EARTHING AND BONDING ON RAILWAYS—

THE BLACK ARTS OF INDUCTION

Andrew Blakeley-Smith
BSc(Hons) MIEAust MIRSE
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates

SUMMARY
Much valuable equipment is lost due to voltages induced from power lines and electric traction systems. In
the worst case human life can also be put at risk when high potentials occur between adjacent items of
equipment. Signalling equipment could malfunction or adopt erroneous and hazardous logic conditions if
overall system design does not consider these external influences.
The calculation of induced voltages and the design of earthing and bonding systems is well documented but
frequently applied inappropriately as the origin of some of the practices and criteria often seems to have
been lost in the mists of time, frequently subject to subjective philosophical decisions and much faith is often
placed in highly accurate modelling derived from input data of dubious accuracy.
This paper aims to demystify some aspects of this cross-disciplinary subject, reviewing past historical
practices adopted by different rail authorities. Methods are given of estimating key design parameters such
as induced voltages and equipment and personnel hazards resulting from induction and earth potential rise
and installation pitfalls to be avoided by a top down approach to earthing and bonding.
• limiting the extent of exposure to induction
1 INTRODUCTION
• screening to reduce induction
Hazardous voltages can appear through the
actions of the three basic circuit elements, the • reducing potential gradients by permanently
resistor, the capacitor and the inductor. As with bonding equipment to form an equi-potential
most circuits there are usually elements of more zone and,
than one type. For example, the earth wire of a • effectively, temporarily bonding under fault
power line may suffer a direct lightning strike, only conditions, by means of voltage
which can be considered a resistive transfer, the dependent surge arresting devices
resulting current will find its way to earth at the
first opportunity and cause local potential rise 2 QUANTIFYING THE HAZARD
where the current enters the ground. At the same
time the current flowing in the earth wire will Induction can occur from either the electric or the
induce a voltage in the phase and neutral magnetic field surrounding a conductor. In
conductors and the resulting current can then practice, electrostatic induction is seldom a
circulate through the earth connections of the problem unless the two conductors are relatively
power line, one of which may be the neutral earth close and/or there is a very high voltage.
of the incoming power supply to a signalling Examples are telecommunications cables hung
equipment room. If separate earths are made for on the same poles as HV power lines often
equipment within this room, a practice still installed in outer suburban areas or on some
favoured by some railway administrations, the railways such as, until recently, by Hamersley Iron
resulting voltage gradient within the soil between Dampier and Paraburdoo.
surrounding the equipment room will cause One example relevant to a modern railway is that
voltage differences between the individual earth of a radio system leaky feeder cable which is
systems and thus within the equipment; for usually suspended from the roof of a tunnel and,
example between the AC power supply and the in electrified territory, is thus close to the contact
line connection of a telephone concentrator. wire/catenary. The outer conductor of this type of
There are many defence strategies against such cable is normally earthed however there is a risk
hazardous voltages and they should be seen as of capacitive leakage currents flowing through
complimentary. Where the hazard is man made, maintainer contact to earth should the outer be
for example a power line or railway traction disconnected. As an example, such a feeder
supply, the hazard can be relatively easily be installed at 2.6 m from a 25kV catenary would
quantified and a strategy to deal with this result in just over 1mA leakage current for a 500
particular hazard can be determined, both for m exposure. Fortunately, this is well within the
normal operation and fault conditions. 15mA limit allowed.
Defensive strategies can include:
13.1 Conference on Railway Engineering
Darwin 20-23 June 2004
Andrew Blakeley-Smith Earthing and Bonding on Railways-
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates the Black Arts of Induction
The defence is quite simple for paired cables, through its allocated return path, but back through
introduce a thin screen around the cable and the earth at a distance determined by the soil
earth it. The solution for open-wire aerial lines resistivity, this return current compensation will
(when they existed) was to connect centre tapped not occur.
chokes to the pair of conductors forming the The mutual impedance between a conductor with
communications circuit at intervals along the line earth return and another conductor has been
and then earth the centre tap via another choke shown by Klewe [1] to be:
referred to as a drain coil. This earths the
common mode voltage on the line but not the ⎧⎪ ⎡ f ⎤ ⎫⎪
signal which exists between the pair of Z mutual = 0.000987f + j(0.0006283f ⎨ 12.981 - 2 ln ⎢ d ⎥⎬)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ρ ⎦ ⎪⎭
conductors forming the line.
(1)
(where f= frequency, ρ= soil resistivity in Ω, d=
conductor separation in m):
In the days of slide rules, the result was
commonly expressed as a look-up table or
nomogram. A simplified and considerably more
user-friendly formula for mutual induction is given
in paragraph 4.2.1 of the Standards Australia
publication CJC 6 Application Guide to the LFI
Code [2].

