C H A P T E R

7
Food Industry Protein By-Products
and Their Applications
L.J. Yu, M.S.-L. Brooks
Department of Process Engineering and Applied Science, Dalhousie University,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

1  INTRODUCTION TO FOOD (meat sector, bakery products, dairy products,

INDUSTRY BY-PRODUCTS drinks, and other food products) represent 76%
of the total turnover and more than four-fifths of
the total number of employees (EU, 2013a).
1.1  Significance of Food Industry In the United States, the food industry ac-
Globally, the food industry is one of the most counted for 14.7% of the value of shipments
important sectors. It generates significant rev- from all US manufacturing plants in 2011. The
enue and employment throughout countries in meat industry was the largest single component
Europe, the United States, and Canada. Food of the food-manufacturing sector and associated
processing and the manufacturing are essential with 24% of food manufacturing shipments in
activities that result in the creation of many food 2011. Other important subsectors include dairy
products that can be subsequently exported to (13%), beverages (12%), grains and oilseeds
other countries. There are a huge variety of food (12%), fruits and vegetables (8%), and other food
products that make up the various subsectors of products (11%) (USDA, 2013).
the food industry, including the meat, bakery, In Canada, the food-processing industry
and dairy sectors. is the largest of all manufacturing sectors, ac-
In Europe, the food industry is the second counting for the largest share (15.9%) of the
largest manufacturing sector, equal to €1017 bil- manufacturing sector’s GDP in 2012. It also ac-
lion for the EU-27 countries (EU, 2013a). Here, counted for the largest share (16.7%) of the jobs
the employment in the food industry represents in the manufacturing sector. The industry con-
about 15% of the total manufacturing sector. Of tinues to grow and the value of shipments more
the subsectors in the European food industry, the than doubled since 1992, reaching $93.7 billion
meat sector is the largest, representing 20% of in 2012 (AAFC, 2014). Inside the food industry,
total turnover. Together, the top five subsectors processed meat, dairy, and beverage products

Protein Byproducts
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802391-4.00007-0
121 Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
122 7.  Food Industry Protein By-Products and Their Applications

accounted for more than half of the total ship- a loss on ignition (LOI) of 10%, since waste so-
ment values (C$93.7 billion) in 2012. The grain lidification may be hampered by high organic
and oilseed milling industry, as well as the bak- content (Environment Agency, 2010). The organ-
ery and tortilla manufacturing industry, were ic matter issues of solid waste can be managed
also significant, with shares of 9.7 and 9.0%, re- by anaerobic digestion, which can be used for
spectively (AAFC, 2014). industrial or domestic purposes to manage or-
ganic waste and/or to produce fuels (DeBruyn
and Hilborn, 2007).
1.2  Food Industry Wastes and The vast quantities of industrial food waste
Environmental Aspects produced every year are a great burden to so-
The food industry generates significant volumes ciety because of the costs associated with waste
of food production wastes every year. For example, handling and disposal and treatment, as well as
in Canada, during 2009, approximately 40% of the potential environmental contamination caused
food produced was disposed of as waste, which is by discharged waste streams (Stantec, 2012). In
equivalent to CAD $27 billion (approximately 2% many countries, such as Canada, this has led
of Canada’s GDP), or in other terms, representa- to stricter discharge limits and enforcement of
tive of 70% of Canada’s agri-food exports, or 1.1 discharge regulations and has also resulted
times the value of Canada’s agri-food imports in in companies being subject to escalating sur-
2009 (Uzea et al., 2014). The food industry waste charges from publicly owned treatment works
comes from various points along the food value (Stantec, 2012). The purpose of these regulations
chain, from farm, packaging/processing, trans- is to push the food industry to reduce, renovate,
portation/distribution, retailing, food service, and/or treat their wastes before discharging.
to households. Among this, 18% of the waste The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) mea-
comes from food processing and packaging, surement is one of the most commonly used pa-
which could be caused by many reasons, result- rameters for assessing the environmental impact
ing in waste from necessary processing opera- of wastewater and is used as a gauge of the ef-
tions, such as washing, peeling, seed removal, fectiveness of wastewater treatment. BOD is de-
whey separation from casein, and waste from fined as the amount of dissolved oxygen needed
unnecessary losses, such as equipment defi- by aerobic biological organisms in a body of
ciencies, employee behavior, contamination, water to break down the organic material pres-
customers’ rejections, quality of ingredients, ent in a water sample, at a specific temperature
and food safety issues (Uzea et al., 2014). Food and specified period. The BOD5, is expressed
industry wastes include both solid and liquid in milligrams of oxygen consumed per liter of
forms. Solid waste is mainly organic leftovers, sample during 5 days of incubation at 20°C. It
such as seeds, bran, peels from plant origin, is often used as a robust surrogate of the degree
and bones and skins from animal origin. Liquid of organic pollution in water and is listed as a
waste, also called wastewater, is organic water conventional pollutant in the US Clean Water
rich in nutrients, such as protein, sugar, and Act (Sawyer, 2003). Publicly owned treatment
minerals (Aggelopoulos et al., 2014). works in Canada that receive food-processing
For food production solid waste, regulations wastewater with BOD5 values greater than
about limiting organic matter being dumped 300 mg/L will add an additional surcharge for
into landfills can be strict. For example, in the treatment. In addition, companies are fined by
United Kingdom, the granular solid waste can an environmental enforcement agency, when
only be accepted at a landfill if the waste meets wastewater that exceeds their permitted BOD5
a total organic carbon (TOC) content of 6% or discharge level, is discharged into a receiving

