VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

JNANA SANGAMA, BELAGAVI - 590018

A SEMINAR REPORT ON

“SOIL LIQUEFACTION”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Award of degree of

Bachelor of Engineering in

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

JAGADEESH S
1BI12CV041

Under the guidance of

B. S. KARTHEEK
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANGALORE- 560004
 BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
K.R. ROAD, V.V PURA, BENGALURU 560004

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the project work entitled “SOIL LIQUEFACTION” carried out by
JAGADEESH S, USN 1BI12CV041, a bonafide student of BANGALORE INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY, VV Puram, Bengaluru- 04 in partial fulfillment for the award of
Bachelor of Engineering / Bachelor of Technology in B.E of the Visveswaraiah
Technological University, Belgaum during the year 2015-2016. It is certified that all
corrections/suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the
Report deposited in the departmental library. The Seminar report has been approved as it
satisfies the academic requirements in respect of Project work prescribed for the said Degree.

B. S. KARTHEEK Dr. ASHWATH.M.U

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR PROFESSOR & HOD

DEPT OF CIVIL, B.I.T DEPT OF CIVIL, B.I.T

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and the euphoria that accomplishes the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible. I wish to
express gratitude to my guide B. S. KARTHEEK, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, B.I.T for his valuable suggestions and guidance through the preparation of
seminar. I am grateful for his belief on me that I would present the seminar as per expectation
and for giving me a free hand setting schedule and deadlines.

My Profound gratitude to Dr. ASHWATH M.U, Professor and Head of the Department,
Department of Civil Engineering, B.I.T and A.G. NATARAJ, The Principal, B.I.T for
providing the necessary infrastructure. I am also thankful to all the teaching and non teaching
staff who has directly and indirectly contributed towards the seminar.

A large amount of material has been obtained from the internet and the numerous other
incredible sources. I thank all those unseen faces whose contribution to my venture has been
invaluable.

I thank my beloved parents for their blessings. It is their prayer that has helped me in
preparation for the seminar. Finally I thank God for his blessings on me.
 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. Introduction 01

2. Soil Liquefaction 02

3. Failure Mechanism causing Liquefaction 05

4. Factors Affecting Liquefaction 08

5. Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential by cyclic shear stress 11

6. Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential by

Standard Penetration Resistance 13

7. Measures to reduce Liquefaction of soils 14

8. Conclusion 18

References
SOIL LIQUEFACTION Introduction

INTRODUCTION

General:

During the recent Bhuj earthquake on 26 January 2001, a number of medium to

high rise residential buildings collapsed in Ahmedabad city, which is located about
300 km away from the epicenter. The city is founded over thick recent unconsolidated
sediments. The severe damages in this location are attributed to the response of such
unconsolidated sediments to violent shaking. This catastrophic earthquake has
provided a serious reminder that liquefaction of sandy soils and sands with non-plastic
fines as a result of earthquake ground shaking poses a major threat to the safety of
civil engineering structures. Investigations to evaluate the liquefaction potential of
soil deposits during earthquakes have been the subject of attention in recent years.

Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a soil is

reduced by earthquake shaking or other rapid loading. Liquefaction and related
phenomena have been responsible for tremendous amounts of damage in historical
earthquakes around the world.

Liquefaction occurs in saturated soils, that is, soils in which the space between
individual particles is completely filled with water. This water exerts a pressure on the
soil particles that influences how tightly the particles themselves are pressed together.
Prior to an earthquake, the water pressure is relatively low. However, earthquake
shaking can cause the water pressure to increase to the point where the soil particles
can readily move with respect to each other.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Soil Liquefaction

Soil Liquefaction:
During heavy ground shaking by earthquakes, liquefaction occurs when the
pressure exerted by the water present in saturated soil becomes so great that the soil
particles become „suspended‟ in the water. A soil deposit that is liquefied behaves like
the better-known phenomena: quicksand. The most commonly used terms in
liquefaction include
a) Saturated soils: soils in which the space (voids) between the soil particles
is completely filled with water.
b) Pore water pressure: pressure exerted on particles of soil by the water in
the voids. Most of the time this pressure is relatively low (hydrostatic) and
results in an equilibrium condition of effective stress state. However, there
are some circumstances in which rapidly increased stresses can cause the
pore water pressure to increase.