M = loge (1 + 6 * 105 ρ/d2f) * 10-4 H/km

(2)
Figure 1– Drain Coil (from APO publication
"Line Transmission - Equipment This formula can be entered into an Excel
Applications") worksheet. Induction only occurs if the conductor
in question is not at right angles and if the
Magnetic induction is of considerably more conductor is parallel but at varying distances from
interest and going back to basics, the voltage the inducing conductor, the affected conductor
induced in a conductor is caused by the changing should be divided into equivalent straight line
magnetic field in another conductor. Any sections over which the rate-of-change of
conductor carrying a current must however be separation is reasonably constant. The equivalent
associated with another conductor carrying the separation of each section is then given by:
return current back to the source and the varying
magnetic field from this conductor will induce a
voltage in opposition to the current flow and
hence the magnetic fields from each conductor d = √ ds * de
(3)
are in opposite directions.
where ds and de are the separations at the start
If the inbound conductor is close to the outbound
and end of the section
conductor compared to the radial distance of both
conductors to the conductor at risk, then very little
overall induction will occur. If, for example,
because of a fault, the current does not flow back

13.2 Conference on Railway Engineering

Darwin 20-23 June 2004
Andrew Blakeley-Smith Earthing and Bonding on Railways-
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates the Black Arts of Induction

current - A 1000 Scr Factor >> SF 1.00

Induction - V 1.496 Total cct (km) 2.26 Mean sep (m) 452.00 Induction B Induction C
Phase corr B 0.5-0.866j [* -1] Sum Ind A Sum Ind B a +jb Sum Ind C a +jb
-
-135.02030140175-
Phase corr C 0.5+0.866j [* -1] 134.324221493261+23
233.855162027832j
268.46 268.65 2.649551626327j 0.0406028035

Soil resistivity - A>>B A>>C

frequency
Ohm-m >> 300 Freq >> 50horizontal 0.00 horizontal 8.00
- Hz >>
separation separation
Cable A>>B A>>C
Power line Comms cable
20.00 depth - m 0.00 vertical -5.12 vertical -5.12
height - m >> >> depth (m)
>> separation separation
Separation start end length Induction A Induction B Induction C Induction A Induction B Induction B Induction C Induction C
m / section m V/A V/A V/A V V a +jb V a +jb
-
-24.4957917120289-
24.3544225497669+42
42.4267112452341j
1 -600 -500 605 0.049 0.049 0.049 48.70 48.71 .1818598561962j 48.99
-
-24.8805596997943-
24.7199527289556+42
43.0931294000438j
2 -500 -400 535 0.049 0.049 0.050 49.43 49.44 .8149581265511j 49.76
-
-11.4281017428673-
11.3290664243295+19
19.7934722186462j
3 -400 -250 200 0.023 0.023 0.023 22.65 22.66 .6219430469388j 22.86
-
-37.2956507838218-
36.6976200372828+63
64.5960671575794j
4 -250 -100 471 0.073 0.073 0.075 73.27 73.40 .5602779045739j 74.59
-
-36.920197463238-
37.2231597529257+64
63.9457820063282j
5 -100 180 449 0.074 0.074 0.074 74.41 74.45 .4705126920674j 73.84