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

 1  Introduction to food industry by-products 123
water treatment facility (Stantec, 2012). Other Food production by-products can be divided
measures of pollutant-loading, such as total into two main groups, depending on whether
suspended solids (TSS), phenols, total phospho- the food originated from plants or animals,
rous (TP), and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), are and a myriad of value-added products can be
also used for evaluating discharge fees based created from the by-products from either ori-
strength (Stantec, 2012). gin. For example, cereal sources, such as rice
A typical example of food production liq- bran, wheat bran, and oat mill by-products,
uid waste is the cheese whey generated from provide a good matrix for the extraction of
dairy processing. Cheese whey has a BOD5 functional ingredients, including nutritional
value of 30–50 g/L, which is much higher than proteins (Prakash, 1996) and dietary fibers (Hu
the 300 mg/L additional charge limit set for et al., 2009). Root sources, such as potato peels
the wastewater system. This higher value of and sugar beet molasses, have been investigat-
BOD5 is mainly owing to its high lactose con- ed for the extraction of phenols (Oreopoulou
tent (4.5–5% w/v), soluble proteins (0.6–0.8% and Tzia, 2007) and organic acids (Fischer and
w/v), lipids (0.4–0.5% w/v), and mineral salts Bipp, 2005), respectively. Process by-products
(8–10% of dried extract). Whey also contains from oil crops, such as sunflower seed resi-
appreciable quantities of other components, dues and soybean waste have been targeted
such as lactic (0.05% w/v) and citric acids, for the recovery of polyphenols (Copeland and
nonprotein nitrogen compounds (urea and Belcher, 2001) and albumin (Jishan et al., 2009),
uric acid), and B group vitamins (Kosseva and among others. In addition, by-products from
Webb, 2013). fruit and vegetable processing, such as fruit peel
and pomace, have been used to extract com-
pounds, such as pectin (Wang et al., 2007), poly-
1.3  Food Industry By-Products phenols (Rupasinghe et al., 2012), and β-carotene
Food wastes are residues of high organic (Chantaro et al., 2008). Bioactive molecules that
load, which are removed from the production are extracted from food by-products have great
process as undesirable materials, and can be ei- potential for use in functional foods and nutri-
ther solid or liquid in form. However, there are tional supplements (Celli et al., 2014). Animal-
many potential benefits that can be achieved sourced by-products can also be obtained from
from the reutilization of food wastes, such as meat, seafood, and dairy processing, from
the reduction in waste disposal costs and ex- which, proteins (Tahergorabi et al., 2011; Ramak-
tra revenue from the creation of value-added rishnan et al., 2013a), amino acids (Ramakrish-
products. To reflect this, food wastes are in- nan et al., 2013b), oils (Ghaly et al., 2013), and
creasingly referred to as food by-products. Food lactose (Bund and Pandit, 2007) are examples of
by-products can be defined as substrates de- potential high-value products.
rived from food processing, from which func- Food industry protein by-products, either
tional compounds can be recovered, facilitating from animal or plant originated food waste,
the development of new products with a mar- are promising sources of value-added prod-
ket value (Galanakis, 2012). Examples of new ucts. Particularly as they can be developed
products include functional foods and bioac- into products that have applications in many
tive ingredients, animal feed, components of different areas including the food, nutraceu-
microbial media, energy from biogas and bio- tical and pharmaceutical, animal feed, and
diesel, and other value-added products (EU, biofuel industries. In addition to the extra rev-
2013b; Ghaly et al., 2013; Ramakrishnan et al., enue obtained from the food industry protein
2013a; Lowrey et al., 2014). by-products, the reduction in costs associated

