Psicologia USP , 2019, volume 30, e180164 1-12

1
Article
Conceptions of learning among Portuguese students of Elementary Education
Ana Isa Figueiraa*
António M. Duarteb
a
National Agency for Qualification and Vocational Education and Training. Lisbon, Portugal
b
University of Lisbon, Faculty of Psychology. Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract: The aim of this study is to understand the conceptions of learning of elementary Portuguese students, by
investigating possible replications and innovations in relation to the conceptions identified by phenomenographic
research. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, centered on three dimensions of conceptions of learning:
referential (what is learning), procedural (how to learn), contextual (where one learns). Intermediate thematic analysis
of the answers to the interviews showed a correspondence between observed learning conceptions and the basic
conceptions revealed by Phenomenography (e.g., learning as accumulation of information, as comprehension
or as a way to obtain school grades) and also allowed to unveil the existence of new conceptions of learning,
which represent learning as the performance of specific activities, a return of information by explanation, or as an
outcome achievable through personal and autonomous effort.

Keywords: basic education, conceptions of learning, learning.

Introduction of obtaining pleasure and personal satisfaction (Entwistle

& Ramsden, 1983), allied to a deep-level strategy, which
The phenomenon of learning within an educational implies the attempt to understand the learning contents.
context is today an important object of research, which Based on this differentiation, phenomenography
aims not only to describe and understand it, but also to focused on the individual experience of learning, studying
develop policies to improve the quality and success of how individuals represent this experience, with the objective
learning. One of the theories that focus on learning in of analyzing their variation through qualitative methodologies
educational context, seeking to deepen our understanding (Marton & Booth, 1997). This approach thus focuses on
about it, is phenomenography, which soon began to the learning experience as a source of meaning production,
address specifically the students’ conception of learning although it does not consider it a crystallized internal
(Marton, Dall’Alba, & Beaty, 1993; Säljö, 1984). This construction, but rather an interactive configuration, based
theory had its genesis in the study of Marton and Säljö on the experiences of the individual in various learning
(1976), who sought to understand how students related situations and inserted within an extended social context
to a specific learning task (e.g. reading comprehension). that influences it (Hewitt & Rose-Adams, 2012; Khan, 2014;
In this study, the authors observed differences in the Marton & Booth, 1997; Wong & Lo, 2012).
manner in which the students approached the task. The Phenomenographic research on students’
concept of approach to learning derived from this study conceptions of learning, which has focused mainly
concerns how students are confronted with learning on higher education students, has made it possible
tasks, allowing the understanding of the variability and to distinguish two basic types of representations: the
complexity of learning processes. According to SAL “quantitative” conception and the “qualitative” conception
(student approach to learning) research, approaches to of learning (Biggs, 1990). The quantitative conception
learning can be classified either as a “surface approach” views learning as a mechanical and stereotyped process of
or as a “deep-level approach” to learning (Biggs, 1987). information accumulation (Saban, Koçbeker-Eid & Saban,
The surface approach is characterized by an 2014; Wang & Tsai, 2012). The qualitative conception,
instrumental orientation, which envisages learning only on the other hand, sees learning as an active process of
to achieve the required minimum goals (Gibbs, 1992), understanding and constructing meanings, associating
in combination with the use of a surface strategy, which it with the process of personal development (Antoniadou
involves the memorization and literal reproduction of & Skoumios, 2013; Lloyd, 2013). In the framework of
information (Marton, 1981). The deep-level approach, in the quantitative conception, the basic cognitive process
turn, is directed by an intrinsic motivational orientation, inherent in learning is the mechanical memorization of
which approaches the act of learning with the intention information, while in the qualitative conception, personal
understanding and interpretation take precedence. In
* Corresponding address: [email protected] this sense, it is possible to consider that the two basic

