DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF LEAF SPRING BY USING COMPOSITE

MATERIAL FOR LIGHT VEHICLES

PROJECT REPORT

Submitted

in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
by
GANGAVATH SRIKANTH - 16VD1A0344
PILLI AJAY - 16VD1A0303
ALAKANTI ARAVIND - 16VD1A0308
KOGILA PRASHANTH - 16VD1A0327

Under the guidance of

E.ARUN KUMAR
Asst Professor (c)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING MANTHANI

Pannur (Vil), Ramagiri (Mdl), Peddapalli-505212, Telangana (India).

2019-2020

1
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING MANTHANI

Pannur (Vil), Ramagiri (Mdl), Peddapalli-505212, Telangana (India).

DEPARTMENT MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Certificate
This is to certify that the project report entitled DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF LEAF
SPRING BY USING COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR LIGHT VEHICLES

being submitted by

GANGAVATH SRIKANTH - 16VD1A0344

PILLI AJAY - 16VD1A0303
ALAKANTI ARAVIND - 16VD1A0308
KOGILA PRASHANTH - 16VD1A0327

 in partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad is a record of bonafied work carried out under my guidance and supervision.
The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other
University or Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Internal Guide Head of the Department External

Examiner

Date: Date: Date:

ii
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING MANTHANI

Pannur (Vil), Ramagiri (Mdl), Peddapalli-505212, Telangana (India).

DEPARTMENT MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

We, PILLI AJAY- (16VD1A0303), ALAKANTI ARAVIND -

(16VD1A0308),KOGILAPRASHANTH-(16VD1A0327),
GANGAVATH SRIKANTH - 16VD1A0344
hereby declare that the project report entitled “DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF LEAF
SPRING BY USING COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR LIGHT VEHICLES”
under the guidance of E.ARUN KUMAR, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
JNTUH College of Engineering Manthani submitted in partial fulfillment for the award
of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering.

This is a record of bonafide work carried out by us and the results embodied in
this project report have not been reproduced or copied from any source. The results
embodied in this project have not been submitted to any other University or Institute for
the award of any degree or diploma.

GANGAVATH SRIKANTH - 16VD1A0344

PILLI AJAY - 16VD1A0303
ALAKANTI ARAVIND - 16VD1A0308
KOGILA PRASHANTH - 16VD1A0327

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We express our sincere gratitude to Dr. R. MARKANDEYA,

Professor of Metallurgical Engineering &Principal, JNTUH College of
Engineering Manthani for encouraging and giving permission to accomplish
our project successfully.

We express our sincere gratitude to Dr. B. VISHNU VARDHAN, Professor

of Computer Science and Engineering & Vice-Principal, JNTUH College of
Engineering Manthani for his excellent guidance, advice and encouragement in
taking up this project.

We express our sincere gratitude to Dr. CH. SRIDHAR REDDY, Professor

of Mechanical Engineering & HOD, Mechanical Department, JNTUH College
of Engineering Manthani for his excellent guidance, advice and encouragement in
taking up this project.

We express our profound gratitude and thanks to our project guide E.ARUN
KUMAR for his constant help, personal supervision, expert guidance and
consistent encouragement throughout this project which enabled us to complete our
project successfully in time.

We also take this opportunity to thank other faculty members of Mechanical

Department for their kind co-operation.

We wish to convey our thanks to one and all those who have extended their
helping hands directly and indirectly in completion of our project.

GANGAVATH SRIKANTH - 16VD1A0344

PILLI AJAY - 16VD1A0303
ALAKANTI ARAVIND - 16VD1A0308
KOGILA PRASHANTH - 16VD1A0327

iv
 ABSTRACT

Reducing weight while increasing or maintaining strength of

products is getting to be highly important research issue in this
modern world. Composite materials are one of the material
families which are attracting researchers and being solutions of
such issue. In this paper we describe design and analysis of
composite leaf spring. For this purpose, a rear leaf spring for
MAHINDRA “MODEL-COMMANDER 650 DI” is considered.

The objective is to compare the stresses, deformations and weight saving of

composite leaf spring with that of steel leaf spring. The design constraint is
stiffness. The Automobile Industry has great interest for replacement of steel
leaf spring with that of composite leaf spring, since the composite materials
has high strength to weight ratio, good corrosion resistance.

The material selected was glass fiber reinforced polymer (E-glass/epoxy) is

used against conventional steel. The design parameters were selected and
analyzed with the objective of minimizing weight of the composite leaf
spring as compared to the steel leaf spring.

Result shows that, the weight of composite leaf spring was nearly reduced
up to 85% compared with steel material. The leaf spring was modeled in
Pro/ENGINEER and the analysis was done using ANSYS 19.0 software.
The fatigue life of both steel and composite leaf is compared using ANSYS
software.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. LEAF SPRINGS
1.2. HOW LEAF SPRING WORK
1.3. OVERVIEW OF LEAF SPRING
1.3.1. INTRODUCTION
1.3.2. SUSPENSION SYSTEM
1.3.2.1. OBJECTIVE OF SUSPENSION
1.3.2.2. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR VERTICAL LOADING
1.3.2.3. ROLLING
1.3.2.4. BRAKE DIP
1.3.2.5. SIDE THRUST
1.3.2.6. UNSPRUNG WEIGHT
1.3.2.7. FUNCTION OF SUSPENSION SPRINGS
1.3.2.8. TYPES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM
2. CONCEPTS OF FATIGUE
2.1. FATIGUE
2.2. FATIGUE STRENGTH
2.3. FATIGUE FAILURE
2.4. MATERIALS FOR LEAF SPRING
2.4.1 CARBON/GRAPHITE FIBERS
2.4.2. GLASS FIBERS
2.4.3. COMPOSITE MATERIALS
2.4.4.NATURAL COMPOSITES
2.4.5. EARLY COMPOSITES
2.5. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.6. PROBLEM DEFINITION
3. DESIGN OF LEAF SPRING
3.1. MODEL MAHINDRA “MODEL OMMANDER 650Di”
3.2. WEIGHT CALCULATIONS
3.3. PRO/ENGGINEER WILDFIRE BENEFITS
4. ANALYSIS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
4.2. GENERIC STEPS TO SOLVING ANY PROBLEM IN ANSYS
4.2.1. BUILD GEOMETRY
4.2.2. DEFINE MATERIAL PROPERTIES
4.2.3. GENERATE MESH
4.2.4. APPLY LOADS
4.2.5. OBTAIN SOLUTION
4.3. SPECIFIC CAPABILITIES OF ANSYS STRUCTURAL
4.3.1. STATIC ANALYSIS
4.3.2. MODAL ANALYSIS
4.4. ANALYSIS RESULTS
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
 1.INTRODUCTION

1.1 Leaf Springs

Originally called laminated or carriage spring, a leaf spring is a simple
form of spring, commonly used for the suspension in wheeled vehicles. It is also
one of the oldest forms of springing, dating back to medieval times.

