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Spring 2018

Carbon black production, analyzing and characterization

Shadha Khalid Jebur

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 ii

CARBON BLACK PRODUCTION, ANALYZING AND CHARACTERIZATION

by

SHADHA KHALID JEBUR

A THESIS

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the

MISSOURI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

2018

Approved by

Dr. Joseph Smith, Advisor

Dr. Douglas Ludlow
Dr. Peter Ryan
 iii

Copyright 2018

Shadha Khalid Jebur

All Rights Reserved

 iv
iii

ABSTRACT

Carbon black (CB) plays a significant function in the development of the electrical

and mechanical properties of high performance for a tough elastic polymeric substance

such as rubber materials. Thus, CB is widely used to manufacture a massive number of

products such as reinforcing and pigment phase in automobile tires due to its high ability

to increase tire life by reducing the thermal damage. This material is also used in belts,

hoses, and other non-tire rubber goods. Before use in valuable materials. CB should first

be analyzed and characterized by different instruments to obtain its mechanical properties.

A new thermal black process by using electrical heating system has been used in this work.

Which will produce a new grade of the CB with the high surface area for use in tire

manufacturing.

This thesis demonstrates that the production of carbon black was characterized by

transmission electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Brunauer-Emmett-

Teller (BET) measurements. These techniques have been used for the solid samples

(powder). Additionally, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas

chromatography (GC) have been utilized for gas samples.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thankful to God (ALLAH), prophet (Mohammed) and his holy family, Prophet

Jesus Christ, his holy mom miss Maria. This thesis would not have been complete

without the support of Dr. Joseph Smith. My deep thanks to Dr. Smith for his endless

tolerance and direction at each progression of this work. My thankful to Dr. Douglas

Ludlow and Dr. Dwindle Ryan for willing to be on my committee advisory group and

their kindness. I should thank my lab mates: Haider, Manohar, Anand, Vivek, Aso, Jia,

Han, Haider Alhamedi and Jeremy. I am appreciative to Dr. Darrell Ownby, Dean,

Dawn and Emily for their assistance. I would like to thank Monolith Materials Inc. for

their financial support. Deep acknowledgment to Dr. Nathan Leigh and Mr. Satterfield

for GC and FTIR training and their efforts. Thankful to Dr. Jeremy Watts and Devin

Mc Millen for BET training and their generosity for using their lab anytime. I would

like to thank Dr. Eric Bohannan to help us with XRD analysis. I present my work to

the spirit of my dear father, to my dear mother, and my second father Mr. Salim Sabri

that they were continually being with me through their hearts and prayers.

Acknowledgment to my husband, Dr. Laith Sabri, for his help. Thankful to my sister

Fatima for her inspiration, effective support for me. Thanks to admired Brother

Mohammed for all help and support. To instructor and Brother Dr. Abbas Sultan, there

are no words to describe your character; thank you for your support and responsibility.

To my best friends Majeda, Mrs. Ammal, Dr. Naven Ali and Daad, my gratitude for

your support and prayers. To Mrs. Cathy Cassidy, Dr. Cassidy, and Sierra, thank you

for making me feel at home, for all the fun times together in Rolla, and for your support

and responsibility for my family.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ABSTRACT…..………………………………………………………………………….iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………….….....iv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS………..…………………………………………….….....viii

LIST OF TABLES ……….…………………………………………………………..…..xi

SECTION

1. INTRODUCTION……….......................................................................................1

1.1. CARBON BLACK PROPERTIES..……….…………………………………5

1.1.1. Sieve Residue…….….………………………………………………...5

1.1.2. Particle Size.…………………………………………………………...7

1.1.3. Structure…….……………………………………………………...….8

1.1.4. Surface Area….………………………………………………………..8

1.1.5. Surface Chemistry…...…………………………………….................10

1.1.6. Porosity...…………..………………………………………………...11

1.1.7. Density………………….……………………………………………12

1.1.8. Aggregate Size...……………………………………………………..12

1.1.9. Aggregate Shape...…………...………………………………………12

1.1.10. Electronic Properties…...…………………………………………….13

1.1.11. Thermal Conductivity……...……………...…………………………14

1.2. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES..……………………………………….14

1.2.1. Classification of Carbon Black Manufacturing Processes...................15

1.2.1.1. Furnace black method....………..……………………………….16

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ivii
1.2.1.2. Lampblack process………………….……………………..…….19

1.2.1.3. Channel black process…….…...…….……………………....…..21

1.2.1.4. Thermal black process….…..……….….…………………..……22

1.2.1.5. Acetylene black process……….……….…………………..…....24

1.2.2. Motivation........………………………………….…………………..…25

1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES………………………….………………..……25

1.4. THESIS ORGANIZATION……………………………………....................26

2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK AND DESIGN………………………………...…....27

2.1. THE CARBON BLACK PRODUCTION PROCESS DESCRIPTION……..27

2.2. CHALLENGING DURING THE EXPERIMENTAL WORK………..……33

2.3. SAMPLE COLLECTION……...……………………………………………34

3. CB SAMPLES CHARACTERIZATIONS…………...………………………….36

3.1. X-RAY DIFFRACTION (XRD)……………………………………...……..36

3.2. BRUNAUER, EMMETT AND TELLER (BET)……………………..…….39

3.2.1. Vacuum Degassing………...……...………………………………….42

3.2.2. Gas Adsorption Analyzer……………...……………………………..44

3.3. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)………………………....45

3.4. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (GC)……………………………………...…46

3.5. FOURIER-TRANSFORM INFRARED (FTIR)……………………….…....47

4. POWDER CARBON BLACK AND GASSES RESULTS………………………51

4.1. BET RESULTS...…………………………………………………...……….51

4.2. XRD RESULTS...…………………………………………………...………51

4.3. SEM RESULTS...…………………………………………………...………54

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4.4.GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (GC) RESULTS…..…………………………55

4.5.FTIR ANALYSIS.……………….………………..……………………........56

4.5.1. Reference Gases Spectra and Samples….……………………………56

4.5.2. Detection Limits…………….………………………………………..63

4.5.3. The Qualitative And The Quantitive…………………………………63

4.6. RESULTS ERROR……………………………...………………………......64

4.7. DISCUSSION……………………………………….………………………65

5. REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATION……………………………..……….67

REFERNCES………………………………...…………………………………………..68

VITA……………………...……………………………………………………………...74
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viii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Figure 1.1. Global Carbon Black Demand by Application until 2018.….………………..2

Figure 1.2. Carbon Black Uses ….………………………………….…………………….4

Figure 1.3. Carbon Black Particle Size Comparison .…………………….………………7

Figure 1.4. Carbon Black Structure.……….………………………….…………………..8

Figure 1.5. Comparison of surface area at different particles structures.………………..10

Figure 1.6. Schematic diagram of the individual process steps in a carbon black
production unit……….……………………………………………..………..17

Figure 1.7. Internal diagram for the furnace black process.……………………………..18

Figure 1.8. Lampblack process ….………………………………………………………20

Figure 1.9. Channel black process or gas black process…..……………………….…….22

Figure 1.10. Thermal black process …..………………………….…………..………….23

Figure 2.1. Carbon Black Process............………….…………………………………….29

Figure 2.2. The DAQ system (Right) and the Thermocouples Distribution Along the
Heater/ Reactor (Left)……..…………………………………………………31
Figure 2.3. Accumulation of the Carbon Black inside the Reactor...……………………34

Figure 2.4. Carbon Black Powder Sample Collection...…………………………………35

Figure 2.5. Gaseous Sample Collection...………………………………………………..35

Figure 3.1. X-ray Diffraction in the AMCL...…………………………………………....37

Figure 3.2. Normalization to background measurement..…….………………………….37

Figure 3.3. FWHM output from the XRD...……………………………………………...38

Figure 3.4. BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller)..……………………………………….40

 ixx

Figure 3.5. BET Plot……………………………………………………………………..41

Figure 3.6. Connect the sample (bulb) to the degassing section after scale the powder....43

Figure 3.7. Heat up the sample to 200C and then remove the heating mantle to cool
the sample …...………………………………………………………………..43

Figure 3.8. BET Test a) Connect the sample to the analyzer section, (b) Full the
Dewar with liquid Nitrogen, (c) put the Dewar at the analyzer section, (d)
set the point and (e) leave the sample for 2hr..................................................44

Figure 3.9. Carbon Black powder that prepared for SEM measurement...………………45

Figure 3.10. Gas Chromatography GC which placed in Chemistry department .……….46

Figure 3.11. Gas Cell….…………………………………………………………………48

Figure 3.12. Purging the gas cell by using N2.…………………………………………..49

Figure 3.13. Steps of the gas cell filling.………………………………………………...49

Figure 3.14. FTIR instrument placed in Chemistry department.………………………...50

Figure 4.1. BET results report for one sample...…………………………………………51

Figure 4.2. XRD analysis...………………………………………………………………52

Figure 4.3. Other statistical data for XRD results...……………………………………...53

Figure 4.4. SEM images for carbon black sample at different resolution...……………..54

Figure 4.5. GC analysis for standard as references gases...……………………………...55

Figure 4.6. GC analysis for sample#1……………………………………………………56

Figure 4.7. Methane 25%...................................................................................................57

Figure 4.8. Methane 99.9%................................................................................................57

Figure 4.9. Methane NIST (references).............................................................................58

Figure 4.10. Ethylene 999 ppm...………………………………………………………...58

Figure 4.11. Ethylene (reference)...……………………………………………………...59

 x

Figure 4.12. Acetylene 7100.....………………………………………………………….59

Figure 4.13. Acetylene NIST (reference)………………………………………………...60

Figure 4.14. Ethane 1% ……..…………..……………………………………………….60

Figure 4.15. Ethane 50%..…..……………………………………………………………61

Figure 4.16. Ethane NIST (reference) …………………………………………………...61

Figure 4.17. CO (reference)…..………………………………………………………….62

Figure 4.18. FTIR Spectra Result.……………………………………………………….62

Figure 4.19. FTIR Spectra..…..………………………………………………………….63

 xi
LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table 1.1. Kinds of Carbon Black Manufacturing Processes……...…………………….15

Table 2.1. Summary for Results of XRD……...….……...………………….………39

Table 4.1. XRD analysis……………………………………….………………………...52

Table 4.2. Wavenumbers limitation for different component..………………………….63

Table 4.3. FTIR Results…………………………………………………………………64

 1
1. INTRODUCTION

Carbon black (CB) is a term that mentions to a group of industrial materials

products including furnace, thermal and acetylene blacks. They basically contain carbon in

a form close to spherical particles of colloidal size combined into particle combinations

and are achieved by thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons and the partial combustion.

