School Structures That Support 21 Century Learning

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School Structures that Support 21st Century

Learning
In this report, Hanover Research looks at school design measures that contribute to
developing 21st century skills in preK-8 students. Themes covered include: flexible
learning spaces, sustainable design, community engagement, and small schools.
MARKET EVALUATION SURVEYING DATA ANALYSIS BENCHMARKING INNOVATIVE PRACTICES LITERATURE REVIEW
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
HANOVER RESEARCH PRACTICE MARCH 2011
Introduction
Most new school building construction in the United States and the United
Kingdom today is still pouring ―old wine into new bottles,‖ replicating the
30-student, 900-square-foot classrooms that both support and often dictate
teacher-directed whole-group instruction. These environments will not
support student learning of 21st century skills and will be seen in the coming
years as outmoded learning spaces requiring a building retrofit.1
As the above quote illustrates, school design in the United States and other countries
has reached a crossroads. There is a growing belief amongst policymakers, architects,
educators, parents, and students that traditional models of school design are not
conducive to teaching and learning the skills necessary for success in the 21 st
century. 21st century societies and the knowledge economy will demand higher levels
of cross-cultural understanding as well as higher levels of competency in
collaboration, persuasive communication, and critical thinking than was demanded of
any past generation. Traditional school features, such as long corridors and fixed,
immovable classroom objects are believed to inhibit the types of interactions that
develop these skills. Additionally, poorly designed and maintained schools – lacking
natural light, clean air, and a comfortable temperature – are also detrimental to
learning. In response, school districts and partnering organizations are rethinking
current design paradigms as well as the relationship between school structures and
learning outcomes. There is now consensus that learning, not teaching or other
factors, must dictate school design if current and future students are to develop 21st
century skills.
21st century skills have garnered significant attention in recent years as schools strive
to prepare their students for careers in the modern knowledge economy. While there
may be competing opinions regarding which skills should be considered fundamental
for 21st century success, any mentions of specific skills or competencies in this report
either refer to the “21st century student outcomes” identified by the Partnership for
21st Century Skills or skills that are closely related to them. This includes improving
competency in traditional core subjects as well as in more specialized subject areas
such as global awareness and media literacy. To our knowledge, these outcomes,
which feature in the Partnership‘s ―Framework for 21st Century Learning,‖ are the
most widely accepted conceptualization of the skills required for 21st century success.
The impact of school design on student learning is now well established. Georgetown
University researchers, for example, found that improving a school’s physical
1 Pearlman, B. ―Designing New Learning Environments to Support 21st Century Skills.‖ Chapter 6 in 21st Century
Skills: Rethinking How Students Learn, 2010, p. 144. http://files.solution-
tree.com/pdfs/Reproducibles_21CS/chap6_designing_new_learning_environments.pdf
2
© 2011 Hanover Research – District Administration Practice
environment can raise test scores by as much as 11 percent.2 This report looks
into specific design approaches found to promote 21st century learning in elementary
and middle school students. It is broken down into four sections – each discussing
design measures that contribute to 21st century learning. Following the fourth section
is an appendix which outlines the contents of a school design planning model. Most
of the information discussed was obtained from reports by the Partnership for 21st
Century Skills and the American Architectural Foundation – two leading
organizations in the push to design 21st century learning environments. The next
section outlines this report‘s key findings.
2―21st Century Learning Environments.‖ Partnership for 21st Century Skills, p. 7.

http://www.p21.org/documents/le_white_paper-1.pdf
3
Key Findings
Flexibility
 School and classroom design should accommodate diverse learning needs.

Space should be large enough and furniture and other classroom objects
should be easily reconfigurable to allow multiple learning activities to occur
simultaneously.
 Space should be designed in anticipation of evolving learning needs, as both
student populations and the relevance of specific subjects change over time.
 Flexible learning spaces allow for interactions and collaborative work, which
are fundamental to the development of several 21st century skills. Such skills
include: leadership, communication, teamwork, and interpersonal skills.
 Flexible schools provide space outside of classroom for collaborative work.
Such spaces include: project rooms, atriums, and courtyards.
Sustainability
 Environmental factors such as lighting, air quality, and temperature affect

student learning and should be incorporated into school design.
 Money saved from efficient lighting, ventilation, and temperature control can
be reinvested in other things that directly contribute to student achievement,
such as support staff or technological upgrades.
 Schools designed according to principles of environmental sustainability can
serve as a laboratory for students to observe the application of environmental
concepts and principles. This can help develop environmental literacy – a 21st
century skill.
Community Engagement
 Opening the design process up to community members and school

stakeholders can bring in fresh ideas and perspectives. It also lends a greater
sense of legitimacy to expert opinions.
 As demands for accountability in public spending and community investments
mount and the percentage of the population that has no direct connection to
schools grows, experts agree that districts should design schools for
community benefit rather than just student benefit.
 21st century schools are partnering with community organizations – such as
local branches of the YMCA and public libraries – to provide essential
services, allowing for the creation of more flexible learning spaces.
4
Small Schools
 A significant body of research has found that small schools contribute to