Figure 2 – example of Excel Worksheet used to calculate induction from 3-phase power line
The resulting induction is small for a 3-phase line Australia to touch potentials to rails and masts on
with balanced loads where the return currents do A.C. electrified railways. The SNCF, in their
not travel though the earth but it is sometimes document S2/66 [6] draw a distinction between
necessary to check this and (after loading the allowable limits in areas in which the public have
Analysis ToolPak Add-in to allow complex number access (e.g. stations) and those which only
recognition), Excel can be used to calculate the railway staff are legitimately allowed. These “red
induction from each phase using a complex and green zones” can cause great confusion
function for 120o phase correction for the when trying, for example, to apply earthing and
contribution from each phase and the IMSUM bonding practice for French track circuits to the
function to sum the result. Australian environment where the higher voltage
is permitted for cables but not for touch potentials.
Figure 2 shows an extract from an Excel
Worksheet for a three phase line incorporating Australia does permit higher values of voltages if
these formulae and with a 120o complex number the probability of them occurring is rare and the
transform to allow for the B and C phases. voltage persists for only a short time. This
situation exists with high security power lines and
3 ALLOWABLE LIMITS the following relaxations are allowed:
The CCITT Directives [3] (now ITU) set out the • 1 000 Volts RMS—applies where the power
following maximum levels of induced voltage: line is classed as high reliability and the
protection equipment will normally clear the
• 60V RMS under normal system operation for earth fault current in a time range of 0.35 to
cables which are earth referred and to which 0.5 second
members of the public may come into contact
• 150V RMS under normal system operation for • 1 500 Volts RMS—applies where the power
cables which are earth referred and to which line is classed as high reliability and the
technicians only would come into contact protection equipment will normally clear the
(110V has been used by the former British earth fault current within 0.35 second
Rail, as described by Woodbridge [4,5] for High reliability is considered as less than 3.5
signalling cables as this is compatible with the faults/100 km of line per annum; 25kV traction
level of operating voltages commonly supplies meet the clearance time but the fault
encountered on such cables—these circuits rates are stated by Dudaniec [7] to be typically ten
are not however earth referred) times greater. The relaxation in maximum voltage
• 60% of the conductor to sheath RMS is associated with the relationship between
breakdown voltage for non earth referred probability of heart fibrillation (Byass & Pimm [8])
circuits and voltage duration and is described in
• 430V RMS under system electrical fault considerable detail in AS 3859 “Effects of current
conditions passing through the human body” [9]. This useful
• 15mA capacitive leakage current reference (now superceded by IEC standard
IEC60479-1:1994 as AS/NZS 60479.1:2002
The 60V and 430V limits are also applied in
13.3 Conference on Railway Engineering
Darwin 20-23 June 2004
Andrew Blakeley-Smith Earthing and Bonding on Railways-
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates the Black Arts of Induction
"Effects of current on human beings and livestock problem, for example, in the case of a high
Part 1: General aspects") also examines the path voltage power line running alongside a non-
taken by the body current, and hence maximum electrified railway. In the case of an electrified
hazardous voltage. For example, a hand-to-hand railway, this would be eclipsed by the traction
current path is considered quantifiably less return current. Unlike a signalling or
hazardous, by a factor of 0.4, than a left hand to communications cable, the rails are continuously
legs current flow. (but not necessarily well) earthed via the ballast
It should be noted that for the induced voltage to and thus any induced voltage drives a current in
represent a personnel hazard, the cable must be: the rails circulating through the earth. This
current will, in turn, also induce a voltage in any
• earthed at the far end only wayside cables. In this case, the voltage from the
• be in contact with a person who is also rails is in partial phase opposition to the voltage
earthed induced by the power line or, in the case of an
This is particularly true where the remote end of A.C. electrified railway, the catenary
the circuit is far removed from the source of Thus provided the current in the rails does not
induction, for example, a public telephone adversely affect any equipment connected to the
exchange, where one leg of the telephone circuit rails i.e. track circuits, this induced current is
is always earthed. beneficial and reduces or partially screens the
For circuits wholly within the railway boundary signalling & communications cables from
there can be a compensating effect due to the induction.
local earth voltage rise caused by the fault. Short The CCITT Directives [3] quotes screening factors
circuit tests carried out by the author in Malaysia for rails as varying from 0.61 for a single track
[10] showed a significant reduction in the voltage railway with one continuous rail (i.e. single rail
measured on a cable with respect to an earth track circuits), 0.44 for a single track railway with
point within the railway boundary compared to two continuous rails (i.e. double rail jointless track
that measured with respect to an earth 50 m away circuits) or double track railway with one
at right angles from the track. Trackside metallic continuous rail for each track, down to 0.28 for
objects such as fences are generally well enough double track with four continuous rails. These are
earthed throughout their length, if using steel in fact mean values as the actual induced rail
fence posts or supports, such that the section current is at a maximum at the mid point of the
parallel to the track cannot be considered as exposure and reduces exponentially towards the
insulated but earthed only at the far end and thus ends of the exposure and thus the screening
do not generally present an accessible voltage factor varies with location along the rail with
rise hazard (from induction, however they could respect to the ends of the inducing conductor.
be subject to the unrelated hazard of a traction
In the case of an A.C. electrified railway, there is
catenary falling on them).
also traction return current, which decays
4 PROTECTING AGAINST THE HAZARD— exponentially away from the ends of the
SCREENING exposure. Figure 3 shows the induced
component, solid line, the return current, chain
Screening against electrostatic induction is dashed line and the total combined rail current,
relatively easy, screening against electro- dashed line. The return current improves the
magnetic induction is more difficult. Induction from screening factor with respect to a cable lying
a power line or traction catenary into a cable is wholly within the area where the traction current
not however, the whole story. There are many enters and leaves the rails.
other conductors in the railway environment, the
most important of which are the rails. Other
conductors such as power line earth wires can
also be significant. Induction in the rails
themselves may be an actual or perceived

