ensure the valves posi-
tively close (by valve spring action). The play is known as tappet
clearance. The rocker arms are pivoted on a lay shaft, one side being in
contact with the push rod, the other with the valve stem base. Thus
'upward' movement of the push rod will open the valve against valve
spring pressure, the downward movement allowing the valve to be closed
under the same spring pressure. Valve springs are made of spring steel,
and as seenabove, ensure the valve remains closed unless opened by cam
action. They are duplicated, and may be wound in opposite directions to
reduce valve bounce. Springs are retained by tapered colletts that lock in
place between cup plates and grooves in the valve stem. (Fig. 2-7).
Figure 2-9 Valve Operating Mechanism.
2.12 Crankcase.
lIed The crankcase forms the foundation of the engine. It is made of light alloy
for weight and thermal conductivity, and is single or multi-section
construction dependent on engine type. The crankcase houses the main
bearings for crankshaft support and also provides the support for the
cylinders. Main bearings vary with engine type. In-line engines have plain
bearings whereas radial engines have roller bearings. The crankcase also
provides support for the front and rear casings, the supercharger, sump
and reduction gears etc, as required.
PISTON ENGINES
2.13 Crankshaft.
See Fig. 2-10. The crankshaft, via the connecting rods, changes piston
reciprocating movement, into rotary motion. They are alloy steel forgings
and may have hardened crankpins and journals for wear resistance.
Classified according to the number of cranks it has, a shaft with one
crankpin is termed a 'single throw' shaft, with six crank pins a 'six' throw.
Fig. 2-10 shows a 'four' throw crankshaft. Drives at each end of the shaft
transmit the rotary motion (torque) respectively to the propeller, and to
the accessory drives (magnetos, oil and fuel pumps etc.). Aero-engine
shafts are usually hollow, making for a stronger, lighter shaft with large
bearing surfaces of long life, the bore being a convenient oil passage for
lubrication purposes.
CRANKPIN \ BALANCE WEIGHT
"'
Figure 2-10 Four- Throw Crankshaft.
2.14 Connecting Rods.

See Fig. 2-11. Connecting rods are so named because they connect the
pistons to the crankshaft. The small (top) end of the con rod swings on
the gudgeon pin within the piston, and the big (bottom) end fits on the
crankpin, thereby transmitting the force of the piston to the crankshaft.
They are usually H section alloy steel forgings, the girder section
increasing resistance to bending and compressive loads. The rod may be
of one piece when a built up crankshaft is used, but more usually have a
split big end bearing with a 'cap' secured by bolts. The big end may be
lined with anti-friction metal shells forming the bearing surface on the
crankpin. The small end is bushed with bronze, to provide the bearing for
the gudgeon pin.
16
Figure 2-11 Connecting Rod.
2.15 Swept Volume and Clearance Volume.

The swept volume of a cylinder is that between the bottom dead centre
and top dead centre positions of the piston. The clearance volume is that
space above the TDC piston enclosed by the cylinder head and the closed
valves. (Fig. 2-12). The difference between the swept and clearance
volumes is the comparison ratio.
Figure 2-12 Swept and Clearance Volumes.
17
PISTON ENGINES
Section 2 T est Yourself
Four-Stroke Piston Engines
The valves of a four-stroke piston engine will each:

(a) open twice during the normal 'Otto' cycle.
(b) open OI}Ceduring the normal 'Otto' cycle.
(c) open four times during the normal 'Otto' cycle
(d) open six times during the normal 'Otto' cycle.
Ref. 2
2. The camshaft of a piston engine normally rotates:

(a) at twice the speed of the crankshaft.
(b) at half the speed of the crankshaft.
(c) at the same speed as the crankshaft.
(d) at four times th,e speed of the crankshaft.
Ref.2
3. Tappet and rocker arm clearance is essential:
(a) to allow lubrication between the contact surfaces.
(b) to allow for valve operation by the cam.
(c) to allow for expansion throughout the working temperature range
of the engine.
(d) to allow for expansion of the lubricating oil.
Ref. 2
4. Valve 'Dwell' is:

(a) the period a valve remains open.
(b) the period a valve remains closed.
(c) the period taken by the rocker to take up the clearance gap before
operating the valve.
(d) the period a valve is stationary during normal engine running.
Ref. 2.11.
18
5. Valve overlap occurs:
(a) at the end of the power stroke.
(b) at the end of the exhaust stroke.
(c) at the end of the induction stroke.

..
(d) at the end of the compr~sslon stroke.
Ref. 2.6.
6. The weight of charge introduced into a piston engine cylinder during
normal operation:
{a) is increased by closing the exhaust valve before TDC.
(b) is reduced by closing the inlet valve after BDC.
(c) is increased by delaying the closing of the inlet valve.
(d) is constant at any engine rpm.
Ref. 2.6a,
7. The exhaust valve of a piston engine:

(a) normally has a hollow stem partially filled with sodium.
(b) is normally manufactured from metallic sodium to assist with
cooling.
(c) normally has a hollow head filled with sodium.
(d) is normally water filled.
Ref.2
8. Valve springs are primarily duplicated:
(a) to ensure a gas-ti.ght seal when the valve is closed.
(b) to prevent the valve dropping into the cylinder in the event a
spring breaks.
(c) to reduce valve bounce.
( d) to increase the speed of valve opening.
Ref.2.11
lq
PISTON ENGINES
9. When the piston of a four-stroke piston engine is towards the end of

the power stroke:
(a) the gas temperature will be at its highest.
(b) the gas temperature will be reducing.
(c) the gas temperature will remain ~onstant until BDC.
(d) the gas temperature will be progressively increasing.
Ref. 2.6
10. The compression ratio ofa piston engine is the:

(a) ratio of the cylinder volume when the piston is at BDC to the
cylinder volume when at TDC.
(b) difference in pressure generated when the piston is at BDC to that
generated at TDC.
(c) variation between the volume of the combustion chamber and the
swept volume.
(d) distance equal to the crank throw.
Ref. 2.3b
20
3
Introduction,
3.1 Lubrication is a means of reducing friction and wear. Friction is the

resistance to movement when one surface slides over another. Wear is
the loss of material resulting from the two surfaces sliding together: Solid
surfaces are never smooth: the actual contact between two sliding surfaces
is made at a multitude of high spots. When the high spots on a sliding
surface are well spaced the material may actually be tom away. Where
the body particles are very small the surface faces will become smoother
but where large particles are affected the surfaces may become both rough
and smooth. The purpose of a lubricant is to prevent sliding surfaces from
actually touching each other and thus to eliminate friction and wear. Any
substance placed between two moving surfaces to reduce friction may be
termed a lubricant; mineral oil is used as the normal lubricant for piston
engines. The two methods of application are:
(a) Film Lubrication.
(b) Boundary Lubrication.
3.2 (a) Film Lubrication. A thin but measurable film of oil is maintained
between the two surfaces and prevents them from touching. This film
works in three distinct layers, the outside layers clinging to the two sepa-
rate surfaces and the central layer moving between them. The thinner the
oil the easier will this movement take place, the thicker or more viscous
the oil the greater the force that will be required to move one surface on
the other. If the oil is squeezed from between the surfaces the cushioning
function of the oil is less effective and wear will become excessive.
(b) Boundary Lubrication. This is the state of near breakdown of lubri-
cation where the film thickness has, by reason ofload or loss of viscosity,
been reduced almost to nothing. The surfaces, while not actually
touching, are very near to it, but they continue to slide until the oil
disappears.
21
PISTON ENGINES
Lubricant Requirements.
3.3 The properties which a lubricant should possesswill vary according
to the particular purpose for which it is to be used. All lubricating oils for
piston engines are required to:
(a) 'Wet' the surfaces to be lubricated.
(b) Possessa viscosity suitable for high loading and speeds, over a wide
temperature range.
(c) Have a low evaporation rate at normal engine running temperature.
(d) Protect surfaces against corrosion.
(e) Have a low gum or sludge formation rate.
(1) Be non-injurious to materials they contact.
Lubrication System.
3.4 There are essentially two main types of lubrication systems fitted to
piston aero-engines.
(a) Dry Sump Lubrication.
(b) Wet Sump Lubrication.
Both types operate in a similar manner and fulfil the same basic function.
The differences will be discussed later. The majority of aircraft piston
engine lubrication systems are of the dry sump type. The following text
refers primarily to a dry sump lubrication system.
Principle
The internal moving parts of an aero-engine are lubricated by oil which
is circulated from a tank in the airframe to the engine and back again by
means of engine-driven oil pumps. Far more oil is circulated by the pumps
than is needed to reduce friction alone and this excessflow is used to cool
the internal components of the engine. An oil cooler fitted in the return
line to the tank dissipates much of the heat absorbed by the oil in its
passage through the engine. The engine pump delivers oil under pressure
through internal ducts, hollow shafts and pipes to the main bearings,
fitted to the engine. Oil escaping from these bearings is used to 'splash'
lubricate ball and roller bearings, gears and other moving parts. Where
more positive lubrication is necessary, jets of oil are directed onto the
contacting faces. Oil in the engine drains into a sump where a scavenge
pump passesthe oil back to the tank. .
PISTON ENGINE LUBRICATION
Figure 3-1 A Dry Sump System.
3.5 Most lubrication systems in engines using plain main bearings have
~ the oil delivered at fairly high pressure (60psi to 70psi); the oil then passes
into the hollow crankshafts where ducts in the crankwebs and crankpins
direct it to the big-end bearings. Oil escaping from these bearings is flung
onto the cylinder walls, piston and gudgeon pins to provide splash lubri-
cation. Other plain bearings in the engine, which are not so heavily
loaded, are often fed with oil from an auxiliary circuit at a much reduced
pressure. This auxiliary circuit is fed from the main system, the reduced
pressure being controlled by a relief valve.
Operation,
Dry Sump Type.
The system comprises:
(a) Oil tank.

This is normally a separate tank, mounted adjacent to the engine,
which contains a reserve of oil to allow for minor leakage and
provides an air space above the oil to allow for expansion and
1ge
frothing.
23
PISTON ENGINES
Figure 3-2 Oil Tank,
(b) Pressure Filter .

As the oil is drawn from the tank, by the suction of the pressure
pump, it passesthrough a pressure filter to ensure that clean oil
is delivered to the engine.
Figure 3-3 Pre
24
PISTON ENGINE LUBRICATION
(c) Pressure Pump.

The pressure pump is normally of a spur gear type and is driven
by the engine. It is designed to deliver a greater quantity of oil
than the system actually requires, the surplus oil being used as a
cooling medium for many of the engine components. A relief
valve is usually fitted adjacent to, or as an integral part of, the
pump assembly to relieve excesspressure on the outlet side of the
pump. The relieved oil may be directed back to the oil tank or
more usually back to the inlet side of the pump.
See Fig. 3-4.
PRESSURE REliEF
VALVE
Figure 3-4 Pressure Pump.
(d) Delivery.
Oil under pressure is delivered to various orifices strategically
positioned in the engine to lubricate such components as main
and auxiliary bearings, rocker gear, camshaft, cylinder walls and
numerous other components.
See Fig. 3-
Note: Aero-engines fitted with superchargers and
turbochargers utilise the engine lubrication system to lubricate
the main bearings of such assemblies.
(e) Sump.
Engines fitted with dry sump lubrication systems utilise the sump
as a form of collector tank. As the oil is allowed to drain from the
components it has lubricated, it drains into the sump where it is
then collected by the scavenge pump.
See Fig. 3-
25
PISTON ENGINES
(t) Scavenge Pump.

The scavenge pump normally has a greater pumping capacity
than the pressure pump, to ensure that all oil is removed or 'scav-
enged' from the engine. Oil collected by the scavenge pump is
drawn through a scavenge filter which removes any particles of
foreign matter from the oil before it passesthrough the pump. The
scavenged oil at this stage is very hot so is passed to a cooler .
See Fig. 3-
(g) Oil Cooler .

Oil coolers are normally of the air cooled variety in that the oil is
pumped by the scavenge pump through a matrix and is cooled by
ram air passing through the cooler in a similar manner to that of
a car radiator .
See Fig. 3-5.
Figure 3-5 Oil Cooler
(h) By-Pass.
Many modern piston engines are fitted with a by-pass valve
which, when starting the engine (particularly at low temperatures)
allows the oil cooler to be by-passed thereby allowing the oil and
the engine to reach normal working temperature more quickly.
The by-pass valve is usually thermostat controlled.
See Fig. 3-1.
Note: In most cases the pressure pump and scavenge pump are one
assembly driven by a common drive shaft. Both pumps are of similar
design but with the scavenge pump having a greater capacity than the
pressure pump.
26
PISTON ENGINE JBRICA TION
3.6 Wet Sump Type: Wet sump lubrication is rarely used on modern
piston aero-engines. Generally, the wet sump system consists of the same
components as the dry sump with one major difference: the sump of the
wet system not only collects the oil as it drains from its lubrication points,
but also serves as the oil tank. The major disadvantage of the wet sump
system is that when the aircraft is inverted the oil tends to drain from the
sump to the cylinders so reducing the efficiency of splash lubrication, and
starving vital bearings of oil whilst the aircraft is in this attitude.
Piston Engine Lubrication
1. The majority of aircraft piston engine lubrication systems are of the
(a) self-lubricating type.

(b) wet sump type.
(c) dry sump type.

(d) emulsion type.
Ref. 3.4.
2. A dry sump lubrication system:

(a) maintains a reserve of oil in a separate tank.
(b) maintains a reserve of oil in the sump.
(c) requires no reserve ofoil.
(d) maintains a reserve of oil in the engine gallery
Ref.3.5
3. The pressure pump of a dry sump lubrication system:
(a) has a greater capacity than the scavenge pump.
(b) has less capacity than the scavenge pump.
(c) is driven on a common shaft and has the same capacity as the
scavenge pump.
(d) is always electrically driven.
Ref. 3.5.
PISTON ENGINES
4. The pressure filter in a dry sump lubrication system is:

(a) located between the pressure pump and tank.
(b) located after the pressure pump.
(c) located between the scavenge pump and the tank.
(d) located at the base of the tank.
Ref. 3.5
5. The by-pass valve of a dry sump lubrication system is:

(a) normally activated during low temperature ~ngine starting.
(b) normally activated during high temperature engine starting.
(c) is a relief valve of excessoil pressure.
(d) part of the pressure assembly.
Ref. 3.5
6. Normally on most piston engines the lubrication oil of a dry sump

system is cooled:
(a) on leaving the pressure pump.
(b) before returning to the oil tank.
(c) before returning to the sump.
(d) in the tank.
Ref. 3.5
7. The reserve of lubricating oil of a wet sump piston engine is stored in
(a) the sump.
(b) a separate tank.
(c) the pipe system.
(d) the engine gallery.
Ref. 3.6
28
PISTON ENGINE JBRICA TION
8. The oil tank of a dry sump lubrication system has a space above the oil
to provide for:
(a) jack ram displacement.
(b) pressurisation.
(c) expansion of the oil and frothing.
(d) cooling air .

Ref. 3.5
9. A relief valve is provided to relieve excesspressure on

(a) the outlet side of the pressure filter .
(b) the outlet side of the pressure pump.
(c) the inlet side of the scavenge pump.
(d) the outlet side of the scavenge pump.
Ref. 3.5
10.The oil cooler of a dry sump lubrication system is normally cooled by
(a) water
(b) compressor aIr.
(c) ram aIr .
(d) engine bleed air

Ref
29
4
4.1 Introduction.
Piston engines, other than compression ignition engines, depend on elec-
trical ignition systems to ignite the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders. The
mixture is set alight by an electric spark produced at the gap between
the two electrodes of a sparking plug in the cylinder head when it is desired
to fire the charge. (The initial flame in a gas turbine engine is started in a
similar manner.)
Two types of ignition system are in common use: coil ignition and
magneto ignition. Coil ignition is used widely on motor cars and aircraft
ground support equipment, its electrical supply generally being obtained
from batteries or from a separate generator. The magneto, which is
always used on aircraft piston engines, is a self-contained unit with its own
built in generator .
4.2 Electricity.
Electricity is a form of energy and its pressure may be shown in one or
more of the following ways:
(a) Heating Effect.

A flow of electricity generates heat in the conductor through which it
flows. This effect can be seen in the hot element of an electric fire and
in the glowing filament of an electric lamp.
(b) Chemical Effect.

A flow of electricity can cause a chemical change. For example when
charging a battery the current changes the chemical composition of
the plates and acid.
(c) Magnetic Effect.

A flow of electricity along a conductor causes a magnetic field to be
set up around the conductor. If the conductor is wound into a coil a
more powerful field is produced since the loops of the wire act
together. This principle is used to form a temporary magnet which
30
PISTON ENGINE IGNITION
may be used, for example, to attract the hammer of a bell, and for
relay and solenoid switches.
4.3 The Electrical Circuit.

Study Figs. 4-1 and 4-2 in conjunction with the following text.
The conditions that exist in a simple electrical circuit can be compared
with those in a water system as shown in Fig. 4-1. The pump is the source
of energy to lift water from tank B to tank A so that, when the cock is
open, water is directed under gravitational pressure on to the turbine, so
causing it to rotate.
TANK 'A'
WATER ANALOGY
Figure 4-1 Water Analogy.
A simple electrical circuit is shown in Fig. 4-2. The circuit consists of a

generator connected by conductors to a switch and a lamp. Here, the
source of energy is the electrical generator that produces a difference in
electrical pressure (known as voltage) between the positive and negative
terminals. On closing the switch, which is the counterpart of the cock in
the water system, this voltage causes an electrical current to flow from the
generator through the conductors and lamp back to the generator.
3
PISTON ENGINES
The heating effect of the current flow causes the lamp filament to glow
and so produce light.
In the water system the resistance to the flow of water depends on the
cross sectional area of the pipelines, their length, and their internal rough-
ness. Similarly, in an electrical circuit the conductors resist the flow of
electrical current. This opposition to flow (termed resistance and
measured in ohms) depends on the cross sectional area of the conductors,
their length, and the material from which they are manufactured.
Where the material is a good conductor (i.e. has low resistance) more
current flows for the same electrical pressure. Copper is a very good
conductor and is widely used for this reason. To keep the resistance in a
circuit as low as possible conductors must be large in crpss sectional area,
short in length, and of suitable material. Materials with an exceptionally
high resistance to the flow of electricity are called 'insulators'; examples
are glass, porcelain, mica, rubber and some types of enamel.
LAMP
SIMPLE CIRCUIT
Figure 4-2 A Simple Electrical Circuit
In the water system the rate of flow depends on the pressure created by
the pump, i.e. the difference between pump outlet and pump inlet pres-
sures. Similarly, in an electrical circuit the flow of current (measured in
amperes) depends on the difference in electrical pressure or voltage
between the positive and negative terminals of the generator .
4.4 Magnets and Lines of Force.