improved student achievement.
 The American Architectural Foundation and the communications director of
Smart Growth America warn that the movement toward large consolidated
schools could isolate schools from their communities.
 One study of eighth- and sixth-grade student achievement in Chicago schools
found that teachers in small schools felt a greater sense of collective
responsibility for student learning than their peers in medium-sized and large
schools, and that student math scores were better among students in small
schools than their peers in medium-sized and large schools.
5
Flexibility
Incorporating flexibility of use into the design of learning spaces is a recurring

recommendation in the literature on modern school design. In this section, we
discuss two ways in which spatial flexibility promotes 21st Century Learning. First, we
analyze the importance of spatial flexibility to meeting diverse and evolving student
needs. We then follow with a discussion on how the flexible use of space can
promote specific learning goals outlined in the Framework for 21st Century Learning.
Diverse and Evolving Student Learning Needs
There is growing recognition that the methods by which students comprehend

information ranges substantially. Differentiated instruction is an approach to teaching
that attempts to account for students‘ different learning needs. It is based on the
notion that students with varied needs can thrive under the same curriculum. The
design of learning space is central to teachers‘ ability to provide differentiated
instruction. According to James Seaman, an associate with TMP Architecture, Inc., a
flexible classroom is fundamental to a teacher’s ability to adapt to students’
needs. Seaman notes: ―If the classroom design is not agile, the space cannot adapt to
an individual or groups‘ specific needs. The design must allow for a variety of
learning environments and grouping formats that take into consideration all
learning-style profiles.‖3
Seaman lists several learning formats that classroom designers should consider when
developing a flexible classroom suitable to differentiated instruction. They include:
 Individual study and reflection;

 One-on-one instruction;
 Peer-to-peer discussion;
 Small group work;
 Large group work;
 Teacher-directed instruction; and
 Student presentation.4
A sufficiently flexible classroom would allow for learning to take place through all of
the above noted mediums.
Designing classrooms and other learning environments in a way that attends to

diverse learning needs was one of the core recommendations that came out of the
2005 National Summit on School Design, convened by the American Architectural
Foundation and the KnowledgeWorks Foundation. The summit brought together
3 Seaman, J. ―Agile and Information-Rich Learning Environments.‖ MASA Leader, 2009. p. 18.
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/schoolhouse/documents/MASALeader_Fall2010_Seaman.pdf
4 Ibid., 1.
6
over 200 participants – educators, students, architects, and community members

from all over the United States – to foster a national discussion on the principles of
school design for the 21st century. The summit‘s participants assert that attending to
diverse learning styles and interests requires a student-centered approach to school
design:
In designing schools, we must reexamine the notion of the traditional

classroom setting and focus on new learning environments that are designed
to support student achievement. Doing so requires greater flexibility in
design to accommodate a range of learning scenarios inside and outside the
school.
Participants encouraged school design that reflects research on learning to

create environments that are student centered and driven by the students’
interests. These environments allow for small group discussions and work
projects, individual workstations, and distance learning, as well as traditional
classroom settings.5
Focusing on elementary students in particular, an article from architectural firm

EE&K Architects asserts that space and furniture are more influential on learning
than many would suspect. The article suggests elementary school students need large
classrooms to accommodate the diversity of learning activities that (should) occur in
the elementary grades. It also claims that classroom furniture should be easily
reconfigurable to accommodate these activities as well as a wide range of student
sizes and movements. Regarding the latter point, the article points out that some
studies have found that 90 percent of students are sitting in chairs and at desks that
are either too high or too low for them, highlighting the need for adjustable furniture.
It further notes:
Dieter Breithecker has argued that since children sit ten hours a day on
average, school furniture should also accommodate their developmental
need to move—to shift position, rock, rotate, and roll. He suggests that
these kinds of movements are critical to intellectual growth since they
stimulate circulation and enhance attention and concentration.6
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills – the architects behind the Framework for 21st
Century Learning – proposes another argument in favor of flexible learning spaces:
they allow schools to bend and adapt to meet evolving learning needs. In time, skills
currently thought of as essential for success in the 21st century may become less
relevant, and it is paramount that schools are able to adjust to new learning
demands without significant capital overhaul. An article by architects Frank
5 ―Report from the National Summit on School Design: A Resource for Educators and Designers.‖ American
Architectural Foundation, 2005, p. 17. http://www.archfoundation.org/aaf/documents/nssd.report.pdf
6 ―The Design of Elementary Schools.‖ Ehrenkrantz, Eckstut & Kuhn Architects.
http://www.eekarchitects.com/community/4-in-the-news/123-the-design-of-elementary-schools
7
Locker and Steven Olson uses a hypothetical design consideration to illustrate this
point:
While a ―state of the art‖ Home Economics lab may be needed now, the
bigger issue is ―Will Home Economics be taught in thirty years, and if so,
how?‖ The space may have more prospects for the future if it can become a
science lab or art lab, as program needs change.7
Additionally, spaces must be able to seamlessly integrate new, innovative