http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0103-6564e180164
Ana Isa Figueira& António M. Duarte
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conceptions of learning are related hierarchically (Marton Conceptions of learning among Primary
& Booth, 1997; Vedenpää & Lonka, 2014). At the same Education students
time, Biggs and Moore (1993) suggest the existence of
a third basic conception of learning - the institutional Traditionally, phenomenographic studies that focus
conception - which, by emphasizing the institutional on conceptions of learning are carried out with higher
framework of learning (e.g. the school), understands it education students or, more infrequently, with secondary
as the process of acquiring accreditation (for example, education students; and research on conceptions of
schools grades). Thus, according to this conception, learning of students in lower levels of education is scarce.
learning is considered equivalent to the process of The pioneer studies of Pramling (1983) and, more
obtaining school grades. recently, Sobel, Li & Corriveau (2007), who had children
The development of the study of the different between the ages of 3 and 8 as participants, found a
conceptions of learning allowed the identification of progression in their conception of learning from the notion
other, more specific variants besides the basic ones. of “doing” to “knowing” and later to “understanding.”
In this line, the Säljö (1979) system distinguishes five These studies have also observed a progression from a
specific conceptions of learning, with three variants of perspective that is incapable of distinguishing between
the quantitative conception and two of the qualitative “doing” and “learning to do” to another of “being able
conception, that correspondingly see learning as: an due to growing up,” that is, “by developing oneself” and
increase in knowledge; memorization and reproduction; finally, at a higher level, to a vision that expresses the
memorization and application; understanding; and idea of ​​learning through “experience.” The conceptions
reinterpretation. Later, Marton, Dall’Alba & Beaty of learning in pre-school children in the age range of 3
(1993) unveil a sixth conception, also a qualitative variant, to 6 years are more related to the desire to learn than to
which conceives learning as personal change, relating other types of mental states. Consistent with their level of
it to a process of personal development. In parallel, cognitive development, the broader perspective of active
other phenomenographic studies have observed new intentionality in learning is not yet present in lower ages.
variants of the conception of learning regarding specific The same conclusion of progressive development
dimensions - the three dimensions usually considered are: of conceptions of learning is found in the study of
the referential (what is learning), the procedural (how Sobel and Corriveau (2007), with children from 3 to
learning occurs) and the contextual (where learning takes 6 years of age. These authors sought to ascertain the
place). For example, Freire and Duarte (2010) found, children’s comprehension level in the learning process,
among Brazilian university students, new variants of analyzing their spontaneous discourse on learning a
the procedural dimension, which advocate the idea new song. The results showed that, in the lower age
that learning happens unintentionally, instinctively, by brackets (between 3 and 5 years old), children already
rehearsing or even by feeling. distinguish between what is to know and not to know,
The conception of learning is significantly related but there is no understanding of where knowledge comes
to the process and the outcome of learning, and there from or that new knowledge can be acquired. In their
is evidence that students’ conceptions of learning are study of conceptions of learning with children between
associated with their approaches to learning (e.g. the type 2 and 7 years of age, Bartsch, Horvath and Estes (2003)
of learning motivational orientation and strategy), thus also found references to “what is learned” and “who
indirectly influencing the learning outcome (Alamdarloo, learns/teaches” and less references to “when,” “how”
Moradi & Deshiri, 2013, Otunuku, Brown & Arini, 2013, and “where” learning takes place. In this study it was
Trigwell, Ashwin & Millan, 2013). Specifically, different also verified that the children referred more to learning
conceptions of learning tend to be associated with different behavior and in less frequency to learning facts.
approaches to learning, which, in turn, tend to lead to Arroz, Figueiredo and Sousa (2009) and Morais
different learning outcomes (Entwistle & Peterson, 2004; and Figueiredo (2005) (cited by Arroz et al.) observed in
Van Rossum & Schenk, 1984). Essentially, quantitative their study of Portuguese children in pre-school education
conceptions tends to relate to the surface approach, a conception of learning as a more passive process (for
which combines instrumental motivational orientation example, learning as seeing and listening to what is taught
(e.g. minimal effort, to avoid failure) with a surface and as knowing more things). However, in addition to this
strategy (e.g. mechanical memorization), and typically conception, they also observed, already at this educationa
leading to low-quality learning outcomes (Entwistle, 1988; level, a conception of learning as a more active process
Entwistle, Tait & McCune, 2000). On the other hand, the (for example, learning is doing things and is useful for the
qualitative conception tends to be related to the deep-level future). Jaidin (2008), in his study with children in Brunei
approach, which combines an intrinsic motivation (for between the ages of 8 and 11, also found conceptions of
example, involvement and personal taste for learning) a more quantitative nature (learning as acquisition and
with a deep-level strategy (for example, comprehension), learning as memorization) and of a more qualitative
which normally leads to high-quality learning outcomes character (learning as active participation - through
(Asikainen, 2014, Entwistle, Tait & McCune, 2000). group work, school projects and experiences). The greater