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

124 7.  Food Industry Protein By-Products and Their Applications

with disposal and treatment of the food waste of whey is by drying to produce whey powder
make it very attractive to develop appropri- (WP, with 13–15% protein, 70–80% lactose, and
ate technologies for the recovery of valuable 1–8% minerals), which accounts for 70% of the
proteins and creation of new products. The annual whey production. Comparatively less
following sections will examine protein by- whey protein concentrate (WPC, with 65–80%
products from animal sources (milk, meat, and protein, 4–21% lactose, and 3–5% minerals) and
fish) as these are significant sectors in the food whey protein isolate (WPI, with 88–92% protein,
industry, and then discuss their applications <1% lactose, and 2–4% minerals) are produced
and future needs. every year. To manufacture WP, any fat from the
whey must be removed, followed by heat treat-
ment, evaporation, then lactose crystallization
2  SIGNIFICANT SOURCES OF and spray drying (Jelen, 2011).
FOOD PROTEIN BY-PRODUCTS Whey proteins in the form of WP, WPC,
and WPI, are used as additives in many types
of foods including meats, dairy, and baked
2.1  Milk Proteins
goods because of their ability to hold water,
Whey is a major by-product of cheese mak- form gels, bind ingredients, and act as emulsi-
ing. Normally, 10 L of milk can produce 1 kg of fiers (Morr, 1982; Ha and Zemel, 2003). Whey
cheese and generate about 9 L of whey. There proteins have great nutritional benefits because
are two major types of whey: sweet rennet of their unique fractions. Whey protein is typi-
whey and sour or acid whey. The former is a cally a mixture of β-lactoglobulin (β-lg, ∼65%),
by-product in making cheddar and other types α-lactalbumin (α-la, ∼25%), bovine serum albu-
of sweet cured cheese, while the latter is a by- min (∼8%), and immunoglobulins (Onwulata
product from the production of cottage cheese et al., 2011). Whey protein and its fractions can
and similar products. Both sweet and acid whey be separated using membrane filtration tech-
contain 60–70 g/L of total solids, 44–52 g/L of niques based on molecular weight differences.
lactose and 6–10 g/L of proteins (Jelen, 2011). During this process, lactose, salts, and other
The main differences are the higher levels of low molecular weight materials pass through
calcium, phosphate, lactic acid, and lactate con- a membrane as the permeate, while higher mo-
tents in the acid whey, with the calcium content lecular weight components, such as protein are
being 10 times higher than in the sweet whey. concentrated (Ramos et al., 2012). The remaining
In addition, sweet whey also contains glycomac- permeate can be used to produce lactic acid, bio-
ropeptides (Božanić et al., 2014). Globally, most ethanol, or lactose (Jelen, 2011). Ion exchange is
the whey produced is in the form of sweet whey, another separation technique for whey protein
and in the United States, for example, about 94% and its fractions. Here, the whey protein frac-
of the whey produced is sweet whey, with the tions can be separated from the whey according
remaining 6% as acid whey (American Dairy to the surface charge characteristics of the mol-
Products Institute, 2002). ecule (ie, the ζ-potential). This method uses mild
The disposal of large volumes of whey pro- pH adjustments to activate and subsequently
duced from cheese-making has traditionally deactivate the attraction between the ion exchange
been a problem for the dairy industry because resin and the protein molecules. Ion exchange is
of the high pollutant-loading of the whey. generally more selective in what is retained during
However technologies have been developed the process (Doultani et al., 2003). More recently,
to obtain value-added products from this by- ion exchange membrane chromatography has
product stream. The main industrial processing been investigated as a promising method for