educational technologies and teaching modalities. The Partnership for 21st
Century Skills finds that ―[t]o achieve this flexibility, architects are designing
classrooms, or ‗learning studios,‘ with moveable furniture and walls that can easily be
reconfigured for different class sizes and subjects.‖8
Flexible design will also help schools accommodate changing student

populations – a phenomenon that will affect nearly every school district in the
country going forward. According to participants of the American Architectural
Foundation‘s 2006 Design for Learning Forum, the United States is headed toward a
drastic decrease in the percentage of the population with children. This will occur
concurrently with a sharp increase in the percentage of the population that is over 65.
What this means for school districts, according to Forum participants, is that schools
built in the near future must be designed for multipurpose use. In essence, they
must serve their communities in more ways than just educating their youth; they must
have facilities and services that appeal to lifelong learners as well.9 While this idea may
seem far-fetched, it is not inconceivable, as the political landscape (and
consequently control over public school funding) will be dominated by individuals
with no direct ties to public schools for the foreseeable future.
Flexible Design Promotes the Attainment of 21st Century Skills
According to the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, students will need to hone their
communication and collaboration skills to be successful in the 21 st century.
Leadership and interpersonal skills, as well as respect and appreciation for diversity,
are also cited as fundamental skills for future success.10 According to several sources,
school design can either promote or hinder the development of these crucial skills.
Design and educational experts favor flexible spaces that can be easily manipulated to
allow for interactions and collaborative work. According to the Partnership for 21st
7 Locker, F. M., and S. Olson. ―Flexible School Facilities.‖ DesignShare, 2003, p. 1.

http://www.designshare.com/index.php/articles/flexible-school-facilities/1/
8 ―21st Century Learning Environments.‖ Op. cit., 7.
9 ―School Design and Student Learning in the 21 st Century: A Report of Findings.‖ American Architectural
Foundation, 2006, p. 29. http://www.archfoundation.org/aaf/documents/report.designforlearning.pdf

10 ―P21 Framework Definitions.‖ Partnership for 21st Century Skills, pp. 3-7.
http://www.p21.org/documents/P21_Framework_Definitions.pdf
8
Century Skills, 21st century classrooms “flex to accommodate the human

relationships that are critical to successful learning.” 11 This means that
classrooms are built for multiple uses, with movable objects and open space that
allow students to gather, share, and co-produce. Seaman claims: ―An agile classroom
should be thought of as a stage – a place where things can easily be brought in or
moved out to change the learning environment effortlessly and expediently.
Moveable components should be emphasized.‖12
The figure below is offered by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills as an example
of a flexible classroom. Notice the aspects of the classroom that allow for interaction
and shared learning. First, the divider in the middle of the room can easily be reduced
or removed to create a larger space for large-group activities or discussions. There are
multiple learning stations in the classroom – group tables, presentation facilities,
computer stations – each of which facilitates a different type of interaction. Finally,
most of the classroom‘s equipment – including tables, chairs, and whiteboards – are
portable, allowing them to easily shift as spatial needs change.
Model 21st Century Classroom
Source: Partnership for 21st Century Skills13

12 Seaman. Op. cit., 18-19.
13 Ibid., 8.
9
Flexible schools also provide space outside the classroom for collaborative
learning. Flexibility in this sense is synonymous with variety. Writing in American
School Board Journal, Susan Black lists several areas in which collaborative learning
could take place:
 Learning studios with abundant daylight, flexible furniture, and space for group
projects;
 Open areas such as atriums and learning streets – instead of corridors – to encourage
social interaction;
 Project rooms with high ceilings, worktables, and specialized equipment for
inventing, creating, and building;
 Multiage groups where students mix and match according to interests and aptitudes;
 Outside learning where students work on community service projects and use
community sites such as museums and libraries as classrooms.14
An important learning space not mentioned by Black is the school library. A flexibly
designed, 21st century school library should offer ―places for formal learning in which
large groups can gather for presentations; places for social learning where teams can
collaborate on projects; and places for individual learning where individuals can find a
quiet space for reading, reflection, or relaxation.‖15
The AAF and National Summit participants also suggest that school designers should
exercise flexibility in site selection, and consider unconventional facilities for school
locations. Building schools at or near valuable community resources such as
museums, higher education institutions, or research labs can offer opportunities for
experiential learning. At the Henry Ford Academy in Dearborn, Michigan, for
example, students have direct access to the collections of the Henry Ford Museum,
which houses artifacts of American industry. Parts of the school were even created
out museum space. For example, classrooms were made from a railroad depot as well
as individual railroad cars.16
14 Black, S., ―Achievement by Design.‖ American School Board Journal, 2007, p. 41.
http://www.asbj.com/TopicsArchive/FacilitiesandSchoolDesign/AchievementbyDesign.aspx
15 ―21st Century Learning Environments.‖ Op. cit., 11-12.
16 ―Report from the National Summit on School Design: A Resource for Educators and Designers.‖ p. 48.
10
Case Study
J. Lyndal Hughes Elementary School, Texas
The J. Lyndal Hughes Elementary School was the first school in the Fort Worth,
Texas district to be built with a flexible design. The school is designed for 650
students in grades K-5 and includes the following flexible features:17
 Garage door-like overhead panels that separate classroom spaces from ―flex
spaces‖ that connect classrooms. Teachers use the flex spaces for art and
science lessons.
 Cafeteria space that opens up to become a performance stage that may be
used by students, teachers, and the broader community.
 Natural lighting in corridors, classrooms, offices, and public spaces.
 Age-appropriate storage ―cubbies‖ in classrooms for grades K-3 and in
corridors for grades 4-5.
 Grade-level gardens with outside courtyard.
 Canopies at pick-up lanes that double as sun shades for offices.
 Earth burns to keep excavated soil on-site.
 Mechanical VAV boxes placed above corridor ceilings to ―simplify
maintenance and limit disruption in classrooms.‖
The total cost of the project was $9,444,651 and was paid for directly by the school
district. The pictures below show two classroom views.
Source: DesignShare
17J. Lyndal Hughes Elementary School, DesignShare. http://www.designshare.com/index.php/projects/lyndal-
hughes-elementary-school
11
Source: DesignShare
12
Sustainability
While many districts are exploring environmentally