A magnet has an affinity for iron and this becomes apparent by the
following effects:
32
(a) The ends of the magnet attract pieces of iron and steel. The ends,
where the power of attraction is greatest, are known as the 'poles' of
the magnet.
(b) If a bar magnet is freely suspended at its centre it comes to rest in
parallel with the lines offorce of the earth's magnetic field. The pole
then lying nearer to the north pole is known as the north-seeking or
'north pole of the magnet' the other is the south-seeking or 'south
pole'.
(c) If a second magnet is held near a pole of the suspended magnet the
latter is either attracted or repelled according to the polarity of the
magnet brought to it; like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Fig. 4-3 shows the effects of the magnetic lines offorce on a bar magnet.
s
N.-. l
Figure 4-3 Lines of Magnetic Force.
present at the poles varies between magnets.

I strength of the field of attraction around
be shown by drawing lines of force. These show the direc-
by their numbers, the intensity of the field. Such a
be demonstrated by sprinkling iron filings on a sheet of paper
a magnet. A diagrammatic representation of the magnetic field
Fig. 4-3.
Lines of force tend to deflect from their normal direction to pass
any magnetic body placed within the magnetic field. Advantage
IIC taken of this fact in the design of electric motors, generators and
33
~
PISTON ENGINES
A magnet may be either a permanent or an electro-magnet. The perma-

nent magnet, which is made of a special alloy or steel, retains its
magnetism over a period of years provided it is carefully handled. The
electro-magnet consists of a soft iron core with a number of turns of insu-
lated copper wire wound around it. When an electrical current is passed
through the wire the core becomes magnetised and remains so for as long
as the electrical current is flowing, but, as soon as the current is switched
off the core loses its magnetism.
Soft iron is used for the core because it is easily magnetised yet loses its
magnetism very quickly when the magnetising force is removed.
4.5 Production of Electricity.
Electricity can be produced in a variety ofways, the more common being

by expending chemicals or by converting mechanical energy.
(a) Expending Chemicals.

If two dissimilar metals are immersed in certain chemical solutions or
pastes, a voltage difference occurs between the two metals and, if they are
connected by an external conductor electrical current flows. Such an
arrangement is known as a simple cell. A simple cell has a limited output
but is of use with electric torches, door bells, and similar small units.
Several cells connected together form a battery.
(b) Converting Mechanical Energy.

If an electrical conductor moves in a magnetic field so that it cuts, or is
cut by, lines of magnetic force a voltage is produced across the ends of the
conductor. This relative movement can be produced either by:
(i) Moving the conductor across a stationary magnet field.
(ii) Moving the magnetic field across a stationary conductor.
(iii) Varying the strength of intensity of a stationary field about a
stationary conductor. Such a variation has the same effect as the
lines of force cutting across the conductor. See Fig. 4-4.
The strength of the voltage so induced into the conductor depends on the
intensity of the magnetic field and the speed of the relative movement.
The more intense the field and/or the faster the relative movement the
greater is the amount of electricity induced.
An electrical generator, or dynamo, normally consists of a magnetic
field that surrounds a rotating member, which carries the electrical
conductors. Figure 4-4 shows a simple conductor moving across a
magnetic field and the principle when applied to a generator .
14
MOTION
CONDUCTORS
s N
-7-
MAGNETIC FIELD
CURRENT
PRINCIPLE OF DYNAMO
Figure 4-4 Principle of Electricity Generation,
6 Electro-Magnetic Induction.
that when a coil wound around a soft iron core
a magnetic field is formed around both the coil
'" and remains as long as a current is flowing. If the current
, the magnetic field collapses and the lines of force
rapidly in towards the coil causing a current to be induced in any
...the field. Similarly, a current is induced in such
~ during the build-up of a current in the coil.
two coils wound on an iron core, one above the other and
from each other. If a steady current is flowing through one of
steady magnetic field is formed around both coils and the core
, because there is no relative movement between the lines of force
the second coil, a current is not induced into the second coil. If,
the current in the energised coil is cut off, the magnetic field
collapses and, cutting across the turns of the second coil,
...This current flows for just as long as the magnetic
voltage so induced into the second coil depends on the ratio

the number of turns in the first and second coils, the speed at
0, and the resistance
circuit.
small number of turns of stout wire, or primary winding, is

around the core and has a secondary winding of a large number
35
PISTON ENGINES
of turns of thin wire superimposed upon it. A low voltage is applied to

the primary winding and by starting and stopping the current in this
winding a series of high voltage electrical impulses is induced into the
secondary winding. The low voltage p.foducing the primary current may
be supplied by a battery (coil ignition) or by incorporating a simple elec-
trical generator in the unit (magneto ).
4.7 Magnetos General.

A magneto is a device designed to produce electrical impulses one after
another at precise intervals so that each separate impulse can be used to
provide a spark at a cylinder sparking plug. The magneto does this by first
generating a low voltage and then collapsing the magnetic field created
by the resultant current across the secondary winding to induce a high
voltage impulse. A precise interval is essential to obtain correct ignition
timing on all cylinders during engine running.
4.8 Description.
The essential components of a magneto are:
(a) A permanent magnet, which provides the magnetic field necessary
to generate a low voltage in the primary winding.
(b) The Primary, and the Secondary windings mounted on a soft iron
core; the complete assembly is then known as the Armature.
(c) A rotating member that effects a ch~nge of magnetism on the arma-
ture. The particular basic principle used in the operation of the
magneto is governed by this member and is indicated by the type
name of the magneto, e.g. Rotating Armature Magneto, Rotating
Magnet Magneto.
(d) A contact breaker assembly which is a mechanically operated switch
timed to break the primary circuit when the maximum current is
flowing.
(e) A condenser, which is connected across the contact breaker points.
The action of the condenser, by reducing arcing at the contact
breaker points when the points are open, stops the flow of primary
current more quickly and thus brings about a faster collapse of the
primary magnetic field. Further, by reducing arcing at the points,
excessive bummingand erosion of the points is avoided.
(f) The distributor, which directs the high voltage impulses to the
cylinders in turn as they reach their ignition point.
36
The internal wiring of a magneto can be conveniently divided into two,

the primary or low tension circuit, and the secondary or high tension
circuit.
Primary Circuit.
A simple primary circuit is shown in Fig. 4-5. It consists of a primary
winding on a soft iron core, a contact breaker and a condenser. The
condenser is connected across the contact breaker points.
Figure 4-5 Primary Circuit.
The earthing switch shown is not a magneto component but is included

to explain its action. Reference to Fig. 4-5 shows that if the switch is closed
the primary circuit is completed and the contact breaker action has no
.;11 effect on the circuit. The magneto is therefore 'dead' when the switch
IS contacts are together, and 'alive' when the switch contacts are apart, that
is to say, the reverse of normal switch.
Secondary Circuit.
Figure 4-6 shows the secondary circuit superimposed on the primary
circuit. One end of the winding is in contact with the centre ofa rotating
arm, or distributor, that leads to the centre electrodes of a sparking plug.
The other end of the secondary winding is connected via the primary
winding to the earth electrode of the sparking plugs.
PISTON ENGINES
4.9 Magneto Operation.

Assuming that a current is flowing in the primary circuit when the contact
breaker points are closed, then a magnetic field is also present around the
primary and secondary windings, the strength of the field being depen-
dent upon the strength of the current flow. If the cam is now operated,
the contact points open, the primary circuit is broken, and primary
current ceases to flow. This produces an immediate collapse of the
magnetic field causing the lines of force to move across the secondary
winding. Since any movement oflines offorce across a conductor induces
a voltage into that conductor a current will flow in the secondary circuit
for the time taken for the field to collapse.
The current set up in the secondary circuit is fed to the distributor, the
rotor of which is so timed that it is then opposite the segment leading to
the sparking plug in the cylinder positioned for firing.
Figure 4-6 Complete Circuit with Secondary Coil

Superimposed on Primary Circuit.
4.10 Distribution.
On a four stroke engine the cylinders need to be fired once in every two
revolutions of the engine in a sequence(the firing order) that produces the
least vibration. To do this, high tension leads from the cylinder sparking
plugs are connected in the sequence desired to segments spaced equally
around the distributor block, and the distributor rotor is engine driven at
half engine speed. Thus, the rotor passes each engine segment once in
every two engine revolutions coupling individual cylinders to the
secondary circuit in the same sequenceas the firing order. (No matter how
38
many cylinders there are on an engine the distributor rotor always rotates
at half engine speed.) Therefore, provided a voltage is induced in
the secondary winding whenever the rotor is opposite a segment, the
secondary circuit is completed through the correct cyl.inder sparking plug.
Before such a voltage can be induced in the secondary windings a
current must be flowing in the primary circuit. There are two basic
methods of producing current in the primary circuit of a magneto: by
rotating an armature within a magnetic field, or by rotating magnetic
'poles' to vary the field acting on a stationary armature (polar inductor).
4.11 Rotating Armature Magneto.

The armature of a rotating armature magneto is carried on an engine
driven shaft that rotates between the poles of a permanent magnet. Figure
4- 7 displays a diagrammatic representation of such an arrangement
showing the flux, or lines of force changes, through the armature core
during half a revolution of the shaft.
Figure 4-7 Rotating Armature Magneto.
39
PISTON ENGINES
This change of flux causes a voltage to be induced into the primary

winding and primary current results. The strength of this current will be
at its peak in position 3, core flux zero, when the greatest change of
magnetism on the armature occurs. It is at this point that the contact
breaker points are made to open, i.e. when the magnetic field created by
the primary current flow will also be at its maximum. Note that this zero
core flux position occurs twice only in one revolution of the armature and
consequently this type of magneto supplies two sparks/rev.
The contact breaker on this type of magneto is fixed to the armature
shaft, the operating cam being held in the end casing. Thus, as the arma-
ture assumes position 3, and the primary current is at its maximum, the
contact breaker points are automatically opened by the cams.
The current resulting from the induced voltage in the secondary circuit
is fed from the rotating armature via a carbon brush and sJip ring to the
centre of the distributor rotor and thence, through the distributor
segments, to the sparking plugs.
This type of magneto is suitable only for light aircraft with a small
number of cylinders because:
(a) Since two sparks only are supplied during each revolution the
magneto speed becomes too high for engines of more than about six
cylinders.
(b) Centrifugal force acting on the armature windings tend to burst the
windings.
(c) A greater number of rubbing contacts are necessary inside the
magneto in this type because the current has to be passed from a
rotating to a stationary contact. Though the carbon brushes used at
these points have a low resistance, a fixed contact is always more
reliable than a rubbing contact.
4.12 Rotating Magnet Magneto,
This polar inductor type of magneto normally produces four electrical

impulses in the secondary windings (or four sparks) for every revolution
of the magneto shaft and is, therefore, far more suitable for engines
having a large number of cylinders. Not only does a polar inductor type
run at half the speed of the rotating armature type to produce the same
number of sparks but the coils and switch assembly, being stationary, are
free from centrifugal loading. This type of magneto has consequently
largely superseded the rotating armature magneto except for those
engines with fewer than six cylinders, where the speed of the magneto at
low engine speeds is too slow to generate an effective primary current.
Figure 4-8 shows the principle of operation of an inductor type magneto.
40
PISTON ENGINE rGNITION
Figure 4-8 Rotating Magnet Magneto.
One form of polar inductor magneto is the rotating magnet type. The
main rotating member of this type consists of a non-magnetic steel shaft
on which is mounted a tubular magnet clamped between a pair of two
fingered soft iron pole pieces set 90 degrees apart. One end of the tube has
a north polarity, the other a south polarity and the respective polarity is
imparted to the clamping pole pieces. The assembly is rotated in a tunnel
formed between the iron extensions of an armature core. This arrange-
ment is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4-8, the three positions covering
a quarter revolution of the shaft.
Flux changes through the armature core as the magnetic poles revolve
produce a change of magnetism around the primary winding of the arma-
ture and the current resulting from the voltage thus induced in the
primary winding reaches a maximum with the poles at position 2 (core
flux zero). It is at this point that the contact breaker points are opened.
The stationary contact breaker assembly is normally housed at the non-
driving end of the magneto so that a four lobed cam keyed to the end of
the rotating shaft automatically opens the points when the primary
current is at its peak. This arrangement does not apply to radial engines,
where the operating cam and contact breaker are contained within the
distributor housing.
Figure 4-9 shows an exploded view of a rotating magnet magneto.
Although the primary current is produced in a somewhat different

manner to the rotating armature type the secondary current is set up by
an induced voltage in precisely the same way. Thus, when the contact
breaker points interrupt the primary current, causing the primary
magnetic field to collapse, a voltage is induced in the secondary circuit for
the period of time that the lines offorce cut across the secondary winding.
Similarly, the voltage of the impulse so induced is dependent upon:
41
PISTON ENGINES
(a) The strength of the magnetic field created by the primary current.
This again depends upon the strength of the permanent magnet, the
speed of the magneto shaft, and the number of turns in the primary
winding.
(b) The speed of movement of the collapsing lines of force. This is
related to the time taken for the current flow to stop after the contact
breaker points have begun to open. The current does not stop
instantly; as the points open, current continues to flow, though at a
falling rate, until the resistance of the air at the gap at the points
becomes too high. In practice this lag in current shut-off is consid-
erably reduced by the action of the condenser .
(c) The ratio between the number of turns in the secondary windings to
the number of turns in the primary winding. The greater the ratio
the greater is the relative step-up in the voltage of the secondary
circuit to that in the primary.
The average voltage in the primary circuit of a magneto running at
normal rpm is in the region of 27 volts; that of the secondary circuit is
between 5000 and 7000 volts.
On engines where it is considered that the speed of a four pole inductor
would be too high, more than four poles are formed on the magneto shaft.
Where this is so, more flux reversals occur per revolution of the magneto
shaft and, given a suitable contact breaker, more than four sparks/rev are
produced. Alternatively, two separate armatures and contact breaker
assemblies may be arranged in the tunnel.
Internal Timing.
To obtain the maximum electrical output from a magneto, it is essential

that the contact breaker points are opened when the primary current flow
is at its peak. Further, to be sure that the resulting secondary current flows
to a spark plug, the distributor rotor must be opposite a distributor
segment. Normally, correct relative positioning (or internal timing) of the
magnetic pole pieces, the contact breaker cam, and the distributor rotor
is done during magneto assembly. In service, however, wear on the
contact breaker points and cam affect the relative positioning of these
components and some adjustment may be necessary to maintain full
efficiency.
42
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43
PISTON ENGINES
4.14 Magneto Speed Ratios.

Every cylinder of a four stroke engine requires one spark every two revo-
lutions of the engine crankshaft. Consequently, the greater the number of
engine cylinders the faster the magneto needs to be driven to provide the
necessary number of sparks.
In general, the speed of the magneto relative to the engine speed may
be calculated as follows:
Magneto Speed = Number of engine c)::linders
2 x the number of sparks/rev
Thus, for a twelve cylinder engine fitted with a rotating magnet type
magneto (4 sparks/rev) the magneto needs to be driven at:
12 = 1 Y2times the engine speed
2 x 4
Each segment of a distributor is connected to a different cylinder and each

requires one spark every two engine revolutions. Therefore as explained
before, the distributor rotor, irrespective of the magneto shaft speed,
always rotates at half engine crankshaft speed.
4.15 Dual Ignition.

All piston aero-engines are fitted with dual ignition, ie two entirely inde-
pendent ignition systems. Thus each cylinder has two sparking plugs, each
fed from a different magneto in order to:
(a) Reduce the possibility of engine failure because of an ignition fault.
(b) Increase the engine power output. Power output can be increased on
large bore cylinders by igniting the charge at two widely spaced
points: this reduces the overall time taken to burn the full charge and
so enables peak gas pressure to be reached before the piston has
moved very far down its stroke.
4.16 Contact Breaker .

Though contact breaker assemblies vary widely in detail design the same
basic action is always retained. A typical rotating magnet type contact
breaker assembly is shown in Fig. 4-10.
The assembly consists of a rocker arm that oscillates on a pivot pin
secured to the base plate. One end of the rocker arm is fitted with a fibre
'heel' that bears against a four lobed cam, which is fitted to the magneto
shaft. A movable contact point is mounted at the other end of the rocker ,
L1L1
a 'fixed' point being secured to the base plate. A leaf spring attached to
the rocker arm tends to hold the contacts together .
The cam is keyed to such a position on the magneto shaft that, when it
strikes the fibre heel of the rocker arm thus opening the points, the
primary current flow is at its maximum. The contact breaker spring closes
the points when the cam has passed the fibre heel. This cycle occurs four
times in every revolution of the magneto shaft and consequently both the
mechanical and electrical stresseson the assembly are extensive.
CAM LUBRICATING PAD

MOVABLE RETAINING SPRING
CONTACT
BREAKER ROCKER ARM
POINT
CONTACl I'(J
BREAKER ,
BASE
FIXED CONTACT
BREAKER
POINT
--BLOCK SECURING
LOCKING
BOLTS
SCREW
~
FIXED SlOT liMITS ANGULAR
CONTACT MOVEMENT OF BASE
BREAKER 8
BLOCK --CONNECTING HOLES
FOR TIMING LEVER
Figure 4-10 Contact Breaker Assembly.
Magneto Couplings and Ignition Timing.
.the best possible engine performance the magnetos must be

, To facilitate this, some form of drive that
an angular adjustment between the engine and the magneto is
.Many such magneto drive couplings are in use, some
vernier principle to provide a fine adjustment, others using
serrations or teeth.
Vernier Type Coupling.
.; consists of three discs: the magneto drive, the so

flexible disc, and the magneto coupling. In the type illustrated in
I the magneto drive {which is driven by the engine) has nineteen
45
PISTON ENGINES
teeth; the magneto coupling, which is keyed to the magneto shaft, has
twenty teeth. The intermediate flexible disc has nineteen on one side and
twenty teeth on the other .
Referring to Fig. 4-11, the difference in angular movement between one
tooth on the magneto drive and one tooth on the magneto coupling can
be denoted A. But one tooth on the magneto drive = 1/19 part of a revo-
lution, and one tooth on the magneto coupling = 1/20 part of a revolution.
Therefore, A = 1/19- 1/20 = 20/380- 19/380 = 1/380 rev = .95 degrees.
MAGNETO COUPli ~ G ..;
MAGNETO DRIVE
(20 TEETH) .
"
COUPLING FLEXIBLE COUPLING
(NO TEETH) DISC
~.
\ "'---
--<~
~
~
Figure 4-11 Vernier Type Magneto Coupling,
Thus, if the intermediate flexible disc is disengaged from the outer

members and re-engaged in the next tooth in the same direction of rota-
tion on each side, the shaft angularity between engine and magneto is
altered by .95 degrees or approximately 1 degree. Whether this movement
advances or retards the magneto depends on the direction of rotation
taken by the flexible disc when making the fine adjustment.
4.19 Variable Ignition Timing.

The peak gas pressure generated within a cylinder should occur just after
TDC when the piston is at the start of the power stroke. If peak pressure
is reached before this point very little torque is produced and exception-
ally heavy loads are placed on the crankshaft bearings because of the
acute angle of the crankweb. If peak pressure is reached after this point
not only has gas pressure been lost because of the increased volume above
the piston but the actual working stroke has been shortened.
46
To ensure peak pressure always occurs at the same crankshaft position

the following factors must be considered:
(a) Engine Speed.

The faster an engine runs the greater is the arc of crank pin travel
during the time taken for the charge to burn. Therefore, with an
increase in engine speed the timing needs to be progressively
advanced, with a reduction in engine speed the ignition timing should
be retarded.
(b) Manifold Pressure.