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

 2  Significant sources of food protein by-products 125
whey protein isolation. It combines the advan- recovery and utilization methods for these by-
tages of membrane technique and ion exchange, products, which otherwise could be significant
such as short processing times, mild treatment losses for the economy and serious risks to the
conditions and highly specific separations environment.
(Santos et al., 2012). The poultry sector, as an example, is the most
Whey protein fraction, β-lg, is a good source dynamic sector in meat industry. Globally, poul-
of cysteine, and has been implicated in hy- try meat production increased from 69 million
drophobic ligand transport and uptake, en- tons in 2000 to 94 million tons in 2008, which
zyme regulation, and acquisition of passive corresponds to an increase of 35%. This growth
immunity in infants (Kontopidis et al., 2004; is continuing despite consumer scares and re-
Onwulata et al., 2011). The α-la protein has gional trade restrictions linked to the spread
branched-chain amino acids, which are used by of various diseases, such as the outbreaks of
the muscles for energy and protein synthesis, the avian influenza and Newcastle disease
and contain bioactive peptides with antihyper- (Lasekan et al., 2013). Poultry processing typi-
tensive, antimicrobial, antioxidative, and an- cally includes the following steps. The birds are
titumor activities (Kamau et al., 2010). Bovine first inspected by a veterinarian. After inspec-
serum albumins contribute to osmotic pressure tion, the birds are put on a killing line and are
of blood and play an important role in trans- hung upside down by their feet by shackles on
port, distribution, and metabolism of ligands a conveyor. Once the birds are shackled, stun-
(Onwulata et al., 2011). The health benefits of ning is carried out using an electrically charged
whey protein and its appeal to consumers con- water bath, gas inhalation, or a blow to the head
tinue to increase; this gives great opportunities using a blunt object. Then slaughtering can be
to apply whey protein products into nutraceu- performed manually or automatically by using
tical and pharmaceutical industry, as discussed a circular knife system. The birds should bleed
later in this chapter. thoroughly and the blood is collected as a by-
product for further processing. After bleeding,
the birds are scalded using steam or hot water.
2.2  Meat Proteins Scalding loosens the feathers and facilitates
The annual global meat production reached plucking. Feathers are removed by a plucking
296 million tons in 2010 (FAO, 2013), with pork machine and are collected as an animal by-
production as the highest (109 million tons); product. Following scalding and plucking, the
followed by poultry (99 million tons), beef and head, feet, and inedible organs are removed
buffalo (68 million tons), and sheep and goat as animal by-products. The carcasses are then
(13 million tons). The meat industry generates rinsed, cooled, weighed, inspected, categorized,
significant amounts of by-products, and most packaged, and stored (FAO, 2010a).
of the by-products are produced during slaugh- Thus, a number of by-products can be ob-
tering. The slaughtering by-products include tained from poultry processing. Blood, as a by-
bones, skin, blood, entrails, fatty tissues, feet, product, represents about 2–6% of the live bird
skulls, and so forth, and vary with type of ani- weight (Piazza et al., 2011), and if further pro-
mals. For example, by-products of pigs, cattle, cessed, should be collected in a separate tank,
and lambs represent 52.0, 66.0, and 68.0% of the then cooled and preserved. It can then be fil-
live weight respectively, of which nearly 40% tered and spray-dried to produce blood meal
are edible and 20% are inedible (Jayathilakan (with a crude protein content of 60–80%), which
et al., 2012; Mirabella et al., 2014). Therefore, can be used for feeding fish, pets, and other
meat industry professionals try to find new animals. Animal blood can also be used for

