Module

7
Design of Springs
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 Lesson
2
Design of Helical Springs
for Variable Load
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Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

• Nature of varying load on springs

• Modification of Soderberg diagram
• Estimation of material properties for helical spring
• Types of helical springs
• Design considerations for buckling and surge.

7.2.1 Design of helical spring for variable load

In the earlier lecture, we have learned about design of helical springs for static loads.
In many applications, as for example in railway carriages or in automobile
suspension systems the helical springs used are constantly under variable load.
Hence, it is understood that whenever there is a variable load on a spring the design
procedure should include the effect of stress variation in the spring wire. The
methodology used is the modified Soderberg method. we have learnt about
Soderberg method in earlier chapter, here, the necessary modifications applicable to
helical spring design will be discussed.

In the case of a spring, whether it is a compression spring or an extension spring,

reverse loading is not possible. For example, let us consider a compression spring
placed between two plates. The spring under varying load can be compressed to
some maximum value and at the most can return to zero compression state (in
practice, some amount of initial compression is always present), otherwise, spring
will loose contact with the plates and will get displace from its seat. Similar reason
holds good for an extension spring, it will experience certain amount of extension
and again return to at the most to zero extension state, but it will never go to
compression zone. Due to varying load, the stress pattern which occurs in a spring
with respect to time is shown in Fig.7.2.1. The load which causes such stress pattern
is called repeated load. The spring materials, instead of testing under reversed
bending, are tested under repeated torsion.

τa
stress
τmax
τa τm

τmin = 0 time

Fig 7.2.1

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From Fig.7.2.1 we see that ,
τmax
τm = τa = (7.2.1)
2

Where, τa is known as the stress amplitude and τm is known as the mean stress or
the average stress. We know that for varying stress, the material can withstand
stress not exceeding endurance limit value. Hence, for repeated torsion experiment,
the mean stress and the stress amplitude become,
τmax τe
τm = τa = = (7.2.2)
2 2
7.2.1.1 Soderberg failure criterion
The modified Soderberg diagram for repeated stress is shown in the Fig 7.2.2.

τe τe a
( , )
2 2

Stress f
amplitude
Stress
amplitude τm
A

τa
c d e b
Mean stress τY τY
FS
Soderberg failure criterion for springs

Fig 7.2.2
τe τe
The stress being repeated in nature, the co-ordinate of the point a is , . For safe
2 2
design, the design data for the mean and average stresses, τa and τm respectively,
should be below the line a-b. If we choose a value of factor of safety (FS), the line a-
b shifts to a newer position as shown in the figure. This line e-f in the figure is called
a safe stress line and the point A ( τ m ,τ a ) is a typical safe design point.

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Considering two similar triangles, abc and Aed respectively, a relationship between
the stresses may be developed and is given as,

τe
τa 2
=
τY τe (7.2.3)
−τ τY −
FS m 2
where τY is the shear yield point of the spring material.

In simplified form, the equation for Soderberg failure criterion for springs is
1 τ τ 2τ
= m + a ( Y − 1)
FS τ Y τ Y τ e (7.2.4)

The above equation is further modified by considering the shear correction factor, Ks
and Wahl correction factor, Kw. It is a normal practice to multiply τm by Ks and to
multiply τa by Kw.

1 Kτ K τ 2τ (7.2.5)
= s m + w a ( Y − 1)
FS τY τY τe

The above equation for Soderberg failure criterion for will be utilized for the
designing of springs subjected to variable load.

7.2.1.2 Estimation of material strength

It is a very important aspect in any design to obtain correct material property. The
best way is to perform an experiment with the specimen of desired material. Tensile
test experiments as we know is relatively simple and less time consuming. This
experiment is used to obtain yield strength and ultimate strength of any given
material. However, tests to determine endurance limit is extremely time consuming.
Hence, the ways to obtain material properties is to consult design data book or to
use available relationships, developed through experiments, between various
material properties. For the design of springs, we will discuss briefly, the steps
normally used to obtain the material properties.
One of the relationships to find out ultimate strength of a spring wire of diameter d is,

As
σ ut = (7.2.6)
d ms
For some selected materials, which are commonly used in spring design, the values
of As and ms are given in the table below.

As ms
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Hard-drawn wire 1510 0.201
Oil-tempered wire 1610 0.193
Chrome-vanadium wire 1790 0.155
Chrome-silicon wire 1960 0.091
Music wire 2060 0.163

The above formula gives the value of ultimate stress in MPa for wire diameter in mm.
Once the value of ultimate strength is estimated, the shear yield strength and shear
endurance limit can be obtained from the following table developed through
experiments for repeated load.