13.4 Conference on Railway Engineering

Darwin 20-23 June 2004
Andrew Blakeley-Smith Earthing and Bonding on Railways-
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates the Black Arts of Induction

Figure 3 – Typical distribution of rail currents (from CCITT Directives

A similar effect occurs for the earthing conductor extruded sheath. Although adjacent conductor
on overhead power lines, but in this case, the screening is less effective than a cable sheath, for
earths are discreet, at each tower. The LFI guide a given cross-sectional area, standard off-the-
[4] quotes the following typical values for earth shelf cables can be used with considerable cost
wire screening given in Figure 4. savings, even allowing for more copper or
aluminium in the screening cable.
As screening requires a fairly high current in the
sheath it is not possible, in practice, to screen a
short cable as the effective resistance to earth
cannot be made low enough to allow enough
current to flow.
In a long cable, and with an inducing circuit that is
Figure 4 – Earth wire screening factors - SAA shorter than the cable, the screening current at
HB102 Application Guide to the LFI Guide the ends of the exposure sees a ladder network of
These again are average values as the actual cable earths that is significantly lower than the
value of current, and hence screening, depends value of any one cable earthing point. In practice
upon the number of towers and the tower footing it is very difficult and expensive to achieve earth
resistance as well as the separation from the points of much less than 5 Ohms. Little current
phase conductors and the distance from the fault. flows in the earth points within the exposure, as
This last factor takes into account the fault return the sheath current between sections is more or
current, a proportion of which flows to earth less constant. A bad earth point on a screened
through each tower. The total screening effect cable on 25kV railway can be located by the
can be calculated by treating the ladder network increased noise as a train passes by it.
formed by the earthed towers in a similar manner Screening can be made effective with lower
to a rail with continuous earthing. values of sheath current by adding inductance to
A cable can also be screened by a high the sheath. This alters the phase of the sheath
conductivity sheath (see Rosen [11]) or by an current and hence swings the voltage induced by
external conductor, but this must be close (within this current more nearly into anti-phase with the
50 mm or so) to the cable and continuously voltage induced by the power line or catenary.
earthed (if the sheath is bare) or earthed at The minimum earth resistance can then be
intervals. In practice, bare sheaths would be reduced. Steel tapes are generally used to
subject to corrosion and discrete earthing is increase the inductance and note that they do not
employed, typically at 500 m or 1000 m intervals work by causing the magnetic flux to be
with earth resistance values of the order of 4–10 “bypassed” around the cable core and that tapes
Ohms. Cables with integral screening sheaths with a short lay length must be used. Steel wire
have always been made to special order but the armouring is ineffective because the
cost penalty is high although this can be reduced circumferential flux encounters to many air gaps
by wrapping copper or aluminium wires using with round wires.
machinery for steel wire armouring in place of an
13.5 Conference on Railway Engineering
Darwin 20-23 June 2004
Andrew Blakeley-Smith Earthing and Bonding on Railways-
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates the Black Arts of Induction
Cable screening, as a technique was widely used cables are required, as for example, in Malaysia,
for railway communications cables in the days adjacent conductor screening has been used.
prior to optical fibres where long cable runs Screening is normally required as a primary
between exchanges or to wayside telephones defensive measure for personnel protection as
were the normal practice. Signalling cables do not surge absorbing devices may fail [4] or may be
generally require screening as higher voltages are effectively removed from circuit during cable
generally permitted however, where the lower maintenance operations.
voltage limits applicable to communications

