McENG 6218 Ch2

CHAPTER
GEOMETRIC MODELING
TECHNIQUES 6
Geometric modeling techniques like wire frame, surface and solid modeling have totally
changed not only the drawing office practices but also have helped to integrate design with
analysis, simulation and optimization as well as to seamlessly integrate design with downstream
manufacturing applications. Data created in geometric models can thus be directly passed on
to all the application software packages like finite element analysis, mechanism analysis,
CNC programming, inspection etc. Geometric modeling has therefore paved the way for CIM.
The salient features of the different modeling techniques are discussed in this chapter. The
starting point of new product development is conceptual design. The designer has to develop
the shape of the product which in turn has to accommodate the functional parts inside. Whether
it is a consumer durable like a camera, and an electric iron, a washing machine, an automobile,
an entertainment electronic item like television or a sports item like a golf club, shape design
is a critical activity in product design. This chapter also discusses conceptual design techniques
and transfer of data to modeling software.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Product development activity starts with the design of the product. As mentioned in
Chapter 2 this is a very critical activity which will influence the cost, performance, service
life, quality, manufacturability, maintainability etc. The challenges before the product
designers today are listed below:
• Higher customer quality expectations
• Need to have innovation and originality in design
• Need for global collaboration across and beyond the enterprise among designers,
customers and vendors to reduce development lead times
• Need to evaluate feasibility throughout the design process
• Ability to react quickly to design changes as and when change requests are made
• Ability to express the design intent in terms of shape and function using the tools
available as well as the ability of the tools to transfer data back and forth seamlessly.
Manufacturing of machine parts and components is carried out with the help of
drawings. The machine operator is provided with the drawing of the finished part and an
operation sheet which gives step by step instructions to produce the part. Drawings are
also required for process planning, tool design, production planning, and CNC
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programming, inspection, assembly, costing and vendor development. Thus, drawings

are essential documents for product development as well as for regular production.
However, with the introduction of computer integrated manufacturing the importance of
drawing as the basic document for product development and manufacture has diminished.
In addition to production drawings of components, the design department has to create
layout drawings, assembly drawings, and tool drawings (Jigs, fixtures, templates, special
tools, inspection fixtures etc). The number of drawings required for a product varies with
the complexity of the product. In the case of the development of a centre lathe, it may be
necessary to create about 400-500 drawings. For an aircraft, the number of drawings will
be of the order of 30,000 to 60,000. In addition to component drawings, it is necessary to
create hundreds of tool drawings and jig and fixture drawings for manufacture, assembly
and inspection. Considerable manpower and time will be required to create such a large
volume of drawings and the time required for this task represents a significant portion of
the lead time required for product development.
Computer aided design and drafting (CADD) is a powerful technique to create the
drawings. Traditionally, the components and assemblies are represented in drawings with
the help of elevation, plan, and end views and cross sectional views. In the early stages of
development of CADD, several software packages were developed to create such drawings
using computers. Figure 6.1 shows four views (plan, elevation, end view and isometric
view) of a part. Since any entity in this type of representation requires only two co-ordinates
(X and Y) such software packages were called two-dimensional (2-D) drafting packages.
With the evolution of CAD, most of these packages have been upgraded to enable 3-D
representation.
Fig. 6.1 Four Views of a Part

Geometric Modeling Techniques 123
6.2 GEOMETRIC MODELING

Computer representation of the geometry of a component using software is called a
geometric model. Geometric modeling is done in three principal ways. They are:
i. Wire frame modeling
ii. Surface modeling
iii. Solid modeling
These modeling methods have distinct features and applications.
6.2.1. WIRE FRAME MODELING

In wire frame modeling the object is represented by its edges. In the initial stages of CAD, wire
frame models were in 2-D. Subsequently 3-D wire frame modeling software was introduced.
The wire frame model of a box is shown in Fig. 6.2 (a). The object appears as if it is made out of
thin wires. Fig. 6.2(b), 6.2(c) and 6.2(d) show three objects which can have the same wire frame
model of the box. Thus in the case of complex parts wire frame models can be confusing. Some
clarity can be obtained through hidden line elimination. Though this type of modeling may
not provide unambiguous understanding of the object, this has been the method traditionally
used in the 2-D representation of the object, where orthographic views like plan, elevation,
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end view etc are used to describe the object graphically.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.2 Ambiguity in Wire Frame Modeling
A comparison between 2-D and 3-D models is given below:

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2 - D Models 3-D Wire Frame Models

Ends (vertices) of lines are represented Ends of lines are represented by their X,
by their X and Y coordinates Y and Z coordinates.
Curved edges are represented by Curved surfaces are represented by
circles, ellipses, splines etc. Additional suitably spaced generators. Hidden line
views and sectional views are necessary or hidden surface elimination is a must
to represent a complex object with clarity. to interpret complex components
correctly.
3-D image reconstruction is tedious. 2-D views as well as various pictorial
views can be generated easily.
Uses only one global coordinate system May require the use of several user
coordinate systems to create features on
different faces of the component.
6.2.2. SURFACE MODELING

In this approach, a component is represented by its surfaces which in turn are represented
by their vertices and edges. For example, eight surfaces are put together to create a box, as
shown in Fig. 6.3. Surface modeling has been very popular in aerospace product design
and automotive design. Surface modeling has been particularly useful in the development
of manufacturing codes for automobile panels and the complex doubly curved shapes of
aerospace structures and dies and moulds.
Fig. 6.3 Surface Representation

Apart from standard surface types available for surface modeling (box, pyramid, wedge,
dome, sphere, cone, torus, dish and mesh) techniques are available for interactive modeling
and editing of curved surface geometry. Surfaces can be created through an assembly of
polygonal meshes or using advanced curve and surface modeling techniques like B-splines
or NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-splines). Standard primitives used in a typical surface
modeling software are shown in Fig. 6.4. Tabulated surfaces, ruled surfaces and edge
surfaces and revolved are simple ways in which curved geometry could be created and
edited. Surface modeling is discussed in detail later in this chapter.
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Fig. 6.4 Typical Approaches in Surface Modeling
6.2.3. SOLID MODELING

The representation of solid models uses the fundamental idea that a physical object divides
the 3-D Euclidean space into two regions, one exterior and one interior, separated by the
boundary of the solid. Solid models are:
• bounded
• homogeneously three dimensional
• finite
There are six common representations in solid modeling.
i. Spatial Enumeration: In this simplest form of 3D volumetric raster model, a
section of 3D space is described by a matrix of evenly spaced cubic volume
elements called voxels.
ii. Cell Decomposition: This is a hierarchical adaptation of spatial enumeration. 3D
space is sub-divided into cells. Cells could be of different sizes. These simple cells
are glued together to describe a solid object.
iii. Boundary Representation: The solid is represented by its boundary which consists
of a set of faces, a set of edges and a set of vertices as well as their topological relations.
iv. Sweep Methods: In this technique a planar shape is moved along a curve.
Translational sweep can be used to create prismatic objects and rotational sweep
could be used for axisymmetric components.
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v. Primitive Instancing: This modeling scheme provides a set of possible object

shapes which are described by a set of parameters. Instances of object shape can
be created by varying these parameters.
vi. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG): Primitive instances are combined using
Boolean set operations to create complex objects.
In most of the modeling packages, the approach used for modeling uses any one of the
following three techniques:
i. Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-Rep)
ii. Boundary representation (B-Rep)
iii. Hybrid method which is a combination of B-Rep and CSG.
6.2.3.1 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

In a CSG model, physical objects are created by combining basic elementary shapes known
as primitives like blocks, cylinders, cones, pyramids and spheres. The Boolean operations
like union (∪), difference (–) and intersection ∩ are used to carry out this task. For example,
let us assume that we are using two primitives, a block and a cylinder which are located in
space as shown in Fig. 6.5.
Fig.6.5 CSG Operation
A “union” operation (A ∪ B) will combine the two to convert them into a new solid.(Fig.
6.5 (c)) The difference operation (A – B) will create a block with a hole (Fig. 6.5. (D)). An
intersection operation (A ∩ B) will yield the portion common to the two primitives. (Fig.
6.5(E)).
6.2.3.2 Boundary Representation

Boundary representation is built on the concept that a physical object is enclosed by a set
of faces which themselves are closed and orientable surfaces. Fig. 6.6 shows a B-rep model
of an object. In this model, face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices.
The entities which constitute a B-rep model are:
Geometric entities Topological entities
Point Vertex
Curve, line Edge
Surface Face
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Fig. 6.6 B-Rep Model
A solid model is a 3-D representation of an object. It is an accurate geometric description

which includes not only the external surfaces of part, but also the part’s internal structure.
A solid model allows the designer to determine information like the object’s mass properties,
interferences, and internal cross sections.
Solid models differ from wire frame and surface models in the kind of geometric
information they provide. Wire frame models only show the edge geometry of an object.
They say nothing about what is inside an object. Surface models provide surface
information, but they too lack information about an object’s internal structure. Solid models
provide complete geometric descriptions of objects.
Engineers use solid models in different ways at different stages of the design process.
They can modify a design as they develop it. Since computer-based solid models are a lot
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easier to change and manipulate than the physical mock-ups or prototypes, more design
iterations and modifications can be easily carried out as a part of the design process. Using
solid modeling techniques a design engineer can modify a design several times while
optimizing geometry. This means that designers can produce more finished designs in
less time than by using traditional design methods or 2-D CAD drafting tools.
Solid models can be used for quick and reliable design analysis. Solid models apart
from geometric information provide important data such as volume, mass, mass
properties and centre of gravity. The designer can also export models created to other
applications for finite element analysis (FEA), rapid prototyping and other special
engineering applications.
Finally designers can generate detailed production drawings directly from the solid
model. This capability increases design productivity considerably. Another important
feature of solid modeling is associativity. Detailed drawings are linked to solid model
through the associativity feature. This is a powerful function - as an engineer modifies a
design, the drawings get updated automatically. In bidirectional associativity, any
modifications made to geometry in the drawing are reflected in the model. In more
advanced design and manufacturing environments, solid models are used for rapid
prototyping and automated manufacturing applications.
The salient features of the solid modeling approach to design are discussed in the
following sections.
6.3 SALIENT FEATURES OF SOLID MODELING
6.3.1. FEATURE-BASED DESIGN

The most fundamental aspect in creating a solid model is the concept of feature-based
design. In typical 2-D CAD applications, a designer draws a part by adding basic geometric
elements such as lines, arcs, circles and splines. Then dimensions are added. In solid
modeling a 3-D design is created by starting a base feature and then adding other features,
one at a time, until the accurate and complete representation of the part’s geometry is
achieved.
A feature is a basic building block that describes the design, like a keyway on a shaft.
Each feature indicates how to add material (like a rib) or remove a portion of material (like
a cut or a hole). Features adjust automatically to changes in the design thereby allowing
the capture of design intent. This also saves time when design changes are made. Because
features have the ability to intelligently reference other features, the changes made will
navigate through design, updating the 3-D model in all affected areas. Figure 6.7 shows a
ribbed structure. It consists of feature like ribs and holes.
Fig. 6.7 A Ribbed Structure
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Similarly, if a flanged part shown in Fig. 6.8 (A) is to be created, the one approach is to
sketch the cross section as shown in Fig. 6.8 (B) and then revolve through 360°.
(A ) (B )
Fig. 6.8 Flanged Part
In typical solid modeling software the designer can create a feature in two basic ways.
One is to sketch a section of the shape to be added and then extrude, revolve, or sweep it
to create the shape. These are called sketched features.
Another type of feature is the pick-and-place feature. Here the designer simply performs
an engineering operation such as placing a hole, chamfering or rounding a set of edges, or
shelling out the model.
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An important component of every feature is its dimensions. Dimensions are the

variables that one changes in order to make the design update automatically. When a
dimension is changed the solid modeling software recalculates the geometry.
Design of a part always begins with a base feature. This is a basic shape, such as a
block or a cylinder that approximates the shape of the part one wants to design. Then by
adding familiar design features like protrusions, cuts, ribs, keyways, rounds, holes, and
others the geometry of a part is created.
This process represents true design. Unlike many CAD applications in which designing
means drawing a picture of the part, working with the feature-based solid modeling method
is more like sculpting designs from solid material.
Features/available in typical solid modeling software are:
Extrude Revolve Thin
Blend Slot Cut
Protrusion Shaft Round
Hole Flange Rib
Chamfer Push Dome
Draft Ear Shell
Offset Lip
Pipe Sweep
6.3.2. MODELING TOOLS

When a 3-D model is built the designer describes the features that make up a part. Parts
are put together to make an assembly, and then documentation is made.
Sketching
The first step in creating many 3-D features is sketching a 2-D section. Then by using
appropriate instructions the design conveys the information regarding how far to extend
this section in a space. The third dimension is created this way. For instance, a 30 mm
circle extruded 50 mm through space produces a cylinder 30 mm diameter and 50 mm
high. The circle is the sketched section of the cylinder.
Creating
Cr eating Parts
As mentioned earlier solid modeler uses features such as cuts, protrusions, holes,
chamfers, and other basic shapes to build part geometry. The designer gets the information
about the geometry of a feature (like the size and shape of cuts and protrusions), from a
sketcher window.
As the features are added the geometry of the part is enhanced. By adding to
geometry one feature at a time, parts with very complex geometry can be created as
shown in Fig. 6.9.
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Fig. 6.9 Part with Complex Geometry
Many tools for modifying geometry, establishing relations between features, and
defining or modifying feature attributes are provided in solid modeling softwares.
Regardless of whether simple parts or complex ones are designed, part geometry is created
and modified in the same way.
Building Assemblies
Designs usually consist of several parts. Solid modelers can put two or more parts
together in an assembly. All the tools a designer needs to build, modify, and verify
assemblies are available in solid modeling softwares.
Fig. 6.10 Exploded View of an Assembly

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Documenting Designs
The final step of designing a part or assembly is communicating it in a medium other
than the computer monitor’s display. For some operations this means plotting out design
drawings. Solid modelers provide tools to produce finished drawings complete with
geometric tolerancing and text annotation.
Drawings may not be the final step for everybody. Many users export designs to other
applications for analysis, manufacturing, and other forms of post-processing. Modeling
software also will incorporate a variety of tools for exporting designs to other softwares.
6.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID MODELING PACKAGES

Several important characteristics of solid modeler make them capable of creating designs
faster. These include parametric design, the ability to establish relations and the ability to
build assemblies.
6.3.3.1 Parametric Design

When a feature is created in a solid modeler dimensions are created. These dimensions
do more than show the size of the feature. They define parameters that control part
geometry. Since parameters control geometry, the geometry is said to be dimension driven.
Parameters can be driven by dimensional values, or they can be driven by other
parameters using a relation. For instance, the length parameter of a feature is set up
so that it is always twice the width parameter. If the width changes, the length will
change too.
There are other kinds of values that can be used as parameters. A formula that relates
specific feature geometry to volume, temperature, stress, weight, and other properties can
also be used in parametric designs.
When parameters change, other parameters driven by the modification also change.
This is the essence of parametric design.
6.3.3.2 Relations and Relationships

Solid models provide two fundamental ways to relate elements of geometry to one another
within a design. One is as already mentioned i.e. setting up relations between parameters.
The length to width example just described shows a simple application of parametric
relations. Another example that gives a better idea of the power of relations is shown in
Fig. 6.11. Within an assembly, the designer can define a relation such that the diameter of
a bore in one component part always equals the diameter of a shaft, plus a clearance value,
on another part. This relation ensures that the parts always fit in an assembly, even if the
diameter of the shaft changes. If the design engineer modifies the diameter of the shaft,
the diameter of the bore automatically changes to accommodate it.
d
Fig. 6.11 Parametric Relation Between a Hole in One Component and a Shaft in Another
Another way to relate geometry within a design is to create a parent/child relationship.