The greater the pressure of a gas, the faster the gas burns. Thus the
cylinder charge of an engine running at high manifold pressure burns
quicker than a charge at low manifold pressure. Therefore, to stop the
peak pressure position moving as manifold pressure is increased the
ignition timing should be progressively retarded.
(c) Mixture Strength.

A correct mixture burns faster than either a 'weak' or 'rich' mixture.
Therefore, any variation from a correct mixture strength demands a
retardation of ignition timing.
There is a tendency for these factors to cancel out, e.g. high engine speed
generally means high manifold pressure and rich mixture, but the cancel-
lation is not exact.
On low powered engines the gain to be had from making slight adjust-
ments to the ignition timing during engine running is usually too small
to be considered. On larger engines, however, where the gain can be
.ignition timing may be varied to suit all three conditions.
variation may be made either by a flexible coupling or by a
Ignition Cable.
high tension leads that connect the magneto and the high energy
voltages and of withstanding the ill effects

fuel contamination and high engine temperatures. The single
made of twisted strands of either tinned copper or stainless steel
rubberised insulation. The insulation is generally protected by an
..Low tension cable used for wiring the
similar construction but not quite so
47
PISTON ENGINES
4.21 Ignition Harness.

On multi-cylinder engines it is usual to enclose the HT leads, as far as
possible, in a metal conduit, or 'harness'. This has the advantages of:
(a) Positive screening with less weight.
(b) Protecting the leads from damage.
(c) Sealing the leads against moisture.
In practice, an ignition harness consists of one or more rigid conduits to
which are attached two large diameter flexible conduits leading to the
magneto distributors, and a number of smaller flexible conduits
connecting to individual sparking plugs. The complete assembly is
secured to the engine by attachment lugs on the rigid conduit. Each HT
lead passesfrom the magneto distributor block through a large bore flex-
ible conduit, and around the inside of the rigid conduit to the small
flexible conduit leading to its spark plug. Each lead has a suitable identi-
fication sleeve at each end.
4.22 Screening.
The sudden variations in current flow and the arcing that takes place in
the HT windings, leads, distributors and sparking plugs during normal
operation produces unwanted signals that, unless suppressed, interfere
with aircraft radio reception. Radiation of such signals is prevented by
enclosing all the components of the ignition system in a non-magnetic
metal screen.
The magnetos are screened by the body of the magneto and the fitting
of cover plates over the contact breaker and distributor block. HT leads
are screened either by enclosing them in metal conduit (ignition harness)
or by the use of braided cables. Screening is effective in eliminating any
such interference only where all screening is electrically connected, or
'bonded', to the airframe structure.
4.23 Bonding.
All metal parts of an aircraft must be in good electrical contact one to
another so that all have the same electrical charge, or potential. Unless
this is done any intermittent contact that causes arcing between parts or
components at different potentials produce radio interference and also
increases the danger of fire. In practice pipelines, metal braided leads,
metal conduit and other components that are not in constant metallic
contact with the airframe are all bonded to the airframe structure with
special clips or wires.
48
4.24 Sparking Plugs General.

Sparking plugs are the means whereby the electrical energy generated by
the magneto is used to ignite the mixture in the cylinder head. The plug
has two electrodes which are positioned to form a gap across which the
HT current creates a spark.
An aero-engine sparking plug consists of three main parts, viz:
(a) A hollow steel body, which screws into the cylinder head; the lower
end of the body carries the earth electrodes.
(b) A centre assembly, comprising the central electrode and its insula-
tion. A deformable metal washer is fitted between the central
electrode and the body to make the joint gas-tight.
(c) A hollow steel gland nut which secures the centre assembly to the
body.
The sparking plug is subjected to intense heat, highly corrosive gasesand
a high electrical voltage. Sparking plugs are designed for use in particular
makes, types and marks of aero-engine and it is essential that only
approved plug types for that particular engine are used.
Fig. 4-12 shows an example ora screened sparking plug.
4.25 Auxiliary Ignition Devices for Engine Starting.

When starting a piston type aero-engine it is seldom that the engine is
turned over fast enough for the magnetos to operate and some other
meansof providing the essential spark becomes necessary. In general, the
method used is decided by the size of the engine and aircraft. Low
powered engines use impulse starters and larger aircraft or engines use
someform of booster coil. Both methods are described below.
BODY CEN:rRALELECTRODE ~ICA LINING
~ EARTH CENTRE SCREENED
ELECTRODES ASSEMBLY GLAND NUT
Figure 4-12 Screened Sparking Plug
49
PISTON ENGINES
(a) Impulse Starter.

The impulse starter is used on low powered engines and on light
aircraft where the aircraft is started by hand swinging the propeller .
The unit is a spring loaded coupling through which the engine drives
one of the magnetos. The drive passes from the engine half of the
coupling through a strong spiral spring to the magneto half of the
coupling.
Operation.
When turning the engine to start, the magneto turns with the engine until
just before the magneto contact breaker points are about to open. At this
point the pawl falls against a stop on the magneto end plate and prevents
further magneto rotation. Continued engine turning winds up the spiral
spring until, just after TDC, a cam on the engine coupling releases the
pawl. The spring then unwinds rapidly and flicks the magneto round fast
enough to produce a spark, which is so far retarded that there is no danger
of a 'kick back' of the propeller. The pawls are so mass balanced that
centrifugal force holds them out of engagement during normal engine
runnIng.
4.26 High Tension Booster Coil.

High tension booster coils are used for engine starting where an electric
battery is available. The unit supplies a continual stream of high tension
electrical impulses each capable of producing a spark at the sparking plug.
These impulses are directed to the cylinders in the correct firing order
through an additional 'trailing' brush on the magneto distributor rotor.
The HT booster coil consists of an armature and an electrically oper-
ated switch. The armature, as in the magneto, has a soft iron core on
which are wound primary and secondary windings. The electrically oper-
ated switch controls the primary circuit and the movable contact of the
switch is secured to a leaf spring, which tends to hold the contacts closed.
The hook of a flexible steel plate, upon which is mounted a soft iron pad,
is caught under the leaf spring.
Operation.
When a current is fed into the primary circuit from external batteries a
magnetic field is built up around the armature and the core becomes
magnetised. The magnetised core immediately attracts the iron pad
causing the hook to open the contact points and break the primary
circuits.
50
This causes:
(a) The magnetic field to collapse across the secondary winding and so
induce a high tension electrical impulse that is fed to the trailing
brush of the magneto distributor rotor of the engine.
(b) The armature to lose its magnetism thus allowing the leaf spring to
close the contact points.
The moment the contact points close the primary circuit is again energised
and the cycle is repeated and continues to be repeated until the battery is
switched off. Thus an endless stream ofhigh tension impulses is fed to the
distributor of the main magneto and on to its sparking plug.
As on a magneto, a condenser is fitted across the contact points both
to reduce arcing at the points and to increase the speed of collapse of the
primary current and magnetic field.
4.27 Low Tension Booster Coil.

This type of booster coil is used where the normal timing of the engine is
retarded sufficiently for starting purposes. The operation of the unit is
basically the same as the HT booster coil but a separate starter brush on
the magneto distributor rotor is not required. This removes any chance
of flash over at altitude and consequent engine misfiring.
51
PISTON ENGINES
Section 4 Test Yourself
Piston Engine Ignition

1. The magnetic field in a magneto is provided by
(a) battery current.
(b) an excitation field circuit.
(c) a permanent magnet.
Ref. 4.8.
2. Excessive arcing across the contact breaker points of a magneto when
the points are open is prevented by:
(a) A diode being fitted.
(b) a condenser being fitted-
(c) insulation of the contacts.
Ref. 4.8.
3. If the switch of a magneto becomes disconnected in flight:

(a) the affected magneto will automatically be isolated.
(b) the alternative magneto will maintain ignition.
(c) the affected magneto will continue to provide a spark
Ref. 4.8.
4. On a four stroke engine the ignition spark will occur:

(a) once each revolution of the engine.
(b) once every fourth revolution of the engine.
(c) once every two revolutions of the engine.
Ref.4.10.
5. On engine start up, the generator warning light fails to extinguish, this
will result in:
(a) the engine stopping when the battery is totally discharged.
(b) failure of the initial excitation of the magneto.
(c) the engine continuing to run normally.
Ref. 4.7
52
6. The primary coil of a magneto consists of:

(a) fewer windings of thicker wire than the secondary coil.
(b) fewer windings of thin wire than the secondary coil.
(c) fewer windings of the same thickness of wire as the secondary coil.
Ref. 4.8.
7. The distributor rotor on a four stroke engine rotates at:
(a) the same speed as the engine.
(b) twice the speed of the engine.
half the speed of the engine.
Ref. 4.10.
With increase of engine speed, ignition timing:

(a) will advance.
(b) will retard.
will remain constant.
Ref.4.19.
A Booster Coil provides:
a continuous stream of high tension electrical impulses.

a pulsed stream of low tension electricity.
a continuous stream of low tension electrical impulses.
Ref. 4.26.
To assist with engine starting, some engine ignition system sparks may
(a) advanced.
pulsed.
(c) retarded.
Ref. 4.27
53
5
5.1 Introduction.
The aircraft fuel system consists primarily of the fuel tank in which the
fuel is stored during flight, fuel pumps to supply the engine, or engines,
with fuel when it is required, and filters to ensure the fuel is clean for use
in the engine systems. Some engine fuel systems may be fitted with on/off
cocks to isolate the fuel system or sections of it, when it is not in use.
5.2 Fuel Tanks.

Aircraft fuel tanks in civil aircraft are normally located in the wings or
fuselage. In some instances additional fuel tanks have been located in such
places as fins, flaps and external auxiliary tanks to increase the aircraft's
total fuel capacity.
Fuel tanks may be of rigid, flexible or integral construction, and are
connected by pipelines in such a way that, on larger aircraft, fuel may be
transferred from one tank to another whilst in flight. In the event of
engine failure on a multi-engined aircraft, fuel may thereby be transferred
from one location to the other to maintain supply of fuel to the other
engines. Transfer of fuel in this way is usually by cockpit switches, to
control on/off cocks and transfer pumps. Figure 5-1 shows the layout of
a simple fuel system.
5.3 Fuel Pumps.

Engine-driven fuel pumps in the fuel systems of piston-engined aircraft
are usually either:
(a) Gear type pumps.
(b) Rotary vane type pumps.
(c) Diaphragm type pumps.
54
FUELSYSTEMS
FUEL CONTENTS FUEL BREATHER

GAUGE SENDER UNIT GAUGES BOX
FILLER
~
\ ON/OFF
FUEL
COCK
LEFT HAND TANK ~~AND TANK

FLOP TUBE WITH -:..1 ~""' '"'-..CO.l~~~~ORTANK
FILTER AND m " SAMPLE AND DRAIN
NON-RETURN ~ " VENT PIPE
VALVE ~ ' "FILTER
SAMPliNG VALVE D
BOOSTER PUMP /
E )\;1
ENGINE DRIVEN /
PUMP
rl"" FUEl CONTROl

UNIT
~""' FUEL DISTRIBUTOR
Figure 5-1 Simple Fuel System.
Gear Type Pumps.

to engin~ oil pumps, but are not r~garded
altitudes required by some modern aircraft. Positive delivery

of this, and rotary vane, type are usually provided with a
operated relief valve to maintain a constant delivery pressure
pump suction conditions. Fuel serving this pump acts also
, and because of this the pump should never be allowed to
Fig. 5-2.)
Rotary Vane Type Pumps.

this type of pump, a number of flat vanes are arranged radially in a
which is located eccentrically within the pump casing. (See
5-3). As the rotor moves round, the volumes between the vanes
.out of the slots and
with the wall of the casing by centrifugal force. The
port allows fuel to enter the chamber as its volume is increasing,
55
PISTON ENGINES
Figure 5-2 Spur Gear Type Pump.
OUTLET
-~
Figure 5-3 Rotary Vane Type Pump.
while the outlet allows fuel which has passed through the pump to be
forced out as the crescent shaped space is decreasing. A relief valve by-
passesthe excessfuel as a result of excesspressure from the delivery side
to the inlet side. Since the fuel acts as a lubricant to the vanes, this pump
should not be run in a dry condition.
5.6 Diaphragm Type Pumps.

Fuel pumps of this category operate by the action of a reciprocating
diaphragm working within a closed chamber equipped with spring loaded
inlet and outlet valves. This pump is usually engine driven, the recipro-
1)6
FUEL SYSTEMS
cating (backwards and forwards) motion of the diaphragm being derived

from a rotating cam operating direct on to a plunger connected to the
centre of the diaphragm, as shown in Fig. 5-4. When cam operated,
the plunger and diaphragm are pressed outwards by a spring which
keeps the plunger pad in continuous contact with the contour of the cam.
Sometimes the diaphragm plunger is spring loaded internally to regulate
the maximum pressure of fuel which can be delivered by the pump. A
separate lever is usually provided to operate the plunger and diaphragm
independently of the driving cam, and thereby prime the pump and fuel
lines when the engine is standing idle.
5.7 Booster Pumps, Transfer Pumps and Transfer Systems.