Therefore, CB shows a major role in the enhancement of the rubber materials in terms of

mechanical and electrical properties. The potential of the reinforcing mostly refers to two

things: first, the formation of the filler network physically in a bonded flexible, and second,

strong filler by polymer couplings. The effects of both parameters refer to a big surface

activity and specific surface of the filler particles. To this point, the structure and formation

of the network in the CB and the mechanical response work in terms of analyzing and

characterization (Alcántara et al. 2001; J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993; Knoblauch et al.

2011; Kraus 1978; Lohmann, Macfarlane, and Gschwend 2005; Chen et al. 2014; James

E. Mark 2007; Martínez, Murillo, and García 2013).

In previous centuries, CB was used by the Indians and Chinese. It has been used

as a pigment in the black ink. After that, the carbon was commonly used as a filler in paints,

elastomers, and plastics to adjust the electrical, the optical properties and mechanics of the

materials in which they are scattered, thus setting their implementation in a specific market

segment (Anonymous 2011; DuBay and Fuldner 2017; Kuhlbusch 1998; Luengo, Treuillet,

and Gomez 2015; Avrom I. Medalia 1986).

Unique properties have imparted when CB is compounded with plastics, such as

UV protection, electrical behavior, or the range of darkness (jets). Around 90% of the

worldwide production of CB is utilized in tire manufacturing where the CB develops tear

 2

strength, perfect modulus and wear analysis of the tires (Borchard et al. 2014; Probst and

Grivei 2002a).

CB is a remarkable pigment for use in xerographic toners as it help maintain a

suitable level of electric charge on the toner which essential for proper operation of

the electrographic over 2000 printers.

Total manufacture for CB was around 8,100,000 metric tons. After that the

amount of CB consumption estimated globally in 2015 was more than 13.3 million tons

and priced at $13.9 billion, and it is predicted to reach 14 million tons at $14.6 billion in

2016. Advance prediction is to preserve 5.8% between 2016 and 2022 to reach 19.4

million tons, which is equivalent to $20.6 billion in 2022.

10%
other application

20%
Rubber 
manufacturing 

70%
Tire industries

Figure 1.1. Global Carbone Black Demand by Application until 2018

 3

The general use for CB is now a days is (70%) as shown in Figure 1.1, where the

majority (70%) of use is as a reinforcing phase and pigment in automobile tires.

likewise, the behavior of heat away from the tread and belt area of the tire by the CB

supports increases tire life by reducing thermal damage (A. Tomlinson E. Karakosta, M.

Oakey, T.N. Danks, D.M. Heyes, S.E. Taylor et al. 2000; Anonymous 2011; Borchard et

al. 2014; Knoblauch et al. 2011; Szozda 1996). Some absorbent materials use the

particles of the CB in radar for the decrease of cross-section of the radar in aircraft, in

laser printer toner and photocopiers, and in other paints and inks.

The high strength of the paint and the carbon black stabilization also has use in

the coloring of films and resins. Other utilization, which around 20%, is in hoses, belts,

and other non-rubber materials, where it is mostly used as a pigment in inks, plastics,

and coatings, as shown in Figure 1.2 (Dong et al. 2017; Fan and Zhang 2008; Knoblauch

et al. 2011; Major et al. 2010). Additionally, CB has been greatly used in

packaging for food and beverage around the world as a phase of color

pigment. It is used in milk bottles in the United States, South Africa, and parts

of Europe, and Asia, and in New Zealand it has been used in items like

microwavable meat trays and meal trays.

There are rigorous guidelines available and in place to ensure the employees

who work in CB industries are not in a working environment where they are at risk

of inhaling unsafe doses of CB in its raw form (A. Tomlinson E. Karakosta, M.

Oakey, T.N. Danks, D.M. Heyes, S.E. Taylor et al. 2000; Dons et al. 2012;

Fowles 2007; Miao et al. 2013; Moulin et al. 2017; Payne and Whittaker 1970;

Sorahan et al. 2001; M.-J. Wang et al. 2003).

 4

Rubber runaway

Inks

http://www.boeing.com/commerc http://www.sportsedge.com/sports-
ial/787/by-design/#/featured https://www.amazon.com/Plati equipment/outdoor-athletic-equipment/
num-carbon-bottle-black-
japan/dp/B0028MTSFQ
Body structures in Aircraft The highways
and Automobiles

https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/materials-
automotive-body-chassis-structure-pooyan- https://volatilityviewpoint.wordpress.com/2013/08/02/what-
does-the-highway-code-say-about-investment-strategy/
nayyeri/
All rubbers types

All tires types

http://www.hstmaterials.com/capabili
ties/extruded-rubber-gaskets/ https://www.emag.hu/premiorri-solazo-195-65-
r15-tl-91h-60945/pd/DNW3FMBBM/
Pipes and fittings of the Engines

https://polyblendkenya.com/products/colour-pigments/

http://www.asahicarbon.co.jp/global
_site/product/cb/usage.html Colors pigments
Shoe sole
http://gambar-yamaha-mio.blogspot.com/

Figure 1.2. Carbon Black Uses

 5
1.1 CARBON BLACK PROPERTIES

The complicated structure of carbon black observed under an electron microscope

shows that they have, mostly spherical particles fused together. The spherical particles are

different sizes. Particles connected as a chain are called a "structure." Several practical

assemblies such as the group of the carboxyl or hydroxyl are found in the CB surface. The

name "surface chemistry" is given for their composition or amount. Surface chemistry

particle size and structure are the simple carbon black properties. These properties are main

parameters for carbon black and have a big effect on the properties of the particle such as

dispensability and blackness when they are mixed with inks, paints, or resins (Kwon, Kim,

and Rhee 2013; Samaržija-Jovanović et al. 2009). Therefore, it can be defined the carbon

black generally as a very fine particulate aggregates of possessing of the carbon a formless

quasi-graphitic molecular structure. The greatest areas of differences between a furnace black

and thermal black are the size of the particle and the formula of the structure. Most carbon

blacks are assigned and classified a number of the grade established on the surface area and

the measurements of the structure (Kwon, Kim, and Rhee 2013; Moulin et al. 2017; Poudel

and Qiao 2014; Tang et al. 2015).

1.1.1. Sieve Residue. Sieve residue indicate to contaminants as a non-dispersible

for example refractory particles, coke, metal oxides and water-soluble salts, and it is

defined as a carbon black percentage by weight. The sieves in sixty and 325 Mesh are

utilized for this test. The gravel resulting could cause shortcomings and might impact the

performance and manifestation of some plastic and rubber products. The 325 mesh grit is

also tested for magnetic content (Bossuyt, Six, and Hendrix 2006; Rating 2000). The

concept of carbon black as an "aggregate" is more suitable to describe the chaining and

clustering of CB particles. Hess and Ford (79) referred to aggregates in terms of the discrete
 6
units of CB that exist in elastomer vulcanizes. However, this terminology was not widely

used until the work of Medalia (Köchling et al. 1985; A. I. Medalia 1978; A. I. Medalia

and Heckman 1969). By viewing carbon black through high-resolution electron

microscope characterization, Burgess et al. [81] found that the aggregate of the carbon

black as a "paracrystalline unit".

The carbon black particles were known as the field or area of the layer orientation

for graphitic rotation. While this terminology was described as the true nature of CB, it was

not exceedingly reasonable. This also applies to the term "nodule" which was used to

describe the CB particles. In present day, the terms “aggregate” and “particle” are used as

the main descriptors of carbon black morphology. The separate, colloidal rigid structure

for the aggregate of the CB which is the lowest dispersible unit is composed of

comprehensively coalesced particles.

The carbon blacks particles fusion is made up of all electrons. The structural

properties and the shape of the distributive aggregate in nature; such as the size of the

aggregate grades and the particle size. They occasionally differ through a broad range

within and between the agglomerate. An agglomerate is also confused with an aggregate

and is actually comprised of a large number of aggregates that are physically held together

as opposed to the graphitic structure which links the continuous particles in aggregates.

The important in particle size and its distribution is most likely CB in terms of physical

properties and end-use applications, even though particles do not exist as discrete entities

except for thermal blacks. Therefore, the methods employed to measure particle size

directly and indirectly will be described first, followed by those for surface area, porosity

and aggregate size and shape.

 7
1.1.2. Particle Size. The size of CB particles particularly the diameter of the particle

when it has a spherical shape as shown in Figure 1.3, is considered as an essential characteristic

that largely effects dispensability and blackness when mixed with resins or other vehicles.