There are many ways to do this. One is to simply create a dimension parameter between a
new feature and an existing one. The new feature becomes the child of the existing parent
feature.
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C
D
B
A PARENT FEATURE
CHILD FEATURE
Fig. 6.12 Parent-Child Feature
Parent/child relationships can be very useful. If the geometry of a parent changes, the
child features are updated with it. Although parent/child relationships enhance the
parametric behaviour of the designs, they should only be used appropriately. Creating
parent/child relationships where there should be none can cause the design to behave in
ways the designer did not intend.
Solid modeling is capable of combining parts into an assembly. These modelers provide
all the tools that are needed to orient, align, and mate parts. The designer can remove parts
from assemblies, modify part geometry, and establish relations between assembly
components. In addition, local and global interferences can be checked.
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This ability to create a fully parametric assembly makes solid modeling software a
very powerful design tool. With the aid of solid modeling a designer can build extremely
complex, multi-component designs (Fig. 6.13).
Fig. 6.13 Assembly Made up of Several Parts (Top); Exploded View of the Assembly (Bottom)
All designs, whether big or small, begin with an idea. As the idea takes form, so do certain
aspects of the idea. What is the purpose of the design? What are the key features and components
that make the design achieve its objectives? How do the components fit together? And what
other questions are to be satisfactorily answered to make it a viable design? These are some of
the issues the designer has to answer while carrying out a design.
6.3.3.3 Behaviour Modeling

Behavior modeling is the latest development in mechanical CAD. It gives the designers
more efficient and adaptable ways of creating designs. It helps to synthesize required
functional behavior, design context and geometry. Through an intelligent process of
knowledge capture and iterative solving behavior modeling allows engineers to pursue
highly innovative and robust designs. The process of behavior modeling involves:
Smart models: These encapsulate engineering intelligence. Designs are created using
feature based techniques, which capture geometry, specifications, design intent, and process
knowledge-all at the design level.
Engineering objective based design: Design tools use feature based design
specifications within the smart model to drive and adapt product design. Using objective
driven functions, engineers can arrive at an optimum design, even in designs with several
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variables and constraints and multiple objective criteria.
Open extensible envir environment:
onment: This facilitates associative bi-directional
communication to any external application like analysis, manufacturing etc. at the feature
level of the design ensuring that model reflects the changes incorporated in other
applications.
Behavior modeling helps to create designs which are more innovative, differentiable
and more responsive to customers’ requirements. With the help of objective driven design
process engineers can focus on key design issues, and evolve optimal design solutions for
better performance and functionality.
Behavior modeling helps to make electronic product designs more complete.
Behavior modeling strategy advances feature-based modeling to accommodate a set
of adaptive process features that go beyond the traditional core geometric features. These
features accommodate a variety of information that further specifies the intent and
performance of the design. There are two distinct categories of adaptive design. Application
features describe process information. Behavioral features contain engineering and
functional specifications. Application features encapsulate product and process information.
Behavioral features define component assembly connectivity, using welds, or pins or slider
joints. When behavioral features consist of assembly connectivity information, including
any assembly constraints, the assembly design process automatically implements that
information to execute functional behavior and purpose. By capturing original design intent,
product designs retain their integrity, robustness, and performance while adapting to
market and engineering changes. The adaptive process features make smart models highly
flexible. As the engineers make changes to the smart models, the models regenerate to
accommodate all their features and context. This highly flexible adaptation makes smart
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models to respond to changes in their environment.

Objective driven design automatically optimizes designs to meet any number of objectives
captured in the smart model by adaptive process features. It can automatically resolve conflicting
objectives. In smart models the specifications can be used to drive the design process.
6.4 COMMAND, MENU AND ICON DRIVEN SOFTWARES

Commands are the instructions to be input into the package to create a drawing. These
commands can be typed on the keyboard. The commands can be selected from a menu
which is displayed on a screen or which can be picked from a tablet. Fig. 6.14 shows a
typical screen menu. Picking menu using a mouse from the screen menu is fast. Commands
can be selected from pull down menus which are displayed at a fixed location on any
location of choice by the user (Fig. 6.15).
Modeling software may work in an interactive mode. If a command is issued, say to draw
a line, the software may issue a prompt: “From point”. If you input the co-ordinate data to
specify the starting point of the line, the software returns another prompt: “To point” to indicate
that the software is looking for the co-ordinates of the end point. Similarly, other commands
are also designed to be executed interactively. More often, the designer selects the end points
on the screen using the pointing device with the help of display of coordinate positions.
Fig. 6.14 Typical Screen Menu

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Fig. 6.15 A Sub-menu Appearing on the Screen
The software packages incorporate on-line documentation which is often referred as a

“HELP” feature. In case the user is in doubt about a command, the user can access the
documentation to know the correct usage of the command.
Common types of menu ar are:

e:
Scr een Menu: This menu is usually displayed on a part of the graphics screen. Instead
Screen
of the mouse, the arrow keys of the keyboard can also be used as a pointing device.
Tablet Menu: The menu can be placed in a graphic tablet and the tablet can be
configured suitably. A command can be entered into the computer by pointing to it with
the digitizer puck or stylus.
Button Menu: The tablet puck or mouse may have a number of extra buttons which
can be used to enter frequently used commands.
Pull-down Menu: Commands can be selected using menu items which can be “Pulled
down” from a menu bar usually located at the top of the screen.
Icon Menu: An icon menu displays menu in a pictorial form.
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Menu is generally organized in a hierarchical manner. For example, the selection process
to draw a circle starts with the root menu. From the root menu one selects the “DRAW”
menu. The next menu displays various options available in the DRAW menu. If we select
the “CIRCLE” from this we get four options. We can select any one of these depending upon
how we are going to draw the circle. The menu traversal is shown below:
Fig. 6.16 Menu Traversal
A user can customize the menu depending upon the design requirements. Such a
customized menu makes a modeling session more productive. Special software agents
could be designed to increase design or drafting productivity further. Additional menu
items can be incorporated using the programming features available in the software.
6.5 FEATURES OF A DRAFTING PACKAGE

Typical features that one expects in a drafting package are listed below:
i. Drawing utilities: This includes selection of units, screen limits, scale, snap, grid,
layers etc.
ii. Entity drawing: Several standard entities like line, circle, arc, polyline, polygon,
ellipse etc are available to create the model required.
iii. Edit commands: A number of commands are available to modify or copy or
replicate the entities or groups of entities in a model.
iv. Standar
Standard d parts: Facilities are available to create symbols, shapes, and other
standard parts. Frequently used parts can be stored as blocks which can be
inserted into a drawing as and when required.
v. Display: The model can be enlarged, reduced in size, or moved across the screen,
using display commands.
vi. CrCross
oss hatching: Sectional plans can be indicated through cross hatching.
vii. Dimensioning: Parts can be dimensioned using a number of standard
dimensioning systems.
viii. Plotting: Facilities to get hard copies of drawings using a pen or electrostatic
plotter and printer will be available.
ix. Configuration: A software has to be configured to a given hardware environment.
x. Customization: Drafting productivity can be enhanced through customizing
software package.
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xi. Drawing inter change: It may be necessary to import or export drawing files
interchange:
created in one software package to another. Facilities should be available to carry
out this task. This is usually carried out by a post processor to convert the model
into a neutral file like STEP and pre-processor to read the STEP file and convert
the data into the model.
These features are discussed in detail in the following sections.
6.6 DRAWING UTILITIES

Drawing utilities include several functions to help the creation and storage of drawings.
These are discussed below:
6.6.1 SCREEN SIZE

Generally the screen is given a default size but the size can be modified as per the
requirements. This facility is available in all softwares because various sizes of drawings
and figures will have to be created. Assembly drawings may require larger sizes whereas
part drawings require only smaller sizes. When the command for fixing the drawing
limits are invoked the values of the co-ordinates at the bottom left corner and the top
right corner are specified as answer to the queries. Alternatively, the size of the drawing
sheet (A4, A3, A2, A1 or A0) can be specified. Automatically the software re-fixes the
size of the screen. Default screen sizes and standard layouts are also incorporated in the
design packages.
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6.6.2 SCALING
It may be necessary to fit a large sized drawing within a smaller drawing sheet size. The
dimensions can be automatically scaled for this purpose.
6.6.3 GRID
A grid facility is provided by the software to help the designer to estimate distances on the
screen. A grid is a matrix of points on the screen whose intervals can be chosen as required.
The grid display can be switched on or off and this does not appear while making a hard
copy of the drawing.
6.6.4 SNAP
The drawing is created with the help of a cursor. The smallest movement of the cursor is
one pixel. The cursor can be moved through a specific distance using SNAP feature. The
snap interval can be chosen as described or can be made equal to grid interval. The snap
mode can also be switched on or off as desired.
6.6.5 UNITS
Different types of units are used for different applications. Examples are metric units and
inch units. The dimension format may be scientific, decimal, engineering, architectural or
fractional. Angles can be specified in decimal degrees, degree/minute/seconds or radians.
6.6.6 SPECIFYING POINTS

A point can be specified using the following formats:
i. Cartesian co-ordinates
ii. Polar co-ordinates
iii. Spherical co-ordinates
iv. Cylindrical co-ordinates
v. Relative co-ordinates
6.6.7 LINE TYPES, TEXT FONTS AND SHAPES

In a drawing several types of lines will be used and these types are already available (a
library) and are given some designation by the software. The default will be the generally
used type of line, but as per the requirement the type of line can be chosen before any line
is drawn. Softwares also provide simple methods to create and add a new type of line to
the library of line types.
Similarly, texts to be added may be chosen from a library of fonts (standard, Italic,
Complex, Simplex, Roman, Byte etc.) and before any text is added this choice has to be
made. The text size and the alignment of the text, and the starting and end points of text
may also be chosen. It may also be possible to left justify, centre justify and right justify the
text. New symbols can be also created and a library of shapes (with names) can be compiled.
These shapes can be called and inserted at any location after suitable scaling and rotation.
This is very useful in drawing where symbols are used extensively, say in the case of an oil
hydraulic circuit.
6.6.8 LAYERS
Layers are an important facility available in all software packages. A drawing contains
many sets of details which may be overlaid to create a complex drawing. There are several
uses for this facility. A very common example is an assembly drawing consisting of several
components. Each component part or sets of similar parts may be drawn on a separate
layer so that these can be accessed separately. As far as the screen display is concerned, all
layers will be exactly overlaid and all of them can be seen together or some or other can be
switched off from display.
All of them can be plotted together or details on each layer can be plotted separately. A
separate data file, is generated for each layer and the file will exist separately. Fig. 6.17
shows an example of different entities of a screen drawn in different layers. Before
commencing the drawing the layers are created as given below:
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(e)
LAYER 1 (b)
LAYER 4 (c)
30 30 LAYER 2
(d)
140
140
40
40
LAYER 3
90 LAYER 0 90
(a) (f)
Fig. 6.17 Creation of Layers
Layer Name Colour Linetype

0 Default Continuous line
1 Red Centre line
2 Yellow Continuous line
3 Cyan Dashed line
142 CAD/CAM/CIM
The part of drawing shown in Fig. 6.17(a) is drawn in Layer 0. Then layer 1 is set and
the centre line shown in Fig. 6.17(b) is drawn in layer 1. The entities drawn on layer 0 will
also be visible. For the sake of clarity they are not shown in Fig. 6.17(b).
Similarly hatching is drawn in layer 2 (Fig. 6.17(c)) and the dimensions in layer 3 as
shown in Fig. 6.17(d). All the layers are superimposed and the drawing will look like as
shown in Fig..6.7(e). Only one layer can be set an any given time. A layer can be given a
specific name. A number of layers can be used in a drawing. It is possible to use more than
one color and one line type in a layer. However it is better to use only one color and one
line type in a layer. A layer can be switched on or off as and when needed. When a layer is
switched off the contents of that layer are not displayed on the screen.
6.6.9 SAVING A DRAWING

After a drawing is created it is saved with a file name. The drawing file may have extensions
like .PRT or .DWG.
6.6.10 FILE UTILITIES

Drafting softwares offer the following file utilities:
Directory service
Delete files
Rename files
Copy files
Unlock files
Edit a file
In addition, it is normally possible to access the operating system commands during a
drafting session.
6.7 ENTITIES
A drawing is created using a number of entities. A large number of options are provided to
draw the entities depending upon the requirements. The common entities used for drafting
are listed below:
Point Arc
Line Trace
Circle Polyline (2D & 3D)
Polygon Doughnut
Ellipse Solid
Some drafting packages use constraint based construction method. Fixing constraints
allows interactive creations of variants.
6.8 EDIT COMMANDS

It is necessary to make alterations to the entities of a drawing. EDIT commands are used
for this purpose. A list of EDIT commands and their functions are given below:
Command Name Function
ERASE Erase a single entity or a group of entities.
OOPS To retrieve objects erased inadvertently.
MOVE Move objects to a new location.
ARRAY Make multiple copies of an object in rectangular or
circular pattern.
CHANGE Change properties like color, layer, thickness, line
type, length or location of entities.
BREAK Break an exiting entity into pieces.
MIRROR Create mirror images of existing objects.
EXPLODE Explode a block or polyline into its component
parts.
Chapter 6
ROTATE Rotate an existing object through a specified angle.
CHAMFER Chamfer corners of objects.
FILLET Provide radius of objects.
STRETCH Modify a part or drawing by stretching the objects
connected to it.
OFFSET Draw parallels to lines or existing curves.
UNDO Undo a specified number of commands.
TRIM Trim portion of entities.
EXTEND Extend an entity to another entity.
COPY Make single or multiple copies of an existing
object.
SCALE Enlarge or shrink an object.
In addition commands are available to fit curves or spline polylines, divide an entity,
sketch an irregular curve etc. Many editing commands like array, copy, offset and mirror
increase drafting productivity appreciably.
6.9 BLOCKS AND SYMBOLS

Several objects like fasteners, standard parts, parts of jigs and fixtures, etc. are frequently
incorporated in drawings. It is a waste of time to draw the repeatedly every time these are
144 CAD/CAM/CIM
used in drawings. A facility like block can be used for this purpose. A block is a group of
entities stored as a drawing file with a specific file name.
The block has a certain reference (insertion) point and an angular position. Any block
can be inserted (INSERT command) into the drawing by indicating where the insertion
point is to be located. The block can be scaled and rotated when it is being inserted into a
drawing. Blocks can be revised and the drawing can be updated with the revised block.
It is also possible to create small objects, called shapes (within the drawing). These can
also be called and inserted at any location in a drawing just like a block. A good drafting
software should have this facility particularly for specialized drawings where small elements
are repeatedly drawn (example: oil hydraulics, electrical schematics, electronic circuits, surface
roughness symbols, geometric tolerance symbols, weld symbols etc).
A standard parts library can be created using parametric programming facilities
available in the design software packages. Many software packages also provide interface
to high level languages like C to create such symbols.
6.10 DISPLAY
Display commands are useful to manipulate the drawings on the screen. A frequently
used display command is ZOOM. A drawing or parts of a drawing usually picked by a
window option can be scaled up or down as required by ZOOM command. This makes it
possible to draw minute details accurately as well as to view the drawings in detail. In the
case of large drawings parts of the drawing may be out of the screen. In order to view such
hidden portion the PAN command is used. This command causes the drawing to be moved
across the screen. These two are powerful commands which facilitate large drawings to be
prepared accurately. REDRAW command is used to refresh the screen.
The drawing database is updated using REGENERATE command. The screen can be
divided into 2, 3 or 4 parts to display different views of the same drawing using
VIEWPORTS command. Working in windows environment also allows simultaneous
displays and interactions in multiple overlapping windows. This means that the user gets
multiple screens on one graphics screen. Windows can be shuffled by mouse click. It is
possible to expand the contents of one window into another. There are commands to
generate orthographic, isometric, perspective and axonometric projections. Dynamic
viewing is also available in many packages.
6.11 CROSS HATCHING AND PATTERN FILLING