Vd from Rail from 132kV mast fault current Soil Res 300 Ohm-m

2500
Grading ring
Rail-to-rail touch potential
Vollts per 10000A fault current

2000

Step potential
1500

1000

500

0
1.29
2.29
3.29
4.29
5.29
6.29
7.29
8.29
9.29
10.29
11.29
12.29
13.29
14.29
15.29
16.29
17.29
18.29
19.29
20.29
21.29
22.29
23.29
24.29
25.29
26.29
27.29
28.29
29.29
30.29
31.29
32.29
From mast

Figure 5 – typical voltage gradient for fault current flowing away from HV mast
consequence in electrical substations and
5 EARTHING AND BONDING
electrified railways, the former being well
Earthing and bonding attempts to ensure that fault described by Swan and Macrae [12] and for more
currents flow through a preferred and safe path general cases in the IE Aust Symposium on
such that local voltage gradients are kept within Earthing [13]. These references also contain
specified limits and sufficient current flows for many formulae for estimating earth electrode
protective devices to identify the fault situation resistance. It is worth noting that voltage rise to
and open the circuit. This is of particular remote earth under fault conditions cannot
importance on electrified railways but incorrect generally be contained within sub-stations and
bonding and inadequate earths will result in the incoming circuits, such as telephones and
destruction of equipment from power or lightning telemetry, require to be galvanically isolated. This
induced surges on any railway. is now generally achieved with a short length of
The current density surrounding a mast or an optical fibre cable with suitable interfaces.
earth electrode system decreases rapidly as does There used to be two schools of thought to
the corresponding voltage gradient. A person overcome the differential voltage rise problem:
standing on the ground or another earth electrode • separate earth electrode systems are required
close to the mast will tap into this gradient and a for different functions e.g. power supply
dangerous potential difference to the mast can earthing, communications battery earthing,
then exist. The very high current density signalling lightning protection etc. —any
surrounding a mast can be reduced by increasing metalwork connected to the different earthing
the effective size of the mast by use of a grading systems then has to be kept touch distance
ring (Figure 5). This is a circle of a conductor apart (i.e. a person cannot simultaneously
(commonly scrap contact wire) centred on, and come into contact with both sets of metalwork)
connected to, the mast. This creates an equi-
potential zone around the mast and effectively • use one earthing system or bond any pre-
trades the touch potential for a lesser value of existing separate earthing systems together—
step potential. this then forms an equi-potential zone in the
Step and touch potentials are of particular equipment room area and although there will

13.6 Conference on Railway Engineering

Darwin 20-23 June 2004
Andrew Blakeley-Smith Earthing and Bonding on Railways-
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates the Black Arts of Induction
be a global potential rise with respect to a It is interesting to consider some of the specific
remote earthing system there are no local situations where hazardous potentials can occur
potential rises. and how impractical the separation of different
Both the SAA and the ITU have now adopted the earthing systems can be.
“bond everything” strategy in their specifications.