Generally, the minimal size particle becomes maximal blackness of carbon black. Scuttle, however,

becomes hard due to an increase in coagulation force. The size of the particle of the CB

distributions, when the electron microscope remains accurate means of the measuring. The first

extensive measurements were by Ladd et. al. (1942), for commercial grade carbon blacks. They

measured manually on suitably enlarged micrographs. Typically, based on a high frequency

discharge, the dispersions used in these early studies scattered the CB onto thin plastic films of

polyvinyl formal or nitrocellulose (Jean-Baptiste Donnet, Bansal, and Meng-Jiao Wang 1993).

(Particle sizes not to scale)

Mean Diameters

15nm
80nm
280nm

Figure 1.3. Carbon Black Particle Size Comparison

Endter, F. and Gebauer (1956) made main advance by improving a semiautomatic

measuring device, which was later marketed by the Zeiss Optical Co. This instrument

utilizes a variable light spot to measure the particle diameters on micrographs, and the

values are recorded automatically. Schubert et al. (1969) described the application of the

Zeiss Particle Size Analyzer for CB particle size measurements along with procedures for

estimating particle size from micrographs. It was later found that the discharge method
 8
actually altered some of the CB particles through oxidation or partial graphitization

(Syvitski J. P. M. 1991; Syvitski, LeBlanc, and Asprey 1991).

1.1.3. Structure. Similar to particle size, the structure size also impacts the

dispensability and blackness of carbon black, as shown in Figure 1.4. Commonly, the

increase in size of the structure increases dispensability, through it lowers blackness. CB

with a larger structure or construction displays excellent conductivity (Black, Pearls, and

Spectra 1996; J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993).

(Particle sizes not to scale)

Low Structure High Structure

Moderate Structure

Figure 1.4. Carbon Black Structure

1.1.4. Surface Area. The surface area plays a substantial role in CB grade production

and classification. For non-porous CBs, the values exhibit an overall inverse correlation with

particle size. However, it is inadvisable to try to forecast either property from the other.

Furthermore, surface areas provide no distributional information. Several measures are accessible

for obtaining the surface area and usually involve the specified adsorption molecules on the CB

surface.
 9

Three of the most widely used adsorption methods are based on nitrogen (ASTM

1990), cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (ASTM 1990), and iodine (ASTM 1990). Other

gaseous adsorption techniques are also available. The surface areas derived from of the

above methods can be affected in different ways by the amount and type of porosity, as

well as the chemical nature of the surface of the CB being analyzed.

It is important, therefore, to keep these possible effects in mind when

interpreting the surface area data from each specific test (Liang 2004).

One of the main measurements to determine of CB particle size is the surface area. Two

methods have been used to obtain the surface area:

Measuring the iodine adsorption amount (mg/g-carbon) which could be adsorbed

on the surface CB, and by using the nitrogen, which can measure the adsorbed amount on

the surface area which gives the mass of CB.

All previous methods have the perfect behavior of most grades in the rubber of the

blacks furnace, however, toluene extract on the thermal blacks surface interferes with the

aquatic iodine-potassium method of the adsorption iodine technique, and the surface area

measurement by nitrogen makes it analyze improperly. Consequently, the American

Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) does not recommend the adsorption of iodine

for measuring surface area.

The mean diameters are 240 - 320 nm for largest particle size of thermal black in

any CB and hence 7-11 m2/g is lowest surface area. In disparity, particle sizes in furnace

black are around three to twenty times less in mean diameters (15 - 80 nm) on the condition

surface areas from 27 - 145 m2/g. The thermal black in particle size is shown in comparison

with the minimum and maximum particle size of furnace blacks in Figure 1.5.
 10

High surface area / low

Low surface area /
structure
low structure

High surface area / High

Low surface area / High
structure
structure

Figure 1.5. Comparison of surface area at different particles structures

(http://www.cabotcorp.com/solutions/applications/industrial-rubber-
products/dispersion)

As a results, the BET methods have found great utility because they are simple to use

and can generally model the five basic isotherms normally observed and yield the most

accurate results for surface area determination compared to other adsorption theories

(Borah et al. 2008; Probst and Grivei 2002b; M.-J. Wang et al. 2003).

1.1.5. Surface Chemistry. Several practical groups exist on the surface of the CB.

The affinity of CB with paint or inks polishes changes depending on the kind and the

quantity of the practical groups. In large amount and given with oxidation treatment, the
 11
hydroxyl group in CB which has greater attraction to print inks or varnishes, shows

excellent dispensability.

1.1.6. Porosity. The characterization porosity in carbon blacks is essential from a

theoretical and practical standpoint. The porosity can affect the measurements of the surface area

and for other tests. It can also impact certain applications and properties by increasing the effective

loading of the CB. Theoretically, porosity is also necessary in the microstructure understanding and

formation of CBs. Numerous books are available that contain information on the analysis of

porosity in materials (Geschke 2007; Pierson 1993).

The CBs porosities can be divided into two types, open and closed porosity. Open

porosity can be in the form of small pores of the order of nanometers of an undefined shape

on the surface which may or may not provide access to internal voids. If the internal voids

are not accessible to the surface, they represent closed porosity. Internal porosity may occur

as a result of oxidative hollowing out of the centers of individual particles within an

aggregate (Golberg 1985; J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993; L. Wang et al. 2011).

This type of porosity is available to small gas molecules and will affect surface area

measurements in two methods: first, additional internal surface is measured, and, second,

the total number of aggregates per unit weight increases from the oxidative carbon removal.

A second type of internal porosity exists in the more disordered core of the CB particles,

is generally closed to the surface, particularly after heat treatment of the CB at high

temperatures. The primary methods for determining the degree of porosity in carbon blacks

are based on density and gas adsorption techniques. Mercury porosimetry is not considered

a viable method, especially for small particle size carbon blacks, because the very high

pressures that are required can result in compression of the sample (Biscoe and Warren

1942; Carbon and Change 2010; Golberg 1985; J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993; Loutfy
 12

1986). The determination of the density can be done in several ways and will be discussed

in next sections (J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993).

1.1.7. Density. The density of CB and other materials can have a number of different

meanings. Values based on microcrystallinity are usually accepted as the true material density.

Other commonly used procedures are based on pycnometer measurements using helium or different

liquids. In addition, there is "bulk density" which typically refers to the packing density of the CB

as it is supplied for commercial use. All of these various aspects of density are important and certain

measurements, when combined, also provide information pertaining to the type of porosity (open

vs. close that exists in a carbon black X-ray Measurements Densities based on X-ray diffraction are

derived from the atomic spacing within the unit cell of a material and are, therefore, independent

of porosity and other effects. X-ray densities form a broad range of carbon blacks along with

graphite. All of the carbon blacks were analyzed before and after heating in an inert atmosphere at

temperatures ranging up to 2500 or 2800°C.

1.1.8. Aggregate Size. Aggregates represent the true primary units of CB. However,

unlike particle size which is not affected by mechanical handling, aggregate size is system

dependent. High shear mixing in polymeric systems causes significant aggregate breakdown

relative to the dry state.

1.1.9. Aggregate Shape. The aggregates of the CB is differ in form from the specific

spherical particles that are established in thermal CBs to the extra grouped and rubbery types that

are common in all other grades (Gómez-Serrano, González-Garcı́a, and González-Martı́n 2001).

The presence of these more complex shapes creates internal voids within any given bulk sampling

of carbon black which is much greater than those that occur in a simple packing of spheres. It is

not surprising then that the most commonly used methods for CB measurement “structure" have

been based on internal void volume using volumetric or absorptive measurements under specific

pressure conditions (Kim and Jeong 2005).

 13
The absorptive capacity of a carbon black for liquids is predominantly related to

aggregate shape (i.e., highly open aggregates). The structure of the branched is able to

absorb more vehicle together internally and in the voids between them and other aggregates

than close individual spheres or packed particle aggregations. In the latter instance such as

thermal blacks, internal aggregate occlusion of vehicle is essentially zero. High absorption

can be achieved with either large particle size (very large voids) or small particle size

(greater number of smaller voids).

A method for measuring the oil absorption of CB was described by Sweitzer and

Goodrich in 1944 (Sweitzer and Goodrich 1944). Linseed oil was added dropwise to a 1 g

sample of CB and mixed with a spatula using moderate pressure. During this process tiny

pellets are formed that gradually increase in size and diminish in number as additional oil

is added. An end point is reached when a single ball of stiff paste is formed, indicating that

the voids within the CB have been filled with oil. The higher the oil absorption per unit

weight of black, the greater the extent of the aggregate structure. Absorption occurs both

within the aggregate branches and between contacting aggregates in a 3-dimensional

network (J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993).

1.1.10. Electronic Properties. Electrical resistivity in the CB is a semiconductor and

its use in many product electrical conductivity (or its inverse, resistivity) is important (Galli 2010).

Many researchers have reviewed the electrical properties of CB in polymeric composites. While

this is not of this particular chapter, some of the information presented by these authors is also

pertinent to electrical conduction in the dry state. Medalia (Avrom I. Medalia 1986) has

summarized the most important mechanisms of electrical conductivity in CB composites, which

include: electron tunneling emission, dielectric breakdown and internal field, capacitance chains,

and graphitic conduction (thorough chains). Graphitic conduction contacting CB aggregates is most
 14
prevalent at high CB loadings (J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993; James E. Mark 2007; Snowdon,

Mohanty, and Misra 2014).