This is another important facility in drafting packages. All CAD softwares have this facility.
The type of cross hatch line, the distance between lines and the angle of the filler lines can
be chosen. Usually a chain of commands starting from “HATCH” leads to the choice. In
some cases, instead of cross hatching with lines, a given pattern (available in a library of
patterns) may also be chosen.
The choice of the area to be filled often may lead to difficulties. The best softwares
simply need the information in terms of a point and all the area enclosing this point will
be cross hatched or filled with patterns. All the connected area as along as it is not separated
by any curve or line will be filled.
Hatching with text inside the hatch area is another facility that should be available. In
such cases, the text may have to be first drawn, before “HATCH” command.
6.12 DIMENSIONING
Dimensioning and adding annotations are very important in any drawing. If the dimension
of any object could be drawn just by pointing the object, it will be the best facility. Such a
feature is known as automatic dimensioning, particularly if the dimensions are drawn in
the various views of the object. The features of an object in the various views are not
related at all and they are treated as separate objects, by the software and so dimensioning
has to be done in the different views separately.
Generally linear dimensioning involves the drawing of two extension lines, (a
dimension line with arrow heads) separated from the object. Additionally tolerance values
Chapter 6
may also have to be shown in some cases. It can thus be realized that dimensioning is
rather a complex process and a lot of decisions are involved. Simple inexpensive 2-D
softwares may not have an automatic dimensioning facility, but all of them should have
the capacity to do these by separate instructions from the operator.
Choice should be available to draw the extension lines, in terms of location, length
and the distance from the object. The location choice is generally by picking the end
points of the object to be dimensioned. This is done interactively by some input device.
The arrow size, the location of dimension text etc. are chosen by specifying a series
of dimension variables. The position of the dimension line is also input by picking,
whereas its angular location is indicated by instructions like horizontal, vertical,
aligned etc. Choice is available to use the same base line to dimension a number of
objects and also for continuous dimension writing along a line. Usually the actual
length of the object is displayed by the computer but a different value can be chosen
by the draftsman.
The dimensioning features also include angular, radial, diametrical, aligned and
leader options. The associative dimensioning feature available in some software enables
automatic change in the dimensioning when the entities are edited. Many CAD
softwares permit generation of dimension styles compatible to ISO, ANSI, DIN and
other standards. Dimensioning feature can be customized by assigning appropriate
values for various dimension variables. Fig. 6.18 and 6.19 show two drawings created
using 2-D drafting.
146 CAD/CAM/CIM
0
15
5P6
Dia.75 H11
Dia.45
24
Dia.20H7
Material C45
Quality 6
Module 3
Number of Teeth 23
30 Chamfer 2x45
Fillet 2R
50
N7
Fig. 6.18 Drawing a Gear
Chamfer 2x45
Dia.40k7
Dia.30k7
Dia.50
Dia.44
Dia.25
3
3
30
90
155
220
Material:EN9 N7
Fig. 6.19 Drawing a Shaft
6.13 ENQUIRY COMMANDS

A modeling software may have commands to supply the user information on the
coordinates of a point, distance between two points specified on the screen, the area and
perimeter of a given plane figure, mass of a solid model, moments of inertia of a model etc.
You can list the database of the drawing as well as list the details of any specific entity.
Higher level packages can yield the complete mass properties.
6.14 3-D DRAWINGS

Though 2-D drafting can meet a substantial drafting requirements, 3-D modeling enables
creation of objects in 3-D. 3-D drawings are prepared in several ways.
6.14.1 EXTRUSION (LINEAR SWEEP)

Simple 3-D objects can be created by extruding 2-D images in the third dimension. The
extrusion thickness can be specified by an appropriate command. The objects extruded
will have uniform thickness in the Z direction. Fig. 6.20 (a)shows a triangle extruded in the
third dimension and Fig. 20 (b) shows the extrusion of a complex plane.
Chapter 6
Direction
of Extrusion
EXTRUDED
BASIC GEOMETRY
SHAPE
Fig. 6.20 (a) Extrusion Example 1
Fig. 6.20 (b) Extrusion Example 2

148 CAD/CAM/CIM
Another way of creating 3D views is by defining construction planes at different levels

and drawing the sections of the object on these planes.
6.14.2 REVOLUTION
Wire frame images can be created by revolving an entity about an axis. In Fig. 6.21 a set of
entities are revolved about an axis through 270° to create a wire frame object. Rotation
through 360° will produce complete objects.
Fig. 6.21 Revolution
6.14.3 USING USER CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS (UCS)

CAD packages have a facility to define several user co-ordinate systems. Plane figures can
be drawn in these user co-ordinate systems to create a 3-D wire frame model. For example,
consider the object shown in Fig. 6.22. Different sides of the object can be created in the
respective planes as indicated.
A plane figure drawn in a User Co-ordinate System can be assigned a thickness to
create a 3-D wire frame model. Complex 3-D models can be created using a combination
of several user co-ordinate systems and thicknesses.
X1
Y1
Y2 UCS 1
X2
UCS 2
Z
WCS
Y X
WCS-WORLD COORDINATE
SYSTEM
UCS-USER COORDINATE
SYSTEM
Fig. 6.22 User Co-ordinate System

6.15 PLOTTING A DRAWING

Plotters are output devices which produce hard copies of drawings with good resolution,
as much as 2400×1200 dpi. The lines and curves so plotted appear neat and smooth as
contrasted with the drawing shown on the VDU screen. (Plotters are available in various
sizes (A4-A0) and they use single or multi colors. Printers are less accurate, but very useful
particularly for commercial drawings like pie-charts.
Color printers can also be used to make hard copies of drawings. These devices should
be configured to the system before use. All softwares provide driver programmes to drive
these output devices. The flexibility of a software depends on the number of varieties of
input/output devices for which it has driver programs available. Otherwise the choice of
hardware is restricted. Many plotters are HP-GL (Hewlett Packard Graphics Language)
compatible. Many plotters use fuzzy logic for vector sorting which reduces unnecessary
movements while plotting. Laser plotters are also available now.
6.16 CONFIGURING THE DRAFTING SOFTWARE

A drafting package is a general purpose software which has to be run on several types
Chapter 6
of hardware environment. The task of modifying a package to make it suitable to work
in a particular hardware environment is called configuring. The configuring is to be
carried out for:
i. Displaying the drawings on a particular type of monitor.
ii. Interfacing a particular digitizer or mouse.
iii. Interfacing a particular type of printer and/or a plotter.
This is carried out using device driver files provided by the software monitor.
6.17 CUSTOMISATION
Drafting packages provide extensive customizable features. Many packages are provided
with LISP based or “C” based programming environment. These can be used to develop
utilities which can be put in menus and these will behave like any other command in the
software. Apart from developing these programmes customization involves many other
tasks which are listed below:
i. Design of special menus - screen, pull down, icon, button etc.
ii. Creating modifying line types.
iii. Creating hatch patterns.
iv. Creating symbols and fonts.
v. Customizing help files.
150 CAD/CAM/CIM
vi. Interface with text editors, database management programs, spread sheets, and
communication programmes.
vii. Use of command aliases for frequently used commands.
6.18 DRAWING INTERCHANGE FILES

It is necessary to export CAD data to other packages like analysis, CNC programming or
other CAD packages. One way of doing it is using neutral files STEP, IGES or DXF files.
Figure 6.23 shows how bi-directional data exchange between two CAD software packages
using neutral files.
PRE
PROCESSO R POST PROCESSO R
CAD CAD
N E U TR A L
S O F T WA R E S O F T WA R E
F IL E
A B
POST PRE
PROCESSO R DXF
IG E S PROCESSO R
STEP
etc.
Fig. 6.23 Drawing Data Exchange
6.19 DRAWING OFFICE MANAGEMENT

CAD can increase the productivity in the drawing office considerably. Customization of
the software and use of standard parts libraries created in-house or purchased from third
part developers can cut down the time required to create drawings significantly. CAD
packages also will help in improved drawing office management. Some of the relevant
issues are briefly discussed below:
6.19.1 CREATION OF PARTS LIST

Part lists for an assembly can be organized and compiled in a desired format by extracting
information from the drawings.
6.19.2 BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM)

BOM is an important document used by design, production, stores, inventory control,
purchase, planning and costing departments. Creation of accurate bill of materials is one
of the important steps in new product development. Suitable procedures can be devised
to collect information required for the bill of materials from the CAD files of parts and this
information can be compiled using a database management software or a spread sheet to

create the bill of materials. This requires the definition of appropriate attributes (Drawing
No., Drawing Name, Material, No. off, Stock size, stock weight etc) in the drawing and
extraction of this information from the drawing files. The BOM thus created will be more
accurate as transcriptions are avoided.
6.19.3 SEARCHING FOR SIMILAR DESIGNS

When a new design is to be created similar designs can be rapidly identified according to
the classifications defined by the user. In this way duplication of design and drafting work
can be avoided and standardization encouraged.
6.19.4 DESIGN CHANGES

Parts list and title block information can be combined in the database with information
such as order number and customer name. When a component is modified lists can be
obtained of all customers who have ordered products that use the modified component.
6.19.5 REPLACING FAULTY COMPONENTS

The discovery of a faulty component may affect a wide range of components in a company.
Chapter 6
All assemblies and subassemblies incorporating the component can be rapidly identified
so that the time and effort required to replace it can be assessed.
6.19.6 PROJECT COSTING

CAD helps to assess project costs by exporting CAD data to an estimating software to
calculate the product costs accurately.
6.19.7 PRODUCT VARIATIONS

Once a database of component drawings and assembly drawings are created, variations in
the products can be easily made and design modifications, drawing retrieval etc. are made
easier.
6.19.8 WEB ENABLED SOFTWARES

Large engineering designs are carried out through collaborative engineering with design
and development engineers located at geographically distributed design centres. It is
therefore necessary to communicate the models of designs and Internet is a convenient
tool for this. Modeling softwares provide facilities for import and export of CAD models
through Internet. This facility is also useful for communication of product data between
vendors and manufacturers as well as customers and manufacturers.
6.19.9. INTEGRATED DESIGN, DRAFTING AND DOCUMENTATION

Design and drafting productivity can be further improved by integrating CAD process
with spread sheets, equation solvers and word processing software. CAD packages can be
152 CAD/CAM/CIM
used to conceptualize designs. Data required for CAD can be accessed from spread sheets
(like MS Excel, LOTUS 1-2-3etc) or database management software packages. Equation
solvers can be used to process design rules and export the design data to modify CAD
drawings. The CAD data can be exported to word processors to compile design
documentation. The interactive data communication between linked geometry, spread
sheet (or database), equation solvers and word processors helps to refine design concepts
more rapidly and enables the designer to explore a wide variety of design options.
Ultimately this exploration of possible designs will result in a better and more effective
product.
6.20 SURFACE MODELING

All physical objects are 3-dimensional. In a number of cases, it is sufficient to describe the
boundary of a solid object in order to specify its shape without ambiguity. This fact is
illustrated in Fig. 6.24. The boundary is a collection of faces forming a closed surface. The
space is divided into two parts by the boundary - one part containing the points that lie
inside and forming the object and the other the environment in which the object is placed.
The boundary of a solid object may consist of surfaces which are bounded by straight lines
and curves, either singly or in combination.
SURFACE 2
SURFACE 3
SURFACE
MODEL
SURFACE 1
Fig. 6.24 Representation of Boundary
Figure 6.25 is typical of several components, one comes across in engineering. The
surface of this component can be produced by revolving a profile about an axis of rotation.
A surface model is defined in terms of points, lines and faces. This type of modeling is
superior to wire frame modeling discussed earlier in this chapter. A major advantage of
surface modeling is its ability to differentiate flat and curved surfaces. In graphics, this
helps to create shaded image of the product. In manufacture, surface model helps to generate
the NC tool path for complex shaped components that are encountered in aerospace
structures, dies and moulds and automobile body panels.
Fig. 6.25 A Typical Revolved Surface Model
Chapter 6
created
A surface can be cr eated in several ways:
i. Creating a plane surface by the linear sweep of a line or series of lines.
ii. Revolving a straight line about an axis. Cylindrical, conical surfaces etc. can be
generated by this technique.
iii. Revolving a curve about an axis.
iv. Combination of plane surfaces.
v. Analytic surfaces: Planes, cylinders, cones, ellipsoid, parabolic hyperboloid etc
can be defined by mathematical equations in terms of X, Y and Z co-ordinates.
vi. Sculptured surfaces: These are also called free form surfaces. These are created
by spline curves in one or both directions in a 3-D space. These surfaces are used
in the manufacture of car body panels, aircraft structures, mixed flow impellers,
telephone instruments, plastic containers and several consumer and engineering
products.
Modeling of curves and surfaces is essential to describe objects that are encountered in
several areas of mechanical engineering design. Curves and surfaces are the basic building
blocks in the following designs:
i. Body panels of passenger cars
ii. Aircraft bulk heads and other fuselage structures, slats, flaps, wings etc.
iii. Marine structures
iv. Consumer products like plastic containers, telephones etc.
154 CAD/CAM/CIM
v. Engineering products like mixed flow impellers, foundry patterns etc

A curve has one degree of freedom while a surface has two degrees of freedom. This
means that a point on a curve can be moved in only one independent direction while on
surfaces it has two independent directions to move. This is shown in Fig. 6.26.
V SURFACE
U CURVE
Fig. 6.26 Degrees of Freedom
6.21 REPRESENTATION OF CURVES AND SURFACES

A curve or a surface may be described or represented by a set of equations. These
equations can be categorized into two forms:
i. Generic form
The generic form in which any generic point (x, y, z) satisfies a relationship in
implicit form in x, y, and z i.e. f(x, y, z) = 0. A single such constraint generally
describes a surface while two constraints considered together can be thought of
as a curve which is the intersection of two surfaces. This may be expressed in
an explicit form in the following manner:
x = g1(y, z)
y = g2(x, z)
z = g3(x, y)
ii. Parametric form
A parametric curve is one whose defining equations are in terms of a simple,
common independent variable known as parametric variable.
In the parametric form, the representation is done by a set of functions. A curve may be
represented by
x = x (u)
y = y (u)
z = z (u)
where x, y, z are co-ordinates of the points on the curve which are functions of some
parameter u and the parametric variable is constrained in the interval. For example, a
point (x, y) is located at an angle θ from +X axis on a circle with centre at (0, 0) and radius
= 1 can be described in parametric form as:
x = Cos θ
y = Sin θ
where θ is the parameter. Surfaces are described similarly for which x, y and z are functions
two independent parameters u and v. Parametric design is very popular in computer aided
design for a variety of reasons, which are listed below:
• Separation of variables
• Each variable is treated alike
• More degrees of freedom/control
• Parametric equations can be transformed directly
Chapter 6
• Infinite slopes can be handled without computational breakdown
• Easy to express as vectors
• Amenable to plotting and digitizing
• Inherently bounded
6.22 DESIGN OF CURVED SHAPES