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 Conceptions of learning among Portuguese students of Elementary Education
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preponderance of quantitative conceptions may be partly conceptions possibly not previously observed. In this way,
explained by the teaching philosophy of the local teaching it intends to contribute to a broader understanding of the
system, that is, teaching focused on the transmission of phenomena of student representations about learning and
information to the detriment of the active participation to a better adjustment of potential interventions.
of the student in the learning process.
With an emphasis on a more schooled student Method
population, Rosário and collaborators (2006) investigated
the conceptions of learning of a sample of fifth-grade The data for this article were collected through
Portuguese students and their parents. They found that interviews about the conception of learning and a
parents and students “mostly conceptualize learning treatment of these data by content analysis, following
as an increase of knowledge and a process that occurs a qualitative approach, in a perspective inspired by
mainly through procedures, with parental help being seen phenomenography.
as very important...” (p.469). This study highlights the
emphasis placed by students on the instrumentality of Participants
learning, a result consistent with the stage of development
of their concrete thoughts. In another study, Rosario The sample was composed of sixteen students
and collaborators (2013) also studied the conceptions of from the fourth year of Basic Education who attended
learning among Romani students between 9 and 13 years Portuguese public primary schools (63% boys and 38%
of age. With an emphasis on instrumentality that the girls), with a mean age of 9 years (ranging from 9 to 10
above studies point out, these students envisage learning years old; SD = 0, 34). Eight (50%) of the participants
as a means to acquire basic numeracy and literacy skills, attended urban schools (for example, in a town with about
which are important to them in the future to help the 15,000 inhabitants) and the remaining eight (50%) a rural
family in the trade in local fairs. These students thus seem schools (for example, in a village with less than a thousand
not to value the continuation of the studies, considering inhabitants). The choice of the 4th year of schooling as
basic skills sufficient for life in the Romani society in the reference year for the constitution of the sample is
which they are inserted. due to the fact that this is the last year of a cycle, when
On the other hand, Wang and Tsai (2012) analyzed it is assumed that students would have achieved basic
the conceptions of learning among Taiwanese Basic language skills that allow them to express themselves
Education students from 10 to 12 years of age through their in an interview.
drawings. The study found that the dominant conception of The sample was convenience-drawn, its size being
learning was the passive acquisition of knowledge, in line determined by the saturation of the categories found by
with a traditionalist cultural view of education. The study the content analysis performed (for example, based on the
also showed that, in this context, with the advancement fact that from the 16th interview there were no categories
of schooling, students’ conceptions of learning tend to be found different from those found in previous interviews,
less diverse and more traditional. Contrary to this idea, which could add more knowledge).
the study of Marín, Pérez-Echeverría and Scheuer (2014)
with students of wind instruments of different school Instrument
levels, showed differences between the conceptions of
learning in the different levels. Students’ conceptions at To collect data, individual interviews were conducted
elementary levels emphasized the relationship between through a previously constructed interview guide entitled
learning conditions (e.g. practice time, repetition) and Structured Interview on Conceptions of & Approaches
learning outcomes, with little emphasis on student agency to Learning - 1st cycle (V.1), which was registered and
in the process. The students at the most advanced levels, authorized in the specialized official instance.
in turn, displayed learning processes that favored student The guide considers the six conception of learning
autonomy and reflection, also considering the musician’s dimensions that have been studied, to a greater or lesser
expression when playing the instrument. This study extent, by phenomenological research: referential (what
seems to demonstrate that students at more advanced is learning); procedural (how to learn); contextual (where
levels of schooling demonstrate conceptions of learning one learns); functional (what learning is for); factorial
more qualitative in nature, focusing on processes of (learning factors); and problems (learning problems).
constructing personal meanings. This article considered, for reasons of space limitations,
The objective of this study is to map and evaluate only the results of the first three dimensions mentioned.
the relative incidence of the conceptions of learning of For the referential dimension, the aim was to get answers
Portuguese students in the first cycle of Basic Education. about the nature of the learning phenomenon; questions
In particular, the study aimed to explore the possible were made such as “Imagine that you have to tell a kid
replication, in this context, of conceptions of learning what learning is - what would you say?” or “What is
previously identified by phenomenography (typically learning for you?” For the procedural dimension, we
with Higher Education students), as well as to unveil tried to get answers about the learning process (focusing