Active

In Neutral

Figure 6 – Exporting traction system voltage rise over MEN

and neutral controlled by a residual current
6.1 Utility power supply earthing
device.
This is in fact a rather special case for Australia As an example, for a 5 500A traction fault
which uses the Multiple Earth Neutral (MEN) measured during short circuit testing in Malaysia
system of earthing in which the neutral is bonded [11], the voltage between traction earth and the
to the earth at each consumer’s premises. This remote earth at a local telephone exchange was
ensures an acceptable value of earth in areas 250V but the voltage to the local station lightning
with high soil resistivity (by European standards) protection earth was 211V and to the neutral
even if the resistance of the earth electrode for earth of the utility supply transformer, within the
each individual consumer is relatively high. station boundary, was also 211V. Although within
In 25kV A.C. territory, the MEN cannot be limits, these voltage differences would exist within
extended beyond the railway, as any voltage rise the station area if the traction earth were not
under traction fault would be impressed upon the bonded to these other earths and the resulting
neutral and exported to surrounding consumers electric shock, although not necessarily lethal in
(In in Figure 6). A traction fault would cause fault itself, could result in falls or other consequential
current to flow in the neutral away from the injuries.
railway, progressively flowing to earth at each Note that care needs to be exercised with the
consumer’s premises. MEN philosophy within the railway alignment as
However, if the different earths are not bonded local bonding between the neutral of a sub-
then a potential difference will exist. A typical distribution circuit and traction return could result
example would be a vending machine on a station in an alternative path for traction currents if a
platform, which would represent a remote earth section of rail is removed for maintenance. A
(at the supply transformer star point neutral). A more mundane problem is that some traction
traction fault to the rails will be transferred to a current will always flow in the neutral as the
stationary train standing in the station and if the neutral would form a parallel path for the rails
vending machine is within touch distance of the and/or earth wire and this will cause false tripping
train, a hazard can result. In this case the MEN of the RCD protecting GPOs in the installation.
has to be isolated by means of a transformer and The MEN is also a wonderful path for induced
the neutral on the secondary of the transformer lightning currents in non-electrified territory
then bonded to the traction return. For small without MEN isolation. The voltage differences
sites, the incoming utility supply can be isolated arising from the use of separate earths for the
via a circuit breaker that interrupts both phase
13.7 Conference on Railway Engineering
Darwin 20-23 June 2004
Andrew Blakeley-Smith Earthing and Bonding on Railways-
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates the Black Arts of Induction
MEN and signalling and communications earths between signalling and communications
can be extraordinarily effective in destroying equipment rooms.
modems and data equipment using RS-232 links

TC Rx TC Tx

ACI

Figure 7 – Earth wire bypasses broken rail

6.2 Bonding Jointless Track Circuits Another factor now comes into play. There are
restrictions to the number of impedance bonds
Masts in 25kV traction systems are traditionally
that can be used on a track circuit section. In the
individually bonded to the single traction return
event of a broken rail, an alternate current path
rail where A.C. immune D.C. track circuits are
may exist via the centre point of the ACIs and the
used (except in Perth WA, where masts are
earth wire as a result of the ACIs acting as
connected by an earth wire which is in turn
autotransformers. This can inhibit broken rail
bonded at 200 m or 300 m intervals to the traction
detection and prevent train detection should a
return rail). This is not possible with most double
break occur.
rail track circuits as earthing one rail would
unbalance the track circuit and both rails are There is thus effectively a limit imposed on track
earthed through an impedance bond, at intervals, circuit length arising from the ACI spacing, which
to an earth wire which, in turn, bonds the masts. is a consequence of limiting rail and mast touch
potentials.
Traction return currents flow in each half of the
impedance bond winding towards the centre tap To complicate matters further, some ACI locations
and the resulting fluxes cancel. Thus traction are fixed by the traction system design, such as at
currents see only the winding resistance but track feeder stations or at booster or auto transformer
circuit currents flow in the whole winding and see locations where traction current leaves the rails.
a high reactive impedance which prevents the The ACI location, in turn, with some types of
impedance bond from shunting the track circuit. jointless track circuit, determines the location of
Jointless track circuits use audio frequencies and the electrical separation joint, whether the
sufficient impedance to the track circuit voltage is signalling system needs a block joint at that
obtained without use of an iron core by tuning to location or not. An electrical separation joint is a
the specific track circuit frequency. These are virtual block joint formed by a track circuit
frequently referred to as Air Cored Inductors frequency filter from the rails and externally
(ACIs). connected equipment, which may include the ACI.
The overall earthing of the traction system is 7 CONCLUSION
provided both by rail to ballast contact and Calculation of induced voltages can be relatively
through the footing resistance of each mast, simple however there is little point using complex
which is typically 15-20 Ohms. If there is a algorithms with many parameters if the accuracy
traction fault to, for example a mast, there is now of these input parameters does not justify the
a ladder network formed by the earth wire and the increased complexity of calculations. Even if this
mast footing resistances to earth before reaching is justified, it is well worth carrying out a check
the nodes formed by the impedance bonds to the calculation for comparison purposes. The more
parallel earth connection provided by the rails. complex the calculation, the more chance of an
The same logic applies to a traction fault to rail. otherwise undetected error. A lot of thought needs
This results in a significant potential difference to be given to realistic worst cases. This is
between the rails and the masts, particularly half particularly so in assessing normal loads on 25kV
way between the ACIs. This limits the distance railways.
between ACIs. The magnitude of the hazard arising from fault