τe τy
Wire Type
σ ult σult

Hard-drawn wire 0.21 0.42

Oil-tempered wire 0.22 0.45
Chrome-vanadium wire 0.20 0.51
Chrome-silicon wire 0.20 0.51
Music wire 0.23 0.40
302 SS wire 0.20 0.46

Hence, as a rough guideline and on a conservative side, values for shear yield point
and shear endurance limit for major types of spring wires can be obtained from
ultimate strength as,
τy τe
= 0.40 and = 0.20 (7.2.7)
σult σ ult

With the knowledge of material properties and load requirements, one can easily
utilize Soderberg equation to obtain spring design parameters.

7.2.2 Types of springs

There are mainly two types of helical springs, compression springs and extension
springs. Here we will have a brief look at the types of springs and their
nomenclature.

7.2.2.1 Compression springs

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Following are the types of compression springs used in the design.

(a) Plain ends

Total coils, NT :N

Solid length, LS : d ( NT + 1 )

Free length, L : LS + δ max + δ allowance

Pitch, p :(L–d)/N Plain end spring

Fig 7.2.3

In the above nomenclature for the spring, N is the number of active coils, i.e., only
these coils take part in the spring action. However, few other coils may be present
due to manufacturing consideration, thus total number of coils, NT may vary from
total number of active coils.

Solid length, LS is that length of the spring, when pressed, all the spring coils will
clash with each other and will appear as a solid cylindrical body.
The spring length under no load condition is the free length of a spring. Naturally, the
length that we visualise in the above diagram is the free length.

Maximum amount of compression the spring can have is denoted as δmax, which is
calculated from the design requirement. The addition of solid length and the δmax
should be sufficient to get the free length of a spring. However, designers consider
an additional length given as δ allowance. This allowance is provided to avoid clash
between to consecutive spring coils. As a guideline, the value of δ allowance is
generally 15% of δmax.

The concept of pitch in a spring is the same as that in a screw.

(b) Plain and Ground ends

Total coils, NT :N+ 1

Solid length, LS : d ( NT )

Free length, L LS + δ: max + δ allowance

Pitch, p : L / ( N + 1)
Plain and Ground end
spring
Fig 7.2.4

The top and bottom of the spring is grounded as seen in the figure. Here, due to
grounding, one total coil is inactive.

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(c) Squared or closed ends

Total coils, NT :N+2

Solid length, LS : d ( NT + 1 )

Free length, L LS + δ:max + δ allowance

Pitch, p : ( L - 3d ) / N
Squared or closed end
spring
Fig 7.2.5

In the Fig 7.2.5 it is observed that both the top as well as the bottom spring is being
pressed to make it parallel to the ground instead of having a helix angle. Here, it is
seen that two full coils are inactive.

(d) Squared and ground ends

Total coils, NT :N+2

Solid length, LS : d ( NT )

Free length, L LS + δ: max + δ allowance

Pitch, p : ( L - 2d ) / N
Squared and ground end
spring
Fig 7.2.6

It is observed that both the top as well as the bottom spring, as earlier one, is being
pressed to make it parallel to the ground, further the faces are grounded to allow for
proper seat. Here also two full coils are inactive.

7.2.2.2 Extension springs

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Part of an extension spring with a hook is
shown in hook
Fig.7.2.7. The nomenclature for the extension
spring is given below.
D/2

Body length, LB B : d(N+1)

Free length, L : LB + 2 hook diameter.
B

here, N stands for the number of active coils. By

putting the hook certain amount of stress
concentration comes in the bent zone of the
hook and these are substantially weaker zones
than the other part of the spring. One should
take up steps so that stress concentration in this Extension spring
region is reduced. For the reduction of stress
concentration at the hook some of the Fig 7.2.7
modifications of spring are shown in Fig 7.2.8.

A complete loop is turned up

to a gradual sweeping curve

A gradual reduction
of end turns from D/2

D/2

Extension springs with improved ends

Fig 7.2.8

7.2.3 Buckling of compression spring

Buckling is an instability that is normally shown up when a long bar or a column is
applied with compressive type of load. Similar situation arise if a spring is too slender
and long then it sways sideways and the failure is known as buckling failure.
Buckling takes place for a compressive type of springs. Hence, the steps to be
followed in design to avoid buckling is given below.