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on the type of cognitive operations used to learn - for Segmentation of the responses in units of analysis
example, memorization, application, comprehension, was independently performed by two analysts and later
knowledge restructuring, personal change, etc.) using also discussed to reach a consensus. In a “training” phase,
questions such as: “Imagine that you have to tell a kid analysts segmented 25% of the units of analysis and
how to learn - what would you say?” or “Imagine that a compared their segmentation. The type of segmentation
kid asked you what one has to do to learn - what would performed was deductive, using a “thematic” criterion
you say?” For the contextual dimension, we considered (Flores, 1994), considering as a unit to categorize the
the spatial subdimension (questions about places where entire response segment that addressed, by its content,
one can learn), asking the students, for example, “Imagine any of the considered conception of learning dimensions
that you have to tell a kid where one learns - what would (for example, referential, procedural or contextual).
you say?” or “Where do you think one can learn?”; To categorize the segmented units, an “intermediate”
the interpersonal subdimension (questions about who approach was used, that is, the phenomenological reference
teaches), using questions such as “Imagine that you have was used to categorize the units, whenever possible, based
to tell a kid with whom you can learn - what would you on the recurrent categories identified by previous research,
say?” or “With whom one can we learn?”; and finally, but also with sensitivity to emerging conceptions. After
in the temporal subdimension (questions about when several analysis rounds, a category system considered
one learns) with questions like “Imagine that you have stable was achieved, with the construction of a first
to tell a kid when do you learn - what would you say?” grid for the analysis of the conceptions of learning for
or “When do you learn?” each of the dimensions. Subsequently, a second grid was
elaborated with the confirmed and emerging categories.
Data collection This second grid was later used in a second analysis of
all units. Based on the results of this second analysis, a
To study was conducted with the previous final system of conception of learning categories was
informed consent of the Ministry of Education, school found, presented in the results. This last categorization,
administrations, students and their parents. which resulted in the final category system, was carried
The interviews were carried out in school facilities, out by two independent judges, in order to calculate the
such as the library or socializing rooms, and within school “inter-rater agreement,” aimed at assessing its validity.
hours, having an average duration of twenty minutes. The calculation of the “inter-rater agreement” as to the
At the beginning of each interview the study goal was categorization of each dimension was made based on the
introduced to the participants and they were informed formula suggested by Bakeman and Gottman (1986): PA
that their collaboration was voluntary and their responses = (FA / (FA + FD)) / 100; where PA means percentage
confidential. Audio recording of the interviews was of agreement, FA frequency of agreements and FD
requested for later transcription and analysis. frequency of disagreements. The value of the inter-rater
agreement was of 76.6% for the referential dimension,
Data analysis 80.3% for the procedural dimension and 85.4% for the
contextual dimension.
The processing of the collected data was In order to explore the representativeness of the
performed through a content analysis, which followed descriptive categories of the conceptions of learning
an intermediate approach between the deductive and found, the relative frequency (%) of each category in the
inductive method (Miles & Huberman, 1994), which sample of participants was accounted using the qualitative
means that it was based on previous theoretical knowledge analysis program NVivo (version 8), a software that
about the students’ conceptions of learning, attempting assists in the categorization, organization and processing
to verify their existence in the sample studied, but new of qualitative data.
emergent conceptions were also considered, particular
to the sample surveyed. This approach involved three Results
moments: the selection of a criterion of segmentation of
the answers in units of analysis to be later categorized; the Based on the content analysis of interview
development of a system of categories of analysis to apply responses presented in the previous section of Method, it
to the segmented units; and the test of the confidence was possible to observe in the sample studied a variety of
of the categories found, through inter-rater reliability conceptions of learning for each of the studied dimensions,
assessment. which are shown in Table 1.

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 Conceptions of learning among Portuguese students of Elementary Education
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Table 1. Summary of dimensions, meta-categories ans categories Table 1. Continuation
Dimension Meta-category Category Dimension Meta-category Category
Passive – Quantitative Acquire Family
Memorize With mother, father
Referencial Realize or both parents
Explain With other family
members, such
Active – Qualitative Change Contextual as cousins and
Passive – Quantitative Bein taught grandparents.
Listening/absorbing Colleagues
Reproducing Others
Memorizing Autonomously
Observing
Procedural
Applying Referential Dimension – “What is learning?”
Trial and error
Active – Qualitative Understanding For the referential dimension of the conception
Active – Effort Endeavoring of learning (Table 2), we found five different approaches
Institutional Institutional to what constitutes learning, beyond a vague notion that
does not explicitly define it. Four conceptions seem to
Spatial context School correspond to a “Passive - Quantitative” conception,
Home defining learning as: acquisition of information;
Any place memorization; performing activities involving basic
Temporal context Time of day skills such as reading, writing or arithmetic; and
Point in life explanation of learned content. These categories point
Contextual to a notion of learning as a receptive and cumulative act
Social context With support of information, which must be memorized, transmitted
Educational staff (or returned in formal terms) and applied to concrete
With teachers tasks.
With other There has also been an “Active - Qualitative”
educational staff conception that defines learning as a shift to a state of
continues... higher intelligence.