13.8 Conference on Railway Engineering

Darwin 20-23 June 2004
Andrew Blakeley-Smith Earthing and Bonding on Railways-
Andrew Blakeley-Smith & Associates the Black Arts of Induction
currents on 25kV railways is not necessarily London, September 1962
greater than that posed by a power line but the
[5] Woodbridge, A., “Experience with the British
probability of it happening is considerably greater
Railways Standard Electrification System,
and there is much more exposed metalwork for
with particular reference to Signalling and
maintainers, and even the public, to touch.
Telecommunications”, The Institution of
There are various techniques to reduce the Railway Signal Engineers, London, February
magnitude of induced voltages, generally a 1961
combination of techniques is the most cost-
effective and the most maintenance friendly. [6] “Electrification en Courant Monophase 25kV
There are frequently conflicting requirements for 50z”, SNCF Document S2/66, Paris, 1977
measures to limit earth voltage rise, particularly in [7] Dudaniec, E., “Power Co-ordination with
the signalling field and a top down approach Electric Railways”, Telecommunications
considering all affected disciplines is essential at Society of Australia, Brisbane, March 1984
the project design stage. The traction system
design and the signalling system design are, as [8] Byass, G. & Pimm, T., G., “Safety Aspects of
noted by Anthon-14 and the author, from the Voltages Applied to Telephone Lines”,
earliest days of high voltage rail electrification in Telecommunications Journal of Australia,
Australia, inseparably linked by earthing and June 1969
bonding requirements. [9] “Effects of current passing through the
While there are universal standards there are human body”, AS 3859-1991
subtly different interpretations between countries [10] Blakeley-Smith, A., “Short Circuit Testing
and even between different railway
on the New Kuala Lumpur 25kV Suburban
administrations and it is generally not possible to Railway”, The Institution of Railway Signal
import solutions between railway administrations
Engineers (Australian Section), Brisbane,
without knowing the whole picture against which November 1995
the solution was developed. There is much less
chance of unexpected consequences from going [11] Rosen, A., “Interference in Railway
back to first principles and if an imported solution Lineside Telephone Cable Circuits from
still looks attractive, attempting to reverse 25kV 50c/s Traction Systems”, ATE
engineer it. Journal, October 1959
[12] Swan, G., A., H., & McRae, B., P., “The
8 REFERENCES Earthing of High Voltage Substations”,
[1] Klewe, H., R., J., “Interference Between Electrical Engineering Transactions, The
Power Systems and Telecommunications Institution of Engineers Australia, July 1964
Lines”, Edward Arnold Ltd, London, 1958 [13] Symposium on Earthing, The Institution of
[2] “Coordination of Power and Engineers Australia, Brisbane 4-5 October
Telecommunications-Low Frequency 1979
Induction: Application Guide to the LFI Code”, [14] Blakeley-Smith, A. & Anthon, G., D.,
Standards Australia, CJC 6-1997 “Integrated Design of Power and
[3] “CCITT Directives concerning the protection Communications Systems for 25kV 50Hz
of telecommunications lines against harmful Railway Traction”, Conference on Co-
effect from electricity lines”, International ordination of Power and
Telecommunications Union, New Delhi, 1961 Telecommunications Systems, The
Institution of Engineers Australia, Brisbane,
[4] Woodbridge, A., W., Klewe, R., J. & Kapp, R., July 14–15, 1976
O., “Inductive Interference and it’s
Measurement on Electrified Railways”, The
Institution of Railway Signal Engineers,

13.9 Conference on Railway Engineering

Darwin 20-23 June 2004