(a) Booster pumps.
Booster pumps are electrically operated. They may be fitted exter-
nally in the pipe leading from the tank or a group of tanks, or may be
of the immersed type fitted within the tank at its outlet. When the
booster pump is not switched on, a by-pass permits fuel to flow from
the tank under suction from the engine-driven pump.
The purpose of the booster pump is:
(i) To prevent any portion of the fuel system from falling below
atmospheric pressure and by so doing, prevent vapour locks
forming in the pipes.
(ii) To supply adequate fuel to the engine driven pumps during
take-off, landing, at high engine settings and high altitude.
r- INLET
VALVE OUTLET
VALVE
INLET -.. OUTLET
~
/
PRIMING LEVER
I " DIAPHRAGM
I '"'""
~~~ PRESSUREREUEF
..
-SPRING
SPRING -/
CAM
Figure 5-4
:I Diaphragm Type Pump.
1:;7
PISTON ENGINES
(b) Warning Indication and Control.

In many aircraft, a fuel pressure warning light is fitted to the instru-
ment panel to serve each engine. This lights up when the pressure at
the carburettor or injector falls below a pre-determil;led minimum. In
some systems, warning lights are fitted to the circuits of each booster
and transfer pump. These lights come on when the pumps are not
switched on, or are functioning incorrectly.
Booster pumps should be switched on if the fuel pressure warning
light comes on or flickers when the engine is running. They should
never be left on after an engine has been stopped or when the fuel
tanks concerned are empty.
(c) Transfer Pumps.

The same type of pump, when fitted in a tank or system which does
not feed an engine direct, is known as a fuel transfer pump, and serves
to pump fuel from this tank into another tank or collector box which
feeds the engine direct.
Note: A collector box or collector tank is an assembly into which fuel
is fed or directed prior to being collected by the suction of the engine
driven pump.
5.8 Fuel Tank Pressurisation.

Some aircraft fuel tanks, in particular auxiliary tanks, are pressurised to
force fuel from them to the engine or main tanks. Fuel tanks are pres-
surised in a number of ways, a typical example being that where pressure
is fed from the exhaust side of the vacuum pumps, and delivered to the
fuel tank venting system, which is then sealed.
When auxiliary fuel tanks are used to replenish main tanks they are
pressurised at all times, fuel being transferred automatically under the
control of a float valve in each main tank whenever the contents fall below
a predetermined level.
Pressurisation of the fuel tank or tanks also prevents cavitation at the
pumps.
Note: Some fuel tanks are pressurised by a ram air system and all fuel
tank pressurisation systems include the fitting of a relief valve to prevent
over pressunsmg.
5.9 Electrically-Operated Pumps.

The type of electrically-operated pump discussed here is sometimes
termed a pulsometer pump and is commonly used in external booster
pumps and transfer pumps.
58
FUEL SYSTEMS
The pump has a -centrifugal impeller, shown in Fig. 5-5, which is driven
by an electric motor. Used as a booster pump the unit is normally bolted
to the base of the fuel tank sump by means of a flanged mounting bracket.
When the motor is energised the impeller draws fuel from the tank
through the inlet in the centre of the mounting flange and delivers it
through the discharge connection to the inlet side of the engine driven
pump.
Note: In the event of pump failure, fuel can still be drawn through the
pump by the engine-driven pump.
Figure 5-5 Impeller of Pulsometer Pump.
5.10 Hand-Operated Priming Pumps.

An example of a hand-operated priming pump is shown in Fig. 5-6. This
type of pump is generally used for starting engines on light aircraft.
It delivers fuel to the induction manifoldjets, and is sometimes used to
fill the carburettor float chamber initially through a three-way cock.
When the plunger is pushed right in, it may be locked by screwing tight,
so pressing a Tufnol pad against the lower end of the cylinder. This blocks
the inlet and outlet ports and ensures that no fuel can be drawn
through the pump by induction when the engine is running. The inlet and
outlet ports are fitted with spring loaded non-return ball valves. A gland,
gland nut and locking nut prevent leaks around the plunger .
Failure to depress the plunger and lock it on completion of priming will
result in fuel being drawn through the pump direct into the inlet manifold
by the suction of the engine's pistons, by-passing the carburettor and
resulting in a rich mixture or, possibly, flooding the engine.
59
PISTON ENGINES
TUFNOL
PACKING
GLAND
SEAL
Figure 5-6 Hand-operated priming pump.
5.11 Electrically-Operated Priming Pumps.

Piston-engined aircraft fitted with fuel injection systems are normally
primed by operation of an electrically operated pump, usually in the form
of a booster type. It should be noted that the booster pump, on starting,
is used only to prime the engine fuel system and should then be switched
off before any attempt is made to start the engine. If the booster pump
were to be left on during starting this could, in some cases, result in
flooding the engine.
Note: Priming the engine fuel system is to fill the system with fuel and
not to pressurise it.
5.12 Aviation Gasoline Fuels.

(a) Properties.
Gasolines, suitable for use in piston engines designed for aircraft,
have high anti-knock ratings, low freezing point, high overall
volatility and high stability. These together with the solvent and
corrosion properties are briefly discussed below.
(i) Anti-Knock Rating.
To appreciate the need for a fuel of high anti-knock rating, the
cause of detonation must be understood. Vapourised fuel mixed
with air within a certain range of proportions (fuel/air ratio )
forms a combustible mixture and when ignited generates heat.
Provided that the combustion rate is steady, the heat generated
can be efficiently converted into mechanical energy until all the
charge is burnt. If a charge of mixture is ignited in a confined
space (combustion chamber), the decreasing unburned portion of
charge will be steadily heated by radiation, and compression due
to the increase in pressure, of the burnt portion. The temperature
of the unburned portion may be raised so high that it ignites spon-
taneously and combustion is completed in the form of an
60
FU EL SYSTEMS
explosion. Such a condition is known as "Detonation" and, when

occurring in an aircraft engine, causes serious loss of power ,
excessivetemperature and eventual mechanical failure. Incorrect
mixture strength and use of a fuel with a poor anti-knock value
are two of the contributing causes of detonation in an engine.
(ii) Anti-knock Value.
The anti-knock value of fuel is defined as the resistance the fuel
has to detonation. Examination of the behaviour of a range of
hydrocarbon fuels in an engine shows that:
a. Paraffins (Heptane, has pronounced tendency to detonate.
Iso-octane resists detonation).
b. Napthenes, have moderate resistance to detonation.
c. Aromatics, have excellent anti-knock properties.
Thus the anti-knock value of a fuel is dependent on the portions
of its hydrocarbon contents. By selective blending fuels of high
anti-knock ratings are produced. Research has established that
the anti-knock value of a fuel varies with the fuel/air ratio, the
value being lower for a weak mixture and higher for a rich
mixture.
Apart from the choice of hydrocarbons, the anti-knock rating of
gasoline is effectively increased by the addition of metallic
compounds. Tetra-ethyllead, a chemical compound of a hydro-
carbon with lead, is the most powerful and best known anti-knock
compound in use.
6;
PISTON ENGINES
components it comes into contact with in both its burnt and

unburnt states. New alloys and treatments to surfaces has helped
to reduce the corrosive effects.
Note: The most common fuel used for piston-engined aircraft is
100 LL, which is dyed blue.
62
FUELSYSTEMS
Fuel Systems
I. Fuel pumps:
(a) should not be run when the fuel system is dry.
(b) of all types are lubricated by the fuel that passesthrough them.
(c) are normally electrically operated.
Ref. 5.4.
2. Booster pumps are:
(a) normally driven by the engine.
(b) electricallyoperated.
(c) normally used for priming the engine only.
Ref.5.7.
3. If the fuel pressure warning light comes on in flight the

(a) booster pumps must be isolated.
(b) main fuel pump must be isolated.
(c) booster pumps must be switched on.
Ref. 5.7.
4. In the event of booster pump failure, the:
(a) fuel will continue to be drawn through the booster pump bypass
by the engine driven pump.
(b) pump must be isolated and the remaining fuel in the tank trans-
ferred by the transfer pumps.
(c) fuel will be isolated in the tank.
Ref. 5.9.
5. Fuel pump delivery is normally:

(a) supplied at a constant flow rate to the engine.
(b) supplied at a constant pressure, controlled by a pressure relief
valve.
(c) supplied at a constant volume.
Ref. 5.4.
63
6
6.1 Introduction.
Of the total heat produced by the burning of the fuel in the combustion
chamber of a piston engine, about one-third is converted into useful
energy and about two-fifths passes direct to the atmosphere with the
exhaust gases. The remaining heat is absorbed by the pistons, cylinder
heads, cylinders, etc, and by the lubricating oils which splash the
cylinder walls and the underside of the pistons. Consequently, a cooling
system becomes necessary to dissipate this heat so that the components
can run at a safe working temperature. Unless the component tempera-
ture is controlled, distortion from expansion may cause seizure, or the
strength of the material may drop to a degree where failure results.
Excessive temperature may also cause the oil film to break down and can
lead to the destruction of the lubricating properties of the oil. Conversely,
to run an engine cold is to run it inefficiently, just as dissipating heat that
can be turned into useful work is to waste energy. The transfer of the
excessheat of the engine to the atmosphere may be either direct, as with
air cooling, or by the use of a circulating liquid as in liquid cooled engines~
6.2 Air Cooling.

With air cooling all the surfaces that need to be cooled are usually exten-
sively finned and a flow of air is directed over the exposed surfaces. The
fins are kept thin and as close together as compatible with a free passage
of air, thus securing a large cooling surface area in contact with the air .
With fin areas that are out of the main airstream, deflectors may be used
to redirect the air, or finning may be extended in that region, to maintain
a uniform overall component temperature; uneven temperature will cause
distortion and give rise to a high rate of wear and a general loss in effi-
ciency. Control of the direction of air flow is effected by fixed baffles and
cowlings and by movable shutters or guides. It is essential that the baffles
and cowlings are close fitting and are not distorted, or disturbance from
the designed flow will cause serious overheating. To maintain the effi-
ciency of the system fins must be kept clean and free from dust or oil. A
64
COOLING SYSTEMS
guide to the engine temperature is provided by a cylinder head tempera-

ture gauge.
6.3 Liquid Cooling.

With a liquid-cooled engine the engine temperature is controlled by
circulating a cooling fluid around the space between the jackets fitted
round the cylinders and the cylinder walls, and through passagesdrilled
in the cylinder head. The basic coolant is water, but because of the low
temperatures found at altitude, the addition of an anti-freeze agent is
essential; thus, the coolant used in an aero-engine is a mixture of water
and glycol. A simple system consists of the following:
Figure 6--1 Air-Cooled System.
(a) The Header Tank.

This tank, positioned at the top of the system, stores the reserve
of coolant and provides a head (gravity feed) of coolant to the
pump.
65
PISTON ENGINES
(b) The Circulating Pump.

This is usually a centrifugal pump but does not produce pressure: it
is fitted to increase the speed of the coolant flow through the system
and so reduce the quantity of coolant required.
(c) Operation.
The coolant passesthrough the engine. While the main passagesare
centred around the cylinder heads and valves, it is sometimes found
that the hot coolant is directed to jackets fitted to the induction pipe
and supercharger casings. This auxiliary flow assists in vapourising
the fueUair mixture. The coolant flow through the engine is arranged
to follow the normal course of the thermal current, i.e. from the base
of the cylinders to the cylinder head.
(d) The Radiator.

The radiator is normally positioned in the slipstream of the propeller
and dissipates the heat of the coolant into the air. Shutters are
positioned at the rear of the radiator; when the coolant temperature
falls below an efficient figure the shutters are inched closed, either
automatically or manually.
(e) The Thermostat.

This is a thermostatically operated by-pass valve which regulates the
coolant flow through the radiator and limits the minimum coolant
temperature while the engine is running.
Note: Cleanliness both of the coolant and the system is imperative if

the system is to remain efficient; the radiator matrix must be kept clean
and free from dirt and oil. A gauge, fitted in the cockpit, gives an indica-
tion of the temperature of the coolant in the header tank.
Fig. 6-2 shows a simple liquid coolant system.
6.4 Operation of Typical Liquid Coolant System.

Coolant enters the pump from the radiator through the large inlet at the
bottom. The pump is of the normal type with a sixteen-vaned rotor and
a volute. Two curved outlet passages are formed on the volute, one to
each side of the engine. A hand adjusted packing gland prevents coolant
leakage past the pump spindle, and lubrication is by a screw down grease
cup. Excessive lubrication of the spindle will result in grease entering the
coolant system and possibly becoming trapped in the cylinder head,
where it will cause overheating. Extra lubrication will not cure a leaking
gland. The pump is fitted with a drain cock at its lowest point for use when
draining the system.
66
COOLING SYSTEMS
From the end of each outlet passage from the pump volute a curved
pipe carries the coolant to a junction box on each of the cylinder blocks,
situated low down at the rear on the exhaust side. Inside the block the
coolant passes around each cylinder liner, through the passages
surrounding the combustion head and valve ports and thence to the
outlets. A coolant manifold connects the cylinder liner jackets together
on the exhaust side. There are three outlets, one at each end and one in
the centre of the inlet side at the top of each block. These outlets are
connected by a pipe on each block which carries the coolant towards the
front of the engine. Each pipe is connected independently to the header
tank, and from the header tank the coolant passes to the radiator. Each
front cylinder block outlet elbow is fitted with an air vent plug to facili-
tate complete filling.
On the' A ' side rear outlet elbow a connection is formed from which a
pipe carries a small stream of hot coolant to a union on the carburet tor
heating jacket. The outlet from this jacket is on the starboard side and the
coolant returns to the pump through a small auxiliary inlet branch on the
main inlet.
Pipe junctions on the engine are made with a large circular nut round
the pipe flange and a rubber gland to make the joint coolant-tight. Pipe
junctions on the remainder of the coolant system are usually made with
short lengths of reinforced rubber tubing or hose secured to the pipe ends
with circumferential clips.
Figure 6-2 Liquid Cooled System.
67
PISTON ENGINES
Cooling Systems
I. In an aircooled piston engine:
(a) fins ~re incorporated to increase the cylinder and head surface
areas.
(b) air is ducted through drillings in the cylinder head walls
(c) air is used to cool the cooling oil.
Ref. 6.2.
2. Air is directed over the cylinder wall fins by

(a) cowl gills.
(b) baffles.
(c) air deflection plates.
Ref. 6.2
3. Engine temperature is normally indicated by:

(a) cylinder head temperature gauge.
(b) the engine master temperature gauge.
(c) the en,gine lubrication system temperature gauge
Ref. 6.2.
4. Cooling air is normally provided by:
(a) airflow from a supercharger.
(b) airflow from a compressor bleed
(c) ram air.
Ref. 6.2
5. In a liquid-cooled engine cooling system:

(a) temperature is controlled by a thermostat.
(b) temperature is controlled by a master pump.
(c) fuel is used to cool the coolant.
Ref. 6.3.
68
7
Float Chamber Carburet tors and Fuel

Injectors
7.1 Introduction.
Carburation is the process of supplying the correct amount of fuel for

mixing and vapourising with the air inducted into the engine to form a
suitable combustible mixture. The proportions of fuel to air in a chemi-
cally correct or normal mixture is approximately I to 15 by weight. This
mixture is theoretically the most efficient for all engine running condi-
tiOns, but in practice it is sometimes necessary or advantageous to use
either a 'rich' mixture (one with a higher proportion of fuel), or a 'weak'
mixture (one with a higher proportion of air). The device employed for
supplying the necessary amount of fuel to form the most suitable mixture
for any engine running conditions may be either a float type carburet tor
or some form of fuel injection unit. This chapter describes both the
working principle of the simple float type carburet tor, and the modifica-
tions which are embodied to adapt it for efficient operation to suit piston
aero-engine requirements.
7.2 The Simple Float Type Carburet tor .
(a) Description.
In its simplest form the carburet tor may consist of a tube or jet
mounted in a larger tube in which is arranged a throttle valve and
choke tube. In addition, the jet is connected to a float chamber, vented
to atmosphere, which houses a float operating a needle valve. A pre-
determined and constant level of fuel is maintained in the float
chamber and the jet, by means of the float and needle mechanism.
(b) Operation.
Air drawn into the engine cylinder, governed by the degree of throttle
opening, enters the carburet tor through the air intake. At the restric-
tion caused by the choke tube the velocity of the air is increased. The
increased velocity of the air, within the choke tube and in the region
69
PISTON ENGINES
ofthejet, is accompanied by a fall in pressure below that of the atmos-

phere. As the fuel in the float chamber is subject to atmospheric
pressure, a higher pressure than around the jet, fuel issues from the
jet and mixes with the airstream flowing to the engine cylinders. The
fall in the level of the fuel in the float chamber lowers the float which
lifts the needle valve off its seating, permitting more fuel to flow into
the float chamber to replace that issuing from the jet. (See Fig. 7-1).
AIR VENT
,
FIXED PIVOT
THROTTLE
IJ
FUEL LEVEL
CHOKE
:.
,- 1
JET .I.:. ';'.::-.l?:.C-~

-;:-" ~:-.:j \.J;-:I~~~
FLOAT FUEL
SUPPLY
AIR INTAKE ~
Figure 7-1 Simple Float Type Carburettor.
(c) Limitation.
Any increase in airflow will increase the pressure difference acting
across the jet and consequently increase the fuel flow. The fuel flow,
however, does not vary proportionately with greater airflow, and the
mixture obtained from the simple carburet tor becomes progressively
richer as the engine speed is increased.
Note: From time to time alternative names are given to components fitted
to aircraft, and the carburation system is no exception, therefore to assist
in your understanding of the system as a whole alternative names are used
in order to familiarise you with them. For example:
(a) Throttle often called the Butterfly
(b) Needle Valve sometimes termed the FloatValve
(c) Choke equally termed the venturi
{d) Air Vent often called the Breather
70
FLOAT CHAMBER CARBURETTORS AND FUEL INJECTORS
7.3 Modifications to a Simple Carburettor .

The following additions and modifications have been made to the simple
carburet tor. to provide one more suitable for use on piston aero-engines.
Figure 7-2 Pressure Balance Dl
(a) Pressure Balance Air System.

To prevent upsetting the rate of discharge of fuel from the jet, the
atmospheric pressure in the air intake and in the float chamber must
be equal. Admitting atmospheric pressure into the float chamber
through a drilling in the float chamber cover is not a satisfactory
method of equalising pressures on an aero-engine carburet tor
because, due to manoeuvre and speed of the aircraft, the changes of
pressure localised around the air intake would not be readily trans-
mitted to the float chamber. Equalised pressure conditions are,
however, obtained by admitting atmospheric pressure to the float
chamber through a tube or duct opening into the air intake. This pres-
sure balance duct also supplies air to the diffuser, and is used in some
carburet tors to provide altitude mixture control.
Figure 7-2 shows the position of the pressure balance duct.
(b) Diffuser.
A diffuser is fitted to prevent the main jet supplying excessive fuel as
engine speed is increased; it ensures that the fuel flow is kept directly
proportional to the volume of air flowing through the choke. The
diffuser is basically a tube, drilled with a number of radial holes, and
71
PISTON ENGINES
positioned in the body of the carburet tor above the main jet. The
annular space between the diffuser and its housing is in communica-
tion with the pressure balance air system. Fuel enters the diffuser
through the jet and when the engine is not running, the fuel level in
the diffuser and the annular space is the same as that in the float
chamber. During operation, as the engine speed is increased the fuel
level in the annular space falls, thereby uncovering some of the radial
holes. This allows air to flow through the holes into the diffuser, thus
lessening the pressure difference acting across the jet and counter-
acting the tendency of the jet to supply excessivefuel. The diffuser, in
addition to fulfilling its primary function, also breaks down or emul-
sifies the fuel before the fuel is passed into the airstream flowing to
the induction manifold.
Figure 7-3 shows the position of the diffuser.
Figure 7-3 Diffuser.
(c) Slow Running Jet.

At small throttle openings the depression in the choke is practically
negligible and no fuel flows from the main jet. A separate slow
running jet is fitted, therefore, to supply the fuel necessary for slow
running. The jet discharges near to the edge of the almost closed
throttle, the strong depression at this point giving the necessary pres-
sure difference. As the throttle is opened the depression at the throttle
edge increases; the slow running jet will go out of action and the main
jet will come into action. The slow running jet is arranged to give the