Table 2. Referential Dimension – “What is learning?”

Meta-category Category Definition Response example
Vague Non-explicit definition of the nature of learning “[Learning is] good to us”
Acquire Learning consists in acquiring information “[Learning is] knowing about new things”
Memorize Learning consists in memorization/ “[Learning is] memorizing things”
retention of information
Learning consists of activities involving
Passive – Quantitative Perform “To do things like math,
one or more of the basic learning skills make calculations, read”
(e.g. reading, writing and arithmetic)
“Explaining what things are, for
Explain Learning consists in explaining what was learned example, ask what a table is and I tell
you: it is an object made of wood”
Learning consists in shifting to a “[Learning is] to get more intelligent”
Active – Qualitative Change state of higher intelligence

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Procedural Dimension – “How to learn?” related to the idea that the learning process constitutes
a set of procedures or behaviors of passive reception of
Regarding the procedural dimension of the information.
conception of learning (Table 3), ten distinct categories In addition to these categories, we also detected an
were verified, beyond a vague notion of the learning “Active - Qualitative” conception of the learning process,
process, which does not make it explicit. In this way, which conceptualizes it as a procedure for understanding
we can observe seven categories, as expressions or school subjects. Simultaneously, an “Active - Effort”
variants of a “Passive - Quantitative” conception about conception emerged, in which one learns through personal
the learning process, which defines learning as: being effort or motivation, and which also indicates the notion
taught; listening and absorbing information; copying of the learner as an active agent of his learning process.
and reproducing information; memorizing information; Finally, an institutional category was detected -
observing behaviors; applying or exercising knowledge which equates the learning process of being promoted
or skills; and by trial and error. These categories are to the next school grade, through tests and evaluations.

Table 3. Procedural Dimension – “How to learn?”

Meta-category Category Definition Response example
Vague - Text units that do not explain “To keep on studying”
the learning process
“We have to have a school and teachers
Being taught Learning is being taught to explain, for them to learn”
Learning is to listen and assimilate “To keep quiet, not talk to colleagues
Listening/absorbing transmitted information and listen to the teacher”
Learning is to copy or reproduce “The teacher explains. She writes on
Reproducing information provided by teachers the board, we copy to the notebook”
“[People] learn by memorizing
Passive – Quantitative Memorizing Learning is memorizing information the things the teacher says”
“... we can see other people doing it and
Observing Learning is observing behaviors we are learning at the same time”
Learning is applying/exercising “One can learn by reading, copying,
Applying knowledge skills (such as writing, writing. Doing calculations, solving
reading or solving problems) problems, making numbers”
Learning is to make mistakes “We also learn when we make mistakes
Trial and error and correct them at school, we correct them and learn”
Learning is to understand school subjects not the
“... teacher explains to us, if we do
Active – Qualitative Understanding understand, she asks us again...”
“Sometimes the teacher will
admonish us, but we have to respect
Learning is achieved through
Active – Effort Endeavoring her because she admonish us but it
personal effort/motivation is for us to learn and to strive more
and, for me, that’s how we learn”
Learning is to be promoted to the next we get toweknow
“…then do the tests, and then
Institutional Institutional things and we get
grade, through tests and evaluations promoted to the next grades”

Contextual Dimension – “Where one learns?” home; or anywhere. In turn, the notion of the temporal
context of learning refers to: certain times of the day
Regarding the contextual dimension of learning (indicating timetables); and certain moments in life (for
(Table 4), the spatial, temporal and social scopes were example, in youth, in adulthood).
mentioned, as well as a vague notion of the learning With regard to the social context of learning, it
context, without being explicit. was observed that learning is viewed as something that
The conception of the spatial context of learning is given support to, which can come from educational
points to this learning being accomplished: in school; at agents (e.g. teachers and other educational agents), family

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 Conceptions of learning among Portuguese students of Elementary Education
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(e.g. mother, father, both parents, other family members), dimension, most students expressed a “Passive -
colleagues and other known people. Parallel to this, the Quantitative” conception of learning (14; 87.5%) and a
notion of learning without external support was also minority (4; 25%) expressed an “Active - Qualitative”
observed, as an activity carried out autonomously by conception. In the procedural dimension, all students
the learner. manifested a “Passive - Quantitative” conception
In this way we can verify both the perception (16; 100%), three (18.8%) an “Active - Qualitative”
of more restricted contexts of learning (for example: conception, one (6.3%) an “Active - With effort” and two
school, home, time of the day, period of life, and with (12.5%) also expressed an institutional conception. In the
support) and of broader contexts (for example: anywhere; contextual dimension, 16 (100%) of the students reported
autonomously). a spatial context and a social context for learning. The
In order to explore the categories resulting from temporal context of learning was reported by eight (50%)
the content analysis, we analyzed the representativeness of the cases. In addition, sixteen (100%) reported a
of the meta-categories (for example, relative frequency) restricted context for learning and nine (56.2%) reported
in the sample of participants considered. In the referential a broad context.