In more technical terms, liquefaction is imminent when the porewater pressure (u)
equals the total overburden stress (VO). This creates an effective stress state equal to
zero
VO' = [VO – u] =0

Due to the forces exerted by gravity, soil particles naturally rest upon each other
and, depending on the properties of the soil, form sort of grid that is relatively stable
(or can be made so by compaction or other construction practices). During
liquefaction the water pressures become high enough to counteract the gravitational
pull on the soil particles and effectively „float‟, or suspend, the particles. The soil
particles can then move freely with respect to each other. Since the soil is no longer
behaving as an inactive grid of particles, the strength and stiffness of a liquefied soil is
significantly decreased, often resulting in a variety of structural failures. (Plate 1
shows overturned apartment buildings in Niigata, Japan due to liquefaction in 1964.
Plate 2 shows an example of lateral spread failure due an earthquake in Kobe, Japan
in 1995).

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Soil Liquefaction

Plate 1: Nigata, Japan, 1964 Plate 2: Kobe, Japan, 1995

Typically when liquefaction is discussed due to a seismic event, addressing “cyclic

liquefaction” is important, this occurs when repeated cycles of shearing generate an
accumulation of pore water pressures. However, if the soil is very loose sand, “flow
liquefaction” can occur from first time loading during site development. Also, “quasi
liquefaction” describes a state of partial liquefaction of a soil deposit that does not
propagate fully throughout the site; however the subsurface liquefaction response still
negatively affects structures at the surface.
If liquefaction occurs beneath a surface that has hardened as a result of compaction,
weathering, or some other process; „sand boiling‟ can occur. The water pressures
build below the surface to the point that the water breaks through the solid surface
much like a bubble in boiling water.

Plate3: Olympia, Washington, 2001 Plate 4: New Madrid Seismic Zone

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Soil Liquefaction

On the US West Coast, these sand boils are normally about one to three feet in
diameter (0.3 to 1 meter), plate 3 shows such a phenomena. In the New Madrid
Seismic Zone, the level of sand liquefaction was so extensive that the sand boils in
this region are called “sand blows” since they generally are 10 to 100 feet diameter (3
to 30 meters), plate 4.

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Figures 1 and 2 show a typical view of soil grains in an unexcited saturated

deposit. The blue column on the right indicates the magnitude of pore water pressure
present. The arrows in Figure 2 indicate the forces created by the interactions of the
soil grains. Figure 3 shows elevated water pressure created by additional loading (as
from a seismic event. The increased water pressure acts to „float‟ the grains and
thereby decreases the interaction between grains, thus causing the characteristic
properties of liquefaction.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Failure Mechanisms

Failure Mechanisms causing Liquefaction:

The term liquefaction has actually been used to describe a number of related
phenomena. Because the phenomena can have similar effects, it can be difficult to
distinguish between them. The mechanisms causing them, however, are different.
These phenomena can be divided into two main categories: flow liquefaction and
cyclic mobility.

Flow Liquefaction:

Flow liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the static equilibrium is destroyed by

static or dynamic loads in a soil deposit with low residual strength. Residual strength
is the strength of a liquefied soil. New buildings on a slope that exert additional forces
on the soil beneath the foundations can apply static loading, for example.
Earthquakes, blasting, and pile driving are all example of dynamic loads that could
trigger flow liquefaction. Once triggered, the strength of a soil susceptible to flow
liquefaction is no longer sufficient to withstand the static stresses that were acting on
the soil before the disturbance.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Failure Mechanisms