rich mixture required over the idling range. Adjustment is usually
72
~
FlOAT CHAMBER CARBURETTORS AND FUEl INjECTORS
carried out by an adjusting screw to vary the pressure difference

acting across the jet.
Figure 7-4 shows the location of the slow running jet.
(d) Power Jet.

The mixture strength supplied by the diffuser for 'cruising' condition
is too weak for the engine to develop its full power output. To supply
the extra fuel necessary for full power, the size or number of jets must
be increased. Where a variable main jet is fitted its effective size is
varied by the withdrawal of a tapered needle from the jet orifice;
where a fixed main jet is fitted an additional jet is brought into action
by the opening of a cam operated valve.
Figure 7-5 shows the power jet.
Figure 7-5 Power Jet.
73
PISTON ENGINES
(e) Enrichment Jet.

For the short period necessary during 'take-off for an aircraft to
become safely airborne, the maximum permissible engine power is
required and supercharged engines are designed to develop additional
power for this purpose. One method of obtaining this power increase
with safety is to supply the engine with a very rich mixture. The fuel
for this purpose is delivered from an enrichment jet which operates in
a similar manner to the cam-operated power jet.
Figure 7-6 indicates the position of the enrichment jet.
Figure 7-6 Enrichment Jet.
(1) Accelerator Pump.

If the throttle is opened suddenly, the mixture supplied to the cylin-
ders is momentarily too weak, partly because there is a lag in the
increase of fuel flow from the jet, and becausesome of the fuel adheres
to the walls of the induction system and does not reach the cylinders.
An accelerator pump, operated by the movement of the throttle lever,
injects fuel into the airstream to make up for this temporary defi-
clency.
Sometimes a spring operated delayed action pump maintains the
flow for a few seconds after the throttle opening has ceased.
Figure 7-7 shows the inclusion of the accelerator pump.
(g) Mixture Control.

The density of air decreaseswith increasing altitude and consequently
less weight of air is inducted for the same velocity of air through the
74
Figure 7-7 Accelerator.
choke. Thus a carburet tor using the venturi choke as an airflow meter ,
?elivers a progressively richer mixture as the altitude of operation
Increases.
Various methods are employed to correct the mixture strength at
altitude. In the smaller aircraft engines this mixture control is hand
operated, but on engines of medium and high power output, mixture
strength is automatically controlled.
The methods employed for correcting mixture strength for altitude
are as follows:
(i) Vacuum Control.
The pressure difference acting on the jet is reduced by connecting
the float chamber to the choke via an orifice whose size is varied
by the mixture control cock. By opening the cock the float
chamber pressure can be reduced to give a pressure difference
across the jet consistent with the mixture strength required.
Figure 7-8 shows the position of the mixture control.

(ii) Diffuser Air Bleed.
Air is by-passed through the mixture control cock, from the
pressure balance air system to the top of the diffuser thus
reducing the pressure difference across the jet.
Note: A combination of (i) and (ii) is common in some types of
carburet tors.
75
PISTON ENGINES
Figure 7-8 Mixture Control
(h) Cut-Out Valve.

To stop a running engine, the ignition is switched off, but, due to the
engine being hot and fuel being available at the slow running jet, the
engine may continue running for a time, albeit erratically. To prevent
this occurring a device is inserted into the slow running passage,
which, when operated prevents any fuel from being drawn into the
induction system.
Figure 7-9 shows the cut-out valve position.
Figure 7-9 Cut-Out.
76
(i) ,Anti-G' Devices.

When the direction of an aircraft is suddenly changed, forces which
oppose the change of direction are imposed upon the aircraft compo-
nents. Fuel, being fluid, is moved in the direction of the opposing
force, and in a dive at high speed the fuel may be momentarily thrown
to the top of the float chamber. This interferes with the normal fuel
flow with the result that the engine runs erratically or may even stop.
Various 'anti-G' devices are incorporated in the carburettor design to
assist in maintaining the power output of the engine while 'negative-
G' conditions prevail during aerobatics; the following being typical
examples of these devices.
( I) Float Needle' Anti-G' Stop.
An adjustable stop fitted above the float needle, in conjunction
with a collar on the lower end of the needle, restricts the needle
movement and fuel flow during aerobatics, to allow the entry
of only sufficient fuel to keep the engine running at maximum
power conditions.
(2) ,Anti-G' Ball Valve.
A ball valve, fitted to the pressure balance vent in the float
chamber, prevents fuel spillage into the choke during negative-
G flying conditions.
(3) ,Anti-G' Stand Tube.
Engine cutting due to fuel starvation is precluded by a stand
tube which feeds the metering jet from the centre of the float
chamber.
Figure 7-10 shows the various' Anti-G' devices listed above. .
NORMAL CONDITION NEGATIVE 'G' CONDITION
Figure 7-10 Carburet tor Anti-'G' Devices.
77
PISTON ENGINES
7.4 Carburettor Heating.

(a) General.
To ensure satisfactory operation and efficient carburation some parts
of the carburettor, in particular the throttle, choke and air intake,
must be maintained at temperatures which will prevent the formation
and accumulation of ice. Icing encountered by aircraft engines can be
divided into two distinct types, carburettor icing and impact icing.
Each is formed in a different manner and may occur either separately
or together between atmospheric temperatures of -15°C and + 25°C.
Ice formed at temperatures below this range is of a sufficiently dry
nature not to adhere and accumulate within the carburet tor or
around the air intake.
(i) Carburettor Icing.
The construction in the induction system caused by the choke and
the throttle valve not only cause an increase in the velocity and a
decrease in the pressure of the inducted air, but also lower the
temperature. Furthermore, as heat is required to convert a liquid
into a gas, the fuel which vaporises in the induction system
absorbs heat from the inducted air and the surrounding metal,
resulting in an additional drop in temperature. When the temper-
ature of the air is reduced to below 0°C the moisture content in the
air begins to precipitate and form as ice. The added constriction
caused by the ice formation results in an increasing air velocity
and a progressive lowering of the temperature. In these conditions
ice builds up more rapidly in the system causing loss of engine
power, rough running and jamming of the throttle valve.
(ii) Impact Icing.
This form of icing occurs most readily at temperatures between
0°C and -7°C and is caused by rain droplets turning into ice on
striking the exposed surfaces of the carburettor. The ice adheres
and builds up around the air intake so disturbing the airflow,
upsetting the mixture strength and resulting in rough running and
loss of power and may even stop the engine.
(b) Protection Against Ice.

The various methods and devices used to prevent or disperse ice
formation in and around the carburet tor are described as follows:
(i) Gapped Ice Guards.
A gapped ice guard consists of a wire screen mounted a suitable
distance ahead of the air intake. Should the ice guard become
blocked with snow or ice, air can continue to flow into the carbu-
78
FLOAT CHAMBER CARBUREnORS AND FUEL INJECTORS
rettor through the gap formed between the guard and the intake.
This device gives protection against impact ice.
(ii) Sheltered Air Intake.

This device is used in conjunction with the gapless type ice guard.
The sheltered air intakes, which provide an alternative entry for
the air, are situated within the engine cowling and are fitted with
shutters operated either automatically or by electro-pneumatic
rams controlled by switches in the pilot's cockpit. The automati-
cally operated shutters are opened by the depression created in
the air intake system as the gapless ice guard becomes blocked
with ice. Additionally the sheltered intake may be designed to
draw its air from around heated parts of the engine or coolant
radiator, thus supplying heated air to the carburettor .
(iii) Alcohol Injection System.

In some installations, an alcohol injection system is incorporated
in addition to the heated air system, and is used as an emergency
method of dispersing ice which may form in spite of the use of the
warm air system. The system comprises an electrically-driven or
hand operated pump delivering alcohol from a small supply tank
to jets positioned in the carburettor air intake, which direct the
spray of spirit towards the throttles. Generally the supply of de-
icing spirit is sufficient for ten to fifteen minutes continuous
operation at the maximum delivery rate.
(iv) Heated Throttles and Throttle Housings.

Carburet tor icing is best prevented by circulating hot oil from the
engine scavenge system, through jackets surrounding the throttle
bores, and through the hollow spindles and throttle valves. This
method, in conjunction with a controlled heated air supply for the
air intake, is usually adequate and does not require the addition
of a de-icing spirit injection system.
Note: The operational effects of carburet tor heating are explained in
Section 10.
7.5 Injection Carburettors.

The Stromberg injection carburet tor differs from the previous carburet-
tors in that it is not fitted with a float chamber nor does the choke
depression act directly on the jets. The choke is known as the large venturi
and inside it a small or boost venturi is fitted; this has the effect of
lowering the pressure still further and this depression in the boost venturi
79
PISTON ENGINES
acts upon a diaphragm which in turn regulates the flow of fuel into the
carburet tor by means of a poppet valve. The fuel is discharged through a
spray nozzle fitted near to the eye of the supercharger. This arrangement
has the following advantages:
(a) The amount of fuel passing through the jet is dependent on the pres-
sure inside the carburet tor and is therefore almost unaffected by
aerobatics and negative-G conditions.
(b) The spray nozzle helps to atomise the fuel.
(c) Fuel under pressure reduces the liability ofvapour locks.
(d) There is no vaporisation and consequent cold spot around the jet
mouths; this helps to prevent ice formation.
Note: In this type of carburettor, the choke is retained purely as a means

of measuring the airflow.
Figure 7-11 Fuel Injection Carburettor.
80
7.6 Fuel Injectors.

Fuel injectors differ fundamentally from float-type and injection carbu-
rettors in that the airflow to the engine is not measured by a venturi. They
are thus, strictly speaking, not carburet tors but engine driven pumps
which supply fuel direct to the cylinders via the supercharger or
turbocharger in accordance with engine requirements.
Figure 7-11 is a diagram of a fuel injector which is fitted in place of the
standard engine fuel pump, and which also performs all the functions of
a normal aircraft carburet tor. The air supply to the engine is controlled
in the usual way by a throttle valve in conjunction with a boost control
unit (not shown in the diagram). Fuel is forced into the governor chamber
by a vane type feed pump, which is designed to supply an excess,so that
surplus fuel escapes through the relief valve and the pressure in the
governor chamber remains constant.
Rotation of the governor causesthe needle valve to be opened and fuel
to flow, first into the governor chamber, and then through the two vari-
able jets into the metered fuel chamber. The difference in pressure
between the governed and metered fuel chambers acting on the
diaphragm tends to close the needle valve in opposition to the action of
the governor. Because the thrust exerted by a centrifugal governor is
proportional to the square of the rpm and as the diaphragm always
balances that thrust, the pressure difference across the diaphragm is also
proportional to the square of the rpm. Consequently, as the flow of fuel
through a jet is proportional to the square root of the pressure difference
across it, for a given opening of the jets the fuel flow through them will
vary directly with the engine speed.
The pressure in the governor chamber being higher than that in the
governed fuel chamber, there is a small residual pressure on the needle
valve tending to close it. This is balanced out by the 'idle' spring fitted
against the outer surface of the diaphragm. The spring load is adjustable
to provide a means of varying the fuel flow at idling conditions, when the
thrust from the governor is very small.
The flow of fuel through the main jet (at a given rpm) is governed by
the boost pressure and the exhaust back pressure. Ignoring the latter
for the moment, the effect of an increase in boost is to compress the evac-
uated boost pressure capsules, thus causing the main metering needle to
withdraw and the flow of fuel through the jet to increase. Control of
mixture strength to suit all operating conditions is effected by variation
in the taper of the main metering needle, so that the rich/weak/rich charac-
teristic is automatically provided over the whole range of boost pressures
from idling to take-off. As the flow of fuel is governed by boost and rpm,
no altitude control of the kind fitted to float type carburet tors is required.
It will be recalled that the fall in air pressure with altitude results in less
81
PISTON ENGINES
exhaust gas remaining in the cylinders at the end of each exhaust stroke
and, consequently, the volumetric efficiency improves, ie more mixture
goes into each cylinder at a given induction pressure. In the float type
carburet tor the extra fuel is automatically drawn off by the increased
depression in the choke, but in a fuel injector, compensation is necessary
to avoid weakening of the mixture.
Here compensation is provided by the back pressure capsule which,
although integral with the boost pressure capsule, is sealed from it and
subjected to atmospheric pressure. Thus, as height is gained the back pres-
sure capsule is compressed and the main metering needle is withdrawn
sufficiently to maintain a constant mixture strength. To ensure that the
main metering needle responds accurately to capsule movement, it is
essential for it not to be a tight fit in its supporting bushes. Consequently,
to prevent leakage between the boost and governed fuel chambers, a
drainage channel is provided between the bushes.
The introduction of a temperature correction unit to the metering
system is necessitated by the fact that, for a constant boost pressure and
rpm, the mass airflow through the engine falls as the temperature rises,
because of the reduced density of warmer air. As any decrease in airflow
must be accompanied by a proportional drop in fuel consumption to
maintain a constant mixture strength, a temperature controlled auxiliary
jet is added in parallel with the main jet. Control is effected by the single
capsule unit, which is coupled by a capillary tube to a thermometer bulb
located in the induction manifold, the system normally being filled with
turpentine. When the mixture temperature rises, either because of a
change in outside air temperature or through a change from low to high
supercharger gear, the resulting expansion of the turpentine causes the
capsule to compress and the attached metering needle to reduce the fuel
flow through the auxiliary jet.
From the injector the metered fuel is delivered to the injection nozzle
at the supercharger inlet via the accelerator pump and flexible hose. (See
Fig.7-12).
To maintain a constant discharge pressure, irrespective of the rate of
fuel flow, a needle valve, controlled by a spring loaded diaphragm, is
included in the nozzle assembly. When the metered fuel pressure rises to
approximately 61b/sqin, the valve diaphragm is forced outwards, thereby
opening the valve against the action of the spring. The greater the fuel
flow the more the diaphragm will be deflected and the valve opened.
The diaphragm spring chamber is connected by a tube to the air intake
via a slow running cut-out device which, when operated, cuts off the air
balance connection and admits fuel at pump pressure to the rear of
the diaphragm. As soon as the diaphragm spring chamber is filled, the
diaphragm is forced inwards and the needle valve thereby closed. When
82
FlOAT CHAMBER CARBURETTORS AND FUEL INJECTORS
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83
PISTON ENGINES
the cut-off control is released the air balance connection is restored and
fuel from the chamber drains to the air intake.
The accelerator pump shown in Fig. 7-12 is simply a diaphragm oper-
ated by the throttle lever. When the throttle is opened the diaphragm is
forced in (to the left) and the flow of fuel to the nozzle is temporarily
increased.
7.7 Fuel Cut-Off.

A pilot operated fuel cut-off is fitted to most injectors: it cuts off all fuel
irrespective of the throttle setting. Some types of injector, however, have
a cut-off which functions only when the throttle is closed.
Key Points -Piston Engines

Theory
I. In a four-stroke engine, the compression stroke follows immedi-
ately after the induction stroke.
2. The number of revolutions of the crankshaft to complete a full cycle
in a multi-cylinder engine is AL W A YS two.
3. The order in which the four strokes occur are: induction, compres-
sion, power and exhaust.
4. A piston engine is known as a CONSTANT VOLUME ENGINE.
5. During the four-stroke cycle, the spark is timed to occur before
TDC on the compression stroke.
b The inlet valve closes after BDC on the induction stroke, to allow
the maximum amount of mixture to enter the cylinder. (Valve lag)
7 The exhaust valve closes after TDC on the exhaust stroke, to
complete scavenging and to help overcome the inertia of the fresh
mixture. (Valve lag)
8 .The inlet valve opens before TDC on the exhaust stroke, to ensure
the valve is fully open at TDC. (Valve lead)
9'. The exhaust valve opens before BDC on the power stroke, to relieve
the load on the bearings and to make use of the residual gas pres-
sure to assist in the scavenging. (Valve lead)
10 I. V AL VE LEAD is related to the angular measurement of the crank-
shaft when the valves open BEFORE BDC and TDC.
FLOA T CHAMBER CARBUREnORS AND FUEL INJECTORS
v AL VE LAG is related to the angular movement of the crankshaft

when the valves shut AFTER BDC and TDC.
12. V AL VE OVERLAP is when both inlet and exhaust valves are open
at the same time.
13. The purpose of valve overlap is to offset the inertia of the fresh
mixture and to induce it into the cylinder before the piston begins
its downward movement.
14. Valve overlap increases volumetric efficiency.
15. Valve overlap will remain the same, whatever the engine rpm.
16. VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY is the ratio by weight of a
cylinder's total capacity at Standard Atmosphere with the piston at
BDC with the actual weight of mixture drawn into the cylinder
du~ing the induction stroke. It is usually expressed as a percentage.
17 Volumetric efficiency improves with increase in engine speed.
18. An increase in air temperature will decrease the weight of mixture
entering the cylinder .
19. The COMPRESSION RATIO is the ratio of the volume of the
cylinder when the piston is at BDC to the volume of the cylinder
when the piston is at TDC.
20. The SWEPT VOLUME/STROKE is the distance travelled by a
piston moving from BDC to TDC. This is equal to twice the crank
throw.
The COMPRESSION VOLUME is the volume of the cylinder with
the piston at TDC. {Combustion space)
The compression ratio is constant for a stated engine and all engine
rpm.
23, The compression ratio equals Total volume
Clearance volume
24. The ratio of the power produced by an engine to the power avail-
able in the fuel is known as the THERMAL EFFICIENCY.
25. The thermal efficiency of a piston engine increases with an increase
of compression ratio.
26. The SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION {SFC) is the weight of
fuel required to produce I BHP in I hour .
27 INDICA TED HORSE POWER {IHP) is the power developed in
the cylinder during the power stroke.
8-!)
PISTON ENGINES
28. BRAKE HORSE POWER (BHP) is the useful power developed at

the propeller shaft.
29. FRICTION HORSE POWER (FHP) is the power required to
overcome friction and drive the accessories.
30. MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (MEP) is the average pressure
exerted on the piston during the power stroke.
31. Brake mean effective pressure is measured by a torquemeter .
32. The weight of charge on the compression stroke will remain the
same.
33 The temperature of the charge on the compression stroke will
Increase.
34. The volume of the mixture will increase on the power stroke.
35. Engine power depends upon: the rpm, compression ratio and
combustion pressure.
36. The MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY of an engine is the ratio
between the power developed in the cylinders and the power
arriving at the propeller shaft; it is usually expressed as a
percentage.
37. Most internal combustion piston engines are roughly 90% efficient.
38. The firing order of a four-cylinder in-Iine engine is 1.3.4.2.
39. The firing order of a six-cylinder in-Iine engine is 1.5.3.6.2.4.
40. The firing order of a four-cylinder, horizontally opposed (RR
Continental) is 1.3.2.4.
41 The camshaft of an engine AL W A YS rotates at 1f2engine speed.
42. Volumetric efficiency increases with an increase in engine rpm. At
sea level, exhaust back pressure reduces volumetric efficiency.
43 Valve overlap increases volumetric efficiency. As the aircraft
climbs, volumetric efficiency will improve as the exhaust back pres-
sure falls.
44. A normally aspirated engine is an unsupercharged engine.
45. When a sparking plug fires in an engine cylinder containing a
correct air/fuel mixture, the mixture will burn and the pressure,
temperature and volume will all increase.
46. Ignition is advanced as engine speed increases, to ensure that
86
maximum pressure is developed in the cylinder 6° to 12° after TDC on the

power stroke.
Construction
I. The purpose of the crankcase breather is to prevent pressure build-
up inside the engine crankcase.
2. The reason for tappet clearance is to allow for expansion due to
temperature increases when the engine is running.
3. Tappet clearance is measured between the tip of the valve stem and
the rocker pad.
4. Hydraulic tappets are used on some engines to reduce noise and
maintenance.
5. If the inlet valve of an engine has insufficient tappet clearance, the
effect on engine running will be 'popping-back' in the induction