The advantage of leaf spring over helical spring is that the end of the
springs may be guided along a definite path.

Sometimes referred to as a semi-elliptical spring or cart spring, it takes the

form of a slender arc-shaped length of spring steel of rectangular cross-section.
The center of the arc provides location for the axle, while tie holes are provided
at either end for attaching to the vehicle body. For very heavy vehicles, a leaf
spring can be made from several leaves stacked on top of each other in several
layers, often with progressively shorter leaves. Leaf springs can serve locating
and to some extent damping as well as springing functions. While the interleaf
friction provides a damping action, it is not well controlled and results in stiction
in the motion of the suspension. For this reason manufacturers have
experimented with mono-leaf springs.

A leaf spring can either be attached directly to the frame at both ends or
attached directly at one end, usually the front, with the other end attached
through a shackle, a short swinging arm. The shackle takes up the tendency of
the leaf spring to elongate when compressed and thus makes for softer
springiness. Some springs terminated in a concave end, called a spoon end
(seldom used now), to carry a swivelling member.

There were a variety of leaf springs, usually employing the word

"elliptical". "Elliptical" or "full elliptical" leaf springs referred to two circular
arcs linked at their tips. This was joined to the frame at the top center of the
upper arc, the bottom center was joined to the "live" suspension components,
such as a solid front axle. Additional suspension components, such as trailing
arms, would be needed for this design, but not for "semi-elliptical" leaf springs
as used in the Hotchkiss drive. That employed the lower arc, hence its name.
"Quarter-elliptic" springs often had the thickest part of the stack of leaves stuck
into the rear end of the side pieces of a short ladder frame, with the free end
attached to the differential, as in the Austin Seven of the 1920s. As an example
of non-elliptic leaf springs, the Ford Model T had multiple leaf springs over its
differential that was curved in the shape of a yoke. As a substitute for dampers
(shock absorbers), some manufacturers laid non-metallic sheets in between the
metal leaves, such as wood.

1
 Leaf springs were very common on automobiles, right up to the 1970s in
Europe and Japan and late 70's in America when the move to front wheel drive,
and more sophisticated suspension designs saw automobile manufacturers use
coil springs instead. Today leaf springs are still used in heavy commercial
vehicles such as vans and trucks, SUVs, and railway carriages. For heavy
vehicles, they have the advantage of spreading the load more widely over the
vehicle's chassis, whereas coil springs transfer it to a single point. Unlike coil
springs, leaf springs also locate the rear axle, eliminating the need for trailing
arms and a Pan hard rod, thereby saving cost and weight in a simple live axle
rear suspension.

A more modern implementation is the parabolic leaf spring. This design is

characterised by fewer leaves whose thickness varies from centre to ends
following a parabolic curve. In this design, inter-leaf friction is unwanted, and
therefore there is only contact between the springs at the ends and at the centre
where the axle is connected. Spacers prevent contact at other points. Aside from
a weight saving, the main advantage of parabolic springs is their greater
flexibility, which translates into vehicle ride quality that approaches that of coil
springs. There is a trade-off in the form of reduced load carrying capability,
however. The characteristic of parabolic springs is better riding comfort and not
as "stiff" as conventional "multi-leaf springs". It is widely used on buses for
better comfort. A further development by the British GKN company and by
Chevrolet with the Corvette amongst others, is the move to composite plastic
leaf springs.

Typically when used in automobile suspension the leaf both supports an

axle and locates/ partially locates the axle. This can lead to handling issues (such
as 'axle tramp'), as the flexible nature of the spring makes precise control of the
unsprung mass of the axle difficult. Some suspension designs which use leaf
springs do not use the leaf to locate the axle and do not have this drawback. The
Fiat 128's rear suspension is an example.

Figure 1 A traditional leaf spring arrangement

2
A leaf spring is a long, flat, thin, and flexible piece of spring steel or composite
material that resists bending. The basic principles of leaf spring design and
assembly are relatively simple, and leafs have been used in various capacities
since medieval times. Most heavy duty vehicles today use two sets of leaf
springs per solid axle, mounted perpendicularly to support the weight of the
vehicle. This Hotchkiss system requires that each leaf set act as both a spring
and a horizontally stable link. Because leaf sets lack rigidity, such a dual-role is
only suited for applications where load- bearing capability is more important
than precision in suspension response.

1.2. How Leaf Springs Work

Before you start your towing trip, it's a good idea to go over a brief
checklist -- for safety's sake. You take a good look in your mirrors, adjusting
them correctly in order to see passing traffic on the road. You've chosen the
correct hitch and connected the towing vehicle to the trailer properly. The brake
lights and braking systems are working synchronously, assuring you of the ride's
legality. With everything loaded up, you're pretty confident the truck is ready
for the job, so you head out on the road toward your destination. Once you reach
a steady speed, however, the trailer behind your truck starts to bounce and sway
a little more than it should. Pulling over to the side of the road, you rack your
brains to figure out what you missed. You start to wonder if your cargo weight is
maybe too high -- but what can you do about it?

In this situation, if there's too much cargo weighing down a towed vehicle,
causing everything to rock and sway, the issue may be with the suspension. If
atruck's suspension is too rigid, its wheels will often leave the pavement after
hitting bumps; a good suspension, on the other hand, keeps the wheels on the
ground as much as possible. Many towers use leaf springs to stabilize their
towed load and to keep their cargo grounded.

Although you may not ever have heard about or even noticed leaf springs
on larger tow vehicles, the technology has been around for centuries and is one
of the earliest forms of suspension. Even Leonardo da Vinci used leaf springs in
his diagram for a self-propelled car. But how do they work? Are there different
types of leaf springs? And how do you install them onto a vehicle?