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

126 7.  Food Industry Protein By-Products and Their Applications

making human foods, such as blood sausage in The fish-processing industry is a major ex-
some countries (Mandal et al., 1999; Ofori and porter of seafood products in many countries
Hsieh, 2011). Feathers, with a crude protein con- including China, Norway, and the United
tent of more than 90%, constitute 5–7% of the States (FAO, 2010b). Globally, about 154 mil-
live bird weight (Grazziotin et al., 2008; Taskin lion tons of fish were produced in 2011, with a
and Kurbanoglu, 2011). The low-value proteins value of US$217.5 billion (FAO, 2012). Typically,
from feathers can be hydrolyzed and used in pet two-thirds of the fish is processed before sale.
food or animal feed. Poultry feet, with a crude Processing the fish involves stunning the
protein content of 16% (Okanović et al., 2009), fish, grading, slime removal, scaling, wash-
can either be used for human food or separated ing, deheading, gutting, cutting of fins, slicing
for animal consumption. Those used for human into steaks and fillets, meat bone separation,
food should be approved during the inspection packaging, labeling, and distribution (Ghaly
process and are heat treated to remove skin and et al., 2013). During these processes, 20–80% of
nails before packing (FAO, 2010a). by-products are generated depending on the lev-
In general, meat by-products obtained from el of processing and type of fish (AMEC, 2003).
animals are rich in proteins and are also good The solid by-products from fish processing
sources of minerals and B-complex vitamins. For include the heads, tails, frames, and skin. Fish
example, animal liver is especially rich in vitamin frames contain significant amounts of muscle
A and has a higher proportion of unsaturated fat- proteins that can be recovered from this process-
ty acids than saturated fatty acids (FAO, 2010a). ing by-product. These muscle proteins are high-
Animal blood is rich in protein, zinc, iron, vita- ly nutritious, easily digestible, and nutritionally
min B2, and has a higher value of trivalent iron superior to those of plant sources. Furthermore,
and other nutrients. It is easily digested and ab- they have a better balance of essential amino
sorbed by the body and therefore a good source acids compared to other animal protein sources
for patients, children, and elderly people (Mandal (Friedman, 1996). The fish proteins can be ex-
et al., 1999; Toldra et al., 2012). In addition to the tracted by chemical or enzymatic processes. In
consumption of meat-processing by-products for the chemical method, salts including NaCl and
nutritive purposes, modern technologies have solvents, including isopropanol, are used (Sikor-
led the application of the meat by-products be- ski and Naczk, 1981), whereas in the enzymatic
yond general nutrition. The applications of meat extraction, enzymes such as Alcalase and Neu-
protein by-products to other areas will be pre- trase are applied (Liaset et al., 2000). These fish
sented in Section 3, which follows. proteins can be used as a functional ingredient
in many food products because of their unique
properties, such as water-holding capacity, oil
2.3  Seafood Proteins absorption, gelling activity, foaming capacity,
Seafood by-products have recently attracted and emulsifying properties. They can also be
much attention because of their natural abun- used in milk replacers, infant formulas, and as
dance and underutilized bioactive materials. bakery substitutes.
Various bioactive materials, such as peptides, Amino acids can also be produced from fish
gelatin, collagen, chitin, chitosan, calcium, and protein by-products by enzymatic or chemical
fish oil have been isolated from the seafood processes. Enzymatic hydrolysis of protein sub-
by-products and have been reported to have strates uses protease enzymes, such as alcalase,
antihypertensive, antitumor, anticancer, anti- chymotrypsin, trypsin, and pepsin (Kim and
bacterial, antioxidant and anti-HIV activities Wijesekara, 2010), whereas chemical hydrolysis
(Senevirathne and Kim, 2012). of protein substrates uses acid or alkali to extract