manifold.
6. The inlet and exhaust valves are closed by springs.
7. To improve safety and reduce valve bounce, two or more valve
springs, usually coiled in opposite directions, are fitted to each
valve.
8. ~he oil control rings on a piston are located below the compression
rIngs.
Cooling and Lubrication

I. The cylinder head temperature of an air cooled engine could be
controlled by cowling gills.
2. Air cooled engines are finned, to present a larger cooling surface to
the airflow.
3. The assumed specific gravity of oil is 0.9 and one gallon will weigh
91b.
4. The scavenge pump in the oil system has a greater capacity than the
pressure pump.
5. A relief valve is fitted on the outlet side of the pressure pump, to
prevent excessivepressure being delivered to the engine.
6. The most probable cause of small fluctuations, or low oil pressure,
would be the relief valve sticking open.
87
PISTON ENGINES
7 The oil temperature gauge records the temperature of the oil being
delivered to the engine.
8. The oil control rings on a piston remove excessoil from the cylinder
walls.
9. The viscosity of a lubricating oil will increase with a drop in
temperature and lower the rate of flow.
10. A WET SUMP ENGINE is one where the oil is collected in the
engme sump.
Engine oil contents should be checked a short time after the engine
has stopped.
12. The cylinder head temperature measurements are taken from a
thermocouple HOT junction. (Cold junction at instrument)
Carburation and Fuel Systems

I. The correct fuel for a piston engine is A V GAS.
2. The chemically correct mixture strength is 15 Ib of air to lib of fuel
(by weight).
3. The mixture strength for piston engines varies between 8: I (rich)
and 20: 1 (weak), to suit engine requirements.
4. A viation gasolene (A V GAS) is manufactured to conform with
Specification DERD 2485.
5. Shell A V GAS 100LL, coloured blue, satisfies the above specifica-
tion.
6. Lead is added to aviation fuel to decrease the risk of detonation,
and is essential to engines with high compression ratios.
7. The weight of I gallon of fuel of sa 0.72 is 7.2 Ib.
8. The octane rating defines the ability of a fuel to resist detonation;
the higher the number, the greater the resistance.
9. Pre-ignition is caused by the ignition of the fuel/air mixture by hot
spots in the cylinder and will occur before the spark.
10. Detonation occuring after the spark is caused by unstable combus-
tion during the power stroke.
II The purpose of the choke tube (venturi) in a carburet tor is to create
a depression at the fuel jet.
88
12. The pressure in the carburettor choke tube will decrease with an
increase in engine speed.
13. The position of the throttle valve (butterfly) in a carburet tor
depends on the direction of the airflow through the choke.
14. The mixture control on a carburettor varies the flow of fuel to the
main jet.
15. The fuel flow to the engine will be affected by: the rpm, throttle posi-
tion and mixture setting.
16. The effect of a punctured float would be flooding of the carburettor .
17. The slow running jet is located in the choke tube, where the throttle
valve closes and the depression is greatest.
18. The purpose of a diffuser is to meter the fuel correctly for all engine
speeds and to improve its vapourisation.
19. To compensate for poor scavenging of the exhaust gases at slow
running, the mixture is enriched.
20. At full power, the mixture is enriched to ensure satisfactory cylinder
cooling, to prevent detonation.
21 The purpose of an altitude mixture control is to correct the mixture
strength for the decreasing density of the air as altitude is increased.
22. An accelerator pump is fitted to compensate for a 'weak cut' on
rapid opening of the throttle.
23 The 'back-suction economiser' reduces pressure in the float
chamber to reduce the differential pressure, thus weakening the
mixture for economical cruising.
24. A weak mixture decreasesthe specific fuel consumption.
25. The fuel pump in the fuel system ensures a positive flow to the float
chamber.
26. When fuel priming is used to assist engine starting, a quantity of
fuel is supplied directly into the induction manifold.
27. A booster pump prevents vapour locks which occur due to the
decrease in pressure with increasing altitude.
28, Should the priming pump not be locked in after start-up, a rich
mixture will result.
89
PISTON ENGINES
29. The vent pipe of an aircraft's fuel tank must not become blocked,
because, as the fuel level drops, the pressure will fall and the flow
will be restricted.
30. Water in a fuel tank will sink to the bottom of the tank.
31. When the aircraft is on the ground, the correct action to reduce the
possibility of water entering the fuel system, due to condensation,
is to keep the fuel tanks full.
32. In a direct fuel injection system, the mixture control is manually
controlled and a manual priming pump is unnecessary.
33 In a direct fuel injection system, the fuel enters the inlet manifold
continuously.
Ignition Systems
I. The primary circuit of a magneto receives its initial current from a
magnetic field build-up across the primary coil.
2. The electrical current flowing in a magneto is transformed from low
to high tension by the rapid collapse of the magnetic field across the
secondary windings.
3. To assist in the rapid breakdown of the magnetic field across the
secondary windings, a capacitor (condenser) is fitted.
4. A capacitor is also fitted to prevent arcing across the contact
breaker points.
5. The spark in the combustion chamber occurs when the contact
breaker points are JUST opening.
6. The distributor of a magneto distributes the secondary current to
the correct sparking plug at the correct time.
7. The engine speed falls when one magneto is switched off, due to the
flame rate of the burning mixture being reduced.
8. To stop an engine, the magneto switch is switched 'OFF'; this earths
the primary circuit.
9. If a magneto becomes disconnected from its ignition switch, the
switch will fail to stop the engine when switched 'OFF'.
10. The effect of a magneto switch lead shorting to the aircraft struc-
ture in flight would be to cause the engine speed to fall.
90
11 An ignition switch which becomes 'shorted out' on one magneto

would cause a dead cut when the other magneto switch was
switched 'OFF'.
12. The impulse coupling in a magneto flicks over the armature when
starting, to increase the HT current and give a better spark.
13. The impulse coupling operates as a solid magneto drive coupling
after the engine has started up.
14. To assist in the starting of a piston engine, a high tension booster
coil is used. This supplies HT current directly to the sparking plugs
through a retarded electrode on the rotor arm. It is sometimes
known as the 'shower of sparks' system.
15 What happens if vent becomes blocked in a magneto. Answer =
Corrosion takes place.
Ground Handling
1. Before starting an engine, the propeller should be rotated slowly by
hand for a few revolutions, to relieve any 'hydraulicing'.
2. Hydraulicing refers to an accumulation of liquid in a cylinder which
could cause damage to the engine on start-up.
3. When starting an engine, it is dangerous to pump the throttle lever,
because there could be a risk of fire in the carburet tor air intake.
4. Prolonged idling may cause fouling of the spark plugs.
5. Carbon deposits on a spark plug electrode may cause misfiring.
6. Black smoke from the exhaust would indicate a too-rich mixture.
7. Magnetos should be checked at slow running, to ensure that the
ignition system is serviceable, before a check is made at a higher
rpm.
8. The engine is checked for 'dead-cut' at slow running.
9. Excessive engine vibration may be caused if the propeller blades are
out of track.
10. A weak mixture could be detected by a large drop in rpm when a
single ignition check is carried out.
II. The engine power required to rotate a fixed pitch propeller will
increase as air temperature falls.
91
PISTON ENGINES
12. The rpm of an engine on the approach must be at a specific limit,

so that it will be able to accelerate when necessary.
3. The ratio of power required to power available affects the fuel
consumption.
14. During take-off, an increase in rpm at a fixed throttle setting is
caused by a more efficient angle of attack of the propeller blades.
15. For an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller, when taking off from
an airfield with a higher ambient temperature, the rpm would be
less than normal.
16. On a normally aspirated engine fitted with a fixed pitch propeller,
the manifold pressure decreases as the aircraft climbs at a fixed
throttle setting.
7 Excessive cylinder head temperatures could be caused by prolonged
use of a weak mixture, especially at high altitude.
18 Lower barometric pressure on a power check will mean less engine
power .
19. Weak mixture gives a reduction in power and also decreases the
specific fuel consumption.
20. Prolonged operation of an aero-engine at high rpm, in conditions
where the atmospheric temperature is high, could result in the possi-
bility of overheating and detonation.
21 Carburet tor heat during ground run and take-off must be OFF, as
the hot air is unfiltered and may cause engine wear .
22. Carburet tor hot air is used in flight to overcome carburet tor icing.
23. On a normally aspirated engine fitted with a fixed pitch propeller,
carburet tor icing may be indicated by a fall in rpm for no apparent
reason.
24. On selection of carburet tor heat to HOT during a ground run, a fall
in rpm should be observed.
25. An engine should be run at low rpm after flight, to allow engine
components to cool to a more uniform temperature.
26. Upon starting, if the 'STARTER ENGAGED' light stays on, it
means that power is still connected to the starter and, if it is still on
after 30 seconds, the cause must be investigated.
92
Section 7 TestYourself
Carburettors and Injectors

I. An alternative name sometimes given to the choke is the:
(a) butterfly.
(b) venturi.
(c) intake controller.
Ref. 7.2. Fig. 7-1

2. As engine speed is increased:
(a) excessive fuel is prevented from passing through the main jet by
the diffuser .
(b) excessive fuel is prevented from passing through the main jet by
the pressure duct.
(c) the variable jet increases fuel supply with altitude.
Ref. 7.3(b). Fig. 7-3.
3. During take-off, to assist in achieving maximum permissible engine
power:
(a) the accelerator pump is operated continuously.
(b) the diffuser is fully open.
(c) the enrichment jet supplies a very rich mixture.
Ref. 7.3(e). Fig. 7-6.
4. When some types of aircraft are in inverted flight, fuel starvation of the
engine is avoided by:
(a) the enrichment jet.
(b) the fitting of a stand tube to the float chamber .
( c) the diffuser .
Ref. 7.3(i) Fig. 7-10.
5. The carburet tor cut-out, if fitted, is normally
(a) attached to the diffuser.
(b) located in the slow running jet line.
(c) connected to pressure balance duct.
Ref. 7.3(h). Fig. 7-9.
93
PISTON ENGINES
6. To prevent fuel starvation due to sudden opening of the throttle:

(a) the enrichment jet is fitted.
(b) the pressure balance duct is fitted.
(c) the accelerator pump is fitted.
Ref. 7.3(!). Fig. 7-7.
7. To ensure a smooth rate of discharge of fuel from the carburet tor jet:
(a) a balance duct is fitted.
(b) a twin jet is fitted.
(c) the float chamber is subjected to boost pressure.
Ref. 7.3(a). Fig. 7-2.
8. When an aircraft is inverted in flight, fuel starvation of the engine may
be prevented by:
(a) the carburet tor balance duct.
(b) the power jet.
(c) a stand tube.
Ref. 7.3(h). Fig 7-10.
9. Carburet tor anti-icing is noffi1ally provided by:
(a) hot air from the cooling system.
(b) hot oil from the engine lubrication system.
(c) spray mat heater elements.
Ref. 7.4(b).
10. In an injection carburet tor, the:
(a) fuel flow is measured by the choke.
(b) airflow is measured by the choke.
(c) air and fuel are mixed in the choke.
Ref. 7.5
94
8
8.1 Introduction.
The amount of power developed by a piston aero-engine is depend~nt

upon the weight of fuel/air mixture burnt in the cylinders in a given time.
As each piston descends on the induction stroke it creates a depression,
and the weight of mixture, usually referred to as the charge, that enters
the cylinder is dependent on the pressure in the induction manifold. In a
normally aspirated engine (ie one which breathes at atmospheric pressure
unaided) manifold pressure is governed by the pressure of the atmosphere
and the amount by which the throttle is opened. Consequently, as the
atmospheric pressure progressively decreases as the aircraft gains
altitude, the weight of charge entering the cylinders slowly decreasesfor
a given throttle setting. To prevent a loss of power as altitude is increased
it is necessary to maintain the inlet manifold pressure at sea level condi-
tions. This is achieved by supercharging.
8.2 Supercharger .
(a) Location and drive.

A supercharger, sometimes termed a blower, is basically an engine
driven fan or impeller which is normally positioned between the
carburet tor and the induction manifold. The supercharger is
normally mounted on the rear face of the engine as shown in Fig. 8-1 ,
and is driven through gearing from the engine crankshaft. It may be
single or multi-staged.
The impeller, or fan, of the supercharger normally revolves nine to
ten times faster than the engine rpm. The impeller drive absorbs an
appreciable amount of horsepower and to reduce the impeller bearing
loads it is common practice to have a three-fold drive to the impeller
drive shaft, i.e. three trains of gears.
95
PISTON ENGINES
INLeT MANIFOLD
/ ~ :;:=:!:;: r--7 ~ .
IMPELLER
GUIDE
/VANES
ENGINE
\
PROPELLER
DRIVE
\ -THROTTLE
SHAFT
JaItJ
r:!/
Figure 8-1 Location of Supercharger on Rear Face of Engine.
An intermediate clutch that equalises the load and relieves the gearing
from shock loads during sudden changes in engine speed is usually
fitted with the gear trains. To smooth the drive further and so reduce
vibration of the impeller, some form of spring drive is normally fitted
and used as the initial drive from the crankshaft. Supercharger
bearing lubrication is provided by the engine lubrication system.
Figure 8-2 shows the friction clutch mechanism used to reduce
shock loads on the gearing.
Figure 8-2 Friction Clutch

Mechanism.
96
SUPERCHARGING
Figure 8-3 shows the spring drive mechanism which may be used
to smooth the drive transmission, and so reduce vibration.
Figure 8-3 Spring Drive Mechanism
(b) Mixture Flow.

The fuel/air mixture is drawn through the carburettor by the super-
charger and enters the eye of the impeller; the rotational speed of the
impeller then throws the mixture outwards with increasing velocity.
Surrounding the impeller is a system of divergent passages, collec-
tively known as a diffuser, the function of which is smoothly to
decelerate the flow of the mixture from the impeller to give an increase
in pressure as it enters the inlet manifold. Once it has entered the inlet
manifold under pressure the mixture is normally referred to as mani-
fold pressure.
A pressure gauge situated in the cockpit, usually graduated in
pounds per square inch, or inches of mercury, indicates the pressure
above or below standard sea level atmospheric pressure.
This manifold pressure gauge is often called a Boost Gauge. (See
Fig.8-4.)
Note: Standard atmosphere pressure is indicated as zero on the boost

gauge.
07
PISTON ENGINES
Figure 8-4 Boost Gauge.
8.3 Automatic Boost Control.
Pressure above normal atmospheric pressure is referred to as 'Boost

Pressure' or sometimes as 'Positive Boost' and below atmospheric pres-
sure as 'Negative Boost'.
A boost control unit, more commonly called the automatic boost

control unit, is fitted to most supercharged engines to maintain sea level
atmospheric pressure in the inlet manifold as the aircraft climbs. The
automatic boost control unit serves a variety of purposes, viz:
(a) to maintain sea level atmospheric pressure in the inlet manifold by
automatically controlling the throttle.
(b) to relieve the -pilot of constant boost setting adjustment for a given
rpm as the aircraft climbs or descends.
(c) to prevent the supercharger overboosting the manifold at low alti-
tude, which could result in overstressing and damage to the engine.
(d) to control the boost pressure within certain limits to avoid mixture
detonation.
(e) to prevent excessive combustion pressures at any altitude, which
could lead to mechanical strain or failure.
The automatic boost control unit operates by opening and closing the
throttle to adjust engine rpm, thereby supercharger rpm, and hence mani-
fold pressure. The net result is control of the weight of charge entering the
cylinders.
Figure 8-5 shows an automatic boost control unit with its relative
position and linkage to the carburet tor, throttle and supercharger .
98
SUPERCHARGING
Figure 8-5 Automatic Boost Control.
8.4 Supercharger Automatic Boost Control Operation.

The aneroid capsule assembly is exposed only to inlet manifold or boost
pressure in the induction system: it is in turn coupled to the throttle
linkage via an oil operated servo piston in such a way that when the
capsule is compressed the throttle or butterfly is partly closed, and when
the aneroid capsule expands the throttle valve will be partly opened. The
oil which operates the servo piston is supplied under pressure by
the engine lubrication system.
When the engine is started the induction manifold pressure will fall to
a low value, because of the increase in velocity of the mixture flow from
99
PISTON ENGINES
the supercharger. This reduction of pressure in the inlet manifold will be

sensed by the aneroid capsule assembly and result in the capsules
expanding. The expansion of the aneroid capsule will then cause oil to be
directed below the servo piston, which thereupon moves to the top of its
stroke. Subsequent throttle opening is accompanied by an increase in
induction manifold pressure, causing the aneroid capsule to compress and
the valve to rise until the supply of oil to the underside of the piston is cut
off. Any further opening of the throttle will now cause oil to be directed
above the piston, which will descend and close the throttle valve until the
induction pressure falls sufficiently to cut off the servo oil supply.
Therefore whatever the position of the throttle lever, the induction pres-
sure or boost, cannot rise above a certain value, known as 'Rated Boost'.
With the valve in the equilibrium position, any tendency for the induc-
tion pressure to fall as height is gained will be counteracted by a
progressive opening of the throttle or butterfly through the admission of
more oil beneath the servo piston, until that altitude is reached where,
with the throttle lever fully advanced, the throttle is fully open. This situ-
ation, Rated Altitude, is the point above which the induction manifold
pressure will fall in the same manner as an unsupercharged or normally
aspirated engine.
8.5 Operational Example.

F or the purpose of a better understanding of the relationship between the
supercharger, throttle and engine rpm, consider a supercharger that is
capable of a pressure ratio of 2: I. Assume:
(a) The engine speed to be 2600 rpm.
(b) The impeller speed to be at a ratio of 9: I and therefore to be 23,400
rpm.
(c) Maximum take-off boost not to exceed +6 Ib sq in.
With these conditions the manifold will have an absolute pressure of
20.7 Ib sq inch. This is 14.7 Ib sq inch, an assumed atmospheric pressure
plus 6 Ib sq inch boost providing 20.7 Ib sq inch. Such figures relate to
an example of a maximum of 6 Ib sq inch boost.
In reality at 6 Ib sq inch boost pressure the throttle will be only partially
open. If the throttle is fully open at sea level, with a supercharger ratio of
2: I then the manifold pressure will be 14.7 x 2 = 29.4 Ib sq inch. This will
exceed the maximum take-off boost by 8.7 Ib sq inch. i.e. 29.4 Ib sq inch
minus 20.7 Ib sq inch = 8.7 Ib sq inch.
It is evident that the throttle valve must be partially closed to restrict
the amount of mixture going into the manifold to keep the absolute pres-
sure within the limitations of 6 Ib sq inch boost.
100
SUPERCHARGING
For the sake of simplicity at this stage it is assumed that there is neither
ram air effect on the air intake as a result of forward speed, nor pressure
reduction due to the restriction of the carburet tor. As the aircraft climbs,
so the density of the air progressively reduces and the automatic boost
control unit will progressively open the throttle valve to compensate for
the reduction in the air density, thereby maintaining 20.7 lb sq inch
absolute or +6 lb sq inch boost in the induction manifold. This is
assuming no alteration is made to the cockpit throttle setting.
When the aircraft reaches 9000ft the atmospheric pressure will have
dropped to 10.351b sq inch and with a compression ratio of2: 1 the super-
charger will therefore maintain a manifold absolute pressure of 20.7 lb
sq inch. The automatic boost control has compensated by progressively
opening the throttle up to this altitude and has now reached a position
where the throttle is fully open.
As the example engine has now been maintaining constant rpm and a
constant boost of +6 lb sq inch then:
(a) With the engine set at constant rpm and constant boost with the
throttle fully open it is at 9000ft or full throttle height.
(b) With the throttle fully advanced and the throttle valve fully open,
the aircraft can also be said to have reached its rated altitude. If the
aircraft now continues to climb above the 9000ft example altitude
no further compensation is available and so the manifold pressure
will start to fall as it would with a normal aspirated engine.
Note: In the example given any further movement of the throttle in the
cockpit, if any is still available, will in effect be lost motion as the throttle
is fully open, this situation can only be changed by the installation of a
further device known as a variable datum cam.
8.6 Variable Datum Cam.

At low altitudes, the action of the automatic boost control unit, as
described so far, would be such that 'rated boost', i.e. the value for that
particular boost setting, would be reached with the throttle partly open,
beyond which point there would be lost motion on the throttle in the
cockpit. Furthermore, although the aneroid capsule and unit would
prevent a fall in boost pressure during a climb at full throttle, it would not
be able to do so at a pressure lower than the rated boost, and it would be
necessary for the pilot to be continually advancing the throttle. These
disadvantages are overcome by the use of a variable datum cam which is
normally fitted to the top of the aneroid chamber of the automatic boost
control unit and is interconnected with the throttle lever. (See Fig. 8-6.)
101
PISTON ENGINES
FIXED BOOST ADJUSTMENT
BAROMETRIC
CAPSULE