1.1.11. Thermal Conductivity. The thermal conductivity of a material is typically

derived at steady state from the quantity of heat flow per unit area or length across a temperature

gradient (J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993; James E. Mark 2007).

1.2. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

CB is produced by combusting oil or gas with a great deal of oxygen inside large

furnaces. The furnace walls lined with bricks become very hot because the oxygen and oil

combust. By varying the amount of oil and air, the internal temperature of the furnace can

be altered, which permits manipulation of the particle size and particle connections of the

carbon black being produced. The time required to produce CB from oil is so short that it

cannot be observed by the human eye.

The large industrial scale, in general for carbon blacks manufacturing consists of

the following sections: storage facilities for feedstocks, carbon black production units,

equipment for the separation of CB from the process off. gas (tail gas), final processing of

the carbon black, and finally storage facilities for the end product, utilization of waste

gases. The individual sections are interconnected by transport and conveying facilities

which are completely closed systems in modern carbon black plants avoiding the release

of carbon black dust into the surroundings. Industrial carbon blacks constitute no health

hazard (32). However because of its considerable coloring strength the product is regarded

as a nuisance dust. Therefore, emission controls are an important aspect of carbon black

production.
 15
1.2.1. Classification of Carbon Black Manufacturing Processes. It is crucial,

from the chemical perspective, to classify CB production processes into two main groups of

incomplete combustion and thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, depending upon the absence

or occurrence of oxygen. The process of incomplete combustion, termed thermal oxidative

decomposition, is by far the most important. In terms of quantity, the second process i.e., the

thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons in the absence of oxygen, plays only a very limited role.

In practice, the methods used to produce CB can be classified according to the criteria shown in

Table 1 (J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993; Zielinski and Kijenski 2005).

Table 1. Kinds of Carbon Black Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing Manufacturing
Raw material Explanation
process method

This is currently the most

Aromatic hydrocarbon oil Oil furnace
common method

Mineral/vegetable oils Lampblack Oldest industrial method

Incomplete
Flames contact the lower
combustion
Channel surface of a channel (an
Natural gas H-shaped steel beam)

Useful for fine-particle

Gas furnace
carbon black
As this is a heat-
Acetylene generation reaction,
Acetylene
decomposition continuous production is
Thermal
possible
decomposition
Combustion and thermal
Natural gas Thermal decomposition are
repeated in cycles
 16
Figure 1.6 shows the steps of CB manufacture as an individual process. The

heart of the process is the CB production unit (Reactor or Apparatus) which, depending

on the process, may consist of reactor(s) or apparatus.

The initial product of the unit is a mixture of process gas and CB suspended in

the form of an aerosol. This aerosol is cooled and directed into collecting systems

(Filter), where the solids are separated from the process gas. The CB thus obtained has

a fluffy appearance, hence the designation “fluffy black". Due to its low bulk density

and its tendency to dust, the black cannot be handled in this form and, therefore, must to

be subjected to some form of densification (Wet Pelletization, Dry pelletization,

Densification).

The fluffy black is either densified to powder black (Densification) or

pelletized and, depending on the pelletizing process, dry or wet wet-pelletized CB is

obtained. The CB is then conveyed to the storage and packaging sections (Final product

silo, Packaging of pellets, Packaging of powder).

Powder black is always packed in bags (Packaging of powder), whereas

pelletized black is shipped either in bags, usually shrunk or stretch-wrapped on pallets

(Packaging of pellets, Packaging of powder, Storage of bags, Shipment of bags), or as

bulk or semibulk material (Bulk shipment) in road or rail tankers or in containers.

1.2.1.1. Furnace black method. The process of the furnace black is used for the

production of the CB. This method is the most modern method for CB manufacturing. In

this method, the continual thermal decomposition generates heat by using the

combustion of air and fuel. The process is continuous, and is operated in closed reactors

where highly turbulent flows prevail due to high flow velocities.

 17
Feedstock raw materials

Oi Gas Ai Additiv

Production unit
Reactor or Apparatus

Separatio
Filter

Pelletization
Dry
Densification

Wet

Packaging

Final product

Packaging of
Packaging of pellets

Shipping

Storage of bags

Shipment of bags Bulk

Figure 1.6. Schematic diagram of the individual process steps in a carbon black
production unit
 18
The section of the reaction is lined with a material that is heat-resistant. Hot fuel

(oil) and air are introduced into this reaction unit to bear the complete combustion that

reaches the temperature of 1300oC. And when the atmospheric high-temperature was

formed, the oil which is the feedstock to the reaction section is continuously atomized for

thermal decomposition. The gas at high-temperature with the formed CB moves

downstream in the reactor and is atomized with water to readily lower its temperature

to more than 1000 degrees, which will stop the reaction.

The period among the formation of the CB and the end of the reaction are very

short generally about a few milliseconds to two seconds. Through this short time of the

process reaction, adjustments made to the shape of the reactor and conditions of the

manufacturing, such as the temperature of the reaction and the time of the reaction

which make the manufacture of the CB possible with structures (particle bonds) and

various particle sizes. This process uses the principle of oxidative decomposition as

shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7. Internal diagram for the furnace black process (J. B. Donnet, R. C.
Bansal 1993)(https://pentacarbon.de/wiki/)
 19
1.2.1.2. Lampblack process. Black carbon production by the lampblack

process is one of the oldest manufacturing processes. Since the ancient past, huge

carbon black quantities have been required for the preparation of inks, but also of

paints for mural paintings. Mainly, these were produced by the lampblack process. The

Roman architect Vitruvius already described the preparation of lampblack from the resin

of pine trees. The major feature of this operating system, such as heating of the

limited air supply and recovery of the carbon black in depositing chambers, remained

unchanged for centuries.

The lampblack process belongs to the processes of thermal

oxidative decomposition and is characterized by great simplicity. The only feedstock

required is an aromatic oil mainly based on coal tar. The lampblack apparatus, shown

in Figure 1.8, consists of a flat cast-iron pan that contains the liquid feedstock, the level

of which has to be kept as constant as possible. A refractory-lined hood is installed above

the pan in such a way that a ring-shaped gap is left between the edge of the pan and the

hood. The process air is fed into the system through this gap. A water-cooled tube that

is connected to the hood cools the carbon black smoke.

The carbon black is then separated in filters and pelletized as in the furnace

black process. The lampblack process has only one variable input parameter: the

process air. The size of the gap and the vacuum generated by the suction created

by the filter fan determine the amount of air drawn in and hence the reaction

temperature.

At increased air rates, a greater portion of the feedstock is burned, leading to

higher temperatures. These result in the formation of smaller primary particles

and higher specific surface areas. However, the process is not very flexible with a given

set of equipment. For fine-particle

 20

blacks, the pans have to be small, and inversely, large-particle blacks require feedstock

pans with large diameters.

The input of air from the periphery creates areas where different conditions

prevail. A shell of very hot flames forms around a cooler core, and the temperature

gradient decreases from the edge of the pan to its center. In the outer regions of the

shell, the feedstock predominantly undergoes combustion, whereas cracking reactions

increase towards the center. This temperature gradient leads to the formation of carbon

black with very broad particle size distributions, which are a typical feature of

lampblacks. The conical shape of the hood is required by the process.

The function of the ceramic material heated by the flames is to radiate the heat

and vaporize the feedstock similar to a surface vaporizer. Easily vaporized oils lead to

higher concentrations of hydrocarbons and thus to larger particle blacks. Since the

feedstock has to be vaporized before it can react and since the vaporized portion of the

oil is constantly replaced by fresh preheated oil, non-vaporizable, partly polymerized

substances remain in the feedstock dish. These are drawn off from time to time and

replaced by fresh oil.

Figure 1.8. Lampblack process (J. B. Donnet, R. C.

Bansal 1993)(https://pentacarbon.de/wiki/)
 21
1.2.1.3. Channel black process. The channel black process is also known as the

gas black process. In the past, the channel process for carbon black manufacturing played

an important role, when it was on channel blacks that the reinforcing effect of carbon black

in rubber was discovered in the 20th centuring. In the past, channel black processes were

used mainly in tire treads, where they were far superior to lampblacks. In the 1950s,

channel black processes were manufactured mostly in the United States. and exported

worldwide, since their raw material to supply the industry, natural gas, was inexpensive

there and available in enough quantities (Anonymous 2011; J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal

1993; Pundlik et al. 2013; Wójtowicz, Bassilakis, and Serio 2004).

This was not the case in Europe, which resulted in the investigation of different

procedures, and in 1935 Degussa successfully developed the gas black process. The

properties of these blacks were to the first blacks. They quickly gained a channel of gas

black plants significant as reinforcing blacks, and a number in Europe constructed the

process of the gas black is depending on the fundamentals of the decomposition of the

thermal oxidative and the open system operation, where from the flames diffusion formed

the carbon black. Free access for the air to the process resulted in oxidation of the surface,

and consequently manufacturing acidic blacks (Anonymous 2011; J. B. Donnet, R. C.

Bansal 1993). Thus the process of gas black utilized the oil in vaporized phase instead of

natural gas, with coal tar which was distillated being the feedstock preferred. This

feedstock (oil) is heated in the vaporizer, and the vapors that result are carried by a gas that

is hydrogen-rich to the burners, the flames from which are allowed to hit on cooled water

rollers. The carbon black mostly formed is deposited on these rollers, with the rest being

collected as shown in Figure 1.9. Both carbon black streams are combined and processed
 22
further.The pigment process is much more flexible than the lampblack process

(Anonymous 2011; J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993).