Material characterization

Strain softening behaviour Strain hardening behaviour

Flow liquefaction Cyclic softening

Monotonic/cyclic trigger Size and duration of

cyclic loading

Gravitational stresses >

undrained shear strength
Shear stress reversal No shear stress reversal

Contained Uncontained Cyclic Cyclic mobility

deformation deformation liquefaction

Potential for Large Small

progressive failure deformations deformations

Deformation can continue Deformations essentially

after the trigger event stop after cyclic loading

Flow chart for liquefaction (Robertson, 1994)

Cyclic Mobility:-

Cyclic mobility is a liquefaction phenomenon,

triggered by cyclic loading, occurring in soil deposits
with static shear stresses lower than the soil strength.
Deformations due to cyclic mobility develop
incrementally because of static and dynamic stresses
that exist during an earthquake. Lateral spreading, a
common result of cyclic mobility, can occur on gently
sloping and on flat ground close to rivers and lakes.
The 1976 Guatemala earthquake caused lateral Plate Plate 5: Motagua River
2.10: Motagua River
spreading along the Motagua River. Observe the cracks
parallel to the river in plate 5.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Failure Mechanisms

On level ground, the high pore water pressure

caused by liquefaction can cause pore water to flow
rapidly to the ground surface. This flow can occur
both during and after an earthquake. If the flowing
pore water rises quickly enough, it can carry sand
particles through cracks up to the surface, where
Plate 6: El Centro earthquake they are deposited in the form of sand volcanoes or
sand boils. These features can often be observed at sites that have been affected by
liquefaction, such as in the field along Hwy 98 during the 1979 El Centro earthquake
shown in plate 6.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Factors Affecting Liquefaction

Factors Affecting Liquefaction:

1. Soil type:-
Liquefaction occurs in cohesion less soils as they lose their strength completely
under vibration due to the development of pore pressures which in turn reduce the
effective stress to zero. Liquefaction does not occur in case of cohesive soils. Only
highly sensitive clays may loose their strength substantially under vibration.

2. Grain Size and Its Distribution:-

Fine and uniform sands are more prone to liquefaction than coarser ones. Since the
permeability of coarse sand is greater than fine sand, the pore pressure developed
during vibration can dissipate faster.

3. Initial Relative Density:-

It is one of the most important factors controlling liquefaction. Both pore pressures
and settlement are considerably reduced during vibrations with increase in initial
relative density and hence chances of liquefaction and excessive settlement reduce
with increased relative density.

4. Vibration Characteristics:-
Out of the four parameters of dynamic load namely (i) frequency ;(ii) amplitude;
(iii) acceleration; and (iv) velocity; frequency and acceleration are more important.
Frequency of the dynamic load plays vital role only if it is close to the natural
frequency of the system. Further the liquefaction depends on the type of the dynamic
load i.e. whether it is a transient load or the load causing steady vibrations.
Whole stratum gets liquefied at the same time under transient loading, while it may
proceed from top to lower layers under steady state vibrations (Florin and Ivanov,
1961). For a given acceleration, liquefaction occurs only after a certain number of
cycles imparted to the deposit. Further, horizontal vibrations have more severe effect
than vertical vibrations. Multi directional shaking is more severe than one directional
loading (Seed et al., 1977), as the pore water pressure build up is much faster and the
stress ratio required is about 10 percent less than that required for unidirectional
shaking.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Factors Affecting Liquefaction

5. Location of Drainage and Extent of Deposit:-

Sands are more pervious than fine-grained soil. However, if an impervious deposit
has large dimensions, the drainage path increases and the deposit may behave as
undrained, thereby, increasing the chances of liquefaction of such a deposit. The
drainage path is reduced by the introduction of drains made out of highly pervious
material.

6. Surcharge Load:-
If the surcharge load, i.e., the initial effective stress is large, then transfer of stress
from soil grains to pore water will require higher intensity vibrations or vibrations for
longer duration. If the initial stress condition is not isotropic as in field, then stress
condition causing liquefaction depends upon Ko (coefficient of earth pressure at rest)
and for Ko >5, the stress condition required to cause liquefaction increases by at least
50%.