Figure 8-6 Variable Datum Cam Assembly.
Note: Barometric capsules are sometimes prone to sticking to the walls

of the cylinders in which they are housed. To prevent this a coil spring is
usually fitted between the capsule and the cylinder wall. Such springs may
also be fitted to the Automatic Mixture Control Capsule for the same
reason.
8.7 Variable Datum Cam Operation.

This cam permits the aneroid unit to rise as the throttle is closed; thus,
with the aneroid unit adjusted to give the rated pressure with the throttle
lever fully advanced, the valve will be progressively re-set as the throttle
is closed so that the equilibrium position will occur at lower boost pres-
sures. For a given position of throttle lever, a corresponding degree of
boost will be obtained.
8.8 Full Throttle Height.

The full throttle height is the altitude up to which a given boost setting
can be maintained at a given rpm.
The lower the boost pressure selected by the pilot the greater is the alti-
tude to which it can be maintained by the automatic boost control unit.
For example, in an aircraft at its rated altitude and still climbing, the
102
SUPERCHARGING
butterfly will be fully open at its rated boost, which will then begin to fall;
but at a lower boost the butterfly will still be opening through the action
of the aneroid capsule, and the pressure will be maintained until the
butterfly can open no further. This is known as 'Full Throttle Height' for
that particular boost and rpm. The speed of the engine is a qualifying
factor becauseit controls the speed of the supercharger impeller; at higher
than normal rpm the full throttle height will be raised.
Note: The rated altitude is the full throttle height at rated boost and
normal rpm for that boost. Fig. 8-7 shows examples of power curves for
a supercharged engine.
1,300 ~
AL TI~UDE POWERS AT
2,850 R.P.M. + 9 Le. PER so. IN
a: I j ~~
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SO. IN.
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10 14 18 22 26 30 34
Al TITUDE (THOUSANDS OF FEET)
Figure 8-7 Two Examples of Power Curves
8.9 Automatic Boost Control Override.

So that the maximum possible power is available for take-off and emer-
gencies, provision is made for the rated boost to be exceeded under these
circumstances. This may be done either by arranging for the pressure in
the aneroid capsule chamber to be reduced through a controlled leak, or
by lowering the aneroid unit beyond the rated boost position. In one
installation, when the throttle lever is advanced beyond a gated position
on the quadrant, an extension to the variable datum cam gives the
required depression and at the same time brings the enrichment jet into
operation.
103
PISTON ENGINES
8.10 Supercharger Losses.

From Fig. 8- 7 it will be seen that, for a constant boost and rpm setting,
engine power increases up to the full throttle height. As an aircraft climbs,
the fall in temperature of the air is accompanied by a corresponding drop
in the charge temperature. Consequently the density of the mixture
increases and a greater weight of charge is burnt per power stroke.
Furthermore, the decreasing atmospheric pressure offers less resistance
to the expulsion of the exhaust gasesand less impulsion to the downward
movement of the pistons, in the former case improving the volumetric
efficiency and the latter raising the mean effective pressure.
Of the total power absorbed by the supercharger, a proportion is
wasted in overcoming friction and in heating the mixture adiabatically.
The rise in mixture charge temperature, unavoidable though it is, must be
kept as low as possible because the higher the temperature the greater the
loss in engine power due to reduced charge density, and the greater the
risk of detonation. Both frictional losses and supercharger heating
increase with increase of impeller rpm; consequently for efficient opera-
tion the engine speed should be as low as possible.
It is clear that a supercharged engine is comparatively inefficient at or
near sea level; much of the power absorbed by the supercharger goes to
restoring ,the drop in induction pressure necessarily created by the
butterfly to prevent over-boosting; the power developed at a given boost
and rpm setting is lower than at altitude because of the higher tempera-
ture and pressure; and, although considerable power can be obtained by
using high boost pressures and rpm, it involves the supply of a very rich
mixture to counteract the combined effects of high air temperature and
adiabatic heating.
8.11 Control Settings for Maximum Efficiency.

Maximum efficiency, or minimum specific fuel consumption, is obtained
when the butterfly is fully open and the rpm is as low as can be obtained
without detonation. In practice this is at the full throttle height for the
power setting in use. The power is obtained by using the highest possible
weak mixture boost in conjunction with the lowest practicable rpm to give
the required air speed.
8.12 Two-Speed Superchargers.

When a high rated altitude is required, it is necessary to step up the super-
charger gear ratio so that the impeller can be driven at a sufficiently high
speed. With such an arrangement, however, the power losses at low alti-
tudes are considerable for the reasons already given. To avoid such losses,
104
SUPERCHARGING
superchargers with two impeller gear ratios are used, the change from one
to the other being made either manually or automatically at a certain
height. (See Fig. 8-8).
Note: Superchargers with two gear ratios are normally termed two-
speed superchargers.
TAKEN AT CONSTANT ENGINE SPEED (2,850 R.P.M)

1,250
-
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8.000 12,000 16,000 20.000 24,000
AL TITUDE IN FEET
Figure 8-8 Typical Two-Speed Supercharger

Power Curves.
In Fig. 8-8 which shows how the power output varies with altitude at rated
boost and normal rpm, the loss of power at low altitudes in high gear is
immediately evident. Furthermore it can be seen that it is pointless to
change from low gear to high gear at the low gear rated altitude for,
although the rated boost pressure would be maintained, the power output
would immediately fall, in this case by about 190 bhp.
105
~
PISTON ENGINES
The change should be delayed until the boost pressure has fallen by
about 2 Ib sq inch, when the altitude is reached at which the low and high
power curves intersect. The rated power in high gear, obtained at
13,OOOft,is well below that in low gear because of the extra power needed
to drive the supercharger at the higher speed.
On some two-speed installations the selection ofhigh gear is automatic.
8.13 Two-Stage Superchargers.

In aircraft that are required to operate at altitudes normally in excess of
30,OOOft,a higher degree of supercharging than can be obtained with a
two-speed impeller is needed, and it is necessary to provide an additional
stage of compression. In two-stage superchargers (which are also two
speed) separate impeller units, mounted on a common shaft, are
arranged, so that the outlet of the first is fed to the inlet of the second.
The considerable adiabatic temperature rise through the two stages is
counteracted by passing the mixture through an intercooler before it
enters the induction manifold, the excessheat being transferred to coolant
which is circulated through a radiator exposed to the outside airflow.
There is no connection between the intercooler and the engine coolant
system on liquid-cooled engines.
Figure 8-9 shows a diagram of a two-stage supercharger with inter-
cooler .
igure 8-9 Supercharger Intercooler.
106
SUPERCHARGING
Supercharging
I. The supercharger is normally positioned:
(a) in the exhaust manifold.
(b) before the carburet tor.
(c) between the carburet tor and the inlet manifold
Ref. 8.2
2. The impeller of a supercharger rotates:
(a) twice the speed of the engine.
(b) half the speed of the engine crankshaft.
( c) nine to ten times the speed of the engine crankshaft.
Ref.8.2
3. Supercharger impeller vibration may be reduced by

(a) a spring drive on the impeller drive shaft.
(b) a spring drive on the turbine drive shaft.
(c) a hydro/mechanical clutch.
Ref. 8.2
4. The supercharger is normally located

(a) at the side of the engine.
(b) at the rear of the engine.
(c) at the front of the engine.
Ref. 8.2
5. Manifold boost pressure is:

(a) the indicated pressure in the inlet manifold between the impeller
and the inlet valves.
(b) the indicated pressure in the inlet prior to the carburet tor.
(c) the pressure indicated in the supercharger.
Ref. 8.2
107
9
9.1 Introduction.
The primary disadvantage of the supercharger is its lack of an infinitely
variable drive. Much research has led in more recent years to the devel~
opment and production of the turbocharger. The supercharger relies on
a gear drive from the crankshaft of the engine, the turbocharger however,
utilises the exhaust gasesof the engine to drive a compressor, the product
of which is used to pressurise the inlet manifold in a similar manner as the
supercharger. The use of exhaust gases from the engine has provided a
useful source of energy in providing boost to the inlet manifold. As more
than one-third of the energy that should be derived from the combustion
of the fuel in the cylinders is lost through the exhaust gases, any useful
work obtained from them is an asset to the performance of the engine.
9.2 Turbocharger Location and Drive.

The turbocharger consists primarily of a fan or compressor which is
driven by a turbine which in turn is driven by the exhaust gases of the
engine. (See Fig. 9-1.)
IMPELLER OR COMPRESSOR
Figure 9-1
108
TURBOCHARGING
Just as with the supercharger, the turbocharger compressor increases the

pressure in the inlet manifold to increase the weight of charge of
the mixture entering the cylinders. The turbocharger turbine is located
in the exhaust system and the compressor element is situated between the
air intake and the carburettor or injector, unlike the supercharger which
is normally positioned between the carburettor and the inlet manifold.
9.3 The Turbocharger.

A turbocharger consists of a turbine wheel and an impeller (sometimes
termed the compressor, fan or blower), mounted on a common shaft, the
bearings for which are contained within a bearing housing and are lubri-
cated by oil from the engine lubrication system. The turbine and
compressor casings are attached to the bearing housing and are connected
to the exhaust and intake systems respectively. The compressor is shielded
from the heat of the turbine, and an intake of external air is ducted
between the two casings to remove excessheat. The turbocharger is not
necessarily an integral part of the engine, on most engines it is not, but
may be mounted on the engine or on the fireproofbulkhead, and shielded
from combustible fluid lines in the engine bay.
Figure 9-2 shows an operational diagram of a turbocharger .
Figure 9-2 Turbocharger.
109
PISTON ENGINES
Engine exhaust gases are ducted to the turbine casing, where they pass
through nozzles and impinge on vanes on the turbine wheel causing it to
rotate; the gases then pass between the vanes and are exhausted over-
board. As the impeller is attached to the same shaft as the turbine wheel
it also rotates, drawing in air from the intake duct and throwing it
outwards at high velocity through diffuser vanes in the compressor
casing; these vanes convert the velocity energy into pressure energy, and
the compressed air is delivered to the engine.
9.4 Turbocharger Operation.

For any particular power output the turbocharger delivers a fixed weight
of air to the engine in a given time, and, since the density of air decreases
with altitude, a greater volume of air is compressed and the impeller
rotates faster at high altitude than it does at low altitude. Therefore, some
form of control over compressor output must be provided, and this is
achieved by varying the quantity of exhaust gas passing to the turbine. A
turbine by-pass, in the form of an alternative exhaust duct, is fitted with
a valve, known as the waste gate, which regulates the degree of opening
of the by-pass. When the waste gate is fully open nearly all the exhaust
gasespass to atmosphere, but as the waste gate closes gases are directed
to the turbine, and the maximum turbine speed is reached when the waste
gate is fully closed. The waste gate may be manually controlled by the
pilot, or more usually on modern turbochargers be controlled automati-
cally to prevent over-boosting the engine. Figure 9-3 is a diagram of a
turbocharger system.
In an automatic control system, the waste gate is mechanically
connected to an actuator, the position of which depends on the opposing
forces of a spring and. engine oil pressure. The spring tends to open the
waste gate and engine oil pressure tends to close it. Engine oil pressure is
fed to the actuator through a restrictor, and the waste gate controllers are
placed in the return line as shown in Fig. 9-3. When a controller opens the
return line, oil flows from the actuator and then through the controller
back to the engine sump, and pressure in the actuator falls. The extent to
which the oil pressure will fall depends on the size of the bleed through
the controllers; the larger the bleed the lower the oil pressure will drop.
Therefore oil pressure in the actuator is controlled to regulate the posi-
tion of the waste gate according to engine requirements. Various types of
controllers may be used to vary the waste gate actuator pressure, and
these will be discussed in later paragraphs.
110
TURBOCHARGING
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9.5 Operation of the Waste Gate.

Some simple turbocharger systems use a single controller, called an
Absolute Pressure Controller, which is designed to prevent the
turbocharger outlet pressure from exceeding a specified maximum; this
type of controller is shown in Fig. 9-4. At low power settings full oil pres-
sure is applied to the waste gate actuator, which closes the waste gate and
diverts all exhaust gases through the turbine. As the throttle is opened,
engine speed increases, and more exhaust gas passesthrough the turbine;
this results in an increase in the speed of rotation of the turbine and
impeller, and produces a higher turbocharger outlet pressure which is
communicated to the capsule chamber in the Absolute Pressure
Controller. When the controlled outlet pressure is reached, the capsule is
compressed sufficiently to open its bleed valve and thus bleed off oil pres-
sure from below the waste gate actuator piston. The piston moves down
under spring pressure and starts to open the waste gate, diverting exhaust
gas from the turbine and reducing its speed. Thus at high power settings
at low altitude the waste gate is almost fully open, but as the aircraft
climbs and more air has to be compressed it is gradually closed until, at
critical altitude (equivalent to Rated Altitude on an internally driven
supercharger) it is fully closed. Above this height both manifold pressure
and power output will decrease, even though the turbocharger is oper-
ating at its maximum speed.
It should be noted that, since the speed of the impeller increases with
altitude, the temperature of the charge will also increase, and this will
reduce power output for a given manifold pressure and engine speed.
Engine oil and cylinder temperatures will also increase as a result of the
higher combustion temperatures.
Figure 9--4 Absolute Pressure Control14

TURBOCHARGJNG
9.6 Variable Pressure Controller .

A variation of the single controller is the Variable Pressure Controller (see
Fig. 9-5) which is similar to the variable datum control for internally
driven superchargers. A cam, operated by a linkage from the throttle
control lever, adjusts the datum of the valve in the Variable Pressure
Controller, so controlling the degree of opening of the waste gate and
producing a manifold pressure which is related to the power setting of the
throttle lever. Operation of this system is otherwise similar to the opera-
tion of the Absolute Pressure Controller .
Figure 9-5 is an operational diagram of a Variable Pressure Controller.
Figure 9-5 Variable Pressure Controller.
9.7 Dual Control Unit System.

On some ground boosted turbochargers a dual unit control system is used
to adjust waste gate actuator oil pressure; the units are the Density
Controller and the Differential Pressure Controller, which are installed
as shown in Fig. 9-6.
113
PISTON ENGINES
Figure 9-6 Dual Unit Controller.
(a) The Density Controller.

The Density Controller is designed to prevent the turbocharger
output from exceeding the limiting pressure; it regulates oil pressure
only at full throttle and up to the turbocharger's critical altitude. The
capsule is normally filled with dry nitrogen and is sensitive both to
temperature and to pressure changes. Contraction or expansion of
the capsule varies the quantity of oil bled from the waste gate actu-
ator and repositions the waste gate, thus maintaining a constant
density at full throttle.
(b) The Differential Pressure Controller.

This component controls the waste gate at all positions of the throttle
other than fully open. A diaphragm divides a chamber which has the
turbocharger outlet pressure on one side and inlet manifold pressure
on the other, therefore responding to the pressure drop across the
throttle valve. The bleed valve is fully closed at full throttle, when
the pressure drop is least, and gradually opens as the throttle is closed
and the pressure drop increases. The controller therefore opens the
waste gate as the throttle is closed, and reduces turbocharger outlet
pressure in accordance with the power selected.
Figure 9-7 shows the waste gate and its basic operation.
114
TURBOCHARGING
Figure 9-7 Basic Control and Operation of Waste Gate.
Key Points -Superchargers and Turbochargers

Theory
I. BOOST PRESSURE is the pressure in the induction manifold,
measured in Ib per square inch above or below ISA.
2. MANIFOLD PRESSURE is the absolute pressure in the induction
manifold expressed in inches of mercury.
3. ST A TIC BOOST is the manifold pressure indicated on the boost
gauge when the engine is stationary and will be O Ib/sq in, or 29.92
inches of mercury .
4. Manifold and boost pressure are both measured between the
throttle valve and engine inlet valve.
115
PISTON ENGINES
5. FULL THROTTLE HEIGHT is the height at which the throttle

butterfly is fully open for any pre-selected boost or rpm. (There are
many full throttle heights)
6. RATED POWER is the maximum power at which continuous
operation is permitted.
7. Rated power is less than take-off boost.
8. RATED BOOST is the manifold pressure permitted at rated power
and rated rpm.
9. RATED ALTITUDE is the altitude at which maximum contin-
uous rpm can be maintained on a supercharged engine. For
turbocharged engines it is known as CRITICAL AL TITUDE.
10. A decrease in air temperature has the effect of increasing the
density, therefore the greater weight, of mixture pumped into the
cylinders.
High manifold pressure has the effect of increasing power and
manifold temperatures, which could cause detonation.
12 With an increase in compressor discharge pressure, the fuel flow
will increase.
13. The primary purpose of the supercharger/turbocharger is to
increase the mass charge entering the cylinder .
14. The function of the supercharger/turbocharger is to increase power
output and maintain sea level conditions at altitude.
15. Diffuser vanes are fitted to the outlet side of the compressor, to
form divergent passages, to convert kinetic energy to pressure
energy.
16. The'temperature of the mixture/air passing through the super-
charger/turbocharger will increase.
7. A normally aspirated engine climbing from sea level to 20,000 ft
altitude, at constant rpm, will lose approximately 50% of the
maximum power available.
18. The supercharger/turbochargers are lubricated by the engine lubri-
cation system and both use A V GAS as fuel.
Superchargers
I. An internally-driven supercharger is driven by the engine crank-
shaft and rotates at approximately six to twelve times crankshaft
speed.
116
TURBOCHARGING
2. The normal position of a supercharger is between the carburet tor

and the engine inlet manifold.
3. One of the effects of supercharging an engine.is that power is lost
at the crankshaft.
4. A limit is imposed on the amount of supercharging which can be
tolerated by an engine; this occurs at maximum boost on the take-
off (maximum rpm).
5. The fuel and air are mixed before passing into the supercharger and
enter the eye of the impeller, leaving at the periphery.
6. During climb at constant manifold pressure, the power due to
supercharging will increase.
7. Up to rated altitude, the power output of a supercharged engine will
increase, due to improved volumetric efficiency through a decrease
both in temperature and in exhaust back pressure; above this alti-
tude, power will decrease.
8 At full power on the runway at take-off, the throttle butterfly is only
partially open.
9 A two-stage supercharger has two rotating impellers, with the
outlet from the first delivering to the inlet of the second.
10. A two-speed supercharger rotates at low speed at low altitude, high
speed at high altitude and increases the boost available under all
flight conditions.
When increasing altitude, the two-speed supercharger high speed
gear is selected at an altitude slightly in excessof the low speed gear
full throttle height.
12. As a supercharged engine climbs, the power available and power
required tend to move together .
13. An automatic boost control unit is a device which maintains rated
boost by progressively opening the throttle butterfly as the aircraft
climbs and vice versa when descending.
14. The automatic boost control capsule is made sensitive to manifold
boost pressure.
15 A variable datum cam on top of the automatic boost control
capsule chamber allows the boost pressure datum to be varied with
throttle lever movement.
PISTON ENGINES
16. If the capsule of the automatic boost control unit were to be punc-
tured in normal cruise flight, then the manifold boost pressure
would rise.
7. A leak in the capsule chamber would cause a higher boost setting
than selected.
18. If there is a fault in the automatic boost control unit which allows
the throttle to progressively open above that selected, the throttle
must be retarded manually.
19. To reduce the risk of detonation, an intercooler may be fitted
between the two compressors of the two-stage supercharger .
20. The intercooler is cooled by ram air.
Turbochargers
I. A TURBOCHARGER consists of a compressor driven by a
turbine, which, in turn, is driven by exhaust gases.
2. A turbocharger designed to maintain sea level pressure at altitude
is called an ALTITUDE TURBOCHARGER.
3. A turbocharger designed to maintain a higher than sea level pres-