Although the access to air is free and is only controlled by diffusion, the process

of charging the carrier gas with vaporized oil provides a means of achieving the desired

primary particle size or specific surface area. Primary particle size ranges from 10 to 30

nm. Extremely fine particles can thus be obtained with the gas black process. It is not

possible, however, to influence carbon black structure. Having lost their significance as

reinforcing blacks, gas blacks are now mainly used as pigment blacks. It is an application

for which they are particularly suited because of their acidic surface oxides. In many cases,

this acidity is increased by oxidative after-treatment (Anonymous 2011; J. B. Donnet, R.

C. Bansal 1993; Tomasini et al. 2012).

Figure 1.9. Channel black process or gas black process

(J. B. Donnet, R. C. Bansal 1993)(https://pentacarbon.de/wiki/)

1.2.1.4. Thermal black process. It is called “thermal black process”, due to the

system that depends on the thermal decomposition in the absence of oxygen and operates

in a closed system. One characteristic is that it is a cyclic process. The reactor in this

process is shown, in a vertical view in Figure 1.10 and consists of a refractory lined furnace
 23
that is fitted with a structural grid of fire bricks to increase the interior surface area. In the

reactor in this process, heating up and decomposition cycles alternate each 5 to 8 min.

Through the heating cycle, the temperature degree level will be reached when the fuel with

air will burn in the reaction chamber. Then the air feed is stopped, the feedstock introduced,

the waste gas vents closed, and the cycle of the decomposition begins. Inside the internal

reactor. The feedstock will decompose to hydrogen and carbon black.

The carbon black then will separate from the gas stream, and subsequent

processing will take place as described previously for furnace black. The most economical

process configuration is when the reactors are coupled in tandem operation, as shown in

Figure 1.10. This kind of processing has two reactors: the first reactor is on the heating

cycle, and the second is in the decomposition cycle. When there is a gas feedstock, the

hydrogen gas is produced in the second reactor and can be used to heat the first reactor.

The first reactor starts the decomposition cycle, and the second reactor is reheated. Then

for the first reactor, the temperature falls in the cycle and increases in the second reactor

during the heat cycle. At the set point, the cycles are reversed.

Figure 1.10. Thermal black process (J. B. Donnet, R. C.

Bansal 1993)(https://pentacarbon.de/wiki/)
 24
The hydrogen that is used in the heat cycle allows the gaseous hydrocarbon

feedstock to be utilized to optimum since most of the hydrogen produced is burned to

preheat the reactor, and most of the carbon is converted to carbon black. If oil is used as

feedstock, the hydrogen produced is often too contaminated to be used in the heat cycle

and is burned for other processes that are heat intensive. In order to differentiate, it is

common practice to refer to the product from the two feedstock types as either gas thermal

or oil thermal. These days the use of thermal black is limited to specialty applications in

which their unique compounding properties cannot be matched with other fillers or filler

combinations.

1.2.1.5. Acetylene black process. Acetylene black system, are manufactured in

closed reactors by using the thermal decomposition method in the absence of oxygen.

While the thermal black feedstocks could only be decomposed in an overall endothermal

reaction, acetylene is thermally unstable and, after a start-up phase, can be split into

hydrogen and carbon black in a highly exothermal reaction. The heat released has to be

dissipated, which is achieved by the water-cooled cylindrical reactors. After the reactor has

been heated briefly by burning acetylene, the air input is stopped, permitting the formation

of carbon black. This reaction continues until the flow of feedstock is interrupted. Due to

its reaction conditions and the unique feedstock properties, acetylene black differs from

other carbon black grades.

The comparatively long residence time, the homogeneous hydrocarbon

feedstock, and the considerable heat generated by the reaction yield very pure carbon

blacks that exhibit a greater degree of crystallization than blacks obtained by the other

methods previously mentioned. The shape of the primary particles is definitely not
 25

spherical, and because aggregation of the particles is promoted by the high

reactor feedstock concentrations, acetylene blacks are characterized by high

structure. It is therefore difficult to densify acetylene blacks and impossible to

pelletize them with these inherent physical limitations, and because of their electrical

properties, acetylene blacks are used primarily as conductive blacks in electric cells

and conductive and antistatic rubber and plastic applications.

1.2.2. Motivation. The thermal carbon black process depends on its operating

conditions and design parameters. This study focused on the thermal black process

due to the purest carbon forms and extremely low particle aggregation provided in this

system.

This kind of process has easy and good mixing and dispersion, and even has

smooth extrusion, excellent properties for processing and dynamics, and reduced energy

costs due to improving the melt flow index of black plastic compounds.

1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The overall objective of this work is to advance the understanding and

the knowledge of the carbon black production with different conditions. Specifically, the

goal of this work is to use the measurement techniques for sample characterization such

as X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-

Teller (BET), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and gas

chromatography (GC). Determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal by

XRD, producing an image result from interactions of the electron beam with atoms at

various depths within the sample by SEM, analyzing surface area analysis by BET, and

obtaining an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid or gas by

 26

FTIR, and analytical chemistry for separating and analyzing compounds that can be

vaporized without decomposition have been studied in this work. The completion of this

work will enhance the understanding of the performance of high-temperature reactors with

different feedstocks and conditions.

It also will provide data for benchmarking computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

in a carbon black system with upset conditions.

The obtained knowledge of the effect of conditions on the manufacturing of

the carbon black will facilitate the need for a detailed assessment for enhancement of the

production level, as well as to advance the development of the reactor behavior, thus

optimizing the production quality.

1.4. THESIS ORGANIZATION

A brief, general discussion of the carbon black production, manufacturing processes,

physiochemical properties, and many other details, all are provided in section

1. Description of the experimental setup and work is in section 2. Characterization the

powder and gas samples by using different measurements techniques in section 3.

Section 4 provides the results and discussion. Finally, section 5 summarizes the study

and provides the recommendations for future work.

 27
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK AND DESIGN

Extensive studies have been conducted on the thermal black carbon operational

conditions on the production samples, such as surface area, particle shape and gas

characterization, by using different measurement techniques. This study has enhanced our

understanding of the reactor behavior and optimized the operating conditions in order to

reach the purest carbon black production.

2.1. THE CARBON BLACK PRODUCTION PROCESS DESCRIPTION

As shown in Figure 2.1, the carbon black (CB) production process has been set up

and located in high temperature - High pressure Lab, Bertelsmeyer Hall, Chemical and

biochemical Eng. Dep, Missouri University of science and technology. This process

consists of three main parts: first, the feedstock, second the main reactor, and the third is

called quenching and output products. Examples of specific feedstocks include Methane,

Argon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. As shown in Figure 2.1, all feedstocks are connected to

mass flow controllers (MFCs) and these valves are connected to the control box.

The main feedstock that will be used here is methane with a purity of 99.99%. On

the other hand, Ar and H2 gases will be used as diluent materials for different feedstock

concentrations. As shown in Figure 2.1, the major parts of the CB system will include the

following:

1. A bubbler tank will be used to saturate the feedstock with aromatic hydrocarbon.

2. Reactor tube assembly inside the resistive heater.

3. Unheated reactor section downstream of heater insulated with refractory.

 28
4. Sliding sampling probe for length of the reactor.
5. Quench tie-in point.

The feedstock (methane gas) flowrate varies from 0.013-0.033 kg/hr, and the

diluent flowrate for Ar and H2 will vary from 0-0.58 kg/hr and 0-0.03 kg/hr, respectively.

The Ar will also be used as blanket gas to protect the graphite heater. Feedstock injector

assembly is where the feedstock is mixed by the diluent gas, and blanket gas is

introduced to protect the graphite heater.

The bubbler tanks is used for this project have a five-gallon stainless steel tank

(1.5” diameter) and are used to get better resolution of the amount of aromatic

hydrocarbon used to enrich the methane gas. The line coming from the MFCs is

connected to the bubbler as a submerged tube inside the tank in order to make the

methane flow as bubbles within the aromatic hydrocarbon. This bubbler tank is taped with

a taped heater to heat up the aromatic hydrocarbon and conduct the temperature-aromatic

flow calibration. Also, it is attached to a liquid level indicator to monitor the aromatic

level.

The feed that comes from the bubbler will go into the reactor, where the length

is about 19” before the heater. The feedstock is introduced into the reactor in addition to

the oxygen gas. Also, the argon gas that was used as blanket gas to protect the heating

element is also injected through the injection part. Inside the injection part, the

reactor will be attached and insulated to avoid the heat loss. It will be insulated from the

outside as well. The reactor assembly will be made of non-porous dense refractory

material such as a graphite or high-purity alumina, which can hold temperature up to

2000OC. The thickness of the reactor will be minimum, about ½” is to ensure the

mechanical integrity. The first part will be the reaction zone, where the reaction is

carried out with the feedstock to produce CB.

29
 30
The heater will be made of graphite component (circular cross section with 4”

diameter and 19.5” length) attached to two copper plates, where these three parts form the

heating element. The heater will be shielded by a cooling system that is made of a non-

conductive coated metal block where a cooling water flows inside it to maintain low

outside temperature.

The power supply for the heater will be supplied from a voltage transformer where

the primary line will be 480 V and 38-40 Am and the secondary line is 10V and 2312 Am.

Three flow switches are attached to the cooling system for safety purposes, and it is

designed to shut the power off on the heater when there is not enough cold water

circulation. The temperature of the heater is maintained by temperature controller attached

to c-type thermocouple. For this reason, a data acquisition system (DAQ) from National

Instrument Inc. was used to monitor the temperature, and pressure and control the solenoid

valves used to pulse nitrogen gas into the filter baghouse. The data acquisition (DAQ)

model used was NI cDAQ-9184. Three different modules were installed in the DAQ,

NI9213, NI9203, and NI9472. Two types of thermocouples were used to distribute along

the process, K and C types.