1.3. Overview of Leaf Spring

1.3.1. Introduction
Semi-elliptic leaf springs are almost universally used for suspension in
light and heavy commercial vehicles. For cars also, these are widely used in rear
suspension

The spring consists of a number of leaves called blades. The blades are

3
varying in length. The blades are us usually given an initial curvature or
cambered so that they will tend to straighten under the load. The leaf spring is
based upon the theory of a beam of uniform strength. The lengthiest blade has
eyes on its ends. This blade is called main or master leaf, the remaining blades
are called graduated leaves. All the blades are bound together by means of steel
straps.

The spring is mounted on the axle of the vehicle. The entire vehicle load
is rests on the leaf spring. The front end of the spring is connected to the frame
with a simple pin joint, while the rear end of the spring is connected with a
shackle. Shackle is the flexible link which connects between leaf spring rear eye
and frame. When the vehicle comes across a projection on the road surface, the
wheel moves up, this leads to deflecting the spring. This changes the length
between the spring eyes.

1.3.2. Suspension System

The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles, not direct but some form
of springs. This is done to isolate the vehicle body from the road shocks, which
may be in the form of bounce, pitch, roll or sway. These tendencies give rise to
an uncomfortable ride and also cause additional stress in the automobile frame
anybody. All the part, which performs the function of isolating the automobile
from the road shocks, is collectively called a suspension system. It includes the
springing device used and various mountings for the same.

Broadly speaking, suspension system consists of a spring and a damper.

The energy of road shock causes the spring to oscillate. These oscillations are
restricted to a reasonable level by the damper which is more commonly called a
shock absorber.

1.3.2.1. Objective of Suspension

1.To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle
components.
2.To safeguard the occupants from road shocks
3.To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitting or rolling, while in
motion

1.3.2.2. Basic Considerations for vertical loading

When the rear wheel comes across a bump or pit on the road, it is
subjected to vertical forces, tensile or compressive depending upon the nature of
the road irregularity. These are absorbed by the elastic compression, shear,
bending or twisting of the spring. The mode of spring resistance depends upon

4
the type and material of the spring used.

Further when the front wheel strikes a bump it starts vibrating. These
vibrations die down exponentially due to damping present in the system. The
rear wheel however, reaches the same bump after certain time depending on the
wheel base and the speed of the vehicle. Of course, when the tear wheel reaches
the bump, it experiences similar vibrations as experienced by the front wheel
some time ago. It is seen that to reduce pitching tendency of the vehicle, the
frequency of the front springing system be less than that of the rear springing
system.

From human comfort point also it is seen that it is desirable to have low
vibration frequencies. The results of the studies of human beings have shown
that the maximum amplitude which may be allowed for a certain level of
discomfort decreases with the increase of vibration frequency.

1.3.2.3. Rolling
The centre of gravity of the vehicle is considerably above the ground. Due
to this reason, while taking a turn, the centrifugal force acts outwards on the C.G
of the vehicle, while the road resistance acts inward at the wheels. This gives
rise to a couple turning the vehicle about a longitudinal axis. This is called
rolling. The manner in which the vehicle is sprung determines the axis about
which the vehicle will roll. The tendency to roll is checked by means of a
stabilizer.

1.3.2.4. Brake-dip
On braking, the noise of the vehicle has a tendency to be lowered or to
dip. This depends upon the position of centre of gravity relative to the ground,
the wheelbase, and other suspension. In the characteristics the same way, torque
loads during acceleration end the front of the vehicle to be lifted. These forces
on account of braking and driving are carried directly by deflecting the springs,
by wishbone arms or by radius rods.

1.3.2.5. Side Thrust

Centrifugal force during cornering, cross-winds, cambering of the road

etc, cause a side-thrust to be applied to the vehicle, such forces are usually
absorbed by the rigidity of the leaf springs or by fitting pan hard rods.

1.3.2.6. Unsprung Weight:

Un-sprung weight is the weight of vehicle components between the

suspension and then road surface. This includes rear axle assembly, steering
knuckle, and front axle in case of rear drive rigid suspension, wheels, tires and
brakes. The sprung weight i.e. the weight supported by the vehicle suspension

5
system, includes the frame, body, engine, and the entire transmission system.

When the wheels strike against a bump, they vibrate along with other
unsprung parts which store the energy of the vibrations and then further transmit
it to the sprung parts via the springs. Thus it is seen that greater the weight of the
unsprung parts, greater will be the energy stored due to vibrations and
consequently greater shocks.

When a small shock results in the large movements of the wheel, the
suspension is said to be soft, such a soft suspension is more comfortable to the
occupants. However, excessively soft suspension will result in the loss of
braking efforts are decreased.

Thus a good suspension system should be an optimum compromise

between softness and hardness.

1.3.2.7. Function of suspension springs

Springs are placed between the road wheels and the body. When the
wheel comes across a bump on the road, it rises and deflects the spring, there by
storing energy there in. on releasing due to the elasticity of the spring materials,
it rebounds there by expending the stored energy. In this way the spring starts
vibrating, with amplitude decreasing gradually on account of internal friction of
the spring material and friction of the suspension joints, till vibrations die down.

Types of Suspension

systems Plastic

Suspension
Viberitis. P.A of TURINE has developed a new type of suspension based
upon the use of resilient plastic rings in compression. The suspension consists of
a cylindrical container secured to the chassis, a shaft attached to the axle and
free to slide within the plastic rings contained in the cylinder, there are two
centering rings, the bottom one fixed to the lower end of the cylinder and the
upper one is arranged as high as possible keeping in consideration that in the
rebound position shaft must remain supported by it by the plastic rings and
absorb the vertical dynamic load.

Independent Suspension

When a vehicle with rigid axle suspension encounters road irregularities

the axle tilts and the wheels no longer remain vertical. This causes the whole of
the vehicle to tilt on one side. Such a state of affairs is not desirable. Apart from
causing rough ride, it causes ‘wheel wobble’. The road adhesion is also
decreased. To avoid this, the wheels are sprung independent of each other, so

6
that tilting of one does not affect the other. Besides the independent suspension
also have the following advantages over rigid able type suspension.