sustainable design measures to reduce operating
costs and trim carbon footprints, research suggests
that districts would also be wise to consider the
effects of sustainable designed on student
achievement. One of the ―21st century student
outcomes‖ identified in the Framework for 21st
Century Learning is that students master core
subjects and 21st century themes.18 This includes
subjects like math and literacy, which are often
assessed on standardized tests. The Design for
Learning Forum claimed that daylight and clean
air have been proven to contribute to increased
student achievement.19 The Partnership for 21st
Century Skills also asserts that lighting and air
quality have ―a proven positive effect on learning,‖
and adds temperature to the list of environmental
factors that impact learning outcomes.20
Source: AAF21
Just how large is the effect of sustainable school design on student learning
outcomes? Studies have found that student learning rates have improved between
7 and 26 percent in classrooms that are exposed to adequate day lighting. 22
Sustainable temperature control measures, such as retrofitting windows and heating
appliances to provide a more even and consistent temperature distribution, can also
positively impact student teaching and learning. According to an article put out by the
National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, studies have found that student
achievement declined when temperatures fell outside of a comfort zone, believed to
be between 68 and 74 degrees Fahrenheit.23
Designing schools according to principles of environmental sustainability should thus

provide the dual benefit of long-run cost savings (on lighting, heating, and
ventilation) and improved student achievement. A further benefit is that districts can
reinvest cost savings associated with sustainability measures into expenditures directly
18 ―P21 Framework Definitions.‖ Op. cit., 2.

19 ―School Design and Student Learning in the 21 st Century.‖ Op. cit., 32.
21 ―Report from the National Summit on School Design: A Resource for Educators and Designers.‖ Op. cit., 43.
22 Madsen, J.J. ―Building Better Schools.‖ Buildings, July 2005.
http://www.buildings.com/tabid/3413/ArticleID/2609/Default.aspx
23 Schneider, M. ―Do School Facilities Affect Academic Outcomes?‖ National Clearinghouse for Educational
Facilities, November 2002, p. 5. http://www.edfacilities.org/pubs/outcomes.pdf
13
tied to learning and achievement, such as classroom technology or support staff. A

2006 report entitled Greening America’s Schools: Costs and Benefits even claimed that ―for
an average conventional school, building green would save enough money to pay for
an additional full-time teacher.‖24
To maximize student exposure to natural elements with proven positive effects on

achievement, some schools are even building outdoor classrooms and meeting
places. According to Randall Fielding, founder and chairman of the architectural
firm Fielding Nair, innovative school designers are ―incorporating outdoor seating
and doors that open directly into courtyards and outside areas into their designs.‖25
EE&K Architects claim, however, that light flexibility rather than light
maximization should guide the design of elementary school classrooms. They
note:
With activities ranging from napping to detailed project-based work and

learning media ranging from finger paint to digital audio-visual displays,
lighting in the classroom needs to be adjustable to the task. Considering the
diversity of activity that can be occurring simultaneously within a classroom,
lighting may also need to vary across the room.26
Environmental Literacy: A 21st Century Skill
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills identifies environmental literacy as a 21st
century interdisciplinary theme students will need to master. “Green” schools
provide the perfect context within which to develop students’ understanding
of environmental concepts as they demonstrate the practical application of
environmental principles. Since environmental literacy is such a vast interdisciplinary
subject, it ties into other 21st century skills and themes. Students exploring
environmental issues may also be exposed to topics in economics, politics, history,
geography, health, the sciences, and a range of other subjects.
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills points to a school in Southern England as an
illustrative example of how environmentally conscious design and construction can
be leveraged to promote student learning. Saint Pancras Primary School is using
the construction of its new addition to develop students‘ environmental literacy and
other 21st century skills. The Partnership notes: ―By documenting the planning and
construction process, students are deepening their understanding of environmental
24 Kats, G. ―Greening America‘s Schools: Costs and Benefits.‖ U.S. Green Building Council, October 2006, p. 2.
http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=2908
25 Sack-Min, J. ―Building the Perfect School.‖ American School Board Journal, 2007, p. 4.
http://www.hartfordschools.net/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=%2FBi3I6tM2nw%3D&tabid=800&mid=3665
26 ―The Design of Elementary Schools.‖ Op. cit.
14
issues, while gaining IT and video production expertise and honing their narrative
skills by documenting their compelling story.‖27
15
Community Engagement
Experts agree that community engagement in the school design process is