The C type was installed in the heater to monitor the temperature of the heating

element, the outside wall of the reactor in the heating zone, the outside of the reactor in the

quench zone, and the temperature of the oxygen port at the injection part. The K type was

used to measure the temperature of the bubbler, the water circulation inside and outside the

heater, and on the filter assembly. Six pressure transducers were used in the system to

monitor if there was any clogging inside the system. The thermocouples and pressure

transducer locations in the system are shown in Figure 2.2.

 31
Two type of reactors were used a graphite and alumina. The dimensions for the

graphite reactor were 40” long and 3” ID with 0.5” thickness. For the alumina, 40” long

with 3” ID and 0.25” thickness. The alumina reactor was used at the beginning for testing

and eliminating the axial heat loss. It was replaced with graphite reactor as the process was

running about 1500o C, which is close to the max operating temperature of the alumina.

The figure below shows the inside of the alumina reactor while running under 1500o C. The

graphite reactor was used instead as it can hold higher temperatures.

Figure 2.2. The DAQ system (Right) and the Thermocouples Distribution Along the
Heater/ Reactor (Left)

The only challenge was the reactor thickness (0.5”), which could cause axial heat

loss and eventually affect the product characteristics. To avoid the heat loss, two thermal

barriers were installed. The thermal barrier material was a ceramic insulation (0.125”

thickness) that could hold extremely high temperature. A step cut was made in the reactor

to install two layers of the ceramic insulation on each side. A masking tape was used to

hold the whole reactor together. The unheated part of the reactor was 5’in long and

equipped with thermocouples to monitor the temperature variance through the reactor. The

heat loss inside the unheated segment should be less than 100OC due to the flow of the

diluent gas. The quenching zone has a nitrogen gas injection port, nitrogen gas will quench
 32
the reactor tail gases and reduce its temperature to about 650OC. Temperature

thermocouples are already installed at the quenching zone to maintain a specific

temperature by injecting the nitrogen gas.

The reactor system will be operated under a high range of temperature. It will

require carful procedure in order to achieve successful process output. The reactor’s

temperature will be measured by three temperature thermocouples attached to the

data acquisition system. Also one thermocouple will be used as a measuring element for

the temperature control used to energize the heater used to heat up the reactor.

Then the quench section, which is made of stainless steel, is installed downstream of

the heater after the reaction zone. Nitrogen gas injected after the reactor to cool off the hot

exhaust gas. The filter section consisted of two eyebolt cover filters connected in parallel

by one two-way valve. Each filter had a sample container attached at the bottom to collect

the carbon black sample, and it was equipped with perforated strainer basket. Filter bag of

1 micron was placed inside the filter house to separate the product from the gas. Sampling

container was attached to the bottom of the filter house to collect the CB product sample.

Two filters worked alternately. Filter1 worked and the filter2 was isolated. The samples

were from the collected isolated one.

When cleaning the reactor, the reactor system will use oxygen gas for cleaning. The

cleaning process will operate in a specific temperature that will be lower than ignition level.

The product gases will send to the gas flare burner. The gas flare burner will be used to

burn the product gases from the system, and a bouncing fire by propane will be used to

maintain the flame inside the flare. For this purpose, as shown in Figure 2.1, a 55 gallon

red barrel was used as an outside body for the flare system. The purpose of the system was
 33

to burn the exhaust gases (the unreacted methane, the produced hydrogen, and any other

combustible gases). A propane burner was installed inside the flare to keep a steady flame

(bouncing burner). A liquid trap was installed before the flare system to prevent any flame

to go back to the system. Two thermocouples (K-type) were installed on the flare’s body

and the hood system to check the temperature of the hot air flow to the ventilation system.

In this work, the system will run with different diluent ratios between the methane and

either hydrogen or argon gases. The system must be monitored all the time.

2.2. CHALLENGING DURING THE EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Several incidents occurred during operations, which means some adjustments in

the process should be made for example, the C-type thermocouple that checked

the temperature of the heating element and the one used to measure the temperature

of the reactor had to be replaced every week due to the reaction that happened between the

heating element and the thermocouple.

As the heating element is made of carbon and will react with the molybdenum

material that the sheath is made of, so the hole made to let the thermocouple

pass through had to become bigger.

Also, the thermocouple that monitored the temperature of the reactor had to be

replaced, as it bent completely. This happened due to the countersink made to let the

thermocouple sit in, and as the heat increased, and the thermal expansion of the

graphite reactor bent the thermocouple. Instead of putting the thermocouple inside the

countersink, it stayed on the surface to help it slide when the reactor expanded.

The heater also was designed to reach almost 2000o C, but it was unable to because the

resistance of the heating element was high.

 34
The heating element was replaced with a new one that had less resistance so it

could let more current go through and raise the temperature more. An external current

meter was used to monitor the current flowing the heater. For safety precautions, three

cameras were used to monitor the process while running. As shown in Figure 2.3, the

reactor had been clogged after every several runs, as the carbon black accumulated

inside the reactor, so it had to be opened every week for cleaning and inspection. The

produced carbon black particle sometimes become very small (less than 1 micron)

and cannot be separated by the filter and will pass through the flare. Some of the samples

will stick inside the filter bag and cannot be removed from it.

Figure 2.3 Accumulation of the Carbon Black inside the Reactor

2.3. SAMPLE COLLECTION

This process has two types of samples that were produced. Solid and

gas products. The solid product is the carbon black powder and usually will be separated

from the gas by the filter section, where it will stick by the filter baghouse and

drop in the sample container or stay on the bag itself. It will be removed from the bag

and the bag should be cleaned for the next run, as shown in Figure 2.4. The gas sample,

as shown in Figure 2.5, was collected from the gas sample valve at the downstream

of the process after the filter section.

 35
It will be removed from the bag and the bag should be cleaned for the next run, as

shown in Figure 2.4. The gas sample, as shown in Figure 2.5, was collected from the gas

sample valve at the downstream of the process after the filter section.

Figure 2.4. Carbon Black Powder Sample Collection

The sample was collected by a 2 liter gas sample bag and sent for analysis.

Figure 2.5. Gaseous Sample Collection

 36
3. CB SAMPLES CHARACTERIZATIONS

The main part in this work analyzes the carbon black samples at different operating

conditions. In this section, the characteristic measurement techniques SEM, BET, XRD,

GC, and FTIR have been discussed in detail.

3.1. X-RAY DIFFRACTION (XRD)

X-ray diffraction is a non-invasive measurement technique that detects information

about the structure of the crystal, chemical configuration, and the material properties. These

kinds of techniques depend on detecting the intensity, where scattering of an X-ray beam

hitting a sample is a function of scattered angle and incident beam, polarization, and

wavelength or energy (Goldstein et al. 2003). X-ray diffraction studies proposed that

carbon black was composed of small layers with the same atomic positions as graphite

within the layers. The most important thing in this test is to identify a crystalline material

and can provide information on unit cell dimension. The variable Lc represents the crystal

structure thickness in c direction (Å), d002 represents distance between planes in c direction

(Å). This parameters can be calculated from Scherrer and Bragg equation respectively

(Jean-Baptiste Donnet, Bansal, and Meng-Jiao Wang 1993) (Goldstein et al. 2003). This

measurement technique is used in the AMCL building in Missouri University of Science

and Technology as shown in Figure 3.1.

Where: Lc=1.84 λ/ β002 cosθ002

d002= λ/2 sinθ002
θ= Bragg angle (degrees)
λ=wavelength (Å)
β= full width at half maximum intensity (FWHM) (radians).
 37

Figure 3.1. X-ray Diffraction in the AMCL

Every analysis should have the following procedure for every sample:

a. Normalization to background measurement. As shown in Figure 3.2, to ensure

consistency between analysis and samples, a background correction should be

performed to normalize the diffractogram. This will ensure consistency of the

FWHM measurement.

Figure 3.2. Normalization to background measurement

 38
b. FWHM output from the XRD as shown in Figure 3.3, The XRD should be able to

identify the Bragg angles at half maximum intensity and output the width in radians

of the peak at that height. This width is important for utilizing the Scherrer equation

and should be output for the (002) peak for every analysis. It is very important to

do a background correction for every sample for consistency of the FWHM output

as it is likely the measurement will be incorrect without.

Figure 3.3. FWHM output from the XRD

c. Full span of the diffractogram saved and archived for reference. A diffractogram

should be saved for every sample run following the determined naming convention

for samples. Naming convention should be such that it can be easily tied to the same

sample run on other analysis tools (BET, SEM, TEM, etc.). It is not necessary to

run the full range of angles on the XRD but the range of the (002) peak should be

captured (10deg – 40deg, 2theta) at the minimum. Excel / .csv output files should

also be saved according to the naming convention on each diffractogram.

 39
A summary Table 2 of all samples that have been run should include ID, FWHM,

and Bragg angle at peak intensity, Lc, and d002 as shown below:

Table 2. Summary for results of XRD

Sample ID  FWHM  Bragg Angle @  Lc  D002

peak 
Rad  Deg.  Å  Å 

3.2. BRUNAUER, EMMETT AND TELLER (BET)

The BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller) method is commonly used for powder

and materials research labs to measure the surface area by evaluating and quantifying the

data of gas adsorption from the powder samples and expressed in units of area (m2) per

mass of sample (g), which is represented in (m2/g).