1.The elastic strain energy per unit spring weight stored in a coil or
torsion bar is greater than in case of a semi-elliptical leaf spring,
which means lighter springs can be used in case of independent
suspension.
2.In case of independent suspension, unsprung weight is reduced,
which ultimately reduced the tyre scrub and hence increase tyre
lift
3.Compared to the rigid axle, type, softer springs can be used
without increasing rolling effect. Soft springs improve ride
comfort.
4.When anti-roll bar is used in independent suspension, springs
employed may be even softer, in the event of vertical cornering,
the anti-roll bar will provide the forces necessary to resist body
roll.
5.In case of independent suspension it is possible to locate the
springs apart enough obtain under-seer condition.
6.With independent suspension, steering geometry is not altered with
spring deflection as in case of conventional rigid axle suspension
where effect is especially noticeable during breaking or
acceleration.
7.In this case the engine and the chassis frame can be placed
relatively lower which means engine position can be moved
forward resulting in more space for passengers.

Front Wheel Independent Suspension

Independent suspension has become almost universal in the case of front

axle, due to the simplicity of such a suspension system.

Rear Wheel Independent Suspension:

Though the rear wheels are not to be steered, yet there is a considerable
difficulty in the rear wheel springing if the power has to be transmitted to the
rear wheel. But even the rear wheel independent springing is coming into
prominence because of its distinct advantages over the rigid axle type.

Universal couplings keep the wheel vertical, while the sliding coupling is
required to maintain the wheel track constant, thereby avoiding scrubbing of the
tyres: this method has been used in the DEDION type of axle.

Another method of rear wheel independent suspension is the trailing link

type. In this the trailing links are pivoted at right angles to the longitudinal axis
of the car and carry the rear wheels at their ends. The trailing links hold the

7
wheels firmly and also sustain accelerating the braking force.

It is claimed that the combined metal – rubber mountings respond softly

on straight roads, increasing ride comfort. When cornering, they resist lateral
force with a reliable stabilizing effect, even when the car is fully loaded.

Apart from the distinct advantages, which the independent suspension

possesses, it has its own drawbacks also:

1. The initial cost is high

2. Greater maintenance required because of larger number of bearings.
3. Misalignment of steering geometry with the wear of components.
Thus requires more attention.
4. In the event of body roll, the wheels camber (tilt outwards in case
of wishbone type), due to which cornering power is reduced.
5. More rigid sub-frame or chassis frame required.
6. Forces due to unbalanced wheels are more pronounced and
transmitted easily to the steering wheel.

Wishbone type suspension:

The use of coil springs in the front axle suspension of car is now almost
universal. It consists of upper and the lower wishbone arms pivoted to the frame
member. The spring is placed in between the lower wishbone and the underside
of the cross member. The vehicle weight is transmitted from the body and the
cross member to the coil spring through which it goes to the lower wishbone
member. A shock absorber is placed inside the coil spring and is attached to the
cross member and the lower wishbone member. The wishbone type is the most
popular independent suspension system

Mac Pherson Strut Type of Suspension:

In this layout only lower wishbone are used. A strut containing shock
absorbing and the spring carriers also the stub axle on which the wheel is
mounted. The wishbone is hinged to the cross member and positions the wheel
as well as resists accelerating, braking and side forces. This system is simpler
than double wishbone type described above and is also lighter, keeping the
unsprung weight lower. This type of suspension gives the maximum room in the
engine compartment and is, therefore commonly used on front wheel drive cars.
In India this system has been used in Maruti (Suzuki) 800 cars. This type of
suspension with anti-roll bar as employed in Volkswagen Jetta and Passat cars.
This is claimed to provide increased road safety, improve ride comfort and light
and self-stabilizing steering which means that car continues along its chosen line
of travel when the brakes are applied even though the road surface may vary.

8
Vertical guide suspension

The king pin is attached directly to the cross member of the frame. It can
slide up and down, corresponding to the up and down motions of the wheel, thus
compressing or elongating the springs. In this the track, wheel base and wheel
attitude remain unchanged, but the system is having disadvantages of decreased
stability.

Trailing Link Suspension

In this type of suspension, a coil spring is attached to the trailing link

which itself is attached to the carrying the wheel hub. When the wheel moves up
and down, it winds and unwinds the spring. A torsion bar has also been used in
certain designs in place of the coil spring. The system does maintain the camber
and the wheel track constant. However, the distance between the front and the
rear wheels does change. Difficulty to remedy this defect is the main reason for
its very limited use in actual practice.

Winging Half Axle Suspension

In this wheels are mounted rigidly on the half axles, which are pivoted on
their ends to the chassis member at the middle of car. The main disadvantage of
this system is that up and down movement of the wheel causes the camber angle
to vary.

Interconnected Suspension Systems:

In these systems, the front and rear suspension units or else the units on
the two sides of the automobile are connected together. These are also called
‘linked system’. Te major advantage of such a system is that tendency of the
vehicle to bounce, pitch or roll is reduced and a constant desirable attitude of
suspension. The other systems in current use are the Hydro elastic suspension,
the Daimler – Benz suspension and the Hydra gas suspension system.

9
Air Suspension

Air suspension systems are coming into prominence because of certain

advantages they possess over the conventional metal springs. The advantages
are:

1.A vehicle space for wheel deflection is put to optimum use by

virtue if the automatic control devices.
2.Because of the vehicle is also constant, changes in headlamp
alignment due to varying loads are avoided.
3.The spring rare varies much less between the laden and unladen
conditions, as compared with that of conventional steel springs.
This reduces the dynamic loading.
4.The improved standard for ride comfort and noise reduction with
air springs reduces both driver and passenger fatigue.
The four air springs, which may be either the bellows type or the piston
type, are mounted in the same position where generally the coil springs are
mounted. An air compressor takes the atmospheric air through a filter and
compresses it to a pressure of 240 MPa, at which pressure of air in the
accumulator tank is maintained, which is also provided with a safety relief. The
high pressure air goes through lift control valve and the levelling valves, to the
air springs. The control valve is operated manually by means of a handle on the
control panel, through a cable running from the valve to the handle.

Hydro elastic Suspension

In this system a displacer unit is fitted at each of the four wheels. The
displacer units are all interconnected by means of fluid. In the displacer unit,
rubber (under compression and shear) is used as a spring where as fluid rubber
pressure acts as damping medium. The stem is connected to the wheel through
suitable linkage so that its movement is proportional to the up and down
movement of the wheel. A two way valve assembly controls the up and down
flow of the fluid. The upper valve opens when the fluid pressure below rises
sufficiently.