fundamental to building schools that support 21st century learning. Schools are a
central part of any community and all community members, including those with no
direct ties to the school, are affected by its presence and success. Community
members bring varying opinions and perspectives, which can contribute positively to
school design. Their resources are also fundamental to school vitality, so securing
long-term support is critical. This section summarizes the literature on community
involvement in school design and how it impacts 21st century learning.
Community Members Bring Valuable Ideas and Perspectives
One of the core recommendations that emerged from the AAF Design for Learning
Forum was that districts should “involve citizen designers to reinvigorate the
design process.” Many Forum attendees were of the opinion that school design
processes are often prohibitively rigid and bureaucratic, which limits the opportunity
for innovative design.28 Not only is opening the design process up to community
members important for equity and fairness, it may also bring fresh ideas to the fore.
Moreover, involving multiple stakeholder groups helps to corroborate and cross-
check expert information and lends a greater sense of legitimacy to design
proposals.
Incorporating student feedback in particular is often cited as a school design best

practice. A study conducted by the British nonprofit organization School Works that
looked into student attitudes about their schools found that ―young people showed
that they had a clear awareness of the links between their school environment
and learning, and they were on the whole extremely lucid in their arguments.‖29
Students commented on various aspects their schools‘ physical space, including
dining areas, classrooms, and meeting places. In general, their opinions resembled
expert assertions about the physical factors that contribute to learning, particularly
bright, clean, and comfortable environments.30
The Partnership for 21st Century Learning asserts that ―students find that getting
involved in building design provides them with a rich real-world learning
experience.‖31 More specifically, participation may serve to develop certain 21st
century skills. Building design requires creative and critical thinking and draws upon
artistic talents. Further, involvement in a collaborative process provides an
opportunity to exercise leadership, judgment and teamwork skills. All of these are
―21st century student outcomes‖ outlined in the Framework for 21st Century
29 Ibid., 38.
30 Ibid., 38-39.
16
Learning. The American Architectural Foundation‘s ―Redesign Your School Contest‖

fosters these skills as students from around the country compete to design the most
compelling architectural vision for their school. In developing their designs,
individual students or groups of two were asked to consult community members and
use available information to ―create engaging and original ideas for the design of a
school, classroom, or other learning environment.‖32 Though intended for high
school students, it is conceivable that a similar program could be developed for
middle school students or turned into a classroom initiative.
Design for Community Benefit
A recurring theme throughout the literature is the need for schools to be designed for
community benefit, not just student benefit. Now more than ever, the support of
community members and key decision-makers – essential to financial stability of
schools – rests on the ability of schools to serve multiple purposes and
stakeholders. If districts want to push forward with plans to build cutting-edge,
innovative schools, they must be designed to include features that appeal to members
of the broader community. This reality was alluded to in the first section of this
report, and stems from changing community and demographical dynamics as well as
a growing push for accountability in public spending.
Speaking at the National Summit on School Design, Akron, Ohio Mayor Donald
Plusquellic claimed that the public supported the city‘s passing of a multimillion-
dollar bond deal to fund the construction of new schools because the schools were to
feature recreational, cultural, and other facilities made available to all residents. Since
the schools offer resources and services for all community members, all members
have a stake in their upkeep.33
These community services no doubt directly benefit students as well. Not only are
students able to take advantage of them during after-school hours, the school‘s role
as a community center allows them the opportunity to interact with people from
outside their immediate school community. After-school events can thus serve to
develop social and cross-cultural skills, which are important 21st century
competencies.
Leveraging Community Resources
School districts are constantly faced with the challenge of balancing the need to
provide the resources necessary for developing 21st century skills with their fiscal
realities. According to the AAF, schools are becoming smaller and more specialized.
As this phenomenon develops, the AAF claims schools will shed typical public
32 ―About the Contest.‖ American Architectural Foundation.
http://www.archfoundation.org/aaf/redesignyourschool/About.htm
17
school staples like gymnasiums and libraries in favor of focusing on classroom

space.34 To continue to provide these services to students, districts are
beginning to think innovatively, partnering with community organizations like
public libraries and the YMCA. This naturally affects school design at the initial
planning-level. Robust partnerships between districts and other public and nonprofit
entities can shape how scarce school space is utilized. If, for example, a partnership is
established between a school district and a local recreation center to provide room
for physical education classes, designers of a new or refurbished school can devote
more space to multipurpose rooms, computer labs, or common areas than they
otherwise would have been able to if design plans had to include a gymnasium.
Naturally, a large part of the feasibility of such partnerships will rest on

proximity to community resources. For this reason, schools located in urban areas
are typically much better situated to take advantage of already existing community
resources than schools in suburban or rural settings. However, the AAF claims
municipalities are increasingly adopting this model of clustering community
services, which may influence the design of schools and other public institutions in
areas where both are needed.35
The Minneapolis Interdistrict Downtown School is an example of a school that

has leveraged community partnerships to ensure its students have all the resources
they need to succeed. The school uses the gym facilities of a nearby YMCA and the
library facilities of a local public library, which has generated cost savings to the
district and has also engendered ―unexpected collaboration and new approaches to
learning.‖36
In a more expansive project, partnering organizations developed Hartford,