Free length (L) should be less than 4 times the coil diameter (D) to avoid buckling for
most situations. For slender springs central guide rod is necessary.

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A guideline for free length (L) of a spring to avoid buckling is as follows,

πD 2(E − G) (7.2.8)
L<
Ce 2G + E
D
L < 2.57 , for steel , Where, Ce is the end condition and its values are given
below. Ce

Ce end condition

2.0 fixed and free end

1.0 hinged at both ends
0.707 hinged and fixed end
0.5 fixed at both ends

If the spring is placed between two rigid plates, then end condition may be taken as
0.5. If after calculation it is found that the spring is likely to buckle then one has to
use a guide rod passing through the center of the spring axis along which the
compression action of the spring takes place.

7.2.4 Spring surge (critical frequency)

If a load F act on a spring there is a downward movement of the spring and due to
this movement a wave travels along the spring in downward direction and a to and
fro motion continues. This phenomenon can also be observed in closed water body
where a disturbance moves toward the wall and then again returns back to the
starting of the disturbance. This particular situation is called surge of spring. If the
frequency of surging becomes equal to the natural frequency of the spring the
resonant frequency will occur which may cause failure of the spring. Hence, one has
to calculate natural frequency, known as the fundamental frequency of the spring
and use a judgment to specify the operational frequency of the spring.

The fundamental frequency can be obtained from the relationship given below.

1 Kg
Fundamental frequency:f =
2 Ws

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1 Kg
f=
4 Ws
 Both ends within flat plates (7.2.9)

One end free and other end on flat plate.

(7.2.10)

Where, K : Spring rate

WS : Spring

weight = 2.47 γd 2 DN (7.2.11)

and d is the wire diameter, D is the coil diameter, N is the number

of active coils and γ is the specific weight of spring material.

The operational frequency of the spring should be at least 15-20 times less than its
fundamental frequency. This will ensure that the spring surge will not occur and even
other higher modes of frequency can also be taken care of.

A problem on spring design

300 N
A helical spring is acted upon by a varying
load of 300 N to 900 N respectively as shown
in the figure. The spring deflection will be 900 N 15 mm
around 15 mm and outside diameter of the
spring should be within 48-50 mm.

48 - 50 mm
Solution

To design the spring for the given data, the most important parameter is the spring
index. The spring index decides the dimension of the spring with respect to chosen
wire diameter. Normally the spring index varies over a wide range from 3-12. For
higher value of the spring index the curvature effect will be less, but relatively size of
the spring and stress in the spring wire will increase. However, the effects will be
some what opposite if the value of spring index is lower. Hence, it is better to start
the iteration process with the spring index of 6-7.

Let us start the problem with spring index, C=6 and wire diameter, d=7 mm.

The above choice gives us a coil mean diameter, D =42 mm. Thereby, the outside
diameter of the coil is 49 mm, which is within the given limit.
Computation of stresses:
300 + 900
The mean load,Fm = = 600N
2

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 900 − 300
stress amplitude,Fa = = 300N
2

1
ks = 1 +
Shear stress concentration factor, = 1.083
12

4x6 − 1 0.615
Wahl correction factor,k w = + = 1.253
4x6 − 4 6

8 × 600 × 42
τ m = 1.083 ×
So the value of mean shear stress, = 202.62MPa
π × (7 )3
8 × 300 × 42
τ a = 1.253 ×
and the value of stress amplitude, = 117.21MPa
π × (7 )3

Estimation of material properties:

As no specific use of the spring is mentioned in the problem, let us take Chrome
Vanadium as the spring material. This alloy spring steel is used for high stress
conditions and at high temperatures, it is also good for fatigue resistance and long
endurance for shock and impact loads.

1790
σ ut =
Ultimate strength of the material, = 1324 MPa
(7)0.155
From the relationship of σ ult to τy (yield point) and endurance limit, τ e we find that

for chrome τ y = σ ult × 0.51 = 675.2 MPa vanadium,

and τ e = σ ult × 0.2 = 264.8MPa
From Soderberg equation, τe
τa
τy
= 2

FS −τ m τ y − τ2 e

1 τ m τ a 2τ y
= + ( − 1)
FS τ y τ y τ e
1 202.62 117.21 ⎛ 2 × 675.2 ⎞
= + ⎜ − 1 ⎟ = 1.01
FS 675.2 675.2 ⎝ 264.8 ⎠
∴ FS ≈ 1.00
Factor of safety, FS=1.0 implies that the design do not consider any unforeseen
effect that may cause extra stresses in the spring. Normally in design of springs it is
better to consider a factor of safety which should be in the vicinity of 1.3-1.5.