Design of curved shapes should satisfy the following requirements:
i. It should be possible to represent the shape mathematically.
ii. The modeling should involve minimum computation.
iii. It should be possible to generate a CNC program to machine the surfaces (2, 3,
4 and 5 axis machining) or to prepare a mould or die to make the part (as in plastic
injection molding or casting or automobile panel pressing).
A component can be designed using the curves and shapes which can be mathematically
described e.g. arc, circle, conics, ellipsoid, hyperbolic paraboloid, sphere, and cone, cylinder,
linear, conical - and circular swept surfaces etc. However very often the designer starts
with specifying a few points which roughly describe the shape.
Two approaches are available to designers to model curves and surfaces in such cases:
interpolation and approximation. The interpolation essentially tries to pass a curve on a
surface called interpolant through all these points. Approximation tries to fit a smoother
curve on surface which may be close to these points but may not actually pass through
each of them. Fig. 6.27 illustrates the difference between interpolation (a) and
approximation (b).
156 CAD/CAM/CIM
IN TE R P O LATIO N
A PP R O XIM ATION
Fig. 6.27 Interpolation and Approximation
One of the popular methods of interpolation is to use the Lagrange polynomial, which
is the unique polynomial of degree n passing through n + 1 points. However, Lagrange
polynomial is unsuitable in modeling of curves because of:
i. Large number of computations involved and
ii. Tendency for the curve to oscillate between data points when the data points are
large.
Another approach is to look for a polynomial of fewer degrees than W passing through
these W + 1 data points. This is done by combining polynomials of lesser degree passing
through several consecutive data points and smoothly piecing several such curve segments
together by blending. In general, the modeling of curves is done to satisfy the following:
i. Axis independence
ii. Global and local control
iii. Smoothness of curves
iv. Versatility
v. Continuity between adjoining segments of curve.
6.23 CUBIC SPLINES

Splines are functions that are used for fitting a curve through a number of data points. A
cubic spline has the property that the three co-ordinate functions x (u), y (u), and z (u) are
each cubic polynomials in the variable u:
x (u) = a u3 + b u2 + c u + d
y (u) = e u3 + f u2 + g u + h
z (u) = j u3 + k u2 + l u + m
Whereas parametric curves are generally considered to be defined over an infinite

range of parameter values of u, it is always necessary to limit these to a finite interval
when modeling shapes on a computer. The domain u is, therefore taken as 0 < u < = 1 in
the discussion that follows:
A spline passes through two end points and satisfies differentiality condition at these
end points. These four conditions require a polynomial degree of at least 3. The derivations
of cubic splines for x, y and z are similar. The difference will be only in the end point co-
ordinates and derivatives at the end points. Therefore only the derivation of x(u) is
considered here.
Let x(0), x(1), x’(0) and x’(1) are the end points and the derivatives at the end points
respectively.
Since x(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d, we get
x (0) = d
x (1) = a + b + c + d
x’(0) = c
x’(1) = 3a + 2b + c
The above equations can be solved to obtain the four equations given below:
Chapter 6
a = 2X(0) – 2X(1) + X’(0) + X’(1)
b = –3X(0) + 3X(1) – 2X’(0) – X’(1)
c = X’(0)
d = X(0)
(or)
a  2 −2 1 −1  x(0) 

b   −3 3 −2 −1  x(1) 
     
c  = 0 0 1 0   x '(0)
     
 d   1 0 0 0   x '(1) 
The coefficients of cubic spline polynomials y(u) and z(u) are similarly obtained by
replacing x data by y and z data.
In a vectorial form the parametric cubic curve can be expressed as:
P(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d
where u∈ (0,1)
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] [ a b c d]T
Let U = [u3 u2 u 1] and A = [a b c d]T
P = UA
158 CAD/CAM/CIM
Curves are defined by interpolating points and tangents at these points. The parametric
cubic curve can be designed using the four vectors P(0), P(1), P’(0) and P’(1). Each one of
these vectors has three components.
P0 = d
P1 = a + b + c + d
P’(0) = c
P’(1) = 3a + 2b + c
P = (2u3 –3u2 + 1)P0+ (–2u3 + 3u2 )P1+ (u3– 2u2+u) P’0+ (u3– u2) P’1
Let F1 = 2u3 – 3u2 + 1
F2 = -2u3 + 3u2
F3 = u3 – 2u2 + u
F4 = u3 – u2
then P = F1 P0 + F2 P1 + F3 P’ + F4 P’
Let F = [ F1 F2 F3 F4 ] and B = [ P0 P1 P’0 P’1]
then P = FB
F1 , F2 , F3 , F4 , are called blending function or Hermite polynomial basis functions. B is
the matrix of geometric coefficients. F is the blending function matrix. The blending function
matrix F can be written as the product of two matrices.
F = UM
Where
 2 −2 1 1
 − 3 3 − 2 − 1
 
M = 0 0 1 0
 
1 0 0 0
where M is called universal transformation matrix.

Therefore P = UMB
P = UA
Hence A = MB
and conversely
B = M–1 A
where
0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

M–1 = 0 0 1 0
 
3 2 1 0
For a given set of end points P0 and P1 and slopes P’0 and P’1 several sets of curves
can be generated by varying the magnitude of the tangent vectors. (unit tangent vector
t = Pu / |Pu| ).
Figure 6.28 shows a cubic spline connecting four points. There are several other
formulations of cubic splines. Ferguson used cubic polynomials for curve and surface design
in aircrafts. However, these methods generally suffer from the fact that they do not allow
the user to change the smoothness of the curve.
X '(0)
Chapter 6
X (0)
X (1)
X '(1)
Fig. 6.28 Cubic Spline
6.24 BEZIER CURVES

Bezier curves, developed by P.Bezier at Ranault Automobile Company and P. de Casteljau
at Citreon, France are used for curve and surface design of automobile panels. A Bezier
curve is blended at the joints and is completely defined by four consecutive points (X0,
Y0), (X1,y1), (X2,Y2), (X3,Y3). The curve passes only through the first and fourth point.
The two intermediate points are used to define the slope of the curve at the end points. If
X0, X1, X2 and X3 are the X- co-ordinates of the control points, it is assumed that :
i. The curve passes through the end points X0 and X3
ii. The slope at the points are:
X’(0) = 3(X1 – X0)
160 CAD/CAM/CIM
X’(1) = 3(X3– X2)

Using these properties, the coefficients of Bezier curve for x term can be expressed as :
a
b 
 −1 3 − 3
 3 −6 3
1 LMX 0 OP
0
  
 c  = − 3 3
MMXX12 PP
0
  
0
 MNX 3PQ
d  1 0 0 0
The cubic polynomial x(t) in the Bezier form can be expressed as :
 −1 3 − 3
 3 −6 3
1 LMX 0 OP
0
 MMXX12 PP
x (t ) = (u3 u1 )  − 3 3 0
u2

0
 MNX 3PQ
1 0 0 0
The advantages of Bezier curve over cubic spline is that the direction of the curve at the
joints can be defined and changed simply by specifying the position of the second and third
data points. Changing a control point not only affects the shape of the curve near the control
point but has an influence throughout the curve. This lack of local control is a major weakness
of Bezier curve. Fig. 6.29 shows Bezier cubic segments for two sets of values of X.
X1 X3 X2
X1 X4
X1 X4
X3
Fig. 6.29 Bezier Curve
The Bezier cubic segment discussed above is a special case of the more general Bezier
polynomial curve segment
3
P (u ) = ∑ P , B , 3(u)
i=0
i i
where u ∈ [0,1]
With blending functions: Bi,n (u) = C(n,i) ui (1 – u)n-i
where n is the binomial coefficient
n!
C (n, i ) = (n − 1)!
i!
and p(u) are the control points and there are n+1 of them defining the vertices of the
characteristic polygon.
6.25 β -SPLINES
This form of cubic segments uses a third set of basis functions different from the types
discussed earlier. A cubic β-spline curve is a special case of spline curve. The equation for
this curve can be written as:
n
P (u) = ∑ P i N i, k (u)
i=1
u ∈ [0, (n– k + 2)]
Chapter 6
This generates what is known as piecewise polynomial. The N(u) blending functions
are defined recursively as :
N (u) = 1 if ti < u < ti+1
= 0 otherwise
(u − t )N , K (u ) + (t − u )N , K (u )
N (u ) =
t1 − t t1 − t
The resulting parametric polynomials are of degree (k - 1). The t are called knot values.
For an open curve there are
ti = 0 if i < k
ti = i – k +1 if k ≤ i ≤ n i ∈ [0, n + k]
ti = n – k + 2 if i > n
The blending functions confine the effects of a control point movement to the immediate
locale. Thus the curve change shape is local and not global as it is for Bezier curves.
1 4 1 0  xi − 2 
− 3 0 x 
 3 0  i −1 
x(u) = (1 u u2 u3 ) 1/6  3 − 6 3 0  xi 
   
 −1 3 − 3 1  x i +1 
162 CAD/CAM/CIM
When the control points are distinct, this curve is continuous in slope and in curvature
between successive segments but it does not pass through any of the intermediate control
points. The cubic β-spline has the advantage that the control points may be moved without
affecting slope and curvature continuity and only four spans of the overall curve will be
affected by the change. Moreover, by allowing two control points to coincide it is possible
to create a curvature discontinuity. A slope discontinuity, similarly, can be introduced by
choosing three successive control points to be coincident.
It is possible to represent complex curve shapes by considering composite curves
constructed from individual segments, in the case of cubic spline, Bezier and B-spline
techniques.
6.26 NURBS AND β -SPLINES

Two important surface representation schemes exist that extend the control of shape beyond
movement of control vertices. These are NURBS (Non Uniform Rational β-Splines) and β-
splines. In the case of NURBS a local vertex is extended to a four dimensional co-ordinate,
the extra parameter being a weight that allows a subtle form of control which is different
in effect to moving a control vertex. In the simplest form of β-spline control two global
parameters (bias and tension) are introduced which affect the whole curve.
6.26.1 NURBS
A non-uniform β-spline curve is defined on a knot vector where the interior knot spans
are not equal. A rational β-spline is defined by a set of four dimensional control points.
P = (Wi Xi , Wi Yi , Wi Zi , Wi )
The perspective map of such a curve in three dimensional space is called a rational
β-spline curve.
n w
P(u) = H [∑ Pi N i , k (u)]
i =0
n W 
P(u) = H ∑ Pi N i , K (u )
 i =0 
n n
= ∑ PiWi , K (u )
i =0
∑W (u )
i =0
i,K
= ∑ P R (u )
i =0
i i, K
Rational β- splines have the same analytical and geometric properties as non-rational
β- splines.
Wi associated with each control point is called a weight and can be viewed as an extra
shape parameter. Wi affects the curve only locally and can be interpreted geometrically as
a coupling factor. The curve is pulled towards a control point if W increases.
6.26.2 β - SPLINES
β- splines are obtained from β-splines by introducing two new degrees of freedom: bias
and tension. These can be applied uniformly or non-uniformly.
6.27 REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES

A surface can be defined as the locus of points which satisfy a constraint equation in the
form of F(X, Y, Z) = 0. In parametric form a surface may be represented as
x = X (u, v)
y = Y (u, v)
z = Z (u, v)
where X, Y and Z are suitable functions of two parameters u and v. For example, the
parametric representation of the surface of a sphere whose centre is at the origin of co-
Chapter 6
ordinates and of radius R is
x = X (θ, φ) = R sin φ cos θ
y = Y (θ, φ) = R sin φ sin θ
z = Z (θ, φ) = R cos φ
6.28 DESIGN OF SURFACES

The design of surfaces may be based on quadrics like ellipsoid, hyperboloid, cone,
hyperbolic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, elliptic cylinder and elliptic paraboloid. A surface
may be generated by sweeping a pattern curve along a spline curve. The swept surface
may also be linear, conical linear or circular swept surface.
6.29 PARAMETRIC DESIGN OF SURFACES

Parametric surfaces may be defined in one of the following methods:
i. In terms of points of data (positions, tangents, normals)
ii. In terms of data on a number of space curves lying in these surfaces.
The resulting surface will either interpolate or approximate the data. Surfaces are
normally designed in patches, each patch corresponding to a rectangular domain in u-v
space. A surface patch defined in terms of point data will usually be based on a rectangular
164 CAD/CAM/CIM
array of data points which may be regarded as defining a series of curves in one parameter
direction which in turn are interpolated or approximated in the direction of the other
parameter to generate the surface. Fig. 6.30 shows the parameter curves on a surface patch
defined by a rectangular array of data points.
Fig. 6.30 A Surface Patch
6.30 BICUBIC POLYNOMIAL SURFACE PATCHES

A bicubic polynomial surface can be represented in the form:
 
v 
r =  u u u !  aij  
v 
 !
v 
where aij (i, j = 0, 1, 2, 3) is the 4×4 matrix of vector coefficients.

A general representation of bicubic surface patch is:
r = R (u, v) = U M A M VT
Where M is the basis matrix
U = [1 u u2 u3]
A = aij
V = [1 v v2 v3]
For Coon’s patch, the basis function M is identical to that of cubic spline segment.
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
M = 
− 3 3 − 2 − 1
 
 2 −2 1 1
The vector coefficients for Coon’s patches are given by
 R(0, 0) R(0,1) R(0, 0) R(0,1)

 R(1, 0) R(1,1) R(1, 0) R(1,1) 
A =  
 R(0, 0) R(0,1) R(0, 0) R(0,1)
 
 R(1, 0) R(1,1) R(1,1) R(1,1) 
The position and derivative data on two adjacent corners effectively define not only
Chapter 6
the edge curve which joins them but also the cross slope at each point on the edge. This
makes it possible to combine two or more patches with continuity of position and slope.
6.31 BEZIER BICUBIC SURFACE PATCHES

The Bezier bicubic surface patch uses the basis matrix:
1 0 0 0
− 3 3 0 0
M = 
− 3 6 3 0
 
−1 3 −1 1
The vector coefficients are given by a 4 × 4 matrix of position vectors for sixteen points
forming a characteristic polyhedron. Fig. 6.31 shows the characteristic polyhedron for a
Bezier surface. The four corner points R (0,0), R (3,0), R (3,3) and R (0,3) lie at the corners of
the surface patch itself whereas remaining points do not lie on the patch. The four points
along each edge of the polyhedron define the four edge curves of the patch. The four
interior points determine the cross derivatives at the corner and cross slopes along the
nearest edges to them.
166 CAD/CAM/CIM
Fig. 6.31 Bi-cubic Surface Patch
6.32 CUBIC B-SPLINE SURFACES

The basis function for a cubic B-spline surface is the same as that of cubic B-spline curve.
As in the case of B-spline curve, none of the control points forming the characteristic
polyhedron lies on the surface.
Composite surfaces can be obtained by combining several surface patches. Table 6.1
gives the properties of the surfaces generated by the common methods.
Table 6.1 Properties of Surfaces Created by Different Methods
Method Property
Coon’s patch Slope and position continuity

Bezier Bicubic patch Position continuity
Uniform B-spline Second order continuity
The surfaces patches described above cover a rectangular domain in u-v space. There
are also methods proposed for interpolation on triangular and pentagonal domains.
6.33 SURFACE MODELING IN COMMERCIAL DRAFTING AND MODELING

SOFTWARE
Surface types available for geometric modeling range from simple planes to complex
sculptured surfaces. These surfaces are usually represented on the workstation terminals
as a set of ruled lines. However, computer recognizes these lines as continuous surfaces.
Users select surface types from a menu to model individual details or fully envelope parts.
Some of the features of surface modeling packages are given below:
6.33.1 SURFACE MODELING COMMANDS

There are a number of commands to create a surface model
i. 3-D face: The different faces of an object can be modeled using this command.
The X,Y,Z co-ordinates of each vertex are input one after another to model a face
and each of the faces is defined one after another in this manner.
ii. P face: The P-face command produces a general polygon mesh of a arbitrary
topology. Using this command, it is possible to avoid defining a single vertex
several times as is done in 3-D face command. The user defines all vertices and
then defines the faces in terms of the vertices.
iii. Rulesurf: This command creates a polygon representing the ruled surface between
two curves. Figure 6.32 shows an example of ruled surfaces.
Chapter 6
Fig. 6.32 Ruled Surface
iv. Tabsurf: A polygon mesh representing general tabulated mesh defined by a path
curve and a direction vector (generatrix) is created by this command. Fig. 6.33
shows a typical surface created by this command.
Fig. 6.33 Examples of Tabulated Surface