Table 4. Contextual Dimension – “Where learning occurs?”

Meta-category Category Definition Response example
Learning occurs in a school context the library;learn]
“[You can in school, ... in
School ... in kindergarten.”
Spatial context Learning occurs in a “[You can learn] at home and
Home household context at other people’s homes.”
Anywhere Learning occurs in any spatial context “… you can learn anywhere.”
Learning occurs at certain “[You can learn] from
Time of day times of the day nine to five-thirty.”
Temporal context “[You can learn] when (if)
Learning occurs at certain
Moment in life you are older... [Students]
moments in life can also be teenagers.”
Learning occurs with the external
With support support of other people
School educational agents Learning occurs with the “[You can learn] with the teachers…”
With teachers support of teachers
Learning occurs with the support
of other educational agents in “[You can learn] with the
With other educational agents the school context: educational coaches in the clubs.”
assistants, principals, coaches
Learning occurs with the
Family support of family members
“Our parents, who were also
With mother, father Learning occurs with the students, can also teach some of the
or both parents support of parents
Social context subjects we are learning at school.”
Learning occurs with the “With our family”;
With other family members,
such as cousins or grandparents support of other family “We can learn with our grandparents;”
members besides the parents “Our older cousins”
“[You can learn] with students
Learning occurs with the
Colleagues who know more than we do
support of colleagues and who are ahead of us”
“Oh, even my father’s boss
Learning occurs with the support of taught me things, he taught me
Others other people not mentioned above, how to handle machines, he
such as friends and acquaintances taught me how to use them...”
“We ourselves learn to ride a
Learning occurs autonomously,
Autonomously bicycle and sometimes we learn to
without external support do things alone, by ourselves”

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Ana Isa Figueira& António M. Duarte
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Discussion This differentiation again replicates the dichotomy
of children’s representations about the learning process
The analysis of the answers to the interviews previously found (Pramling, 1983). In addition, the
demonstrated a replication of some of the main seemingly new “Active - Effort” conception emerged,
conceptions of learning usually observed by which emphasizes the role of motivation in the learning
phenomenographic studies. In this manner, we verified process. While the “Active - Qualitative” category
the presence of a quantitative conception (for example, seems to reflect an awareness of the deep-level
learning as accumulation of information), a qualitative approach to learning (Asikainen, 2014), the “Active
conception (for example, learning as an understanding) - Effort” category seems to point to a self-regulated
and an institutional conception (for example, learning learning awareness in the sense that the students
as a means of obtaining grades). Thus, there seems already demonstrate an agency conscious of their
to be a parallelism between the conceptions found own learning process (Steketee, 1997). Both active
among the participants of this study, young students conceptions thus indicate that already at this stage
of the first grade levels, and the conceptions expressed the students seem to understand a relation between
in the samples usually studied by phenomenography, their agency and the learning of the contents. Finally,
that is, students of Higher or Secondary Education. we also observed in this dimension the replication of
In the referential dimension, we found a the institutional conception of learning, previously
correspondence between the different conceptions mentioned in the specialized literature (Biggs &
of learning of the elementary education students Moore, 1993).
interviewed and the conceptions of learning in general Regarding the contextual dimension, we
(Marton & Booth, 1997). We observed “Passive - found the dichotomy typically mentioned by
Quantitative” conceptions that seem to replicate phenomenological research between a conception of
others previously observed: learning as information a more restricted context and of a broader context
acquisition, previously detected (Wang & Tsai, 2012) of learning (Arroz, Figueiredo & Sousa, 2009;
and as memorization of information, already proposed Biggs, 1990). Effectively, learning can occur for the
by Säljö (1984). On the other hand, new conceptions interviewed students in specific contexts (e.g. school,
of the same type seem to have emerged: learning home, certain times of day or moments in life) and
as performing specific educational activities and as in broad contexts (for example, anywhere). On the
explaining or returning information. In the other pole, other hand, we observed not only the conception that
an “Active-Qualitative” conception of learning was learning can occur with external social support, but
observed: the idea that learning consists of shifting to also the conception that one can learn autonomously,
a state in which one has more intelligence (Marton, and this conception may highlight the idea that
F., Dall’Alba, G. & Beaty, 1993). This “Passive - learning is a personal and autonomous process that
Quantitative”/”Active - Qualitative” antinomy seems combines with a qualitative conception of learning,
to demonstrate that the system of learning conceptions even though students refer more to learning with
of elementary education students is an outline of the support (e.g. of educational agents, family members
differentiation between the conceptions of learning and others) and to a restricted context of learning
of the students of secondary and higher education, (e.g. school and home), which expresses a quantitative
although still little developed, as the classical studies conception of learning (Arroz, Figueiredo & Sousa,
of Pramling (1983) suggest. It also stands out the 2009; Biggs, 1990).
presence of other categories that point to basic learning Considering the representativeness of the meta-
tasks (for example, reading and writing), confirming categories found, the greater expression of both the
the concrete character of the thinking and a notion “Passive-Quantitative” conception (referential and
of instrumentality of learning tasks among these procedural dimension) and the restricted context
students, that is, the student realizes that the tasks conception (contextual dimension) is consistent
performed in the present constitute a means to achieve with the results of similar studies carried out with
quality learning (Arroz, Figueiredo & Sousa, 2009; elementary education students.
Marín & Scheuer, 2014). A possible interpretation for the predominance
In the procedural dimension we can also observe of the quantitative conception verified may be that
a differentiation among the categories that fit into a the context within which the students’ learning occurs
“Passive - Quantitative” conception of learning, which is predominantly an environment of transmission
points to processes of assimilation, memorization and and acquisition of knowledge. In fact, we know that
passive reproduction of information, in addition to the learning context influences the perceptions of
apparently new categories, such as “observing” and and the approaches to the learning process on the
“trial and error.” On the other hand, we observed part of the students (Chen & Dhillon, 2012, Diseth,
an “Active-Qualitative” conception of learning, 2013, Sabzevari, Abbaszade & Borhani, 2013). In this
which sees understanding as a learning process. way, the classroom context (for example, teachers’