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In order to increase the value of FS, in the next iteration, natural choice for the spring
index, C is 5 and d = 8 mm. Because C=7 and d = 6 mm will lead to more stress on
the wire and the value of FS will not improve.

With C=5 and d=8 mm and following the similar procedure as in previous iteration we
have,
ks = 1.1, kw = 1.311
Therefore,

1.1 × 8 × 600 × 40
τm = = 131.3MPa
π × 83

1.311 × 8 × 300 × 40
τa = = 78.24MPa
π × 83
Material properties:
1790
σ ut =
(8)0.155
= 1297 MPa
τ y = 661.4 MPa
Finally,
τ e = 259.4 MPa
1 131.3 78.24 ⎛ 2 × 661.4 ⎞
∴ = + ⎜ − 1 ⎟ = 0.684
FS 661.4 661.4 ⎝ 259.4 ⎠
FS = 1.46
The factor of safety obtained is acceptable. Therefore the value of spring index is 5
and corresponding wire diameter is 8mm.

Hence, mean spring diameter, D=40 mm.

Outer diameter of spring, Do=40+8=48 mm, This value is within the prescribed limit.
Inner diameter of spring, Di = 32 mm .
900 − 300
Spring rate,k = = 40N / mm = 40 × 10 3 N / m
15
Once the value of stiffness is known, then the value of number of active turns, N of
the spring is,
Gd 4 80 × 10 3 × 8 4
k= ∴N = = 16
8D 3 N 8 × ( 40 )3 × k

8 × 900 × ( 40 )3 × 16
∴δ max = = 22.5mm
80 × 10 3 × 8 4

In the above equation, G = 80000 MPa.

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Spring Nomenclature:

Let us select the type of spring as squared and ground ends. For this type of spring
the value of free length is,

L = LS + δ max + δ allowance
where, LS = dNT = 8.0 × (16 + 2) = 144mm
δ allowance = 15%δ max

L = 18 × 8 + 22.5 + 15%δ max ≈ 170mm

L − 2d 170 − 16
Pitch, p = = = 9.625mm
N 16
Check for buckling:

We know that for steel,

D
L < 2.57 = 206mm
Ce

Here, for the given spring seat configuration, Ce = 0.5

The free length of the spring, 170 mm is less than the critical length for buckling,
206mm. Therefore the design is safe.

Check for critical frequency:

In order to find the critical frequency of the spring, the weight of the spring is to be
first computed,

πd2
Ws = (π DN )(γ )
4
Ws = 2.47γ d 2 DN

WS = 2.47 ×( 8X10−3 )2 ×( 40X10−3 )× 16 ×7800 × 9.81

= 7.74N

Therefore,

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The fundamental frequency of the spring (for both ends within flat plates),

1 Kg 1 40 X 103 X 9.81
f = = ≈ 112.6 Hz
2 Ws 2 7.74

Safe frequency for design should be at least 20 times less than the fundamental
frequency to take care of more number of harmonics. Therefore, the spring
frequency for should be around 6 Hz.

Questions and Answers

Q1. Do the helical spring experience reverse loading? What is the loading type
called when varying load acts on a helical spring?

A1. The helical spring experiences only repeated load. It cannot experience reverse
loading, because the spring will lose contact with the end supports.

Q2. What modification in Soderberg diagram is required when it is used for design
of helical springs?

A2. In the earlier Soderberg diagram, we have used in the design for varying loads
on the machine member, had only stress amplitude in the endurance limit
representation, since, endurance limit value was for complete reversed loading.
Here, in spring design, we use endurance limit value for repeated loads only.
Hence, we have both stress amplitude and mean stress value of equal
τ
magnitude, e . Therefore, the endurance limit representation in Soderberg
2
τ τ
diagram changes to e , e .
2 2

Q3. What should be the safe frequency of a helical spring?

A3. Safe frequency for design should be at least 20 times less than the fundamental
frequency of the spring to take care of more number of harmonics.

References
1. V.Maleev and James B. Hartman , Machine Design, CBS Publishers And
Distributors.3rd Edition. 1983.

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2. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill
Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
3. M.F Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Limited, 6th
Edition, 1991.

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