Connecticut‘s ―learning corridor‖ – a 16-acre campus containing four schools, a Boys
and Girls Club, a family center, and a Girl Scouts council. The schools on-site include
a Montessori magnet, a middle school magnet, and two Greater Hartford Academies
that teach advanced math, science, and arts curricula.37 Students benefit from learning
and interacting in a highly diverse environment as well as the wealth of resources
available to them.
Facilitating Community Involvement
Participants in the National Summit on School Design and the AAF provide some
general guidelines for incorporating community input into the school design process.
They suggest that the process begin early to provide sufficient time for community
members to offer input before decisions are tabled. The use of a professional
35 Ibid., 34.
37 Ibid., 37.
18
facilitator is also recommended to help participants achieve a consensus. The

process itself should begin with a visioning process, where key stakeholders share
their views on the role of the school in educating youth and serving the broader
community.38
In its report covering the National Summit on School Design, the AAF provides
illustrative examples of exemplary community input procedures. One such example is
from a school district in Cincinnati, Ohio, which engaged the public through a
visioning process that led to the development of several multipurpose schools, or
―community learning centers‖ as they are referred to in the report. Stakeholders were
engaged long before designs were drawn up and ―the community‘s aspirations, values,
and hopes [were] incorporated into the design decisions.‖39
Case Study
Pine Jog Elementary School and the Florida Atlantic University Pine Jog Environmental
Education Center40
Pine Jog Elementary School, a preK-5 school with spaces for community use, holds
960 students. The school has engaged in a partnership with Florida Atlantic
University‘s Environmental Education Center to ―provide ongoing environmental
stewardship of the nature preserve.‖ Visitors to the Environmental Education
Center can tour the school grounds and participate in various environmental
education activities. This and other initiatives work to involve the community and
the school in shared resource efforts. At the same time, the school and university
partnership provides ―a unique opportunity to introduce pedagogical changes to the
current County elementary school curriculum. The buildings and site are designed to
help teachers teach and students learn, while reducing long-term operational costs.‖41
Learning spaces for the elementary school students include butterfly gardens, storm
water collection and water re-use demonstration areas, solar energy learning centers,
and biological life cycle study areas that include native wildlife. Additionally, the
school includes break-out program rooms, storytelling areas, and multiple outdoor
and wet areas that are available for use by multiple classrooms.
Both the school and the educational center include LEED features such as preferred
alternative-fuel and carpool vehicles, water-efficient plumbing and waterless urinals,
student recycling stations, recycled construction materials, efficient mechanical
38 Ibid., 39.
39 Ibid., 40.
40 Pine Jog Elementary School and the Florida Atlantic University Pine Job Environmental Education Center,
DesignShare. http://www.designshare.com/index.php/projects/pine-jog-elementary-school-and-the-florida-atlantic-
university-environmental-education-center/narratives
41 Ibid.
19
equipment, and polished concrete floors in high-use areas. Students, staff, and the
greater community can view the building performance through ―green-screen‖ energy
monitoring.
The total cost was $30,250,000, $28,000,000 of which were building costs.
DesignShare notes that the cost was ―relatively high because of environmental
mitigation.‖42
The pictures below show a learning corridor at Pine Job Elementary and an aerial
view of the school
Source: DesignShare
Source: DesignShare
Source: DesignShare
42 Ibid.
20
Small Schools
The research on small schools (in terms of enrollment) is vast and growing. Small
schools have been credited with reducing school violence, raising student
achievement, and a host of other educational and social benefits. This section,
however, focuses narrowly on research linking small schools to 21st century learning
outcomes.
There is a significant body of research that supports the notion that smaller
schools lead to greater student achievement and foster deeper and more
personal student interactions. Summarizing the research on small schools, David
Goldberg, the communications director of Smart Growth America, claims small
schools have lower dropout rates, higher standardized test scores, and higher rates of
participation in extracurricular activities than larger schools. 43 A now dated report
discussed research on the relationship between school size and social interactions.
The author claims smaller schools, absent the rigid bureaucratic structures of larger
institutions, are better able to develop a community environment. In one case, an
investigator found that an embedded sense of community ―increased student
investment and led to an emergence of civic thinking and civic commitment that
moved beyond the learning community and beyond the walls of the school.‖44
The AAF and participants in the Summit on School Design identify small schools as
an important design consideration for furthering 21st Century Learning. Summit
participants discussed the benefits associated with creating a ―‘small school‘ culture
that fosters personal relationships and attachments.‖45 They also warned that the
movement away from small neighborhood schools toward larger consolidated
schools could isolate schools from their supporting communities. 46 This
concern was also raised by Goldberg, who found that in order to save costs, large
consolidated schools are being built on vast swaths of cheap land outside of
residential areas and are often only accessible by automobile.47
The AAF acknowledges that in many districts, the push to create larger schools has
been influenced in part by resource constraints and growing enrollments. Goldberg
concedes that in general, costs per student are generally lower in large schools than
they are in small schools.48 However, resource limitations are but one consideration
districts need to make when considering school size. Participants in the National
43 Goldberg, D. ―Schools & Small Schools.‖ On Common Ground, Winter 2005, p. 10.
http://www.realtor.org/smart_growth.nsf/docfiles/winter05sprawl.pdf/$FILE/winter05sprawl.pdf
44 Raywid, M. A. ―Taking Stock: The Movement to Create Mini-Schools, Schools-Within-Schools, and Separate Small
Schools.‖ ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Institute for Urban and Minority Education, April 1996, p. 27.
http://www.dcbsimpson.com/Raywid%201996%20-%20small%20schools.pdf
45 ―Report from the National Summit on School Design.‖ Op. cit., 27.
46 Ibid., 27.
47 Goldberg. Op. cit., 7-9.
48 Ibid., 10.
21
Summit agreed that “school size needs to be determined within the framework
of a community’s needs and vision, academic goals, and economics.” 49
While there is ample literature on the benefits of reducing the size of high schools,
there is considerably less research focusing specifically on the effects of smaller
schools on elementary school student achievement. However, evidence from one
large-scale study suggests that students in K-8 schools also benefit from small overall
enrollments. Valerie Lee and Susanna Loeb‘s study of K-8 schools in Chicago is one
of the most robust studies available on the effect of K-8 school size on student
achievement. The study found that sixth- and eighth-grade math scores were
moderately higher among students in small schools compared to their peers in
middle and large schools, although only the effect size comparing small and
middle-sized schools was statistically significant. This effect can be partially explained
by teachers’ sense of collective responsibility for student learning, which in this
experiment, was found to be associated with higher math scores and was greater in
smaller schools.50
49―Report from the National Summit on School Design.‖ Op. cit., 27.
50Lee, V. E. and S. Loeb. ―School Size in Chicago Elementary Schools: Effects on Teachers‘ Attitudes and Students‘
Achievement.‖ American Educational Research Journal, 37:1, Spring 2000, p. 22.
http://www.stanford.edu/~sloeb/papers/School%20Size.pdf
22
Appendix: National Center for the Twenty-first Century Schoolhouse