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 Conceptions of learning among Portuguese students of Elementary Education
9
conceptions of learning; educational goals; teaching when addressing the question of generalizing our
methods) may influence both the conceptions of results. Sixteen interviews were conducted, which is
learning and the approaches that students use to a small sample with an exploratory purpose and with
deal with them, since the very first education levels. the aim of investigating a generalization of the theory.
Specifically, certain teaching methodologies (e.g. the Therefore, for generalizing the results to the whole
ones which focus on the transmission of information population, further research will be necessary on
and the use of less participatory modes of learning) this topic to confirm or expand the results, especially
may influence the student to adopt a surface approach with larger samples of elementary students from
to learning (Burnett & Proctor, 2002). This approach different geographic areas. Future studies to obtain
may be related, as verified in the literature review, to more knowledge about the conceptions of learning of
conceptions of learning more quantitative in nature. It primary education students should explore the effect
would be pertinent, thus, to explore and characterize of these conceptions on the structuring of curricular
in more depth the context of learning of the student areas such as Portuguese, Mathematics, Environmental
population of which the sample was obtained, in order Studies and English Language.
to verify this relation. This study also contributes to a better
We should also remember that elementary understanding of the factors influencing students’
education, attended by the participants, is based on the quality of learning, especially their conceptions of
emphasis on the acquisition of basic learning. Several learning. In terms of the implications of these results,
studies have shown that, as the student progresses it is important to consider that students’ conceptions
from one grade to the next, his or her conception of of learning probably reflect and influence in part the
learning also progresses, getting more complex and way they learn. Thus a successful and quality learning
more qualitative (e.g. learning as understanding and should be an active process, based on the notion of
personal change) (Marín, Pérez-Echeverría & Scheuer, learning as a personal construction of meanings based
2014; Marton et al., 1993). The conceptions seem to on understanding, rather than as a literal reproduction
be in line with the development of the student and and memorization of information.
of his thinking, progressing in function of time and One of the paths for achieving this quality
experience, through a growing awareness of new learning may be that of psychological intervention in
aspects related to learning. students’ conceptions of learning, either by stimulating
Considering that this study was based on a the awareness of their conceptions of learning or
qualitative methodology, using semi-structured by sharing alternative conceptions and possible
interviews for deepening the understanding of and restructuring of existing ones, through a psycho-
obtaining the perceptions of elementary education educational counseling for students. At the same
students, one of the limitations is the very process of time, teachers and other educators can stimulate the
collecting data. First-graders, a population that is still adoption of qualitative learning concepts by students
in the early stages of development (especially at the by promoting a notion of learning as an integral part
meta-cognitive level), may not find easy to structure of a progressive and continuous development, and by
and articulate their responses to a topic that is not countering a view of learning as restricted to a given
verbalized on a day-to-day basis at school and that time. On the other hand, it is important to encourage
address their psychological functioning. In this sense, the intrinsic motivation to learn, either through the
considering future studies, other complementary use of teaching practices that stimulate participation,
techniques of analysis - for example, analysis of discovery and autonomy, in an accepting, cognitively
drawings about learning and answers to interviews stimulating and emotionally intelligent educational
based on them (Wang & Tsai, 2012) - may be relevant climate. In the domain of learning strategies and the
in obtaining a more accurate understanding of the deep-level approach to learning, the importance of
conceptions of these students. a curriculum that fits the teaching and training of
On the other hand, it will be necessary to take meta-cognitive competences and self-regulation of
into account the specificity and the size of the sample learning is also well established.