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

 3  Applications of food protein by-products 127
amino acids (Kristinsson and Rasco, 2000). The es the water-holding capacity and is also consid-
extracted amino acids can be applied in animal ered very important to the consumer acceptabil-
feed or used in the production of pharmaceuti- ity of many foods, such as processed meat, dairy,
cals (Ikeda, 2003; Ghaly et al., 2013), as discussed and bakery products (Van den Hoven, 1987;
in Section 3. Sherwin, 1995; Ha and Zemel, 2003). Whey pro-
tein by-products have been successfully used in
processed meats, where sweet whey, WPCs, and
WPIs are among the most common whey prod-
3  APPLICATIONS OF FOOD
ucts used. The addition of these by-products to
PROTEIN BY-PRODUCTS
processed meats results in improved flavor, func-
tionality, and increased yields (Keaton, 1999). In
3.1  Whey Proteins general, the following recommendations (as per-
Whey proteins are extremely important com- centage of finished product basis) can be consid-
pounds in whey, because of their high nutri- ered guidelines for the addition of whey protein
tional value. They are composed of mainly β-lg, by-products: Sweet whey for 2.5–3.5%, WPC for
α-la, albumin, and immunoglobulin. These ther- 2.5–3.5%, and WPI for 1.0–2.0%. However, the
mally sensitive fractions are high in concentra- proportion of these whey protein by-products
tions of essential amino acids, including lysine, that would be used in practice would be depen-
cysteine, and methionine, as well as cystine. The dent on the processed meat composition and
ratio of cysteine and methionine determines the the individual functionality of the specific whey
ability of the body to use the proteins and has ingredient to be used (USDEC, 1997). As an-
been found to be about 10 times higher in whey other food application, whey proteins have also
proteins than in casein. Thus, the whey proteins been proposed as dough-enhancing additives,
have higher biological value when compared to provide a protective effect on the gluten net-
to casein, or other animal-derived proteins work in frozen dough and improve the quality
(Božanić et al., 2014). Whey proteins are also rich (Jacobson, 1997).
in bioactive peptides (Madureira et al., 2010). The conversion of whey proteins into edible
These bioactive peptides may affect the major packaging products (edible film and coatings)
body systems including the cardiovascular, di- is an interesting application of a food protein
gestive, immune, and nervous systems and give by-product, especially with increasing public
beneficial health effects, such as antimicrobial, awareness of environmental issues around the
antioxidative, antihypertensive, or antitumor ac- disposal of nonbiodegradable packaging. In a
tivities (Jensen and Larsen, 1993; Bounous, 2000; review by Ramos et al. (2012), recent advances
Davis et al., 2002; Micke et al., 2002; Crowely in the field are discussed. However, the basic
and Brown, 2007). Examples of nutraceutical principle used to generate a film or coating from
and pharmaceutical applications using whey whey proteins involves gelation, which can be
protein by-products are given in Table 7.1. facilitated by various methods, including the
Whey proteins also possess many functional addition of chemicals, change in net charge, or
properties that are desirable in food systems increase in hydrostatic pressure. Each of these
(Morr and Ha, 1993; Zayas, 1997). Important processes results in protein aggregation and
functional properties of whey proteins include eventual gel formation as the initial proteins un-
water holding capacity, emulsification, gel for- dergo partial or complete unfolding. Producing
mation, and texture improvement (Mangino, whey protein-based packaging would be very
1984; Van den Hoven, 1987; Sherwin, 1995). The desirable as a renewable, sustainable packaging
gel formation property of these proteins increas- alternative, however, further research efforts are

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

128 7.  Food Industry Protein By-Products and Their Applications

TABLE 7.1 Some Application Examples of Protein By-Products in Pharmaceutical, Nutraceutical, and Food Systems
Origin of
waste Type of protein by-product Characteristics Applications References

Whey WPC Antitumor Cancer patients Bounous (2000)