2.CONCEPT OF FATIGUE

2.1. Fatigue
In narrow sense, the term fatigue of materials and structural components
means damage and damage due to cyclic, repeatedly applied stresses. In a wide
sense, it includes a large number of phenomena of delayed damage and fracture
under loads and environmental conditions. It is expedient to distinguish between
high-cycle (classic) and low-cycle fatigue.

Plastic deformations are small and localized in the vicinity of the crack tip
while the main part of the body is deformed elastically, then one has high-cycle
fatigue. If the cyclic loading is accompanied by plastic deformation in the bulk
of the body, then one has a low-cycle fatigue. Usually we say low-cycle fatigue
if the cycle number up to the initiation of a visible crack or until final fracture is
below 104 or 5.104 cycles.

In material science, fatigue is the progressive, localized, and permanent

structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic or
fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that have maximum values less than (often
much less than) the static yield strength of the material. The resulting stress may
be below the ultimate tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material, yet
still cause catastrophic failure. A practical example of low-cycle fatigue would
be the bending of a paperclip. A metal paperclip can be bent past its yield point
without breaking, but repeated bending in the same section of wire will cause
material to fail.

2.2. Fatigue Strength

Fatigue strength is defined as the maximum stress that can be endured for
a specified number of cycles without failure. Low cycle fatigue strength
approaches the static strength. When the cycle number exceeds to one limit, the
fatigue strength falls to fraction of the static strength.

The fatigue strength is the value of the alternating stress that results in
failure by fracture a specific number of cycles of load application. It can also be
the ordinate of the σ-n (stress versus number of cycles to failure) curve.

The fatigue behaviour of a specific material, heat treated to a specific

strength level is determined by a series of laboratory tests on a large number of
apparently identical samples of those specific materials.

The specimens are machined with shape characteristics which maximize

the fatigue life of a metal, and are highly polished to provide the surface
characteristics which enable the best fatigue life. A single test consist of
applying a known, constant bending stress to a round sample of the material,
and rotating the sample around the bending stress axis until it fails. As the
sample rotates, the stress applied to any fiber on the outside surface of the
sample varies from maximum-tensile to zero to maximum compressive and
back. The test mechanism counts the number of rotations (cycles) until the
specimen fails. A large number of tests is run at each stress level of interest, and
the results are statistically massaged to determine the expected number of cycles
to failure at that stress level.
The cyclic stress level of the first set of tests is some large percentage of
the Ultimate Tensile stress (UTS), which produces failure in a relatively small
number of cycles. Subsequent tests are run at lower cyclic stress values until a
level is found at which the sample will survive 10 million cycles without failure.
The cyclic stress level that the material can sustain for 10 million cycles is
called the Endurance (EL).

2.3. Fatigue Failure

Failure is one of most important aspects of material behaviour because it
is directly influent the selection of material for certain application, the method of
manufacturing and service life of component. The majority of engineering
failures are caused by fatigue. Fatigue failure is defined as the tendency of a
material to fracture by means of progressive brittle cracking under repeated
alternating or cyclic stresses of intensity considerably below the normal
strength. Although the fracture is of a brittle type, it may take some time to
propagate, depending on both the intensity and frequency of the stress cycles.
Nevertheless, there is very little, if any, warning below failure if the crack is not
noticed. The number of cycles required to cause fatigue failure at a particular
peak stress is generally quiet large, but it decreases as the stress is increased. For
some mild steels, cyclical stresses can be continued indefinitely provided the
peak stress (sometimes called fatigue strength) is below the endurance limit
value.

A good example of fatigue failure is breaking a thin steel rod or wire with
your hands after bending it back and forth several times in the same place.
Another example is an unbalanced pump impeller resulting in vibrations that
can cause fatigue failure.

The type of fatigue of most concern in circuit cards, gasoline, diesel, gas
turbine engines and many industrial applications is thermal fatigue. Thermal
fatigue can arise from thermal stresses produced by cyclic changes in
temperature. Fundamental requirements during design and manufacturing for
avoiding fatigue failure are different for different cases and should be
considered during design phase.

Fatigue failures almost always begin at the surface of a material. The reasons are:

1.The most highly-stresses fibers are located at the surface (bending fatigue)
2.The inter granular flaws which precipitate tension failure are most
frequently found at the surface.
Suppose that a particular specimen is being fatigue tested. Now suppose
the fatigue test is halted after 20% to 25% of the expected life of the specimen,
and the surface condition is restored to its original state. Now the fatigue test is
resumed at the same stress level as before. The life of the part will be
considerably longer than expected. If that process is repeated several times, the
life of the part may be extended by several hundred percent, limited only by the
available cross section of the specimen. That proves fatigue failures originate at
the surface of a component.
Fatigue failure is also due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue crack
will typically initiate at a discontinuity in the material where the cyclic stress is
a maximum. Discontinuities can arise because of:

1.Design of rapid changes in cross-section, keyways, holes, etc.

where the cyclic stress concentrations occur.
2.Element that roll and/or slide each other (bearings, gears, cams )
under high contact pressure, developing concentrated subsurface
contact surfaces that can cause pitting from after many cycles of
the load.
3.Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks, scratches,
and burrs; poor joint design; improper assembly; and other
fabrications faults.
4.Compositions of the material itself as processed by rolling,
forging, casting, extrusion, drawing and heat treatment.
Microscopic and sub-microscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise. Fatigue fracture typically occurs in material
of basically brittle nature. External or internal cracks develop at
pre-existing flaws or fault of defects in the material; these cracks
then propagate and eventually they lead to total failure of part.
The fracture surface in fatigue is generally characterized by the
term “beach marks

2.4. Materials for Leaf Spring

The material used for leaf springs is usually a plain carbon steel having
0.90 to 1.0% carbon. The leaves are heat treated after the forming process. The
heat treatment of spring steel products has greater strength and therefore greater
load capacity, greater range of deflection and better fatigue properties [14].

2.4.1. Carbon/Graphite fibers

Their advantages include high specific strength and modulus, low

coefficient of thermal expansion and high fatigue strength. Graphite, when used
alone has low impact resistance. Its drawbacks include high cost, low impact
resistance and high electrical conductivity [14].