7. Method of Soil Formation:-

Sands unlike clays do not exhibit a characteristics structure. But recent
investigations show that liquefaction characteristics of saturated sands under cyclic
loading are significantly influenced by method of sample preparation and by soil
structure.

8. Period under Sustained Load:-

Age of sand deposit may influence its liquefaction characteristics. A 75% increase
in liquefaction resistance has been reported on liquefaction of an undisturbed sand
compared to freshly prepared sample which may due to some form of cementation or
welding at contact points of sand particles and associated with secondary compression
of soil.

9. Previous Strain History:-

Studies on liquefaction characteristics of freshly deposited sand and of similar
deposit previously subjected to some strain history reveal, that although the prior
strain history caused no significant change in the density of the sand, it increased the
stress that causes liquefaction by factor of 1.5.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Factors Affecting Liquefaction

10. Trapped Air:-

If air is trapped in saturated soil and pore pressure develops, a part of it is
dissipated due to the compression of air. Hence, trapped air helps to reduce the
possibility to liquefaction.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Evaluation of Liquefaction

Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential by Cyclic Shear

Stress:-

Evaluation of the potential for liquefaction to occur is accomplished by comparing

equivalent measures of earthquake loading and liquefaction resistance. The most
common approach for characterization of earthquake loading is through the use of
cyclic shear stresses. By normalizing the cyclic shear stress amplitude by the initial
effective vertical stress, a cyclic stress ratio (CSR) can represent the level of loading
induced at different depths in a soil profile by an earthquake. There are different
procedures for evaluating the cyclic shear stresses - site response analyses may be
performed or a "simplified" approach may be used to estimate CSR as a function of
peak ground surface acceleration amplitude.

Fig 4: CSR versus N or qc

Liquefaction resistance is most commonly characterized on the basis of observed
field performance. Detailed investigation of actual earthquake case histories has
allowed determination of the combinations of insitu properties (usually SPT or CPT
resistance) and CSR for each case history. By plotting the CSR- (N1) 60 (or CSR-qc)
pairs for cases in which liquefaction was and was not been observed, a curve that
bounds the conditions at which liquefaction has historically been observed can be
drawn. This curve, when interpreted as the maximum CSR for which liquefaction of a
soil with a given penetration resistance can resist liquefaction, can be thought of as a
curve of cyclic resistance ratio (CRR). Then, the potential for liquefaction can be

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Evaluation of Liquefaction

evaluated by comparing the earthquake loading (CSR) with the liquefaction resistance
(CRR) - this is usually expressed as a factor of safety against liquefaction,
FS = CRR / CSR

A factor of safety greater than one indicates that the liquefaction resistance exceeds
the earthquake loading, and therefore liquefaction would not be expected.
CSR, is Estimated by SEED and IDRISS (1971) based on the maximum ground surface
acceleration (amax) at the site
CSR= τav/σ′vo = 0.65(MWF) (amax/g) (σvo / σ′vo)*rd
Where:
τav = average cyclic shear stress
MWF = Magnitude Weighting Factor = (M)2.56 /173
M = earthquake magnitude, commonly M= 7.5
amax = maximum horizontal acceleration at ground surface
g = acceleration due gravity = 9.81m/s2
σvo = total vertical overburden stress
σ′vo = effective vertical overburden stress
z = depth in meters (for z>25m)
rd = stress reduction factor, typically (1-0.015z)

CRR can be evaluated by Laboratory and field tests such as:

1. Cyclic Triaxial test
2. Hollow cylindrical torsion test
3. cyclic simple shear test
4. Standard penetration test
5. Cone penetration test (CPT)
6. Piezo Vibrocone test
7. Siesmic cone penetration test(SCPT)

But most commonly SPT and CPT test are conducted, as they are popular.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Evaluation of Liquefaction

Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential By Using Standard

Penetration Resistance:-
The standard penetration test is most commonly used insitu test in a borehole to
have fairly good estimation of relative density of cohesionless soil. Since liquefaction
primarily depends on the initial relative density of saturated sand, many researchers
have made the attempt to develop correlations between liquefaction potential and
standard penetration resistance. IS: 2131-1981 gives the standard penetration test.
SPT values (N) obtained in the field for sand have to be corrected for accounting the
effect of overburden pressure as below:
N1 = CN * N
Where, N1 = Corrected value of standard penetration resistance
CN = Correction factor
The correlation between N1 values and relative density of granular soils suggested
by Terzaghi and Peck.
After the occurrence of Niigata earthquake, Kishida (1966), Kuizumi (1966), and
Ohasaki (1966) studied the areas of Niigata where the liquefaction had not occurred
and developed criteria for differentiating between liquefaction and nonliquefaction
conditions in that city, based on N-values of the sand deposits (Seed, 1979). The
results of these studies for Niigata are shown in the Fig 5. Ohasaki (1970) gave a
useful rule of thumb that says liquefaction is not a problem if the blow count from a
standard penetration test exceeds twice the depth in meters.

Standard penetration value-N

Fig 5: Relationship between the possibility of liquefaction and N
values at various depths. (After Kishida, 1969).

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Measures to Reduce Liquefaction

MEASURES TO REDUCE LIQUEFACTION OF

SOILS:-
General:-
There are several ways in which risk and severity of damage as a result of soil
liquefaction can be reduced. The first and most obvious is, to avoid planning
development on liquefaction susceptible soils. Besides in-situ testing, vulnerable sites
can also be identified by researching any prior events at the site. Maps showing sites
of prior liquefaction can be located from many
government and research entities.
If it necessary to construct on liquefaction
susceptible soils, one can modify the design of a
structure in several ways to make the structure
more resistant damage potential from
liquefaction. A structure that incorporates
ductility, has supports that are adjustable to Example of foundation design that spans over
a soft spot
accommodate differential settlement, possesses
the ability to accommodate large deformations, and has a foundation design that can
span ‘soft’ spots, can all decrease the amount of damage incurred in the case of a
liquefaction event.

Avoid Liquefaction Susceptible Soils:-

The first possibility is to avoid construction on liquefaction susceptible soils. There
are various criteria to determine the liquefaction susceptibility of a soil. By
characterizing the soil at a particular building site according to these criteria one can
decide if the site is susceptible to liquefaction and therefore unsuitable for the desired
structure.

Build Liquefaction Resistant Structures:-

If it is necessary to construct on liquefaction susceptible soil because of space
restrictions, favorable location, or other reasons, it may be possible to make the
structure liquefaction resistant by designing the foundation elements to resist the
effects of liquefaction.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Measures to Reduce Liquefaction

Improve the Soil:-

The third option involves mitigation of the liquefaction hazards by improving the
strength, density, and/or drainage characteristics of the soil. This can be done using a
variety of soil improvement techniques.

Soil improvement techniques:-

The main goal of most soil improvement techniques used for reducing liquefaction
hazards is to avoid large increases in pore water pressure during earthquake shaking.
This can be achieved by densification of the soil and/or improvement of its drainage
capacity.

Vibroflotation:-

Vibroflotation involves the use of a vibrating probe that can penetrate granular soil
to depths of over 100 feet. The vibrations of the probe cause the grain structure to
collapse thereby densifying the soil surrounding the probe. To treat an area of
potentially liquefiable soil, the vibroflot is raised and lowered in a grid pattern. Vibro
Replacement is a combination of vibroflotation with a gravel backfill resulting in
stone columns, which not only increases the amount of densification, but also
provides a degree of reinforcement and a potentially effective means of drainage.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Measures to Reduce Liquefaction

Dynamic Compaction:-
Densification by dynamic compaction is performed by dropping a heavy weight of
steel or concrete in a grid pattern from heights of 30 to 100 ft. It provides an
economical way of improving soil for mitigation of liquefaction hazards. Local
liquefaction can be initiated beneath the drop point making it easier for the sand
grains to densify. When the excess pore water pressure from the dynamic loading
dissipates, additional densification occurs. As illustrated in the photograph, however,
the process is somewhat invasive; the surface of the soil may require shallow
compaction with possible addition of granular fill following dynamic compaction.