168 CAD/CAM/CIM
v. Revsurf: A surface of revolution is created by rotating a path curve or profile

about an axis. The rotation can be through 360 degrees or part of it.
vi. Edgesurf: This command constructs a Coon’s surface patch using four adjoining
curved edges, an example of edgesurf commands is shown in Fig. 6.34.
Fig. 6.34 Example of Edge Surface
6.33.2 SURFACE MODELING FACILITIES AVAILABLE IN AN ADVANCED MODELER

An advanced surface modeler helps to design complex sculptured surfaces easily. They
provide a number of tools for model creation, shape control and visualization.
i. Model cr eation featur
creation es for curves and surfaces:
features
• Accurate fitting of unevenly spaced points
• Control over tangency, curvature and inflection
• Capability of one surface on to another
• Projection of one surface on to another
• Offset curves
• Planar and ruled surfaces
• Surfaces of revolution
• Lofting
• Sweeping
• Blending
• Surface created from 3-D digitized points
• Interpolation of surfaces
• Offset surfaces
• Split and merging of surfaces
ii. Shape contr ol of surfaces:

control
Advanced surface modeling softwares make it easy to effect changes in design
and shape. They provide what is called variational constraint based shape control.
Shape control can be effected through dimensional or geometric constraints and
can have tangent associativity. Surface can also be controlled by equations.
Advanced energy based shape control helps to:
• fair curves
• achieve higher order edge/tangency control
• introduce local bulges or inflections
• shape curves locally to fit a specific point
iii. Visualization:
Surface models have visualization tools for shading, hidden line elimination,
creation of perspective views and evaluated surface displays.
6.33.3 SOLID MODEL BASED ASSEMBLY DESIGN

Once components are created as solid models, assembly software enables the designer to
create a complete software mock up of the product. Assembly software is an interactive
Chapter 6
tool for creating and manipulating large mechanical assemblies. This software helps to
position a part relative to the other using intuitive positing and mating relationships which
define the design intent. Design changes to any part navigate through the entire assembly,
dynamically updating part and subassembly positions. Positioning relationships include
face-to-face and edge-to-edge commands making it easy to specify mating, alignment,
and offset, and insertion, parallel and angular relationships among parts.
A top down approach is used in assembly design. The design leader can layout and plan
assembly and create a product structure for the entire team. The product structure is associative
to assembly geometry and remains accessible to the project team. Outline geometry and
spatial envelopes to a subassembly or part can be defined and included in the hierarchy.
As and when the design team details designs of parts these designs are included in the
assembly in the place of spatial envelopes. The design gradually growns in complexity
while maintaining the spatial constraints defined earlier. Throughout the design process,
multiple users can access the assembly design. The design and data management
capabilities of the assembly software provides a design check out and referencing system
for multiple users. Changes can be communicated not only to members of the design team
but also to other product assemblies which use them.
Assembly design software provides other facilities too. The designer can track part
numbers, part names, revisions and versions easily. In fact, versions can be assigned
automatically as design changes. In order to create Bill of Materials (BOM), BOM attributes
can be added to part or assembly. When parts are revised, the assemblies which use these
parts are modified automatically. When assembly or parts within assembly change
associated drawings created by the drafting software are automatically updated.
170 CAD/CAM/CIM
Assembly design software is a powerful tool for design evaluation. Since parts are
designed in solid models the design can carry out checks for interference between mating
parts and subassemblies. It is also possible to animate kinematic assemblies to evaluate
how mechanisms work. Since variational geometry is used, the designer can vary the
dimensions of the links to study the impact of design changes and articulate the mechanism
in real time.
Assembly level mass and inertial properties can also be calculated. The rendering
capabilities available in the modeling package enable true to life presentation of the
assembly to management, marketing, manufacturing, purchase and other downstream
users for review. Their feedback will be useful to avoid costly design changes at the end of
product development cycle.
6.33.4 SOLID MODEL BASED DRAFTING

The drafting process creates production drawings. When solid model based design is
followed, the production drawings can be generated from the solid model itself. Some drafting
systems allow either a single user or dual user. In the single user mode, the entire design/
drafting job is done by a single designer by creating a design with solid or assembly modeler
and documenting that model using the drafting module. Bi-directional associativity helps
to make changes to the solid model by incorporating a change in the detail drawing. The
dual user approach is suitable for organizations where design and drafting tasks are carried
out by separate persons. This mode of work enables the draftsman to begin his work even
before the designer completes his design. Concurrent associativity allows the drawing to be
updated while maintaining design change control with the design engineer. Drafting module
provides the following additional facilities also:
(i) Set up and create associative single or multiple cross sections through parts with
automatic cross hatching
(ii) Associative detail views can be added
(iii) Make first angle or third angle projections, isometric, auxiliary or true projections
(iv) Multiple view of one or more drawings can be placed on one drawing or multiple
drawings
(v) Automatic removal or display of hidden line by dashed lines
(vi) Border, title block or the necessary drawing format can be added
(vii) Different layers for different parts of the drawing can be specified.
Many solid modeling packages provide exhaustive symbol libraries or facilities to create
symbols which expedite detailing of drawings. A variety of dimensioning techniques are
available. Dimensioning can be automatic or a dynamic navigation style with user
interaction can be adopted. In the latter, as the draftsman traverses the drawing, the
geometry entities are highlighted. Appropriate icons are displayed next to the curser that
represent the dimensions. These dimensions can be added simply by picking with the
cursor. Dimensioning supports ANSI, ISO, DIN, BIS and JIS. Geometric dimensioning and
tolerancing methods are also available in the package. Provision for adding text or
annotations in different languages is also available. Another facility available is the
associative cross hatching facility with ability to recognize internal holes and islands.
Another feature of a drafting module is the dynamic Bill of Materials that automatically
updates when changes are made to the drawing. This ensures that BOM accurately reflects
the data of the drawing.
In addition to the above the drafting module includes integrated drawing management
capabilities. Some of these capabilities are listed below:
(i) Lists the solid model associated with the part drawing
(ii) Lists all drawings associated with a model
(iii) Searches for a drawing by name, number or the draftsman
(iv) Stores the drawings in libraries
(v) Retrieve drawings
(vi) Tracks drawing stage (in-design, check, released etc)
(vii) Tracks revisions and versions
(viii) Compiles total time spent on a drawing
Chapter 6
(ix) Tracks drawings read from STEP, IGES and DXF files
(x) Creates of engineering change order
(xi) Provides project configurations
Drafting modules associated with solid modeling packages can also be used for stand
alone drafting. The features of a drafting package are discussed in a subsequent section in
this chapter.
6.33.5 SOLID MODEL BASED MECHANISM DESIGN

Solid model based kinematic analysis can be used to determine complex motions of
mechanisms. A mechanical design software is used for this purpose. Mechanism models
are defined directly on the assembly model geometry. Rigid models are defined directly
on the assembly model geometry. Rigid bodies are automatically understood and joints
and constraints are defined simply by selecting appropriate locations on the assembly.
Motions of mechanisms and loads are defined using a forms based user interface and can
be defined by mathematical expressions or sketches. All solid geometry and inertia
properties can be accessed from the assembly design. Mechanism design capabilities include
the following :
Joint definition
Revolve
Universal
Planar
172 CAD/CAM/CIM
General (screw, rack & pinion)

Ball
Translational
Cylindrical
Constraints
Ground
Spring/damper
Coupler
Gears
Motions
Rotational about revolute or cylindrical joint
Translation along a cylindrical or transitional joint
Loads
Rotational and translational forces
Gravity
Torque
Velocity
Acceleration
Functions
Ability to display several simultaneous functions
Functions defined by mathematical expressions
Transformations to manipulate functions
Geometry checking to determine the validity of mechanisms
Once joints, constraints and functions have been defined the mechanism can be solved
using an internal solver. Some of the capabilities of a typical mechanism solver are given below:
(i) Analysis of open and closed loop mechanisms
(ii) Shaded animation
(iii) Determination of position, velocity and acceleration of all bodies
(iv) Automatic solid model based interference checking
(v) Joint, inertia and spring forces are automatically calculated
(vi) Relative position, velocity and acceleration between any two arbitrary points can
be obtained
(vii) Plotting facilities are available
This kinematic analysis module as an add on to solid modeling packages also will
have facility to preprocess data to be used in an advanced kinematic analysis package like
ADAMS or DADS.
6.33.6 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING FROM SOLID MODELS

Optimization of designs require detailed analysis to determine stresses, deflection, natural
frequencies, mode shapes, temperature distribution, heat flow rates etc. Finite element
technique is used to carry out these analysis is to create a finite element model. The solid
model geometry can be used directly to create the FE model.
Automatic mesh generation and application of loads and boundary conditions can
also be carried out while creating the finite element model.
It is often necessary to modify design geometry to create an effective finite element
model. Automatic mesh generation can be done either through free meshing or adaptive
meshing. A comprehensive library of finite elements are available in the software. The
elements will be linear or parabolic. Shell, solid, beam, rod, spring, damper, mass and gap
are some of the elements available for the purpose of modeling. A FE modeling software
provides extensive capabilities to define loading and boundary conditions to correctly
simulate the environment that a part will be subjected in operation.
Chapter 6
Loads can be:
• Structural loads
• Heat transfer loads
Physical and material properties can be obtained from the material database of the
solid model. Facilities for mode checking and model optimization are also available.
The optimized model can be solved by any one of the analysis package like ANSYS,
NISA, ABAQUS or NASTRAN. Finite element modeling, analysis, simulation and
optimization are discussed in the next chapter.
6.33.7 GENERATIVE CNC MACHINING BASED ON SOLID MODELING

The geometry of solid models can serve as the basis for generating CNC codes for
manufacturing the component. Solid modeling based generative machining software
helps to:
(i) evolve stock model
(ii) capture manufacturing planning
(iii) design the tooling
(iv) develop feature driven machining programs
Solid modeling based machining software encompasses the complete machining
environment. The tool paths generated by it avoid grouping of parts, avoid collision with
clamps and optimize motion.
174 CAD/CAM/CIM
Thus solid modeling technique helps in

(i) conceptualize the design
(ii) provide interface to analysis
(iii) generate NC tool paths
A number of software packages are available now for modeling. Important among
them are:
AUTOCAD
IDEAS
PRO/ENGINEER
UNIGRAPHICS
CADDS V
CATIA
CADAM
IEMS
SOLID WORKS
SOLID EDGE
IRON CAD
6.34 THE CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCESS

Traditionally designers used to make 2-D or 3-D sketches as starting point of shape
designs. From these sketches, models in materials like wood, clay, sheet metal or poly-
urethane foam will be made. These models were then displayed to public or groups of
interested persons like management or customers to obtain the customer preferences or
reactions or feed back. The final design shape is then arrived at by altering the models
created incorporating engineering and manufacturing feedback. This process used to
take considerable time and constituted a significant portion of product development
cycle time.
With the emphasis on time compression in product development, the accent today is
in using the computer itself for conceptual design. Once the shape design is completed,
the model data could be transferred to the solid modeling software to complete the design
analysis and optimization. The software used for conceptual design is also called computer
aided industrial design (CAID) package. CAID package is a conceptual front end of the
product development process and are specifically designed to stimulate creativity by
providing a wide variety of design options. This tool can quickly create and modify the
shape, form and surface qualities of 3D models. A CAID package will have photorealistic
rendering and lighting capabilities. Several software packages offer the CAID capabilities.
Prominent among them are:
• Alias
• PTC
• SolidWorks
• SDRC
• UGS
• think3
• Raindrop Geomagic
• McNeel & Associates
A conceptual design or CAID package should have the following features:
• Integrated 2D sketching and 3D modeling
• Ease of manipulation of shape, form and texture
• Create and modify freeform bodies
• Presentation capabilities
• Data transfer to mechanical CAD for detailed design
A CAID package will have typically the capabilities like Modeling (Global deformation,
Chapter 6
curve tools, blend tools, sweep curves, surfacing, scaling, filleting, trimming, offsetting,
stitching, aligning, smoothing etc), advanced surfacing and direct modeling functions,
sketching, evaluation tools, animation and rendering tools etc.
Styling is very important in automobile design. Automobile styling demands quality,
precision and accuracy. CAID packages specially designed for Class-A surfacing are
available. These packages incorporate advanced modeling and reverse engineering tools.
The major modules of such packages are:
• Cloud point data processing
• Direct, patch based modeling
• Procedural curve based modeling
• Real time diagnostic feedback
• Dynamic surface evaluation
• CAD integration
Cloud point data can be captured by several methods. A popular method is laser
scanning. Laser scanners are fast and accurate. Mechanical scanning can also be done. A
number of scanners are available to capture cloud point data. The surfaces thus created
can be subjected to surface quality evaluation, interactive shading and surface curvature
analysis. This technique requires a model to be made in a suitable material.
It is more common to carry out the design by sketching. Using the conceptual design
software the design process is carried out in a more or less similar fashion as outlined below:
176 CAD/CAM/CIM
i. Create an outline of the model by picking points in a window and letting the
software to connect them to form surfaces.
ii. Use the curves to form the model. Create 3-D surfaces from the curves which each
surface is an area enclosed by three or more curves.
iii. Analyze the quality of the curves to identify and eliminate potential manufacturing
problems.
iv. Improve the model by editing the curves and surfaces to arrive at an aesthetically
pleasing design.
The geometry of the model can be created by:
i. A set of curves that define the geometry which acts as the frame work for the
model’s surfaces or
ii. The geometry can be created by using surfaces which are larger than what is
required and the geometry can be trimmed to suit the requirements.
A model can be created using a combination of the above techniques also.
6.35 SKETCHING THE GEOMETRY

Conceptual modeling software provides a number of facilities to create sketches. Sketches
should be made to scale and should be made with reference to an origin. The sketching
can be done in two ways.
view,, point view
i. Sketch orthogonal views like plan, side view view,, rrear
ear view etc.:
In this method the different views of the object are sketched with the help of
orthogonal views as shown in Fig. 6.35. The curve design tools could be used
to outline the shape of the model, connect the curves and define the regions
which could be later used to create surfaces.
Fig. 6.35 Shape Design with Orthogonal Sketches

ii. Sketch 2-D perspective or 3-D perspective:

Using the 2-D perspective option is similar to loading a sketch in the side view
to create geometry. Fig. 6.36 shows a perspective sketch. In perspective sketching
the location of the vanishing point is important. Hand drawn sketches could be
scanned and converted into TIFF or similar format and could be loaded into the
conceptual modeling software.
Chapter 6
Fig. 6.36 Perspective Sketch
Once the sketches are loaded, the software can be used to align the sketch.
6.36 UNDERSTANDING CURVE AND SURFACE DESIGN

Judicious design of curves and surfaces will make a product visually pleasing. The
interactive approach for the design of curves and surfaces is briefly described below:
6.36.1 DESIGN OF CURVES

A curve is drawn through two or more defining points called control points. Every point
on a curve has a position, (X, Y and Z co-ordinates), a tangent and a curvature. The tangent
determines the direction of the curve at any given point. The internal points their tangents
are created and maintained by the design software.
In Fig. 6.37 a curve is shown to be created using the defining points 1, 2, 3 and 4. The
curve passes through the end points 1 and 4 and the direction of the curve and shape of
the curve are decided by the tangents and the position of control points 2 and 3. By changing
the position of control points, the shape can be changed interactively. The curvature at
each point is a measure of how rapidly the curve is changing the direction. General curves
have a different curvature value at every point. A curvature plot can be used to evaluate a
curve. Fig. 6.38 shows a curvature plot.
178 CAD/CAM/CIM
2
END POINT 2 TANGENT @ 2
END POINT 1 4
TANGENT @ 1
3
Fig. 6.37 Curve Design
C urve
R eg ion of low
R eg ion of high C urva ture
C urva ture
Fig. 6.38 Curvature Plot
A complex curve required for a product design is usually a continuous combination of

several curve segments. There are three measures of curve continuity. The terms C0, C1
and C2 continuity levels are used to describe how curves relate to each other. C0 continuity
occurs when two C1 curves meet at their end points but may not share same tangency or
curvature. C1 continuity occurs when two curves have the same tangent at the matched
end points. C2 continuity is obtained when two C1 curves have the same curvature at the
end point i.e. they have a smooth transition from one curve to another. Fig. 6.39 shows
examples for C0,C1 and C2 continuity.
TA N G EN T
TO C U R V E 1
TA N G EN T TO CURVE 2
CURVE 2 M E E T IN G C 0 C o n tin u ity
P O IN T
CURVE 1
M E E T IN G
CURVE 1 P O IN T
CURVE 2
C 1 C o n tin u ity
M E E T IN G
P O IN T
C 2 C o n tin u ity
Fig. 6.39 C0, C1 and C2 Continuity