2.4.2. Glass fibers

The main advantage of Glass fiber over others is its low cost. It has high
strength, high chemical resistance and good insulating properties. The
disadvantages are low elastic modulus poor adhesion to polymers, low fatigue
strength and high density, which increase leaf spring weight and size. Also crack
detection becomes difficult [14].

2.4.3. Composite materials

A composite material is made by combining two or more materials – often
ones that have very different properties. The two materials work together to give
the composite unique properties. However, within the composite you can easily
tell the different materials apart as they do not dissolve or blend into each other.

2.4.4. Natural composites

Natural composites exist in both animals and plants. Wood is a composite
– it is made from long cellulose fibres (a polymer) held together by a much
weaker substance called lignin. Cellulose is also found in cotton, but without the
lignin to bind it together it is much weaker. The two weak substances – lignin
and cellulose – together form a much stronger one. The bone in your body is
also a composite. It is made from a hard but brittle material called
hydroxyapatite (which is mainly calcium phosphate) and a soft and flexible
material called collagen (which is a protein). Collagen is also found in hair and
finger nails. On its own it would not be much use in the skeleton but it can
combine with hydroxyapatite to give bone the properties that are needed to
support the body.

2.4.5. Early composites

People have been making composites for many thousands of years. One
early example is mud bricks. Mud can be dried out into a brick shape to give a
building material. It is strong if you try to squash it (it has good compressive
strength) but it breaks quite easily if you try to bend it (it has poor tensile
strength). Straw seems very strong if you try to stretch it, but you can crumple it
up easily. By mixing mud and straw together it is possible to make bricks that
are resistant to both squeezing and tearing and make excellent building blocks.
Another ancient composite is concrete. Concrete is a mix of aggregate (small
stones or gravel), cement and sand. It has good compressive strength (it resists
squashing). In more recent times it has been found that adding metal rods or
wires to the concrete can increase its tensile (bending) strength. Concrete
containing such rods or wires is called reinforced concrete.

Making composites

Most composites are made of just two materials. One is the matrix or
binder. It surrounds and binds together fibres or fragments of the other material,
which is called the reinforcement.

Modern examples

The first modern composite material was E-glass. It is still widely used
today for boat hulls, sports equipment, building panels and many car bodies.
The matrix is a plastic and the reinforcement is glass that has been made into
fine threads and often woven into a sort of cloth. On its own the glass is very
strong but brittle and it will break if bent sharply. The plastic matrix holds the
glass fibres together and also protects them from damage by sharing out the
forces acting on them. Some advanced composites are now made using carbon
fibres instead of glass. These materials are lighter and stronger than E-glass but
more expensive to produce. They are used in aircraft structures and expensive
sports equipment such as golf clubs.

Composite Leaf Springs

Composites are well suited for leaf-spring applications due to their high
strength-to- weight ratio, fatigue resistance and natural frequency. Internal
damping in the composite material leads to better vibration energy absorption
within the material, resulting in reduced transmission of vibration noise to
neighboring structures.

The biggest benefit, however, is mass reduction: Composite leaf springs

are up to five times more durable than a steel spring, so when General Motors
(GM, Detroit, Mich.) switched to a glass-reinforced epoxy composite transverse
leaf spring (supplied byLiteflex LLC, Englewood, Colo.) on the 1981 Chevrolet
Corvette C4, a mono-leaf composite spring, weighing 8 lb/3.7 kg, replaced a
ten-leaf steel system that weighed 41 lb/18.6 kg. This reportedly enabled GM to
shave 15 kg/33 lb of unsprung weight from the Corvette, yet maintain the same
spring rates. The leaf spring was transverse-mounted; that is, it ran across the
car’s width at each axle. This eliminated the coil springs that sit up high in a
spring pocket on the frame. Thus, the car can sit lower to the ground, which
improves car handling.

Today, GM continues to employ transverse GFRP composite leaf springs

on the front and back of its Corvette models. The 2014 Chevrolet Corvette
Coupe includes a double-wishbone suspension, which, at GM, goes by the name
short/long arm (SLA). SLA refers to the fact that the upper control arm is
shorter than the lower one. A transverse composite leaf spring presses against
the lower arm and spans the width of the car. In fact, the spring is always loaded
against the sub frame. This design directs shock loads into the frame side,
eliminating the standalone rear antiroll bar that must be incorporated into
models with standard suspension packages. The spring’s camber curve also is
said to improve tire contact with the road during cornering.

Composites also have the potential to replace steel and save weight in
longitudinal leaf springs (see “Building a stronger longitudinal leaf spring,”
under "Editor's Picks," at top right). These run parallel to the length of the
vehicle, providing suspension as an integrated part of the wheel guidance
system. “Longitudinal leaf springs have a higher safety factor,” claims Frank
Fetscher, head of business development, Benteler- SGL (Ried, Austria), a joint
venture of Benteler Automotive and the SGL Group – The Carbon Company
(Wiesbaden, Germany, see “SGL Automotive Carbon Fibers opens new plant in
Washington,” under "Editor's Picks"). “They can have a linear spring rate or a
progressive spring rate — multistage springs — and must perform better with
respect to torsion and side stiffness than transversal springs.”

Higher speed, greater volume

To date, commercial glass- and carbon-reinforced composite leaf springs

have been limited to low-volume production models. “When resins were first
being used in the automotive industry, epoxy systems already proven in the
aerospace industry were the first to be selected,” explains Scott Simmons,
business development specialist for chassis, Henkel Corp. (Madison Heights,
Mich.). “While these epoxy systems provide a very high-performing part, the
prepreg manufacturing process primarily employed with these resin systems is
better suited for the low-volume production associated with aerospace.”

Epoxy prepreg systems weren’t fast reacting because they didn’t need to
be for autoclave processing, which, for purposes of quality assurance to high
aerospace standards, necessarily involved slow and carefully controlled
applications of temperature and pressure. However, much research has gone into
expediting the production process through the use of faster melding processes
and the development and use of suitably fast-reacting resin systems. These
emerging systems show promise for economical mass production of composite
leaf springs.

Figure 3.2 New generation composite leaf springs

 2.5. Literature Review
Leaf springs are mainly used in suspension systems to absorb shock loads
in automobiles like light motor vehicles, heavy duty trucks and in rail systems. It
carries lateral loads, brake torque, driving torque in addition to shock absorbing
[1].