Whey Whey protein (Fresenius Kabi, Increase plasma HIV patients Micke et al.
Germany) or Immunocal glutathione levels (2002)
(Immunotec, Europe)
Whey β-Lactoglobulin (β-lg), Nutrition and beyond Nutraceutical Jensen and
α-lactalbumin (α-la)/Alfa-Laval Larsen
Food Engineering AB, Sweden) (1993)
Whey WPI/Bipro/Davisco International Nutrition and beyond Nutraceutical Davis et al.
Foods Inc., USA (2002)
Whey Deflavored whey protein/Kraft Nutrition and beyond Nutraceutical Crowely and
Foods Holding Inc., USA Brown (2007)
Whey Sweet whey, WPC, WPI Flavor, aroma, water Processed meats Keaton (1999)
binding, gelation,
emulsification
Whey Whey powder Aroma, texture, stability, Bakery (pastry) Božanić et al.
water binding (2014)
Whey Whey powder Air incorporation Bakery (Glazes) Božanić et al.
(2014)
Whey Whey powder Aroma, acid, fruit Dairy (ice cream) Božanić et al.
stability (2014)
Whey WPI Gel formation Edible film and Ramos et al.
coating (2012)
Meat Liver extract Nutritional supplement Nutraceutical Devatkal et al.
(2004)
Meat Blood Nutritional ingredient Deli meat (sausages) Ghost (2001)
Meat Blood plasma Gelation, foaming Deli meat (cooked Autio et al.
ham) (1985)
Meat Gelatin Stabilizer Frozen desert Jamilah and
Harvinder
(2002)
Fish Protein hydrolytes/Seacure, USA Regulate bowel Dietary supplement Chalamaiah
and Canada functions et al. (2012)
Fish Protein hydrolytes/Amizate, Metabolic recovery Sports nutrition Chalamaiah
North America et al. (2012)
Fish Protein hydrolytes/Molval, UK Promote cardiovascular Dietary supplement Chalamaiah
health et al. (2012)
Fish l-glutamate Flavor enhancer Food flavoring Ikeda (2003)
industry
Fish d,l-Methionine Animal nutritional Animal feed Ikeda (2003)
supplement
Fish l-Glycine/Nutropin Human growth Pharmaceutical Arakawa et al.
hormone (2007)

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

 3  Applications of food protein by-products 129
needed to ensure its commercial success. Other melt-in-the-mouth feeling. It is also added to a
examples of whey protein by-products in food range of meat products, including meat pies,
applications are shown in Table 7.1. and widely used as a stabilizer for ice cream
and other frozen desserts. High-bloom gelatin
works as a protective colloid to ice cream, yo-
3.2  Meat Proteins gurt, and cream pies, to prevent the formation
Traditionally, meat by-products that are rich of ice crystals and the recrystallization of lactose
in proteins (eg, blood, skin, bones, meat trim- during storage (Jamilah and Harvinder, 2002).
mings, feet, and internal organs of harvested an- In addition, gelatin is applied in the pharma-
imals), are consumed either by humans or used ceutical industry as a binding and compound-
as pet food, animal feed, or fertilizer (Toldra ing agent in the manufacture of tablets (Hidaka
et al., 2012). However, blood plasma, gelatin, and and Liu, 2003). Being a protein in nature, it is
liver, as well as other meat by-products, have used as a plasma expander for blood in cases
also been used to extract bioactive peptides and of very severe shock and injury. Gelatin is an
other value-added components (Jayathilakan excellent emulsifier and stabilizing agent for
et al., 2012). many emulsions and foams and therefore has
Animal blood, which has a high level of pro- applications in cosmetic products and printing
tein and heme iron, is an important nutritional (Arvanitoyannis, 2002).
by-product for humans. Animal blood has long The liver is the largest gland found in ani-
been consumed in the forms of blood sausages, mals and a by-product of meat processing.
blood pudding, blood curd, and blood cake Liver extract has been used by the pharmaceu-
(Ghost, 2001; Wan et al., 2002). Blood is also used tical industry as a source of vitamin B12 and as
in food as an emulsifier, stabilizer, and nutrition- a nutritional supplement to treat various types
al ingredient (Silva and Silvestre, 2003). For feed of anaemia (Colmenero and Cassens, 1987;
applications, blood is mostly used in the form Devatkal et al., 2004). In addition, the liver can
of blood meal, which serves as a protein, lysine, be a source of heparin, although heparin can
and mineral supplement, and a vitamin stabiliz- also be extracted from the lungs and the lining
er. Blood plasma, as a component from animal of the small intestines. Heparin is an important
blood, has good gelation and foaming proper- pharmaceutical compound that is used as an
ties because of its high content—60%—of albu- anticoagulant to prevent blood clotting during
min (Silva and Silvestre, 2003). Therefore, it has surgery (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). Further ex-
been used in cooked ham, hot dogs, and bakery amples of meat protein by-products applied in
products (Autio et al., 1985; Ghost, 2001). different areas are given in Table 7.1.
Hides and bones are meat by-products that
contain large quantities of collagen. Gelatin
3.3  Fish Proteins
is produced by the controlled hydrolysis of a
water-insoluble collagen derived from hides Fish proteins are highly nutritious and easily
and bones. The processing of gelatin from hides digestible. Fish proteins contain many bioactive
and bones consists of three major steps. The first peptides that can be used as functional ingre-
step is the elimination of noncollagenous ma- dients in food products, owning to properties
terial from the raw material. This is followed such as water-holding capacity, oil absorption,
by controlled hydrolysis of collagen to gelatin. gelling activity, foaming capacity, and emulsifi-
The final step is recovery and drying of the fi- cation (Ghaly et al. 2013). Fish proteins can be
nal product (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). Gelatin used as protein supplements in bakery prod-
has been used in jellied desserts because of its ucts, soups and infant formulas, because of the