The technique is referenced by several standard organizations such as ISO

(International Organization for Standardization), USP (U.S. Pharmacopeial), and

ASTM (An International Standards Organization).

At liquid nitrogen temperature and several partial pressures of nitrogen, the total

and external surface areas were measured by evaluating the amount of nitrogen that

adsorbed in the powder samples.

In this work, the Quantachrome Nova instrument has been used for this

test (Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller 1938)(ASTM International 2012). This

measurement technique was used in the McNutt Hall building in Missouri University

of Science and Technology as shown in Figure 3.4.

 40
System status
Vacuum or flow degassing display

Coolant level
Heating mantles sensor

2 samples

Degas temperature controls

Automated
Dewar elevator
Status and data display

Analysis section keypad

Figure 3.4. BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller)

The Langmuir theory is an extension of the theory for the molecular of the

adsorption monolayer to the adsorption in multilayer with the following assumption: first,

the molecules of the gas that adsorb physically as layers on solid surface infinitely; second,

the molecules of the gas only adjacent interact with layers; and finally, the theory of the

Langmuir is applied for each layer (Haiqing Liu 2016) (La Rosa et al. 2007).

The BET equation resulting is as follows:

∗ (1)

1 (2)
 41
where p and p0 are saturation pressure and equilibrium adsorbates at the temperature of

adsorption, v is the quantity of the gas adsorbed, vm is the quantity of the monolayer of the

gas adsorbed, and c is the constant of the BET:

exp (3)

Where E1 and EL are the adsorption heat in first layer and second layers, which is equivalent

to the liquefaction heat, respectively.

The isotherm adsorption in Eq (1) could be plotted as a straight line way with the

y-axis 1/k and the x-axis τ = p/p0 according to the experimental results. This is named the

plot BET as shown in Figure 3.5.

The relation is linear in the equation and only continued in range 0.05 < p/p0 <

0.35. Slope is A, and I is the intercept for the line. Both are utilized to measure gas

adsorbent quantity in the monolayer vm, and the constant of the BET is c. The equations

that follow could be used for calculation:

BET plot

Figure 3.5 BET plot

The method of the BET is commonly utilized in science of the surface in the

measuring of surface areas for powders (solids) in physical adsorption of gas molecules.

The Stotal is
 42
total surface area and SBET is the surface area for the sample (Bernal et al. 2011) are given

by:

(4)

(5)

where vm in volume units is also the monolayer volume units of the gas adsorbate, N is

Avogadro's number, s is cross adsorption section of the species adsorbing, V is the molar

volume of the gas adsorbate, and a is the solid mass sample or adsorbent (Jianfeng

ZHANG, Rong TU 2013). This test consists of two steps: vacuum degassing and gas

adsorption analyzer.

3.2.1. Vacuum Degassing. This step is very important to dry the sample from any

moisture it could contain and attain an accurate surface area. First, start with

collecting samples from the container used for this reason.

Then, record the weight of the sample, and take a 0.1-0.5gm from the collected

sample in order to use it in this test. Second, prepare a clean sample cell (bulb) and

record the weight of the bulb when it is empty three times and take the average for

precise weight.

Third, insert the sample (which is the powder) inside the cell (bulb) by using a

delivery tube. Fourth, connect the cell (bulb) to the degassing part in the instrument and set

the heater at the temperature 200oC and covered this cell by using specific heating mantle

around the cell and then turn on the heater. At this point, the vacuumed degassing

will start with helium gas for 1hr as shown in Figure 3.6.
 43

Figure 3.6. Connect the sample (bulb) to the degassing section after scale
the powder

Then, set the heater at the temperature 200oC and cover this cell by using a specific

heating mantle around the cell and then turn on the heater. At this point, the vacuumed

degassing will start with helium gas for 1 hr. Afterwards shut off the heater and release the

mantle from the cell and leave the sample to cool down for 1 hr, as shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7. Heat up the sample to 200C and then remove the heating mantle
to cool the sample
 44
3.2.2. Gas Adsorption Analyzer. In this step, nitrogen gas adsorbed in the

CB sample is at different saturated pressures to calculate the surface area which is

following the multipoint procedure. This measurement took 11 points in each run to get

accurate and correct surface area. After the degassing, record the weight for the cell with

the dry sample three times and take the average:

Mass dry sample = mass the cell with the sample - mass the empty cell

After that, connect the sample cell to the analyzer part in the instrument, and fill

the Dewar (1L size) with liquid nitrogen and put the Dewer in the analyzer side, which is

near to the sample cell. At this point, write the name of the sample and the weight in the

software (NOVA version 11.02) for this device and start the analysis. This operation will

take place for 1.5 – 2.0 hr. The highest surface area was 40 m2/gm and the lowest one

was 10 m2/gm. These steps are shown in Figure 3.8.

a b

d
e

Figure 3.8. BET Test (a) Connect the sample to the analyzer section, (b) Full the Dewar with
liquid Nitrogen, (c) put the Dewar at the analyzer section, (d) set the point and (e) leave the
sample for 2hr
 45
3.3. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a kind of electron microscope which gives

an image of a sample by scanning the surface of the sample with the beam focused on

electrons. The interaction of the electrons with the atoms in the sample produce various

signals that contain information about the topography and composition of the sample's

surfaces. The beam of the electron is scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the position of

the beam is combined with the signal detected to produce an image (J-B Donnet

1993);(Goldstein et al. 2003). Some of the samples selected for scanning have, higher

surface area at many magnifications to see how the particles look and the aggregate shape.

Before the SEM measurement, we have to prepare the samples, as shown in Figure 3.9.

This the magnification test is followed for each sample: 4000X overview, 7000X

overview, Focus on cluster at 15000x, Focus on cluster at more 30000X and Highest

magnification 60000X. Our scan pictures showed that the particles had almost spherical

shape and there were aggregate regions.

Figure 3.9. Carbon Black powder that prepared for SEM measurement.
 46
3.4. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (GC)

For analytical chemistry in terms of gas characterization, the gas chromatography (GC)

is a very useful for analyzing and separating compounds that could be vaporized without

decomposition. Particular uses for GC include testing the purity of the substance or

separating the different components of a mixture (the comparative amounts of such

composition could also be specified). In particular situations, GC may assist and help in

the compound identification. In chromatography preparation, GC could be utilized to

prepare pure compounds from a mixture. As shown in Figure 3.10, the GC instrument

consists of the following:

Fuel ionization detector

Inject the sample in

injection point

Pull the gas from the

sample bag by needle

N2 and H2

Figure 3.10. Gas Chromatography GC which placed in Chemistry

department

The carrier gas is N2 (auxiliary gas), H2 gas (fuel ionization detector), injector

temp 30C, the oven temp 30C and the detector temp 200C, column length was 30 m and

using (S&T GC program) to acquire the results data. Steps of analysis:

 47

1. Open the gases valves from the cylinders

2. Open the GC instrument.

3. Set the oven, injector and detector temperatures.

4. Open the program on computer and type the samples name and all information.

5. When the detector temperature reaches 200oC, open the H2 gas, air, and auxiliary gas

valves on GC instrument, then push the igniter bottom. The voltage detector should read

from 20-50. If not, change the flow rate for the gases and push the igniter bottom again.

6. Use syringe with 5 ml to inject the gas sample inside the column and put septum rubber on the

injector place.

7. Inject (1 ml) for all the samples and reference gases (CH4, C2H4).

8. From the results peaks on the GC program, we notice one peak after 4 min for all samples

tested for 10 min (retention time). This peak is either CH4 or C2H4.

*The results from the GC looks not accurate because we are expected more than one peak

so we are using the FTIR instead of the GC.

3.5. FOURIER-TRANSFORM INFRARED (FTIR)

Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a technique utilized to evaluate

and measure the absorption of spectrum infrared or the emission of a liquid, solid, or gas.

The spectrometer of FTIR simultaneously over a wide spectral range will collect high-

spectral-resolution data. This confirms a significant advantage over a dispersive

spectrometer, which measures intensity over a narrow range of wavelengths at

a time (Griffiths and De Haseth 2007)(Mattson 1978). In our work, NEXUS

(470-FTIR) has been used for gas analysis with 4 cm-1 resolution and 16

scans and the gas cell dimension (25 cm length, 5 cm Diameter), as shown

in Figure 3.11.
 48

In our work, NEXUS (470-FTIR) has been used for gas analysis with 4 cm-1 resolution

and 16 scans and the gas cell dimension (25 cm length, 5 cm Diameter), as shown in

Figure 3.11. The reference gases analyze it first (methane, ethylene, acetylene, and

ethane) with different compositions and compare it with the NIST (National Institute of

Standards and Technology) spectra data as a reference spectra to ensure that our FTIR

results match or are close to the reality. First of all, start with purging the gas cell

(Figure 3.11) by using pure N2 for 5-7 min to clean it from any H-C that could be inside

the cell. This step is very important to get accurate and precise results.

Figure 3.11. Gas Cell

Ensure that the lenses for the gas cell are clean and the caps are fixed probably

because this might affect the beam direction. Then, set the dry air level to 40, and put the

cell inside the FTIR, and collect the BKG (background) spectra. After that, fill the cell with
 49
the sample (Figure 3.13) and return it to the FTIR, and then collect the spectra data from

the computer for the sample.