6.36.2 SURFACES
Aesthetic curves are the building blocks for pleasing surfaces which are the key to create
good products. The curves that define a surface are called boundary curves. While creating
surfaces, surface singularities must be avoided. Fig. 6.40 shows how singularity was avoided
by over building the top surface and trimming it with a curve on surface. Avoidance of
singularity is important to create a surface design which has good manufacturability.
S IN G U L A R
P O IN T
S u rf a c e w it h a S in g u la r p o in t r e m o v e d w ith
s in g u la r p o in t c u r v e o n s u rf a c e a n d
t rim m in g a f te rw a r d s
Fig. 6.40 Avoiding Singularity
Chapter 6
Surfaces have two sides - inside as well as outside. Surface normals are helpful to
clearly distinguish the orientation of the surfaces. There can be different surface types:
i. Rectangular: This type of surface is characterized by four boundary curves.
(Fig. 6.41)
Fig. 6.41 Rectangular Surface

180 CAD/CAM/CIM
ii. Triangular: A surface defined by three boundary curves (Fig. 6.42)
Fig. 6.42 Triangular Surface
iii. N-sided: The surface defined by an arbitrary number of curves (Fig. 6.43)
edge 1
edge 5
edge 2
edge 4
edge 3
Fig. 6.43 N-sided Surface
iv. Sweep: A surface defined by moving a set of profile curves smoothly along one
or two guide curves (Fig. 6.44)
P R O F ILE C U R V E
PA TH C U R VE
PA TH C U R VE 1
P R O F ILE C U R V E
PA TH C U R VE 2
Fig. 6.44 Sweep Surface

v. Radius fillet: A blend surface between two sets of surfaces (Fig. 6.45)
F IL L E T
Fig. 6.45 Fillet Surface
BLEND CURVE 1
Chapter 6
BLEND
CURVE 2
BLEND
Fig. 6.46 Blend
vi. Blend: This is a special form of sweep. The guide curves are two curves on surface.
The blend allows user to blend the surfaces together or make a variable fillet from
their defined curves. This type of fillet (Fig. 6.46)needs a curve on each surface
for construction.
vii. Offset: An offset surface is created by offsetting a surface at a distance from an
existing surface. (Fig. 6.47)
OFFSET
OFFSET SURFACE
ORIGINAL SURFACE
Fig. 6.47 Offset Surface

182 CAD/CAM/CIM
6.36.3 EXAMPLES OF OPERATIONS ON SURFACES

Creating a model requires facilities for local modification of surfaces. These facilities are
described in the following section:
i. Trimming surfaces
A trim is a portion of a surface that can have different attributes. A trimmed
surface can be created from an existing surface by specifying a set of curves that
partition the original surfaces. Fig. 6.48 shows a trimming operation on a surface.
CU RVE O N SURFAC E CU RVE O N SURFAC E
Fig. 6.48 Trimming
ii. Blending two surfaces

It is often necessary to blend two curved surface. An example is illustrated in Fig. 6.49.
a. Create a surface (shown with patches).
b. Create a curve outline using curve on surface (COS) tool.
c. Project the curve on to the surface and trim the surface.
d. Create one more cross sectional curve for the flare.
e. Create the flare surface.
f. Blend the two surfaces.
B LE N D
Fig. 6.49 Flare

iii. Creating a lens hollow on a camera surface

Figure 6.50 shows the surface camera body. It is desired to create a lens hollow.
This requires the creation of surfaces that blend smoothly from the main body
of the camera into the lens aperture. This can be achieved by creating four curves.
An ellipse represents the outer surface of the lens hollow. A circle is to define
the geometry of the lens holder. The shape of the connecting surface is defined
by two hollow curves. The ellipse and the circle are split at four points. Curves
are created the joining the four points on the ellipse and the circle. The tangents
are adjusted to make the curves meet the circle and ellipse smoothly. A smooth
surface is then created using surface tools.
H o llow
C u rve
Chapter 6
Fig. 6.50 Creation of a Lens Hollow on a Camera Body
iv
iv.. Creating a insert for view finder
Creating
A cut out on the camera surface is to be created to locate the view finder.
Fig. 6.51 shows the camera body. The cut out is created by a curve on surface
(COS) tool.
C u rv e o n
s u rfa c e
Fig. 6.51 Creating a Cut Out Using a Curve on Surface Tool

184 CAD/CAM/CIM
6.36.4 CURVE ON SURFACE (Fig. 6.52)

Curve on a surface (COS) is a special kind of curve. This can be defined by a set of points
which are constrained to lie on a surface. COS are very useful in conceptual design because
of their use in trimming a surface to blend it with another surface. A COS can be created by:
Projecting a curve on to a surface.
Cutting a planar section through a surface.
Specifying points on a surface through which the curve has to pass through.
C u rve o n
s u rfa c e
Fig. 6.52 Curve on Surface
6.36.5 MEASURES OF SMOOTHNESS OF SURFACES

As in the case of curves, smoothness of the boundaries of two surfaces can be ensured by
three parameters:
• C0 continuity means that two surfaces share a common boundary.
• C1 continuity. In this case the two surfaces blend tangentially across the shared
boundary curve.
• C2 continuity ensures that the boundary of two surfaces have a curvature continuity
in addition to position and tangent continuity.
Fig. 6.53 illustrates the three measures of continuity of surfaces. It can be seen that C2
continuity condition yields smoother surfaces.
Fig. 6.53 (Contd.)

Fig. 6.53 Smoothness of Surfaces
6.37 OTHER FEATURES USEFUL FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

In addition to the sketching facilities, additional features are available to enhance design
capabilities:
Chapter 6
i. Photo rendering - Rendering facilitates the evaluation of the model and better
communication of design ideas,
ii. Surfaces can be evaluated by accurate reflections, highlights and shadows.
Materials can be applied in the rendering process. Material properties usually
available include transparency, brightness and intensity as well as the basic color
definition of hue, saturation and brightness.
6.38 DATA TRANSFER TO OTHER SOFTWARES

Once the conceptual design is completed, model data can be transferred to other design
softwares directly or using neutral files. Many CAID packages provide direct translators
to CAD packages like CATIA, Unigraphics, I-DEAS etc.
QUESTIONS
1. How do you classify modeling package?
2. Compare 2-D and 3-D wire frame models.
3. Discuss the hardware required for a PC based drafting environment
4. Study a CAD package and describe the drawing entities available.
5. What are the commands and their sequence to create 2D and 3D wire frame
models of the following components?
i. a bracket
ii. a spur gear
186 CAD/CAM/CIM
6. Discuss the use of various editing commands available in a CAD package.

7. Describe the display commands available in a drafting package.
8. How will be set the dimension variables for:
i. Aligned dimensioning
ii. Unilateral dimensioning
iii. Chain dimensioning
iv. To indicate the tolerances on dimensions
9. How do you create a block?
10. How do you redefine a block in a drawing?
11. Study the symbol creation facilities available in a drafting package and create
symbols for indicating surface roughness
12. Study the various files available in a CAD package and their functions.
13. Write a short note on the advantages of customizing a software.
14. What is meant by configuring a software?
15. How does CAD help drawing office management?
16. How will you create the bill of materials from a CAD file?
17. Describe the importance of curve and surface modeling in computer aided graphics
and design.
18. What is the advantage of parametric programming in designing curves and
surfaces?
19. Compare the splines for the same control points created by B-spline and Bezier
spline techniques.
20. Draw a Bezier spline for the following control points:
(0,0), (4,3), (8,4) & (12,0)
21. What is the common modeling methods available for surface design in a surface
modeling software?
22. Describe briefly the following methods of surface modeling with a few application
examples:
i. Revsurf
ii. Tabcyl
iii. Bicubic surface
iv. Bezier surface
23. Suggest the procedure that you will adopt to create the following surface
geometries:
i. The surfaces of the vanes and inner projections of the shroud of a mixed flow
impeller.
ii. The surface of a propeller.
24. Exercises
i Create an assembly of a reduction gearbox and prepare geometric models of
individual components.
ii Create a surface model of a mouse.
iii Create a solid model of a bracket and extract plan, elevation, end view and
a sectional view, with dimensions.
iv Create a frame type structure in C.I and extract mass properties.
25. Create a solid model and generate a STEP file. Write a program to extract all flat
surfaces and holes.
i. Study typical consumer durable products like electric iron, coffee percolator,
water heater etc. and analyze the impact of shape design on their sales
appeal.
ii. Study the shape of a passenger car and analyze how the blending of various
surfaces of body panels is done.
iii. Compare the measures of continuity of curves and surfaces.
26. Study typical consumer durable products like electric iron, coffee percolator,
water heater etc. and analyze the impact of shape design on their sales appeal.
Chapter 6
27. Study the shape of a passenger car and analyze how the blending of various
surfaces of body panels is done.
28. Compare the measures of continuity of curves and surfaces.
PROJECT
1. Obtain a cloud of points on the surface of an impeller blade and create a smooth
surface, using CAD software.
2. Create the surface model of a product of your choice.
(a toy car, a blender, desktop grinder, shampoo bottle, a two-in-one transistor cum
tape recorder, head lamp of a passenger car, etc.).
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Assembly Settings
Customizing Assembly Design Settings

This task will show you how to customize Assembly Design settings.
1. Select Tools -> Options....
The Options dialog box appears.
2. Click the Mechanical Design category, then the Assembly Design subcategory.
The General tab appears, displaying the following options:
Update
You can set an automatic or a manual update. The "Manual" option lets you decide
when you need to update your design. It is the default mode.
You can also update only the active level of the active component or all the levels of
the active component. "All levels' allows you to update all the constraints defined on
all the levels of the active component.
Access to geometry
The option "Automatic switch to Design mode" ensures that the application will
automatically launch the Design mode when using the following commands:
- Constraint (clicking on any constraint icon, the application launches

the Design mode, the cursor changes to an eye symbol, meaning that
the Design mode is then active, you can then you set your constraint)
- Snap
- Publication Management
- Reuse Pattern
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Assembly Settings
- Define Multi-Instantiation
- Manipulate
- Translate
- Rotate
- Update
Move components
The option available controls the display of a warning message that appears when
moving components.
If you want to see a message indicating that you are moving components attached
together, check the option "Display warning when moving a component involved in
a Fix Together".
The message will appear whenever you will apply the following commands to
components fixed together : compass, snap , translation or rotation and
manipulate .
[ Up ] [ Next ]

Assembly Constraints
Customizing Assembly Constraints

This task will show you how to customize Assembly Design constraints.
1. Select Tools -> Options....
2. Click the Mechanical Design category, then the Assembly Design subcategory.
3. Click the Constraints tab.
The following options are available:
Paste Components
You can paste one or several components without the assembly constraints applying
to them.
You can paste one or several components with the assembly constraints applying to
them, only after the Copy command.
You can paste one or several components with the assembly constraints applying to
them, only after the Cut command.
You can paste one or several components always with the assembly constraints
applying to them.
Constraint Creation

Assembly Constraints
These three options let you define the way of setting constraints:
- Use any geometry: you can select any geometrical element
- Use published geometry of child components only: you can select any
published element belonging to child components
- Use published geometry of any level: you can select any published element
For more information about publication, refer to "Managing a Product Publication" in

the CATIA Assembly Design Users Guide Version 5.
Quick Constraint
The Quick Constraint command is based on a ordered list of constraints to be

created by the application. The setting available here lets you reorder the list of
constraints having priority when applying the Quick Constraint command to the
selected geometrical elements. What you need to do is select the constraint type
you wish to reorder and click the arrows to the right of the selection to reorder the
selected constraint.
Additionally, you can create verified constraints if the option Creation verified
constraints first is on.
[ Back ] [ Up ]

Customizing for 3D Annotations Infrastructure
Customizing for 3D Annotations Infrastructure

This section describes the different types of setting customization you can perform in 3D
Annotations Infrastructure using the Tools -> Options command.
All tasks described here deal with permanent setting customization.
Tolerancing
Display
Manipulators
Annotation
View/Annotation Plane
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Annotation
Annotation
This task will show you how to customize 3D Annotations Infrastructure annotation
settings.
1. Select Tools -> Options...
2. Click the Infrastructure category.
3. Click the 3D Annotations Infrastructure subcategory.
4. Click the Annotation tab.
The Annotation tab appears, displaying one category of options:
Annotation Creation
Annotation following the mouse (Ctrl toggles)
Defines whether the annotation is positioned according to the cursor,

following it dynamically during the creation process or not.
[ Back ] [ Up ] [ Next ]
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This task will show you how to customize 3D Annotations Infrastructure view/
annotation plane settings.
1. Select Tools -> Options...
2. Click the Infrastructure category.
3. Click the 3D Annotations Infrastructure subcategory.
4. Click the View/Annotation Plane tab.
The View/Annotation Plane tab appears, displaying two categories of

options:
View/Annotation Plane Associativity
Create views associative to geometry
Creates views associative to the geometry, so that views and their

annotations are automatically updated when the geometry is modified.
View/Annotation Plane Display
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Current view axis display
Defines whether the active annotation plane axis system is displayed.
Zoomable
Defines whether the annotation plane axis is zoomable.
Visualization of the profile in the current view
Defines whether the view/annotation plane profile on the part/product

is displayed or not.
[ Back ] [ Up ]
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Reference Information
Reference Information
This section contains reference information about the Assembly design workbench.
Constraints
Batches and Macros
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Constraints
Constraints
This reference will describe assembly's constraints.
About Assembly Constraints
Coincidence Constraints
Contact Constraints
Offset Constraints
Angle Constraints
[ Next ]

Setting constraints is rather an easy task. However, you should keep in mind the
following:
You can apply constraints only between the child components of the active
component.
Do not mistake the active component for the selected component:
The active component is blue framed (default color) and underlined. It is

activated by double-clicking.
The selected component is orange framed (default color). It is selected by

clicking.
You cannot define constraints between two geometric elements

belonging to the same component.
You cannot apply a constraint between two components belonging to

the same subassembly if this subassembly is not the active
component.
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The following example illustrates what you are allowed to do:
(1) The constraint cannot be applied because Product K does not belong to the
active component Product B. To define this constraint, Product A must be made
active.
(2) The constraint cannot be applied because Product E and Product F both
belong to a component other than the active component Product B. To define this
constraint, Product D must be made active.
(3) The constraint can be applied since Product C belongs to the active component
Product B and also Product E is contained within Product D which is contained
within the active component Product B.
When you set a constraint, there are no rules to define the fixed and the movable
component during the selection. If you want to fix a component, use the Fix
command. See Fixing a Component .
Symbols
The following table lists the symbols used to represent the constraints you can set
between your components:

Symbol displayed
Symbol used
Constraints in the
in the geometry area
specification tree
Coincidence
Contact
Contact
(point)
Contact
(line)
Offset
Angle
Planar Angle
Parallelism

Perpendicularity
Fix
Note also that deactivated constraints are preceded by the symbol ( ) in the
specification tree.
Tip
The name of a constraint displays when passing the mouse over that constraint.
Geometry
To set constraints it is possible to select the geometry (plane, line or point) resulting
from intersections, projections or offsets from the specification tree. For more about
these operations, please refer to Generative Shape Design User's Guide.
Customizing Constraints

The application lets you customize the creation and the display of constraints. For
more information, please refer to Customizing Assembly Constraint and Customizing
Constraint Appearance.
[ Next ]

Coincidence-type constraints are used to align elements.
Depending on the selected elements, you may obtain concentricity, coaxiality or

coplanarity. The tolerance i.e. the smallest distance that can be used to differentiate
two elements is set at 10 -3 millimeters.
The following table shows the elements you can select for a coincidence constraint.
Planar Sphere Cylinder Axis

Point Line Plane Curve
Face (point) (axis) System
Point
Line
Plane
Planar Face
Sphere
(point)
Cylinder
(axis)
Curve
Axis System
To create a coincidence constraint between axis systems, they must have the same
direction and the same orientation in the product.
You can also create coincidence between an axis system and components of another
axis system:
Origin point.
Reference plane, in this case the reference plane must be parallel to the axis
system.