sure at all altitudes is known as a GROUND BOOSTED
TURBOCHARGER.
4. The manifold pressure of a turbocharged engine is determined by
the throttle butterfly position.
5. The waste gate of a turbocharger is fitted in the exhaust manifold;
it regulates the quantity of exhaust gasesbypassing the turbine.
6. The waste gate position is determined by a controller that is sensi~
tive to turbocharger discharge pressure or density.
7. The ABSOLUTE PRESSURE CONTROLLER is designed to
prevent turbocharger output exceeding the desigri maximum pres-
sure under any conditions.
8. A V ARIABLE PRESSURE CONTROLLER adjusts the position
of the waste gate in relation to throttle position.
9. At idle or low manifold pressure conditions, the turbocharger waste
gate is normally closed.
10. In a turbocharged engine, opening the throttle below maximum
manifold pressure will increase the boost pressure.
118
TURBOCHARGING
II With a turbocharger and at a constant throttle setting, the mani-

fold pressure remains constant as the aircraft climbs.
12. The position of the throttle for take-off is determined by the over-
boosting warning light.
13. If the waste gate were to seize before the throttle was fully open
during a continuous climb, engine power would decrease.
14. In the event of an engine shut-down in flight, restarting a

turbocharged engine, compared to a normally aspirated engine, is
more difficult.
15. An exhaust manifold leak upstream of the turbocharger will cause
a loss of engine power at altitude.
16. On the descent, with low power set, the turbocharger waste gate is
fully closed.
17. If the turbocharger fails, the relief doors will open and supply air to
the manifold.
18. BOOTSTRAPPING is a term used to describe unstable conditions
of the inlet manifold pressure, caused by changes in gas flow or gas
temperature.
19. When increasing power with a turbocharger, care must be taken to
prevent bootstrapping.
20. As a turbocharged engine climbs, the cylinder head temperature
will increase, due to maintaining manifold pressure as the aircraft
climbs.
119
PISTON ENGINES
Turbocharging
1. The waste gate of a turbocharger is normally operated, when being
closed by:
(a) spring pressure.

(b) engine lubrication system oil pressure.
(c) engine hydraulic system oil pressure.
Ref.9.4.
2. The impeller of a turbocharger of an aircraft in a climb at constant
engine rpm, will:
(a) increase with altitude.
(b) reduce with increase of altitude.
(c) remain constant until full throttle height is reached.
Ref. 9.5.
3. On an aircraft flying at a specific height and constant rpm, as the
throttle is then slowly closed:
(a) the waste gate will fully close.
(b) the waste gate will slowly open.
(c) the waste gate will remain in the same position.
Ref. 9.7.
4. The turbocharger impeller is situated:
(a) prior to the fuel injector.
(b) after the carburet tor .
(c) in the exhaust system.
Ref. 9.2.
5. Turbocharger main bearings are lubricated by:

(a) the engine hydraulic system.
(b) the engine lubrication system.
(c) grease packs.
Ref. 9.3.
120
TURBOCHARGING
6. The turbocharger impeller is:

(a) driven by intake ram air .
(b) driven by exhaust gases.
(c) mounted on the same shaft as the turbine.
Ref.9.3
7. The impeller of a turbocharger:
(a) draws air through the intake air duct.
(b) draws air through the carburet tor intake duct.
(c) draws air through the turbine guide nozzles.
Ref. 9.3.
8. The waste gate is:

(a) hydraulically operated when being opened.
(b) mechanically connected to the actuator.
(c) electrically trimmed.
Ref. 9.4.
9. The degree of opening of the waste gate is controlled by

(a) the actuator and spring.
(b) the engine lubrication system.
(c) the Variable Pressure Controller.
Ref. 9.6.
10. If a leak occurs in the exhaust system prior to the turbocharger
turbine, the:
(a) waste gate will fail to operate.
(b) boost pressure will be reduced.
(c) the waste gate will open.
Ref.9.4.
121
10
Piston Aero-Engine Operation and

Performance
10.1 I ntroduction .
This chapter is primarily devoted to a supercharged engine driving a

propeller fitted with a constant speed unit.
10.2 Precautions Before Engine Starting.

Before starting a supercharged piston engine, the following points should
be noted.
(a) Cooling.
If practicable the aircraft should be positioned facing into wind to
achi~ve the best possible cooling from the air when the engine is
runnIng.
(b) Hydraulicing.
If the engine has been standing without being run for some time, the
engine should be turned over, preferably by hand, for at least two
revolutions of the propeller in order to break down the film of oil
which will have formed on the cylinder walls of the engine.
If the engine is of inverted or radial type, it is possible that oil may
drain past the piston rings and collect in the combustion chambers of
the inverted cylinders. Attempting to start an engine in this condition
may create hydraulic shocks, known as hydraulicing, of a magnitude
sufficient to cause serious damage to the engine. To avoid
hydraulicingthe propeller should be turned through two complete
revolutions in order to eject the collection of oil from the combustion
chambers through the exhaust manifold. If resistance is felt to turning
the propeller it may be necessary to remove the sparking plugs to
drain the offending oil before the propeller can be turned.
122
PISTON AERO-ENGINE OPERATION AND PERFORMANCE
(c) Static Boost.

While the engine is static, with the aircraft on the ground, the boost
gauge should ~ read prior to starting the engine. The indicated boost
in this situation is termed 'STATIC BOOST'. It i.simportant that the
indicated static boost reading be noted and remembered.
The boost gauge will read the pressure that exists in the inlet mani-
fold with the engine stationary. If the pressure in the manifold is mean
sea level atmospheric pressure of 14.7 Ib/sq inch or 1013 millibars,
then the boost gauge will read 'zero'. As atmospheric pressure varies,
so the gauge will read above or below zero. Whatever the indicated
reading in these static conditions, it is termed 'STATIC BOOST'.
Static boost should be studied in conjunction with 'Reference
Revolutions'. (f overleaf)
(d) Engine Priming (Manually).

The fuel lines to the engine should be fully primed, that is to say filled
with fuel, prior to engine starting. On engines fitted with conventional
carburet tors, priming is normally carried out by operation, in the
cockpit, of a manual fuel priming pump, usually of a plunger type.
(See Fig. 10-1.) The pump simply draws fuel from the fuel system and
sprays it direct, through small jets, into the inlet manifold, by-passing
the carburet tor .
Figure 10-1 Hand-operated Priming Pump.
The plunger of such pumps, must not be left extended when the engine is
being started. On completion of priming the plunger must be pushed fully
in and secured. Failure to secure the plunger can result in fuel being drawn
through the pump when the engine is started, and supplied direct to the
inlet manifold. This action, coupled with the fuel/air mixture being drawn
through the carburet tor, will result in a very rich mixture at the cylinder
inlet valves and will probably result in the engine stalling. Hand-operated
123
PISTON ENGINES
priming pumps should be operated in accordance with the aircraft

manual, normally however, the pump is operated until resistance is felt.
(e) Engine Priming (Electrically).

The fuel lines to the engine should be fully primed in the same way as
in the manually-primed system. In the electrically-primed system the
manually-operated pump is replaced by an electrically-driven pump
operated by a switch or push button in the cockpit. On engines fitted
with fuel injection systems priming is carried out electrically, the
booster pump being switched on in the cockpit, the system being
primed with fuel and the booster pump then switched off before any
attempt is made to start the engine.
(t) Reference Revolutions.

On starting the engine the indicated boost will fall, this is primarily
due to the increased velocity of the mixture in the inlet manifold
causing a decrease in pressure. To restore the manifold pressure to
that indicated at static boost, the throttle must be opened further.
When the indicated boost reading is the same as at static boost, the
indicated rpm is reference revolutions.
10.3 Take-off.
The boost required is normally set or selected prior to take-off.
Carburet tor heating must also be switched off during the take-off run
unless it is absolutely essential. Failure to switch off carburet tor heating
will result in a loss of power .
The loss of power as a result of carburet tor heating being selected is due
to the reduction in air density at the carburet tor intake as a result of
increased temperature by the anti-icing heater. A considerable loss of
power is incurred during the initial take-off run due to loss of ram air
effect.
Prior to take-off, the engine should be run up to at least the static boost
reading (ref-revs), or to the highest boost that can be held on the brakes.
The purpose of this is to clear the plugs and also clear the supercharger
of any residual fuel sticking to the casing.
10.4 Engine Temperatures.

It is important to watch the engine cylinder head temperature and/or
coolant and oil temperatures, and to keep them within the limitations.
The cooling of air-cooled cylinders is controlled by the setting of gills
which in general should be:
124
(i) Fully open for all ground operations, or running, provided the
engine has reached normal operating temperature or + 100 degrees
centigrade.
(ii) Closed or part open for take-off.
(iii) Adjusted in flight as required.
If the gills or cooling ducts are closed, drag is minimised and during
take-off safety speed is reached earlier. On the majority of aircraft the
cowling gills are controlled by switches marked 'Open', 'Off and
'Closed'. To operate the gill motor, the switch is depressed and the gills
set as required; when the desired position is reached, as shown by the gill
position indicator, the switch should be turned off.
The cooling of liquid-cooled engines is almost always regulated auto-
matically, but the pilot may have control of the air through the radiator.
Radiator shutters should be open only as much as required for adequate
cooling, in order not to increase drag.
Temperatures of all types of engines can be reduced by climbing the
aircraft some 10 to 15 knots faster than the recommended climbing IAS
without seriously affecting the rate of climb. Climbing with weak
mixtures may lead to high temperatures.
On liquid-cooled engines the oil cooler is normally incorporated in the
coolant radiator assembly and control is automatic.
10.5 Mixture Setting (Manual Mixture Control).

On engines with manual mixture controls, the mixture must be set to rich
before the boost is raised to a value greater than that specified for the
maximum weak mixture.
10.6 Automatic Mixture Control.

There are two main methods of automatic mixture regulation:
(a) The throttle lever is set to give not more than the maximum weak
mixture boost, therefore ensuring that the mixture is correctly set.
(b) The throttle is set at or behind the economical cruise position
marked on the quadrant.
With engines using method (a) some cafe is necessary, particularly
when flying at or near full throttle height, to ensure that rich mixture is
not being used inadvertently. To ensure that weak mixture is in use under
these conditions, the throttle should be opened fully and then slowly
closed until the boost starts to fall; this position will then give the required
125
PISTON ENGINES
weak mixture setting. If at any time the fuel consumption becomes high,
a check should be made to see that weak mixture is in fact being used.
10.7 Climbing.
On most aircraft the rpm and boost are automatically maintained at the
values set by the pilot until the full throttle height for that power is
reached. If the climb is continued above this height the boost then falls
progressively.
Some Common Faults.
(a) On engine starting, black smoke is seen coming from the exhaust
"r , ,
mamIOIO:
Mixture too rich.
(b) On engine starting, blue smoke is seen coming from the exhaust
manifold:
Oil leaking into the combustion chamber past the piston rings.
(c) On engine starting, black smoke is seen coming from the exhaust
manifold, mixture setting is correct, throttle setting is correct:
Engine is overprimed.
Manual priming pump has not been locked and is allowing addi-
tional fuel into the inlet manifold.
(d) Engine idle rpm is difficult to maintain for the correct throttle
setting:
VP Prop ground fine, or extra fine has not been selected.
(e) During ground running, engine temperature rises above normal:
Engine cooling gills or shutters are fully closed or not in the
recommended position.
(f) During taxying the engine tends to overheat:
Engine cooling gills or shutters in closed position; normally,
should be kept in fully open position during taxying.
(g) During take-off, a loss of power is experienced for a given rpm and
boost.
Carburettor warm air is selected. During take-off this should be
selected only if it is absolutely necessary.
126
(h) A backfire occurs during starting on an aircraft with an updraught

carburet tor .
Warm air is selected, this must be avoided or it may result in
priming fuel igniting and causing a serious fire.
(i) When throttling back (closing throttle), for example on final
approach, engine "backfires" coupled with a rapid rise in inlet mani-
fold pressure.
Throttle is closed too quickly causing boost reversal.
0) When descending from altitude, in an aircraft fitted with automatic
boost control, boost pressure rises excessively.
Waste gate is possibly seized in the closed position. Engine
must be controlled on the throttle to reduce the overboosting.
127
~
PISTON ENGINES
Practice Paper 1
The 'Otto' cycle is:
(a) induction, power, compression, exhaust.
(b) compression, induction, power, exhaust.
(c) exhaust, induction, power, compression.
(d) compression, power, exhaust, induction.
Ref. 2.2
(d) a ratio of area and volume
Ref. 2.3
3. The inlet valve of a piston engine:

(a) opens after top dead centre to ensure maximum weight of charge
is induced.
(b) opens before top dead centre to ensure maximuniweight of charge
is induced.
(c) opens after the exhaust valve to ensure fire in the inlet manifold is
avoided.
(d) opens before the exhaust valve closes to reduce the temperature
in the exhaust manifold.
Ref. 2.6a
4. The primary function of duplicated valve springs is to:
(a) provide a back up spring if one should break.
(b) ensure a gas tight seal is made between valve and valve seat.
(c) minimise valve bounce.
(d) increase cooling surfaces.
Ref.2.10
128
5. The camshaft of a piston engine rotates:

(a) at the same speed as the crankshaft.
(b) at twice the speed of the crankshaft.
(c) at four times the speed of the crankshaft.
(d) at half the speed of the crankshaft.
Ref.2.11
6. As the piston is forced down the cylinder on the power stroke:
(a) the gas temperature will increase.
(6) the gas pressure will progressively increase.
(c) the gas temperature will reduce.
(d) the gas temperature and pressure will remain constant.
Ref. 2.3c
7. The space above the oil in a dry sump lubrication system oil tank:
(a) is to allow for oil displacement by the pressure pump control
piston.
(b) is to allow for oil expansion and frothing.
(c) provides for tank pressurisation.
(d) allows for scavenge pump ram displacement.
Ref. 3.5
8. The output pressure of the pressure pump of a dry sump lubrication

system is controlled by:
(a) a relief valve.
(b) the movement of the swash plate.
(c) the operation of the scavenge pump.
(d) the pressure plate displacement piston.
Ref. 3.5c
129
PISTON ENGINES
9. In a dry sump lubrication system:

(a) return oil is collected direct from the oilways by the
pump.
(b) return oil drains into the sump and is then scavenged.
(c) the engine sump is eliminated to save weight.
(d) oil is fed direct to the bearings and returned direct to the tank.
Ref. 3.5h
10. The scavenge pump:
(a) has a lower pumping capacity than the pressure pump.
(b) normally is of a swashplate design.
(c) scavengesat the same rate as oil is pumped into the system.
(d) has a greater pumping capacity than the pressure pump.
Ref. 3.5h
II. Aircraft piston engine lubrication systems:
(a) are normally of the wet sump type.
(b) are normally of the dry sump type.
(c) are ofa sumpless type.
(d) are ofa compound lubrication type.
Ref. 3.5
12. The by-pass valve in a dry sump lubrication system is:

(a) to allow oil to by-pass the sump when maximum pressure is
reached.
(b) to allow oil to by-pass the filter when the element is blocked.
(c) to allow oil to by-pass the auxiliary system until normal operating
temperature is reached.
(d) to allow oil to by-pass the cooler.
Ref. 3.5
130
3. A condenser is fitted to the distributor to:

(a) minimise arcing at the points.
(b) reduce the speed of collapse of the magnetic field
(c) intensify arcing at the points.
(d) control and direct the high tension impulses.
Ref. 4.7e
14. On a four-stroke engine the spark will occur:

(a) once each revolution.
(b) twice each revolution.
(c) once every two revolutions.
(d) four times each revolution.
Ref.4.10
15. In flight, if the mixture weakens, for efficiency, the ignition timing
should be:
(a) advanced.
(b) retarded to TDC.
(c) retarded to before TDC.
(d) unaltered.
Ref.4.19c
16. Vapour locks are prevented from forming in fuel system pipelines by:
(a) the main fuel pump.
(b) ram air fuel tank pressurisation.
(c) the fitting of booster pumps.
(d) swash plate pumps.
Ref. 5.7a
17. Booster pumps are:

(a) mechanically driven and electrically selected
(b) electrically driven.
(c) air driven for safety.
(d) driven by the hydraulic system.
Ref. 5.7a
131
PISTON ENGINES
18. The engine fuel pressure warning light flickers in flight:

(a) the booster pump should be switched on.
(b) the collector pump should be switched on.
(c) the main fuel pump should be switched on.
(d) the booster pump should be switched off.
Ref. 5.7
19. The pressure balance duct of a basic carburettor is:
(a) connected between the carburettor intake and the float chamber.
(b) providing a pressurised (above atmospheric) space above the fuel
in the float chamber .
(c) connected between the diffuser and the float chamber.
(d) connected between the choke and the float chamber.
Ref.7.3a
20. When the throttle is opened rapidly, additional fuel is supplied to the
engine by:
(a) the choke jet.
(b) the enrichment jet.
(c) the accelerator pump.
(d) the power jet.
Ref. 7.3f
21. A supercharger is normally located:

(a) prior to the carburettor .
(b) between the carburettor and the inlet manifold
(c) in the exhaust manifold.
(d) in the exhaust manifold by-pass duct.
Ref. 8.2
22. Vibration in a supercharger may be reduced by
(a) a spring drive mechanism.
(b) a friction clutch.
(c) hydraulic drive.
(d) mechanical overload diffusers.
Ref. 8.2
32
23. When the engine is started on a supercharged engine, manifold

...
pressure WIU:
(a) rapidly rise.
(b) slowly rise.
( c) remain constant.
(d) fall.
Ref. 8.4
24. A given boost, can be maintained at a given rpm up to an altitude
which is known as:
(a) critical height.
(b) rated boost altitude.
(c) rated throttle height.
(d) full throttle height.
Ref. 8.8.
25. An intercooler is sometimes fitted between the supercharger and inlet
manifold:
(a) to reduce pre-ignition.
(b) to minimise detonation.
(c) to reduce the weight of charge.
(d) to increase the combustion temperature.
Ref.8.13
26. The impeller of a supercharger rotates at:
(a) twice the speed of the crankshaft.
(b) four times the speed of the crankshaft.
(c) twenty times the speed of the crankshaft.
(d) nine to ten times the speed of the crankshaft.
Ref. 8.2
133
PISTON ENGINES
27. The impeller of a turbocharger:

(a) reduces rpm with increase of altitude.
(b) rotates at a constant rpm with variations of altitude controlled by
the waste gate.
(c) increases rpm with increase of altitude for a given waste gate
setting.
(d) will reduce rpm with increase of altitude as the waste gate closes.
Ref. 9.4
28. A turbocharger's rpm is regulated by:
(a) the waste gate.
(b) the impeller rpm.
(c) hydraulic system oil pressure.
(d) spring pressure.

Ref. 9.4
29. As the throttle is being closed, when the aircraft is flying straight and
level at altitude, the waste gate will:
(a) remain fully open.
(b) move to the fully closed position.
(c) move towards tQe open position.
(d) remain in the same position.
Ref.9.7
30. On engine starting, the waste gate will:
(a) move towards the closed position.
(b) remain fully open.
(c) remain in the same position as that prior to starting.
(d) move to the fully closed position.
Ref.9.10
134

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Contents

Part 1 Piston Engines

Structure 2 Engine Mounting 3

Section 2 Four-Stroke Piston Engines 4

Section 3 Piston Engine Lubrication 21

Section 4 Piston Engine Ignition 30

Section 5 Fuel Systems 54

Pumps 56 Booster Pumps, Transfer Pumps and Transfer

Section 6 Cooling Systems 64

Section 7 Float Chamber Carburet tors and Fuel Injectors 69

Section 10 Piston Aero-Engine Operation and Performance

Part 2 Gas Turbine Engines

137 Thrust and Propulsive Efficiency 139 The Effects of Ram,

Section 3 Combustion Systems

Section 4a Exhaust System

Section 4c Thrust Reversal

Section 5 Fuel Systems

Section 6 Engine Starting Systems 218

Section 7 Lubrication Systems

Section 8 Fire Protection

Section 9 Ice Protection Systems

Section 10 Engine Performance and Handling

Section 11 Gas Turbine Controls and Instrumentation

Thrust (and Power for Turboprops) 267 Turbine Discharge

Section 12 The Modern Gas Turbine Engine

Section 2 Types of Propeller

Section 3 Basic Variable Pitch Requirements

Section 4 Single-Acting Variable Pitch Propeller

Section 5 Piston Engine Constant Speed Unit

Section 6 Double-Acting Propellers

Section 7 Feathering Propellers (Piston-Engined Aircraft)

Section 8 Electrically-Operated Variable Pitch Propellers

Section 9 Turbopropellers 360

Section 10 Propeller Inspection and Limitations

Section 11 Propeller De-Icing

Section 12 Performance and Design

Final Practice Questions 392

FLAT "H" IN LINE

Figure 1-1 Typical Cylinder Arrangements.

It is usual to classify a piston aero-engine by its method of cooling and the

1.2 General Functional Description.

All internal combustion piston engines consist of the following systems

(a) Mechanical System.

(b) Lubrication system.

(c) Cooling System.

(d) Fuel System.

(e) Ignition System.

1.3 The Engine Structure.

{c) Supercharger assembly.

1.4 Engine Mounting.

Figure 1-2 Engine Bearer and Firewall.

Figure 2-1 Basic Components of the Piston Engine.

The purpose of a piston engine is to convert heat energy into mechanical

2.2 The Four-Stroke Cycle.

2.3 Principle of Operation.