The advantage of leaf spring over helical spring is that the ends of the
spring may be guided along a definite path as it deflects to act as a structural
member in addition to energy absorbing device [2].

According to the studies made a material with maximum strength and

minimum modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction is the most suitable
material for a leaf spring [3].

To meet the need of natural resources conservation, automobile

manufacturers are attempting to reduce the weight of vehicles in recent years
[4].

Weight reduction can be achieved primarily by the introduction of better

material, design optimization and better manufacturing processes. The
suspension leaf spring is one of the potential items for weight reduction in
automobiles unsprung weight. This achieves the vehicle with more fuel
efficiency and improved riding qualities. The introduction of composite
materials was made it possible to reduce the weight of leaf spring without any
reduction on load carrying capacity and stiffness[5].

For weight reduction in automobiles as it leads to the reduction of un-

sprung weight of automobile. The elements whose weight is not transmitted to
the suspension spring are called the un-sprung elements of the automobile. This
includes wheel assembly, axles, and part of the weight of suspension spring and
shock absorbers. The leaf spring accounts for 10-20% 0f the un-sprung weight
[6].

The composite materials made it possible to reduce the weight of machine

element without any reduction of the load carrying capacity. Because of
composite material’s high elastic strain energy storage capacity and high
strength-to-weight ratio compared with those of steel [7],[8].

FRP springs also have excellent fatigue resistance and durability. But the
weight reduction of the leaf spring is achieved not only by material replacement
but also by design optimization. Weight reduction has been the main focus of
automobile manufacturers in the present scenario. The replacement of steel with
optimally designed composite leaf spring can provide 85% weight reduction.
Moreover the composite leaf spring has lower stresses compared to steel spring.
All these will result in fuel saving which will make countries energy
independent because fuel saved is fuel produced.

2.6. Problem Definition

The suspension leaf spring is one of the potential items for weight
reduction in automobile as it accounts for ten to twenty percent of the un-sprung
weight. The introduction of composites helps in designing a better suspension
system with better ride quality if it can be achieved without much increase in
cost and decrease in quality and reliability. The relationship of the specific strain
energy can be expressed as it is well known that springs, are designed to absorb
and store energy and then release it slowly. Ability to store and absorb more
amount of strain energy ensures the comfortable suspension system.

It can be easily observed that material having lower modulus and density
will have a greater specific strain energy capacity. The introduction of
composite materials made it possible to reduce the weight of the leaf spring
without reduction of load carrying capacity and stiffness due to more elastic
strain energy storage capacity and High strength to weight ratio.

3.DESIGN OF LEAF SPRING

3.1. Model-Mahindra“Model-Ommander 650 Di”

Number of leaf springs = 10

Overall length of the spring =2L1 = 121cm = 1210mm

Width of leaves = 50 mm, center distance u- bolt (l)=135mm

Assuming factor of safety=1.33

Number of full length leaves = 2 = Nf

Number of graduated leaves = 8 = Ng

Number of springs = 10= (Ng+Nf)

Center load = 2W =481kg

Ineffectivelength=3/2×L=2/3×135=90

Effective length= 2L1- 2/3(L)=1120mm

2W =481×1.33×10 N= 6392 N
W = 3200 N nearly

Load incresing uniformly to center = W/2=3200/2=1600N

 Bending stress =

Bending stress =

effective length
Length of leaf = + in effective length
no. Of leafs -1

Effective length = 1120 mm, ineffective length = 90mm, no.of full length = 2
Gradual length leafs = 8, Total leafs = 10
1120
Length of smallest leaf (leaf 1)= + 90 =214mm
10-1

1120
Length of 2nd leaf = × 2 + 90 = 338 mm
10-1

1120
Length of 3rd leaf= × 3 + 90 = 463 mm
10-1
1120
Length of 4th leaf= × 4 + 90 = 588 mm
10-1
1120
Length of 5th leaf= × 5 + 90 = 712 mm
10-1
1120
Length of 6th leaf= × 6 + 90 =837 mm
10-1
1120
th
Length of 7 leaf= × 7 + 90 = 961 mm
10-1

1120
Length of 8th leaf= × 8 + 90 = 1085 mm
10-1
th
Length of 9 leaf =1120
Length of 10th leaf=1120
3.2 Weight Calculations

For steel,

Weight of smallest leaf (leaf1)= density × volume× acceleration due to gravity

= 214 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 ×10

= 5.046 N

Weight of leaf2 = 338 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 ×10 =7.97N

Weight of leaf3 = 463 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 × 10 =10.91N

Weight of leaf4 = 588 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 × 10 =13.86N

Weight of leaf5 = 712 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 × 10 = 16.78N

Weight of leaf6 = 837 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 × 10 = 19.73N

Weight of leaf7 = 961 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 × 10 = 22.66N

Weight of leaf8= 1085 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 × 10 = 25.58N

Weight of leaf9 = 1120 × 6 × 50 × 0.00000786 × 10 =26.40N

Weight of leaf10 = 26.40N

Total weight of steel leaf spring = 175.336N

For Eglass/epoxy,

Weight of mono leaf spring = 1120 × 24 × 50 × 0.000002 × 10 = 26.88N

Weight saved = 175.336 – 26.88 = 148.456N

%weight saved = (148.456 ÷ 175.336) × 100 = 84.66%

₂
For composite material (E-glass) for leaf spring :

Bending stress =

6 ×1600 ×560
Bending stress = =186.667 N/MM2
1 ×50 ×(24)2
Deflection = 4WL3
Ebt3

6 ×1600 ×5603
= = 47.21 mm
9 3
12×10 ×50×24

Comparison between steel and composite material (E-glass/Epoxy) of the leaf

spring
The stresses is higher in steel compared with E-glass. Deflection is also more
compared to E-glass/Epoxy, when load is applied
 Mechanical Symbol Units Value
s s

Young’s modulus E Gpa 207

Shear modulus G Gpa 80

Poisson’s ratio µ - 0.3

Density p Kj/m3 7600

Yield strength Sy Mpa 370

Table 1 Mechanical Properties of Steel

 Table 2 Properties of composite materials

S. No Properties Eglass/E
poxy
1 EX(MPa) 43000
2 EY(MPa) 6500
3 EZ(MPa) 6500
4 PRXY 0.27
5 PRYZ 0.06
6 PRZX 0.06
7 GX(MPA) 4500
8 GY(MPA) 2500
9 GZ(MPA) 2500
10 p 0.000002