[ Back ] [ Next ]

Contact Constraints
Contact Constraints
Contact-type constraints can be created between two planar faces (directed planes).
The common area between the two planar faces can be a plane (plane contact), a
line (line contact) or a point (point contact).
The following table shows the elements you can select for a contact constraint.
Planar
Sphere Cylinder Cone Circle
Face
Planar Face
Sphere
Cylinder
Cone
Circle
[ Back ] [ Next ]
Offset Constraints
Offset Constraints
When defining an offset-type constraint between planar elements, you need to specify how faces should be
oriented.
The offset value is always displayed next to the offset constraint.
The unit used is the unit displayed in the Units tab of the Tools -> Options dialog box. If you wish, you can
customize it.
The following table shows the elements you can select for an offset constraint.
Planar
Point Line Plane
Face
Point
Line
Plane
Planar Face
Positive and Negative Offsets

When setting an offset constraint, you can define positive or negative offset values. For this, remember that:
At least one of the components to be constrained must be a planar element, otherwise you cannot set
positive nor negative offset values.
The vector normal to the planar element indicates the positive offset value.
If the planar element is an oriented plane, the normal vector pointing to the side opposite to material
indicates the positive value.
If the planar element is a wireframe plane, the application automatically deduces the positive or negative
value. Green arrows show the positive value.
If both components are planar elements, the selection order of the elements affects the result when using
the orientation option (Same, Opposite, Undefined). The normal to the first selected element gives the
positive value.

Offset Constraints
[ Back ] [ Next ]

Angle Constraints
Angle Constraints
Angle-type constraints fall into three categories.
When defining an offset constraint between planar elements, you need to specify
how faces should be oriented.
The offset value is always displayed next to the offset constraint.
Angle
Parallelism (when angle value equals zero),when setting a parallelism

constraint, green arrows appear on the selected faces to indicate the
orientations.
Perpendicularity (angle value equals 90 degrees)
When setting an angle constraint, you will have to define an angle value. Note that
this angle value must not exceed 90 degrees.
The tolerance i.e. the smallest angle that can be used to differentiate two elements
is set at 10 -6 radians.
The following table shows the elements you can select for an offset constraint.
Planar Cylinder Cone

Line Plane
Face (axis) (axis)
Line
Plane
Planar Face
Cylinder
(axis)
Cone
(axis)
[ Back ]
Batches and Macros
Batches and Macros

This reference will describe batches and macros dedicated for Assembly Design
workbench.
Data Upgrade for Large Assemblies Performances: Tool to upgrade Assembly data
to benefit from V5R10-11 performances improvements.
[ Back ]
Data Upgrade for Large Assemblies Performances
Data Upgrade for Large Assemblies

Performances
In Releases 10, 11 and 12, several projects have been conducted to reduce the
amount of memory required for an assembly in specific scenarios.
All those scenarios start with loading the assembly in visualization mode, and allow
the user:
To stay in visualization mode (actually product mode, typically from 10% to

15% more than visualization mode) and to get the up-to-date status of the
assembly, with constraints, design in context or knowledgeware relations.
To switch to Brep mode for assembly constraint creation, for drawing update
The major benefit of those enhancements is to lower the required amount of

memory used in those typical scenarios. The drafting creation can start at a much
lower memory point, leaving enough memory for the necessary processing to
generate the drawing.
Yet, the benefit of those enhancements is only available with newly created data.
This means that all our current customers, using Releases 8 or 9, will not benefit
from them, unless they recreate their data... or migrate it, thanks to this new
development.
Needed Options
Cache Management on
Select Tools -> Options... item: in Infrastructure category -> Product

Structure subcategory, Cache Management tab -> Cache Activation frame ->
check the Work with the cache system option.
Load Reference documents
Select Tools -> Options... item: in General category -> General tab ->
Referenced Documents frame -> check the Load the referenced documents
option.
Macro Usage
The macro is delivered in the application runtime view (./operating_system/
VBScript)
Launch the application

Open the assembly to be upgraded (CATProduct document)
SendTo if you want to keep the original data
Close the original assembly
Open the copy
Launch Macro (Alt-F8 + UpgradeActiveDocumentMacro.CATScript)
Save Management.
Close the application
Batch Usage
The batch is delivered in the CATIA runtime view (./operating_system/code/bin)
The syntax of the command is as follows:
CATAsmUpgrade [-c|--check] [-f|--force] [-h|--help] [-n|--no-copy] [-o|--

output-dir TargetDirectory] [-p|--path ConcatenationPath] [-s|--stats] [-v|--
verbose] DocumentList
-c or --check: print for each document its upgrade status.
-f or --force: force CATPart documents upgrade to take benefit of

Semantic Unstreaming.
-h or --help: help.
-n or --no-copy: do not copy data, overwrite input data.
-o or --output-dir TargetDirectory: target directory for upgraded

documents.
-p or --path ConcatenationPath: source concatenation path for

documents and dependencies.
-s or --stats: print some statistics at the end of upgrade.
-v or --verbose: verbose output.
DocumentList: the CATProduct documents to be upgraded.
The result file location is available on:
Windows in: C:\temp\upgrade.log

Unix in: /tmp/upgrade.log
Example
Run the batch or the macro with the following Articulation CATProduct document.
The result file displays the following result:
[I] CATAsmProxyUpgrader
Reporting:
Number of Constraint: 8
Number of tried upgraded
Constraint: 7
Number of successfully upgraded
Constraint: 7
Number of unsuccessfully
upgraded Constraint: 0
Number of Publication: 0
Publication: 0
Publication: 0
upgraded Publication: 0
Number of Context: 0
Context: 0
Context: 0
upgraded Context: 0
[I] CATKweProxyUpgrader
Reporting:
Number of Relation: 0
Relation: 0
Relation: 0
upgraded Relation: 0

CATIA V5 Tutorials
Mechanism Design & Animation
Release 17
Nader G. Zamani
University of Windsor
Jonathan M. Weaver
University of Detroit Mercy
SDC
PUBLICATIONS
Schroff Development Corporation

www.schroff.com
www.schroff-europe.com
CATIA V5 Tutorials in Mechanism Design and Animation 4-1
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Chapter 4
Material
Slider Crank Mechanism
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Material
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Material
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Material
4-2 CATIA V5 Tutorials in Mechanism Design and Animation
Copyrighted
Introduction
In this tutorial you create a slider crank mechanism using a combination of revolute and
cylindrical joints. You will also experiment with additional plotting utilities in CATIA.
Material
1 Problem Statement
A slider crank mechanism, sometimes referred to as a three-bar-linkage, can be thought

of as a four bar linkage where one of the links is made infinite in length. The piston based
internal combustion is based off of this mechanism. The analytical solution to the
kinematics of a slider crank can be found in elementary dynamics textbooks.
Copyrighted
In this tutorial, we aim to simulate the slider crank mechanism shown below for constant
crank rotation and to generate plots of some of the results, including position, velocity,
and acceleration of the slider. The mechanism is constructed by assembling four parts as
described later in the tutorial. In CATIA, the number and type of mechanism joints will
be determined by the nature of the assembly constraints applied. There are several valid
Material
combinations of joints which would produce a kinematically correct simulation of the
slider crank mechanism. The most intuitive combination would be three revolute joints
and a prismatic joint. From a degrees of freedom standpoint, using three revolute joints
and a prismatic joint redundantly constrains the system, although the redundancy does
not create a problem unless it is geometrically infeasible, in this tutorial we will choose
an alternate combination of joints both to illustrate cylindrical joints and to illustrate that
any set of joint which removes the appropriate degrees of freedom while providing the
capability to drive the desired motions can be applied. In the approach suggested by this
Copyrighted
tutorial, the assembly constraints will be applied in such a way that two revolute joints
and two cylindrical joints are created reducing the degrees of freedom are reduced to one.
This remaining degree of freedom is then removed by declaring the crank joint (one of
the cylindrical joints in our approach) as being angle driven. An exercise left to the
Material
reader is to create the same mechanism using three revolute joints and one prismatic joint
or some other suitable combination of joints. We will use the Multiplot feature available
in CATIA is used to create plots of the simulation results where the abscissa is not
necessarily the time variable.
Cylindrical
Copyrighted Revolute
Revolute
Material Cylindrical
Slider Crank Mechanism 4-3
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2 Overview of this Tutorial
In this tutorial you will:

1. Model the four CATIA parts required.
Material
2. Create an assembly (CATIA Product) containing the parts.
3. Constrain the assembly in such a way that only one degree of freedom is
unconstrained. This remaining degree of freedom can be thought of as rotation of
the crank.
4. Enter the Digital Mockup workbench and convert the assembly constraints into
two revolute and two cylindrical joints.
5. Simulate the relative motion of the arm base without consideration to time (in
other words, without implementing the time based angular velocity given in the
problem statement).
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6. Add a formula to implement the time based kinematics associated with constant
angular velocity of the crank.
7. Simulate the desired constant angular velocity motion and generate plots of the
kinematic results.
Material
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3 Creation of the Assembly in Mechanical Design Solutions
Although the dimensions of the components are irrelevant to the process (but not to the
kinematic results), the tutorial details provide some specific dimensions making it easier
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for the reader to model the appropriate parts and to obtain results similar to those herein.
Where specific dimensions are given, it is recommended that you use the indicated values
(in inches). Some dimensions of lesser importance are not given; simply estimate those
dimensions from the drawing.
In CATIA, model four parts named base, crank, conrod, and block as shown below.
base
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Length 10
1x1x1 cube
Block
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Length 0.75
Diameter 0.5
Length 0.5 crank
1x1 square Diameter 0.5
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Diameter 0.5
Diameter 0.7
(4 locations)
3.5
Diameter 0.5
Diameter 0.5
Length 0.35
Material 6.5
conrod
Thickness 0.25
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Thickness 0.25
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Enter the Assembly Design workbench which
can be achieved by different means depending on your
CATIA customization. For example, from the standard
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Windows toolbar, select File > New .
From the box shown on the right, select Product. This
moves you to the Assembly Design workbench and
creates an assembly with the default name Product.1.
In order to change the default name, move the

curser to Product.1 in the tree, right click
and select Properties from the menu list.
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From the Properties box, select the
Product tab and in Part Number type
slider_crank.
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This will be the new product name throughout
the chapter. The tree on the top left corner of
your computer screen should look as displayed
below.
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The next step is to insert the existing parts in the assembly just created. From the
standard Windows toolbar, select Insert > Existing Component.
From the File Selection pop up box choose all four parts. Remember that in CATIA
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multiple selections are made with the Ctrl key. The tree is modified to indicate that the
parts have been inserted.
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Note that the part names and their instance names were purposely made the same. This
practice makes the identification of the assembly constraints a lot easier down the road.
Depending on how your parts were created earlier, on the computer screen you have the
four parts all clustered around the origin. You may have to use the Manipulation icon
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in the Move toolbar to rearrange them as desired.
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The best way of saving your work is to save the entire assembly.
Double click on the top branch of the tree. This is to ensure that you are in the
Assembly Design workbench.
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Select the Save icon . The Save As pop up box allows you to rename if desired.
The default name is the slider_crank.
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Your next task is to impose assembly constraints.
Pick the Anchor icon from the Constraints toolbar and select the base from the
tree or from the screen. This removes all six degrees of freedom for the base.
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Next, we will create a coincident edge constraint between the base and the block. This
removes all dof except for translation along the edge of coincidence and rotation about
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the edge of coincidence. The two remaining dof are consistent with our desire to create a
cylindrical joint between the block and the base. To make the constraint, pick the
Coincidence icon from the Constraints toolbar
. Select the two edges of the base and the

block as shown below.
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This constraint is reflected in the appropriate branch of the tree.
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Select this edge of block
Use Update icon to partially position the two parts as shown.
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Note that the Update icon no longer appears on the constraints branches.
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Depending on how your parts were constructed the block may end up in a position quite
different from what is shown below. You can always use the Manipulation icon to
position it where desired followed by Update if necessary.
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You will now impose assembly constraints between the conrod and the block. Recall that
we ultimately wish to create a revolute joint between these two parts, so our assembly
constraints need to remove all the dof except for rotation about the axis.
Pick the Coincidence icon from Constraints toolbar. Select the axes of the two
cylindrical surfaces as shown below. Keep in mind that the easy way to locate the axis is
to point the cursor to the curved surfaces.
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cylinder on the block
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of the hole on
the conrod
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The coincidence constraint just created removes all but two dof between the conrod and
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the base. The two remaining dof are rotation about the axis (a desired dof) and
translation along the axis (a dof we wish to remove in order to produce the desired
revolute joint). To remove the translation, pick the Coincidence icon from the
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Constraints toolbar and select the surfaces shown on the next page. If your parts are
originally oriented similar to what is shown, you will need to choose Same for the
Orientation in the Constraints Definition box so that the conrod will flip to the desired
orientation upon an update. The tree is modified to reflect this constraint.
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Choose the end
surface of the
cylinder
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Choose the back
surface of the
conrod (surface not
visible in this view)
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Use Update icon to partially position the two parts as shown below.
Note that upon updating, the conrod may end up in a location which is not convenient for
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the rest of the assembly. In this situation the Manipulation icon
conveniently rearrange the conrod orientation.
can be used to
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So far, we have created assembly constraints which leave degrees of freedom consistent
with a cylindrical joint between the block and the base and a revolute joint between the
block and the conrod. Next we will apply assembly constraints consistent with a revolute
joint between the conrod and the crank. This will be done with a coincidence constraint
between the centerlines of the protrusion on the conrod and the upper hole of the base and
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a surface contact constraint to position the parts along the axis of the coincidence
constraint. To begin this process, pick the Coincidence icon from Constraints
toolbar. Select the axis of the cylindrical surface and the hole as shown below.
Select the axis of the

cylindrical protrusion
in the conrod
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Material Select the axis of the
hole in the crank
The coincidence constraint just applied removes all dof between the conrod and the crank
except for rotation along the axis of coincidence and translation along that axis. To
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remove the unwanted translational dof, we will use a surface contact constraint (a
coincidence constraint could also be applied, but we have chosen to illustrate a contact
constraint here). To create the constraint, Pick the Contact icon from
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Constraints toolbar and select the surfaces shown in the next page. The tree is modified
to reflect this constraint.
Select this face Select the back face of the

of the conrod crank (face not visible
here)
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Use Update icon to partially position the two parts as shown.
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We need to apply one final constraint to locate the lower end of the crank onto the
cylindrical protrusion on the base. Pick the Coincidence icon from Constraints
toolbar. Select the axis of the cylindrical surface and the hole as shown below.
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the hole
Choose the axis of