Planning Model
The National Center for the Twenty-first Century Schoolhouse‘s Planning Model for
designing 21st century school facilities is comprised of two parts. Content in both
parts is inspired by what the Center calls the ―learner-centered‖ approach to school
design. Some sections of Part I offer suggestions for designing schools according to
the learner-centered approach, while others establish the need and context for
forward-thinking building design. Key points from each section are listed in this
appendix.
Part II contains links to Internet resources that guide educators and school designers
in planning, designing, implementing, maintaining, and assessing learner-centered, 21st
century school facilities. The resources can be found by accessing the URL provided
in the footnote to this sentence and clicking on the square icons comprising the
perimeter of the displayed diagram.51
Part I: Key Points
Meeting Demands52
 This section provides an overview of current and future facilities-related

challenges facing American schools.
 Older schools may be less able to accommodate innovations in curriculum
development, instruction strategies, and content development than more
modern schools.
o 21 percent of schools in the United States are more than 50 years old,
and an additional 50 percent are at least 30 years old.
 In 2000, the Office of Education Research and Improvement estimated it
would cost $127 billion to modernize the nation‘s schools. The National
Education Association‘s estimate was much higher - $322 billion.
 School districts continue to struggle to convince taxpayers and policy-makers
of the need to invest in modernizing schools, despite mounting evidence of
detrimental effects of poor quality facilities.
 Clean air, good lighting, and comfortable learning environments are needed to
ensure optimal educational outcomes. Providing these environments for all
51 ―Planning and Designing Learner-Centered School Facilities.‖ National Center for the Twenty-first Century
Schoolhouse. http://edweb.sdsu.edu/schoolhouse/plan/2_main.htm
52 ―Meeting Demands.‖ National Center for the Twenty-first Century Schoolhouse.
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/schoolhouse/plan/1_demand.htm
23
learners requires adequate funding, competent design, construction, and

maintenance.
Implementing a Learner-Centered Philosophy53
 Schools should be designed to accommodate human dimensions, meaning

design must center around human sizes, motions, and characteristics.
 School facilities are an important contributor to the learning experience. Thus,
educators, planners, and designers should consider the learner‘s environment
when making design decisions: How will the built environment facilitate
learning?
 School facilities should appeal to diverse learning styles, ―providing an
environment responsive to the educational, developmental, psychological, and
social needs of all learners, applying best practices in curriculum and
instruction.‖
Engaging the Community54
 Teachers and administrators must join together with community members to