3.3. Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire Benefits

Unsurpassed geometry creation capabilities allow superior product
differentiation and manufacturability
Fully integrated applications allow you to develop everything from
concept to manufacturing within one application
Automatic propagation of design changes to all downstream
deliverables allows you to design with confidence
Complete virtual simulation capabilities enable you to improve
product performance and exceed product quality goals
Automated generation of associative tooling design, assembly
instructions, and machine code allow for maximum production
efficiency
Pro ENGINEER can be packaged in different versions to suit your needs,
from Pro/ENGINEER Foundation XE, to Advanced XE Package and Enterprise
XE Package, Pro/ENGINEER Foundation XE Package brings together a broad
base of functionality. From robust part modelling to advanced surfacing,
powerful assembly modelling and simulation, your needs will be met with this
scaleable solution. Flex3C and Flex Advantage Build on this base offering
extended functionality of your choosing.
Figure 3.1 Master leaf modelled in pro/e 5.0 Dimension have considered in master leaf
Figure 3.2 Assemble model developed in PRO/E 5.0
 4.ANALYSIS IN ANSYS

4.1. Introduction
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software
package. Finite Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a
complex system into very small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements.
The software implements equations that govern the behaviour of these elements
and solves them all; creating a comprehensive explanation of how the system
acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in tabulated, or graphical
forms. This type of analysis is typically used for the design and optimization of
a system far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems that may fit into this
category are too complex due to their geometry, scale, or governing equations.

ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical

Engineering Department at many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and
Electrical Engineering, as well as the Physics and Chemistry departments.

ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of

products or processes in a virtual environment. This type of product
development is termed virtual prototyping.

With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to

optimize the product long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a
reduction in the level of risk, and in the cost of ineffective designs. The
multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure that users are
able to see the effect of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it
electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.

4.2. Generic Steps to Solving Any Problem in Ansys

Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your solution domain,(2)
the physical model, (3) boundary conditions and (4) the physical properties. You then
solve the problem and present the results. In numerical methods, the main difference is
an extra step called mesh generation. This is the step that divides the complex model
into small elements that become solvable in an otherwise too complex situation. Below
describes the processes in terminology slightly more attune to the software.

4.2.1. Build Geometry

Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be
modeled and tested using the work plane coordinate system within ANSYS.

4.2.2. Define Material Properties

Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that
compose the object (or project) being modeled. This includes thermal and
mechanical properties.
 4.2.3. Generate Mesh
At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part. Now define
how the modeled system should be broken down into finite pieces.

4.2.4. Apply Loads

Once the system is fully designed, the last task is to burden the system
with constraints, such as physical loadings or boundary conditions.

4.2.5. Obtain Solution

This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what
state (steady state, transient… etc.) the problem must be solved.

4.2.6. Present the Results

After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present
ANSYS’ results, choose from many options such as tables, graphs, and contour
plots.

4.3. Specific

Capabilities

of Ansys

Structural
Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite
element method as it implies bridges and buildings, naval, aeronautical, and
mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings,
as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools.

4.3.1. Static Analysis

Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading
conditions. ANSYS can compute both linear and nonlinear static analyses.
Nonlinearities can include plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large
strain, hyper elasticity, contact surfaces, and creep.

4.3.2. Modal Analysis

A modal analysis is typically used to determine the vibration
characteristics (natural frequencies and mode shapes) of a structure or a machine
component while it is being designed. It can also serve as a starting point for
another, more detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a harmonic response or full
transient dynamic analysis.
Modal analyses, while being one of the most basic dynamic analysis types available in
ANSYS, can also be more computationally time consuming than a typical static
analysis. A reduced solver, utilizing automatically or manually selected master degrees
of freedom is used to drastically reduce the problem size and solution time.

Analysis

Results

FOR

STEEL

Figure 1 Deformations In Steel

Values of deformation: Maximum:73.909mm

 Figure 2 Stresses in Steel

Values of von mises stresses: Maximum: 352.917MPa

For E-glass/epoxy,

Figure 3 Deformation In E Glass/Epoxy

Values of deformation:Maximum: 52.346mm

Figure 4 Stresses In E Glass/Epoxy

Values of von-mises stresses:Maximum: 178.356MPa

 4.4.1. Fatigue Analysis of Steel At Fixed Support

Table:(4.4.1)

Fatigue of
steel at
fixed
Events Loads (N) Applied cycles Stress intensity MPa

1 1600 50,000 305.43

2 2000 50,000 381.79

3 3000 50,000 572.69

4 4000 50,000 763.59
5 5000 50,000 954.48

4.4.2. Fatigue Analysis of Eglass/Epoxy At Fixed Support

Table (4.4.2)

Fatigue of steel
at fixed

Events Loads Applied cycles Stress intensity MPa

1 1600 50000 174.33

2 2000 50000 217.91

3 3000 50000 326.86

4 4000 50000 435.81

5 5000 50000 544.77

Graph:1 Stress intensities vs load for steel and Eglass/epoxy

Graph:2 Resultant deformation in steel and Eglass/epoxy
 Graph 3 The stress comparison between steel and Eglass

5.CONCLUSION
1.As leaf spring contributes considerable amount of weight to the
vehicle and needs to be strong enough, a single composite leaf
spring is designed and it is shown that the resulting design and
simulation stresses are much below the strength properties of the
material satisfying the maximum stress failure criterion.
2.From the static analysis results, we see that the von- mises stress in
the steel is 352.917 MPa. And the von- mises stress in
Eglass/Epoxy is 178.356MPa.
3.Composite mono leaf spring reduces the weight by nearly 84% for E-
Glass/Epoxy.
4.From the fatigue analysis results, the usage factor of Eglass/Epoxy
is very much less compared to steel. Hence it is advantageous to
replace steel leaf spring with Eglass/Epoxy.

6.REFERENCES
1. M. Venkateshan, D. Helmen Devraj, Design and analysis of leaf spring
in light vehicles, IJMER 2249-6645 Vol.2, Issue.1, pp.213-218, Jan-
Feb 2012.
2. R. S. Khurmi and J. K. Gupta Machine Design chapter 23.