Stone Columns:-
Stone columns are columns of gravel constructed in the ground. Stone columns can
be constructed by the vibroflotation method. They can also be installed in other ways,
for example, with help of a steel casing and a drop hammer as in the Franki Method.
In this approach the steel casing is driven in to the soil and gravel is filled in from the
top and tamped with a drop hammer as the steel casing is successively withdrawn.

Compaction Piles:-
Installing compaction piles is a very effective way of improving soil. Compaction
piles are usually made of prestressed concrete or timber. Installation of compaction
piles both densifies and reinforces the soil. The piles are generally installed in a grid
pattern and are generally driven to depth of up to 60 ft.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Measures to Reduce Liquefaction

Compaction Grouting:-
Compaction grouting is a technique whereby a slow-flowing water/sand/cement
mix is injected under pressure into a granular soil. The grout forms a bulb that
displaces and hence densifies, the surrounding soil. Compaction grouting is a good
option if the foundation of an existing building requires improvement, since it is
possible to inject the grout from the side or at an inclined angle to reach beneath the
building.

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 SOIL LIQUEFACTION Conclusion & Reference

Conclusions:-

i. Because liquefaction only occurs in saturated soil, its effects are most
commonly observed in low-lying areas near bodies of water such as rivers,
lakes, bays, and oceans.
ii. Cyclic shear stress to initiate liquefaction was higher than the cyclic shear stress
induced by the earthquake.
iii. Sands were considered to be the only type of soil susceptible to liquefaction, but
liquefaction was also observed in gravel and silt.
iv. Soil of medium to fine texture that is clay, silty clay, loam, and gravelly soils
with well to moderate drainage has no liquefaction vulnerability.
v. Soil of medium coarse texture that is very fine sandy loam, sandy loam with
well to moderate drainage has 50% liquefaction vulnerability.
vi. Soil of coarse texture that is sand, and loamy sand with well to moderate
drainage has 70% liquefaction vulnerability and imperfect drainage has 90%
liquefaction vulnerability.
vii. The SPT- and the CPT-based liquefaction assessment charts are the preferred
means of evaluating liquefaction potential .
viii. They are most reliable because they are supported by large databases on the
occurrence of liquefaction .
ix. The SPT test provides soil samples for identification of soil type and many
empirical design procedures are based on the SPT, N.
x. The CPT provides the best picture of soil stratification and is the most reliable
penetration test. Many design procedures are also based on CPT data .
xi. If the CPT is run with a seismic cone, the shear wave velocities can be measured
at the same time. The shear moduli can be readily obtained from the velocity
data and can be used as input into dynamic and static analyses.

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SOIL LIQUEFACTION Conclusion & Reference

REFERENCES:

1. Kramer Steven., Text Book of Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering.

2. Dr. Swami Saran., Text Book of Soil Dynamics And Machine Foundation.
3. Hans F.Winterkorn and Hsai-Yang Fang., ‘Foundation Engineering
Handbook’.
4. T.Lunne, P.K.Robertson and J.J.M.Powell., ‘Cone Penetration Testing in
Geotechnical Practice’.
5. T.G.Sitharam, L.GovindaRaju and A. Sridharan (2004).,‘Dynamic
properties and liquefaction potential of soils’, Special Section:Geotechnics
and Earthquake Hazards, Current Science, Vol.87,No.10,25 November
2004.
6. Alisha Kaplan (2004), ‘Soil Liquefaction’ Undergraduate Research, Mid-
America Earthquake Center and Georgia Institute of Technology, May 2004

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