N2 cylinder

Gas Cell

Figure 3.12. Purging the gas cell by using N2

Gas sample bag Connect the Gas sample bag with the
gas Cell

Push the bag to full the gas cell

Figure 3.13. Steps of the gas cell filling

 50
Connect the gas cell inside the FTIR device as shown in Figure 3.14 in order to

analyze the gas sample. Two sample 2L bags were used in the test, to replicate the spectra

test twice to obtain good spectra results. Complete flashing for the cell with pure N2 in 5-

7 min between each sample in order to clean it from any H-C that could be still inside the

cell from the previous sample.

Gas cell

Section of gas
cell

Insert the gas cell inside

the FTIR instrument

Figure 3.14. FTIR instrument placed in Chemistry

department
 51
4. POWDER OF CARBON BLACK AND GASSES RESULTS

4.1. BET RESULTS

More than 60 samples have been tested it in this measurement. This operation took

place for 4 hr. below is a copy of the report of the BET analysis. The highest surface area

was 40 m2/gm and the lowest was 10 m2/gm. Samples of BET results have been observed

in Figure 4.1:

Figure 4.1. BET results report for one sample

4.2. XRD RESULTS

Figure 4.2 and 4.3 show one XRD result and other statistical data for one sample,

respectively, after doing the normalization and calculation for the figure by using OriginPro
 52
2017 software. These figures show that most of the samples are graphite. The results for

FWHM, Bragg Angle Peak, Lc and D002 are shown in Table 3.

Figure 4.2. XRD analysis

Table 3. XRD analysis

FWHM  Bragg Angle @ peak  Lc  D002 

FWHM  Bragg Angle@ peak  Lc  D002 

Rad  Deg.  A  A 
0.03176  12.75  91.50113  3.4899477 
 53

Figure 4.3. Other statistical data for XRD results

 54
4.3 SEM RESULTS

As shown in Figure 4.4, the results, which were scanned by SEM, show the particles

almost spherical shape and aggregate regions. These scanned pictures for the sample had

the highest surface area at different resolutions. The SEM image for the sample with 40

m^2/gm is the highest one.

4000X magnification 7000X magnification

15000X magnification 30000 X magnification

60000 X magnification

Figure 4.4. SEM images for carbon black sample at different resolution
 55
4.4. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (GC) RESULTS

More than 16 samples have been testing it to find the gas analysis. At the beginning

the references gases results have been shown in Figure 4.5 for methane and ethylene gases.

Next the analysis taken place for real samples as shown in Figure 4.6.

(min)

(min)

Figure 4.5. GC analysis for standard as references gases

 56

(min)

Figure 4.6. GC analysis for sample#1

4.5. FTIR ANALYSIS

The analysis started with the reference gases spectra, detection

limitation, qualitative and quantitative analysis of the gases and finally sample of the

results.

4.5.1. Reference Gases Spectra and Samples. We run the

reference gases (methane, ethylene, acetylene, and ethane) with different

compositions and compared it with the NIST (National Institute of Standards and

Technology) spectra data as a reference to ensure that our FTIR results are matched or

were close to the reality, as shown in Figures 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14,

4.15, 4.16 and 4.17. Two sample spectra are shown in Figure 4.18 and 4.19.
 57

Figure 4.7. Methane 25%

Figure 4.8. Methane 99.9%

 58

Figure 4.9. Methane NIST (references)

Figure 4.10 Ethylene 999ppm

 59

Figure 4.11. Ethylene NIST (reference)

Figure 4.12. Acetylene 7100

 60

Figure 4.13 Acetylene NIST (reference)

Figure 4.14. Ethane 1%

 61

Figure 4.15. Ethane 50%

4.5.2. Detection limits

This is the detection limits by the (wavenumbers) to the peaks for each gas.

Table 3. Wavenumbers limitation for different component

methane 3015 1304
ethylene 419 949.94 1337-1869 3567-3917
ethane 2880-3006 1469.75
3259.69-
acetylene 730
3313.7

Figure 4.16 Ethane NIST (reference)

 62

Figure 4.17. CO (reference)

Figure 4.18. FTIR spectra result

 63

Figure 4.19. FTIR spectra

4.5.2. Detection Limits. These are the detection limits by the wavenumbers

to the peaks for each gas.

Table 4. Wavenumbers limitation for different component

methane 3015 1304
ethylene 419 949.94 1337-1869 3567-3917
ethane 2880-3006 1469.75
3259.69-
acetylene 730
3313.7
CO 2100 2220

4.5.3. The Qualitative and the Quantitative. For qualitative gas sample, we

compared the spectra samples with the reference gases to match the positions of the

sample peaks, and then we can recognize the gas in the sample. From a quantitative point

of view, we calculates the composition of the gas in the sample by using the second
 64
derivative method (to calculate the area under the curve) via Origin Pro 2017 software,
which is called peak analyzer.

Table 5. FTIR results

Gases name   %Vol concentration  
Ethylene (C2H4)  0.77‐8.35 
Acetylene(C2H2)  0.01‐8.58 
Methane(CH4)  0.1‐2.1 
Carbon Monoxide(CO)  14.5‐32.7 
N2,AR,H2(INERT GASES)  CANOT DETECTED BY FTIR 

4.6. RESULTS ERROR

Many errors may occur (if any) in the results, such as in BET measurement after

degassing when weighing the dry sample with the cell, where the sample is exposed to air

and may have a little moisture. This will affect the amount of nitrogen adsorpted from the

CB sample and could effect the surface area calculations. Also, in FTIR, the error in the

results (if any) can happen from environmental effects, such as vapor water and CO2,

or human error when collecting the sample.

If the gas cell has any leak, is not clean or is not flashing, it probably contains an

error. For gases tests, the error in the results (if any) can happen from the environmental

effect which is the vapor water and CO2. Moreover, for powder samples, the moisture

environment may affect the accuracy.

It is worth mentioning that there are many other details that cannot be shown in this

thesis for the privacy of the sponsoring company.

 65
4.7. DISCUSSION

In this project, our goals to get high surface area for CB (main product) should be

more than 80 m2/gm by analyzing the powder for the samples, which is more than 60,

via the BET technique.

BET measured the surface area, and from these results we can see the highest

surface area is 40 m2/gm, and the lowest one is 10 m2/gm, and for the rest of the

samples, the range of surface area values are from 25 to 35 m2/gm. The data shows

that there is no constant values for the surface area even with varying the flow rate

of the feedstock and the reactor temperature. However, when we increased the

bubbler temperature, the surface area decreased, due to an increase in the aromatic

vapor amount that entered with feedstocks to the reactor.

Furthermore, our SEM images for four samples of the highest surface area show

the particle shape is almost spheroidal, and also the results show there is a cluster

(aggregate) in many zones.

From the literature review, there are four shape types of the CB particles

(spheroidal, ellipsoidal, liner, and branched) and the spheroidal shape is observed in

the thermal decomposition method, so, our SEM results are satisfied.

For the XRD test, we analyzed four samples. The results show that the CB is

graphite material and the Lc ≈ 91.5 represents the crystal structure thickness in the c

direction (Å), and d002 ≈ 3.46 represents distance between planes in the c direction (Å).

This Lc number should be slightly smaller than the acceptable values because the

thickness of the graphite unit cell is slightly larger than the standard. On the other hand,

from the GC-analyzer, the gas analysis (side product) results show single peak after 4

min of the injection for all sixteen samples.

 66

These results were compared with the reference gases methane and ethylene. The

comparison shows that the reference gases’ peak is observed at the same retention time,

so, the single peak refers to one of them. Thus, the results from GC are not accurate

because we expected more than one component from the reaction.

Therefore, we used FTIR to get more accurate results. Here we run more than

60 samples. All gas analysis results showed that the samples contain ethylene gas as a

main product (in gases samples), and it appears in spectra of all the samples.

Also, acetylene gas and the small amount of unreacted methane both are displayed

in our results. Furthermore, some of the gas samples contain carbon monoxide. These

results appear when using oxygen gas with the feedstock. Also, there is an amount of

AR, N2, and H2 that were not detected by GC or FTIR (inert gases).

At this moment of time, we could not reach the surface area that was expected

to achieve the goals of this project because the heater was designed to reach

approximately 2000oC but it could not, because the resistance of the heating element was

high.

Then, the heating element was replaced with a new one that has less resistance

so it could let more current go through and raise the temperature. The heater reached to

1700oC. All conditions were run at steady state at 1500oC.

The project needs modification and extra work. This will be achieved with the

company that designed this project to reach temperature more than 2000oC and get

high surface area for the CB product to achieve our goals.

 67
5. REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATION

In this study, the results presented demonstrate the degree of information that can

be achieved depending on the setup design and measurement techniques used. The

experimental work carried out takes into account the different inlet feedstock concentration

influences at varying operation conditions. Characterization of the carbon black, solid

material (powder) and outlet gasses, was performed. The results demonstrate the necessary

date to produce purist carbon black and also provide benchmarking data for computational

fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation.

Futures studies will include continuous work on the project at a higher temperature

(more than 2000oC) and use of the computational fluid dynamics model (CFD) to validate

the experimental data which obtained from this work for scale-up and large-scale design

developments.
 68
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VITA

Shadha Khalid Jebur was born in Baghdad, Iraq, 1986. She received his B.S. in

Chemical Engineering from the University of Technology Baghdad, Iraq in 2008.

Before joining Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T), Shadha

worked as an operator engineering and controlling in an oil refinery in Baghdad for three

and a half years, and she received many awards and certificates while she was in this

position.

Shadha started at Missouri S&T during the spring semester of 2017 to work

under the supervision of Dr. Joseph Smith. She received her Master Degree in

Chemical Engineering from Missouri S&T in May 2018.