address some overarching questions of school design:
o What makes a school significant?
o How do we know when a school‘s physical structure reinforces the
established goals of teaching and learning?
o Do we understand why certain spaces work and others do not?
 Community engagement should occur early in the design process to exchange
information and develop community ownership over the project. Engagement
should occur through public forums and planning workshops.
 Initial tasks for collaborative design teams include documenting existing
conditions of a problem, defining the problem‘s context, and collecting
relevant data.
 School occupants – administrators, teachers, and students – must be the ones
to identify outcomes and determine the methods of achieving them.
53 ―Implementing a Learner-Centered Philosophy.‖ National Center for the Twenty-first Century Schoolhouse.
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/schoolhouse/plan/1_learner.htm
54 ―Engaging the Community.‖ National Center for the Twenty-first Century Schoolhouse.
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/schoolhouse/plan/1_engage.htm
24
Designing and Environment for Learning55
 The school environment is central in students‘ cognitive, social, and emotional

development.
 School spaces should reinforce each other both physically and aesthetically.
 When school design decisions are made ―based on the overall quality of a
facility rather than [mere] adherence to myriad individual standards,‖ the
resulting structures ―begin to provoke thought and encourage learning just as
powerfully as they protect occupants from the elements.‖
The Impact of the School Environment on Learning and Teaching56
 Research supports the notion that specific building features and conditions
affect learning, such as: building age, level of modernity, temperature, indoor
air quality, lighting, overall impression, and design classifications such as
―flexible classroom arrangements, clearly defined pathways, positive outdoor
spaces, large-group meeting rooms, instructional neighborhoods, and ample
egress.‖
 Teacher attitudes and behaviors are influenced by building features and
conditions.
 Parental and community engagement with schools has been found to be
related to the quality of school facilities.
55 ―Designing An Environment for Learning.‖ National Center for the Twenty-first Century Schoolhouse.
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/schoolhouse/plan/1_design.htm
56 ―The Impact of the School Environment on Learning and Teaching.‖ National Center for the Twenty-first
Century Schoolhouse. http://edweb.sdsu.edu/schoolhouse/plan/1_impact.htm
25
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1101 Connecticut Ave.

NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036

School Structures that Support 21st Century

2―21st Century Learning Environments.‖ Partnership for 21st Century Skills, p. 7.

 School and classroom design should accommodate diverse learning needs.

 Environmental factors such as lighting, air quality, and temperature affect

 Opening the design process up to community members and school

 A significant body of research has found that small schools contribute to

Incorporating flexibility of use into the design of learning spaces is a recurring

Diverse and Evolving Student Learning Needs

There is growing recognition that the methods by which students comprehend

 Individual study and reflection;

Designing classrooms and other learning environments in a way that attends to

over 200 participants – educators, students, architects, and community members

In designing schools, we must reexamine the notion of the traditional

Participants encouraged school design that reflects research on learning to

Focusing on elementary students in particular, an article from architectural firm

Additionally, spaces must be able to seamlessly integrate new, innovative

Flexible design will also help schools accommodate changing student

Flexible Design Promotes the Attainment of 21st Century Skills

7 Locker, F. M., and S. Olson. ―Flexible School Facilities.‖ DesignShare, 2003, p. 1.

Foundation, 2006, p. 29. http://www.archfoundation.org/aaf/documents/report.designforlearning.pdf

Century Skills, 21st century classrooms “flex to accommodate the human

Model 21st Century Classroom

Source: Partnership for 21st Century Skills13

11 ―21st Century Learning Environments.‖ Op. cit., 8.

J. Lyndal Hughes Elementary School, Texas

While many districts are exploring environmentally

Designing schools according to principles of environmental sustainability should thus

18 ―P21 Framework Definitions.‖ Op. cit., 2.

Facilities, November 2002, p. 5. http://www.edfacilities.org/pubs/outcomes.pdf

tied to learning and achievement, such as classroom technology or support staff. A

To maximize student exposure to natural elements with proven positive effects on

With activities ranging from napping to detailed project-based work and

Environmental Literacy: A 21st Century Skill

27 ―21st Century Learning Environments.‖ Op. cit., 11.

Experts agree that community engagement in the school design process is

Community Members Bring Valuable Ideas and Perspectives

Incorporating student feedback in particular is often cited as a school design best

Learning. The American Architectural Foundation‘s ―Redesign Your School Contest‖

Design for Community Benefit

Leveraging Community Resources

school staples like gymnasiums and libraries in favor of focusing on classroom

Naturally, a large part of the feasibility of such partnerships will rest on

The Minneapolis Interdistrict Downtown School is an example of a school that

In a more expansive project, partnering organizations developed Hartford,

Facilitating Community Involvement

facilitator is also recommended to help participants achieve a consensus. The

Appendix: National Center for the Twenty-first Century Schoolhouse

Part I: Key Points

 This section provides an overview of current and future facilities-related

learners requires adequate funding, competent design, construction, and

Implementing a Learner-Centered Philosophy53

 Schools should be designed to accommodate human dimensions, meaning

Engaging the Community54

 Teachers and administrators must join together with community members to

Designing and Environment for Learning55

 The school environment is central in students‘ cognitive, social, and emotional

The Impact of the School Environment on Learning and Teaching56