the cylindrical
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protrusion
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Use Update icon to get the final position of all parts as shown. Note that since we
have chosen to create a cylindrical joint between the base and the crank, we do not need
to specify a constraint to remove the translation along the axis of coincidence; that
translation is effectively removed by the remainder of the assembly constraints.
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The assembly is complete and we can proceed to the Digital Mockup workbench. As
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you proceed in the tutorial, keep in mind that we have created the assembly constraints
with attention to the relative degrees of freedom between the parts in a manner consistent
with having a cylindrical joint between the base and the crank, a revolute joint between
the crank and the lower end of the conrod, a revolute joint between the upper end of the
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conrod and the block, and a cylindrical joint between the block and the base.
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4 Creating Joints in the Digital Mockup Workbench
The Digital Mockup workbench is quite extensive but we will only deal with the DMU
Kinematics module. To get there you can use the standard Windows toolbar as shown
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below: Start > Digital Mockup > DMU Kinematics.
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Select the Assembly Constraints Conversion icon from the
DMU Kinematics toolbar . This icon allows you to

create most common joints automatically from the existing assembly constraints.
The pop up box below appears.
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Select the New Mechanism button .
This leads to another pop up box which allows you to name your mechanism.
The default name is Mechanism.1. Accept the default name by pressing OK.
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Note that the box indicates Unresolved pairs: 4/4.
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Select the Auto Create button . Then if the Unresolved pairs becomes
0/4, things are moving in the right direction.
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Note that the tree becomes longer by having an Application Branch. The expanded tree
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is displayed below.
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The DOF is 1 (if you have dof other than 1, revisit your assembly constraints to make
sure they are consistent with those herein, delete your mechanism, then begin this chapter
again). This remaining dof can be thought of as the position of the block along the base,
or the rotation of the crank about the base. Since we want to drive the crank at constant
angular speed, the latter interpretation is appropriate.
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Note that because we were careful in creating our assembly constraints consistent with
the desired kinematic joints, the desired joints were created based on the assembly
constraints created earlier and the Assembly Constraints Conversion icon .
All of these joints could also be created directly using the icons in the Kinematics
Joints toolbar
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In order to animate the mechanism, you need to remove the one degree of freedom
present. This will be achieved by turning Cylindrical.2 (the joint between the base and
the crank) into an Angle driven joint.
Note that naming the instances of parts to be the same as the part name makes it easy to
identify the joint between any two parts.
Double click on Cylindrical.2 in the tree. The pop up box below appears.
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Check the Angle driven box. This allows you to change the limits.
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Change the value of 2nd Lower Limit to be 0.
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Upon closing the above box and assuming that
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everything else was done correctly, the
following message appears on the screen.
This indeed is good news.
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According to CATIA V5 terminology, specifying Cylindrical.2 as an Angle driven
joint is synonymous to defining a command. This is observed by the creation of
Command.1 line in the tree.
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We will now simulate the motion without regard to time based angular velocity. Select
the Simulation icon from the DMU Generic Animation toolbar
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there are several present. In this case, select Mechanism.1 and close the window.
As soon as the window is closed, a

Simulation branch is added to the tree.
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As you scroll the bar in this toolbar from left to
right, the crank begins to turn and makes a full 360
degree revolution. Notice that the zero position is
simply the initial position of the assembly when the
joint was created. Thus, if a particular zero position
had been desired, a temporary assembly constraint
could have been created earlier to locate the
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mechanism to the desired zero position. This temporary constraint would need to be
deleted before conversion to mechanism joints.
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When the scroll bar in the Kinematics Simulation pop up box reaches the right
extreme end, select the Insert button in the Edit Simulation pop up box
shown above. This activates the video player buttons shown
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.
Return the block to its original position by picking the Jump to Start button .
Note that the Change Loop Mode button is also active now.
Upon selecting the Play Forward button , the crank makes fast jump completing
its revolution.
In order to slow down the motion of the crank,
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select a different interpolation step, such as
0.04.
Upon changing the interpolation step to 0 0.04,
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return the crank to its original position by picking
the Jump to Start button . Apply Play
Forward button and observe the slow and
smooth rotation of the crank. It is likely that your
slider will proceed beyond the end of the block;
the entities involved in the joints are treated as
infinite. If you wish, you may alter your block
dimensions so the slider remains on the block.
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Select the Compile Simulation icon from the Generic Animation toolbar
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and activate the option Generate an animation file. Now, pressing the
File name button allows you to set the location and name of the animation
file to be generated as displayed below.
Select a suitable path and file name and change the Time step to be 0.04 to produce a
slow moving rotation in an AVI file.
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The completed pop up box is displayed for your reference.
As the file is being generated, the crank

slowly rotates. The resulting AVI file
can be viewed with the Windows Media
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Player.
In the event that an AVI file is not

needed, but one wishes to play the animation, repeatedly, a Replay need be generated.
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Therefore, in the Compile Simulation
box, check the Generate a replay
button.
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Note that in this case most of the
previously available options are dimmed
out.
A Replay.1 branch has also been added to the tree.
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Select the Replay icon from the Generic Animation toolbar .
Double clock on Replay.1 in the tree and the Replay pop up box appears.
Experiment with the different choices of the Change
Loop Mode buttons , , .
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The block can be returned to the original position by
picking the Jump to Start button .
The skip ratio (which is chosen to be x1 in the right
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box) controls the speed of the Replay.
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Once a Replay is generated such as Replay.1 in the tree above, it can also be played
with a different icon.
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Select the Simulation Player icon from the DMUPlayer toolbar .
The outcome is the pop up box above. Use the cursor to pick Replay.1 from the tree.
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The player keys are no longer dimmed out. Use the Play Forward (Right) button
to begin the replay.
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5 Creating Laws in the Motion
You will now introduce some time based physics into the problem by specifying the
crank angular velocity. The objective is to specify the angular position versus time
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function as a constant 1 revolution/sec (360 degrees/sec).
Click on Simulation with Laws icon in the Simulation toolbar .

You will get the following pop up box indication that you need to add at least a relation
between a command and the time parameter.
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To create the required relation, select the Formula icon from the Knowledge
toolbar . The pop up box below appears on the screen.
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Point the cursor to the Mechanism.1, DOF=0 branch in
the tree and click. The consequence is that only
parameters associated with the mechanism are displayed
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in the Formulas box.
The long list is now reduced to two parameters as
indicated in the box.
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Select the entry Mechanism.1\Commands\Command.1\Angle and press the Add
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Formula button . This action kicks you to the Formula Editor box.
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Pick the Time entry from the middle column (i.e. Members of Parameters) then
double click on Mechanism.1\KINTime in the Members of Time column.
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Since angle can be computed as the product of angular velocity (360deg)/(1s) in our case
and time, edit the box containing the right hand side of the equality such that the formula
becomes:
Mechanism.1 \ Commands \ Command .1 \ Angle =
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(360 deg) /(1s) * ( Mechnism.1 \ KINTime)
The completed Formula Editor box should look as shown below.
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Upon accepting OK, the formula is recorded in the Formulas pop up box as shown
below.
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Careful attention must be given to the units when writing formulas involving the
kinematic parameters. In the event that the formula has different units at the different
sides of the equality you will get Warning messages such as the one shown below.
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We are spared the warning message because the formula has been properly inputted.
Note that the introduced law has appeared in Law branch of the tree.
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Keep in mind that our interest is to plot the position, velocity and accelerations generated
by this motion. To set this up, select the Speed and Acceleration icon from the
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DMU Kinematics toolbar
appears on the Screen.
. The pop up box below
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For the Reference product, select the base from the screen or the tree. For the Point
selection, pick the vertex of the block as shown in the sketch below. This will set up
the sensor to record the movement of the chosen point relative to the base (which is
fixed).
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For Point selection,
pick this vertex
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Note that the Speed and Acceleration.1 has appeared in the tree.
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Having entered the required kinematic relation and designated the vertex on the block as
the point to collect data on, we will simulate the mechanism. Click on Simulation with
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Laws icon in the Simulation toolbar .
This results in the Kinematics Simulation pop up box shown below.
Note that the default time duration is 10
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seconds.
To change this value, click on the button
. In the resulting pop up box,
change the time duration to 1s. This is the
time duration for the crank to make one full
revolution.
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The scroll bar now moves up to 1s.
Check the Activate sensors box, at the

bottom left corner. (Note: CATIA V5R15 users
will also see a Plot vectors box in this
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window).
You will next have to make certain selections

from the accompanying Sensors box.
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Observing that the coordinate direction of interest is X, click on the following items to
record position, velocity, and acceleration of the block:
Mechanism.1\Joints\Cylindrical.1\Length
Speed-Acceleration.1\X_LinearSpeed
Speed-Acceleration.1\X_LinearAcceleration
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As you make selections in this window, the last column in the Sensors box, changes to
Yes for the corresponding items. This is shown on the next page. Do not close the
Sensors box after you have made your selection (leave it open to generate results).
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Also, change the Number of steps to 80.
The larger this number, the smoother the
velocity and acceleration plots will be.
The larger this number,

The smoother the plots
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Note: If you haven’t already done so, change the default units on position, velocity and
acceleration to in, in/s and in/s2, respectively. This is done in the Tools, Options,
Parameters and Measures menu shown on the next page.
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Finally, drag the scroll bar in the Kinematics Simulation box. As you do this, the
crank rotates and the block travels along the base. Once the bar reaches its right extreme
point, the crank has made one full revolution. This corresponds to 1s.
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Scroll the bar to the right
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The crank turns
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Once the crank reaches the end, click on the Graphics button in the
Sensor box. The result is the plot of the position, velocity and acceleration all on the
same axis (but with the vertical axis units corresponding to whichever one of the three
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outputs is highlighted in the right side of the window). Click on each of the three outputs
to see the corresponding axis units for each output. The three plots for position
(corresponding to cylindrical joint Length), velocity (X_LinearSpeed), and acceleration
(X_Linear_Acceleration) are shown below.
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It is not uncommon that you may develop a variety of simulation results before
determining exactly how to achieve the desired results. In this case, prior results stored
need to be erased. To do this, click on the History tab of the Sensors box.
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Use the Clear key
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to erase the
values generated.
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Next, we will create a plot which is not simply versus time. As an illustrative example,
we will place a point somewhere along the conrod. For this point, we will plot its linear
speed and linear acceleration versus crank angle. It is important to note that DMU
computes positive scalars for linear speeds and linear accelerations since it simply
computes the magnitude based on the three rectangular components.
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First, return to Part Design and create a reference point on the conrod at the
approximate location as shown below. Return to DMU.
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conrod approximately
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at this location
The plan is to generate two plots. The first plot is the speed of the created point against
the angular position of the crank. The second plot is the acceleration of the created point
against the angular position of the crank.
In order to generate the speed and acceleration data, you need to use the Speed and
Acceleration icon from the DMU Kinematics toolbar
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the icon and in the resulting pop up box make the
following selections.
For Reference product, pick the base from the
screen. For Reference point, pick the point that
was created earlier on the conrod.
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Pick the base for the
Reference product
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x
The tree indicates that Speed-Acceleration.2
is being generated which holds the data for the
point on the conrod. Pick this point for the
Reference point
Click on Simulation with Laws icon in the Simulation toolbar .
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This results in the Kinematics Simulation pop up box shown below.
Check the Activate sensors box, at the bottom
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left corner.
You will have to make the following selections

from the accompanying Sensors box.
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If you scroll down the list, you will notice that the data from Speed-Acceleration.1
and Speed-Acceleration.2 are both available.
Click on the History tab of the Sensors box and make sure that no data is
present. Of course the data can be cleared using the button.
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In the Sensors box, click on the following line items; be careful as many entries look
alike with minor differences.
Mechanism.1\Joints\Cylindrical.2\LengthAngle
Speed-Acceleration.2\LinearSpeed
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Speed-Acceleration.2\Linear Acceleration
Note: Depending upon your installation, you may see Angle instead of LengthAngle.
As you make these selections, the last column in the Sensors box, changes to Yes for
the corresponding items. Be sure you have picked Cylindrical.2 for the angle since this is
the cylindrical joint at the crank connection to the base.
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Pick the Options button in the Sensors box. The pop up box shown below
appears. Check the Customized radio button.
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Pick the Add button .
The Curve Creation pop up box
appears.
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Use the pull down menu to make the
For Abscissa, select Mechanism.1\Joints\Cylindrical.2\LengthAngle

For Ordinate, select Speed-Acceleration.2\LinearSpeed
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Press OK to close the box. Note that Curve.1 is now setup.
Pick the Add button once again.
The Curve Creation pop up box appears.
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Use the pull down menu to make the
For Abscissa, select Mechanism.1\Joints\Cylindrical.2\LengthAngle

For Ordinate, select Speed-Acceleration.2\Linear Acceleration
Press OK to close the box. Note that Curve.2

is now setup.
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Close the Graphical Representation box. Drag the scroll bar all
the way to the right
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or simply click on
Drag the scroll bar in the Kinematics Simulation
box all the way to the right or simply click on .
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Once the crank reaches the end, click on Graphics button in the
Sensor box. The Multiplot window appears and allows you to pick either Curve.1, or
Curve.2.
The plots for Curve.1 and Curve.2 are shown on the next page.
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CHAPTER

programming, inspection, assembly, costing and vendor development. Thus, drawings

Fig. 6.1 Four Views of a Part

6.2 GEOMETRIC MODELING

6.2.1. WIRE FRAME MODELING

Fig. 6.2 Ambiguity in Wire Frame Modeling

A comparison between 2-D and 3-D models is given below:

2 - D Models 3-D Wire Frame Models

6.2.2. SURFACE MODELING

Fig. 6.3 Surface Representation

6.2.3. SOLID MODELING

v. Primitive Instancing: This modeling scheme provides a set of possible object

6.2.3.1 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

Fig.6.5 CSG Operation

6.2.3.2 Boundary Representation

A solid model is a 3-D representation of an object. It is an accurate geometric description

6.3 SALIENT FEATURES OF SOLID MODELING

6.3.1. FEATURE-BASED DESIGN

Fig. 6.7 A Ribbed Structure

Fig. 6.8 Flanged Part

An important component of every feature is its dimensions. Dimensions are the

6.3.2. MODELING TOOLS

Fig. 6.10 Exploded View of an Assembly

6.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID MODELING PACKAGES

6.3.3.1 Parametric Design

6.3.3.2 Relations and Relationships

Another way to relate geometry within a design is to create a parent/child relationship.

6.3.3.3 Behaviour Modeling

models to respond to changes in their environment.

6.4 COMMAND, MENU AND ICON DRIVEN SOFTWARES

Fig. 6.14 Typical Screen Menu

The software packages incorporate on-line documentation which is often referred as a

Common types of menu ar are:

Fig. 6.16 Menu Traversal

6.5 FEATURES OF A DRAFTING PACKAGE

6.6 DRAWING UTILITIES

6.6.1 SCREEN SIZE

6.6.6 SPECIFYING POINTS

6.6.7 LINE TYPES, TEXT FONTS AND SHAPES

Fig. 6.17 Creation of Layers

Layer Name Colour Linetype

6.6.9 SAVING A DRAWING

6.6.10 FILE UTILITIES

6.8 EDIT COMMANDS

6.9 BLOCKS AND SYMBOLS

6.11 CROSS HATCHING AND PATTERN FILLING

Fig. 6.18 Drawing a Gear

Fig. 6.19 Drawing a Shaft

6.13 ENQUIRY COMMANDS

6.14 3-D DRAWINGS

6.14.1 EXTRUSION (LINEAR SWEEP)

Fig. 6.20 (a) Extrusion Example 1

Fig. 6.20 (b) Extrusion Example 2

Another way of creating 3D views is by defining construction planes at different levels

Fig. 6.21 Revolution

6.14.3 USING USER CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS (UCS)

Fig. 6.22 User Co-ordinate System

6.15 PLOTTING A DRAWING

6.16 CONFIGURING THE DRAFTING SOFTWARE

6.18 DRAWING INTERCHANGE FILES