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

130 7.  Food Industry Protein By-Products and Their Applications

rich amino acid composition. Also, various com- protein by-products, such as whey proteins,
mercial nutraceuticals are produced from fish are becoming more valuable as food ingredi-
protein hydrolysates, which serve as dietary ents, biodegradable packaging, dietary sup-
supplements to support healthy body functions plements, and pharmaceuticals, because of
and prevent aging diseases, such as cardiovas- their unique bioactive and functional proper-
cular disease and hypertension (Chalamaiah ties, resulting in positive benefits to human
et al., 2012). health and the environment. However, some
Commercial amino acids from fish by-prod- protein by-products, including those derived
ucts are used as food additives, animal feed, from meat processing, have not been fully de-
and for pharmaceutical applications. The larg- veloped in terms of their potential for value
est usage of amino acids is the food-flavoring addition. This is evident as the two major com-
industry, which uses monosodium glutamate, mercial application areas for meat by-products
alanine, aspartate, and arginine to improve the are still as animal feed and direct human con-
flavor of food products. The animal feed indus- sumption as food. It is possible that this may be
try also uses large amounts of amino acids to partly caused by religious reasons and health
improve the nutritional quality of animal feed concerns discouraging the use of animal-
(Ghaly et al., 2013), and commonly used amino derived compounds, such as gelatin, as food
acids include lysine, methionine, threonine, additives. Thus, it is necessary to explore meat
and tryptophan among others. Some amino ac- by-products for other potential applications,
ids, such as arginine, glycine, glutamate, and such as in the cosmetics and energy industries,
histidine, are widely used in protein-based and more research is needed to develop novel,
pharmaceuticals as an excipient for drug de- efficient, cost-effective technologies to ensure
velopment. In addition, amino acids can be that food by-products can be fully used so as
used in pharmaceutical formulations and as a to maximize economic value and minimize en-
substrate for the microbial production of an- vironmental impact.
tibiotics and biopharmaceuticals (Arakawa
et al., 2007; Ramakrishnan et al., 2013b). Since
1996, amino acids have become increasingly
more valuable (Ikeda, 2003) and the demand is LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
high. For example, amino acids are being pro-
duced at the multimillion-ton scale, with the α-la α-Lactalbumin
fermentative production of l-glutamate and β-lg β-Lactoglobulin
AAFC Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
l-lysine in 2013 estimated at more than 5 mil- BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
lion tons (Wendisch, 2014). Further examples EU European Union
of the applications of fish protein by-products FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
are shown in Table 7.1. GDP Gross domestic product
LOI Loss on ignition
NaCl Sodium chloride
TKN Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
4  FUTURE DIRECTIONS TOC Total organic carbon
TP Total phosphorous
Food-processing protein by-products need TSS Total suspended solids
not be an environmental burden; indeed, they USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USDEC US Dairy Export Council
are a promising source of value-added prod- WP Whey powder
ucts. With the increasing public awareness of WPC Whey protein concentrate
health and nutrition issues, food-processing WPI Whey protein isolate

III.  Transformation of proteins by-products to high value products

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