Concepções de aprendizagem em estudantes portugueses do primeiro ciclo do Ensino Básico

Resumo: Pretendeu-se conhecer as concepções de aprendizagem de estudantes portugueses do 1º ciclo do Ensino Básico,
verificando a possível replicação e inovação em relação às concepções identificadas pela perspectiva fenomenográfica.
Realizaram-se entrevistas semiestruturadas centradas em três dimensões da concepção de aprendizagem: referencial (o
que é a aprendizagem), processual (como se aprende) e contextual (onde se aprende). Uma análise de conteúdo de tipo
intermédio das respostas demonstrou uma correspondência entre as concepções encontradas e as concepções básicas
reveladas pela fenomenografia (por exemplo, aprendizagem como acumulação de informação, como compreensão ou

Psicologia USP , 2019, volume 30, e180164 9

Ana Isa Figueira& António M. Duarte
10
como obtenção de classificações) e também permitiu desvendar novas concepções de aprendizagem, representando-a
como realização de atividades específicas, devolução da informação por explicação, ou realizável através do esforço pessoal
e autônomo.

Palavras-chave: aprendizagem, concepções de aprendizagem, 1º ciclo do ensino básico.

Conceptions d’apprentissage chez les élèves portugais du primaire

Résumé : Cette étude vise à comprendre les concepts d’apprentissage des étudiants portugais du primaire, en vérifiant la
réplication et l’innovation possibles par rapport aux conceptions identifiées par la perspective phénoménographique. Des
entretiens semi-structurés ont été conduits, centrés sur trois dimensions de la conception de l’apprentissage: référentiel (ce
qu’est l’apprentissage), procédural (comment on l’a appris), contextuel (où l’on apprend). Une analyse de contenu de type
intermédiaire des réponses a démontré une correspondance entre les concepts trouvés et les concepts de base révélés par la
Phénoménographie (par exemple, l’apprentissage comme accumulation d’informations, comme compréhension ou comme
obtention des classifications) et a également permis de dévoiler de nouvelles conceptions d’apprentissage, en les représentant
comme la réalisation d’activités spécifiques, le retour de l’information par explication, ou réalisables grâce à des efforts
personnels et autonomes.

Mots-clés: apprentissage, conceptions d’apprentissage, éducation de base.

Concepciones de aprendizaje de estudiantes portugueses del primer ciclo de la Enseñanza Básica

Resumen: Se pretendió conocer las concepciones de aprendizaje de estudiantes portugueses del 1.º ciclo de la enseñanza
básica y verificar la posible replicación e innovación sobre las concepciones identificadas por la perspectiva fenomenográfica.
Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas, centradas en tres dimensiones de la concepción del aprendizaje: referencial (qué
es el aprendizaje); procesual (cómo se aprende); y contextual (dónde se aprende). Un análisis de contenido de tipo intermedio
de las respuestas demostró una correspondencia entre las concepciones encontradas y las concepciones básicas reveladas por
la fenomenografía (por ejemplo, aprendizaje como acumulación de información, como comprensión o como obtención de
clasificaciones) y también permitió desvelar nuevas concepciones de aprendizaje, que la representan como una realización de
actividades específicas, como la devolución de la información por explicación, o realizable por medio del esfuerzo personal y
autónomo.

Palabras clave: aprendizaje, concepciones de aprendizaje, 1.° ciclo de la enseñanza básica.

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