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A G A R D o g r a p h No.160

AGARD Flight Test Instrumentation Series

Volume 10
on
Helicopter Flight Test Instrumentation
by

K.R.FerreII /

/ V

DISTRIBUTION A N D AVAILABILITY
O N BACK COVER
 AGARD-AG-160
Volume 10

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

(ORGANISATION DU TRAITE DE L'ATLANTIQUE NORD)

AGARDograph No. 160 Vol.10

HELICOPTER FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION

by

K.R.Ferrell

Volume 10

of the

AGARD FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION SERIES

Edited by

A.Pool and K.C.Sanderson

This AGARDograph has been sponsored by the Flight Mechanics Panel of AGARD.
 THE MISSION OF AGARD

The mission of AGARD is to bring together the leading personalities of the NATO nations in the fields of science
and technology relating to aerospace for the following purposes:

— Exchanging of scientific and technical information;

— Continuously stimulating advances in the aerospace sciences relevant to strengthening the common defence
posture;

— Improving the co-operation among member nations in aerospace research and development;

— Providing scientific and technical advice and assistance to the North Atlantic Military Committee in the field
of aerospace research and development;

— Rendering scientific and technical assistance, as requested, to other NATO bodies and to member nations in
connection with research and development problems in the aerospace field;

— Providing assistance to member nations for the purpose of increasing their scientific and technical potential;

— Recommending effective ways for the member nations to use their research and development capabilities for
the common benefit of the NATO community.

The highest authority within AGARD is the National Delegates Board consisting of officially appointed senior
representatives from each member nation. The mission of AGARD is carried out through the Panels which are
composed of experts appointed by the National Delegates, the Consultant and Exchange Programme and the Aerospace
Applications Studies Programme. The results of AGARD work are reported to the member nations and the NATO
Authorities through the AGARD series of publications of which this is one.

Participation in AGARD activities is by invitation only and is normally limited to citizens of the NATO nations.

The content of this publication has been reproduced

directly from material supplied by AGARD or the author.

Published July 1980

Copyright © AGARD 1980
All Rights Reserved

ISBN 92-835-1367-3

m^

Printed by Technical Editing and Reproduction Ltd

Harford House. 7-9 Charlotte St. London. W1P 1HD
 PREFACE

Soon after its founding in 1952, the Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and
Development recognized the need for a comprehensive publication on flight test techniques
and the associated instrumentation. Under the direction of the AGARD Flight Test Panel
(now the Flight Mechanics Panel), a Flight Test Manual was published in the years 1954 to
1956. The Manual was divided into four volumes: 1. Performance, II. Stability and Control,
III. Instrumentation Catalog, and IV. Instrumentation Systems.

Since then flight test instrumentation has developed rapidly in a broad field of sophisti-
cated techniques. In view of this development the Flight Test Instrumentation Group of the
Flight Mechanics Panel was asked in 1968 to update Volumes 111 and IV of the Flight Test
Manual. Upon the advice of the Group, the Panel decided that Volume III would not be
continued and that Volume IV would be replaced by a series of separately published mono-
graphs on selected subjects of flight test instrumentation: The AGARD Flight Test
Instrumentation Series. The first volume of the Series gives a general introduction to the
basic principles of flight test instrumentation engineering and is composed from contribu-
tions by several specialized authors. Each of the other volumes provides a more detailed
treatise by a specialist on a selected instrumentation subject. Mr W.D.Mace and Mr A.Pool
were willing to accept the responsibility of editing the Series, and Prof. D.Bosnian assisted
them in editing the introductory volume. In 1975 Mr K.C.Sanderson succeeded Mr Mace as
an editor. AGARD was fortunate in finding competent editors and authors willing to
contribute their knowledge and to spend considerable time in the preparation of this Series.

It is hoped that this Series will satisfy the existing need for specialized documentation
in the field of flight test instrumentation and as such may promote a better understanding
between the flight test engineer and the instrumentation and data processing specialists.
Such understanding is essential for the efficient design and execution of flight test programs.

The efforts of the Flight Test Instrumentation Group members (J.Moreau CEV/FR,
H.Bothe DFVLR/GE, J.T.M. van Doom and A.Pool NLR/NE, E.J.Norris A&AEE/UK,
K.C.SandersorvjN^ASA/US) and the assistance of the Flight Mechanics Panel in the prepara-
tion of this Series are greatly appreciated.

F.N.STOLIKER
Member, Flight Mechanics Panel
Interim Chairman, Flight Test
Instrumentation Group
 CONTENTS
SUMMARY

1, INTRODUCTION

1.1 Test Vehicles 1

1.2 Types of Tests 2
1.3 Instrumentation Environment 3
1.4 Systems Planning 3
1.5 Installation 4
ATMOSPHERIC

2.1 Air Data Instrumentation 4

2.1.1 Free Air Temperature 4
2.1.2 Altitude 5
2.1.3 Humidity 5
2.1.4 Icing 6
2.2 Airspeed and Relative Wind Direction 7
2.1.1 Swivel Head Test Systems 7
2.2.2 Omni-Directional Airspeed terns 8
a. Aeroflex 8
b. Elliott 9
c. J-TEC 10
d. Loras 11
e. Rosemount 12
f. Honeywell 13
3. PROPULSION SYSTEM 14

3.1 Shaft Speed Measurements 14

3.1.1 Engine Speed 14
3.1.2 Drive Shaft Speed 15
3.2 Engine Torque 15
3.3 Shaft Torque 15
3.4 Inlet 15
3.4.1 Inlet Pressure 16
3.4.2 Inlet Temperature 17
3.4.3 Inlet Devices 17
3.5 Engine Temperature 17
3.6 Engine Pressure 18
3.7 Fuel 18
3.7.1 Fuel Flow 18
3.7.2 Fuel Temperature 18
3.7.3 Fuel Quantity 19
3.8 Power Extraction 19
3.9 Power Plant Controls 19
3.9.1 Cockpit Controls 19
3.9.2 Engine Controls 19
3.10 Engine Vibrations 20
4. AIRFRAME 20

4.1 Attitude 20
4.1.1 Pitch and Roll Attitude 20
4.1.2 Yaw Attitude 21
4.2 Angular Rate 21
4.3 Angular Acceleration 21
4.4 Linear Acceleration 21
4.5 Vibration 21
4.5.1 Sensor Location 22
4.5.2 Sensors 22
4.6 Loads 22
4.6.1 Sensor Location 22
4.6.2 Sensors 22
4.7 Cockpit and Cabin Environment 23
4.7.1 Air Temperature and Airflow 23
4.7.2 Surface Temperature 23
4.7.3 Internal Noise 23

5. ROTORS AND PR0PELL0RS 23

5 1 Blades 24
5.1.1 Airflow 24
5.1.2 Blade Positions 24
5 2 Hubs 24
5 3 Pitch Links 24
5 4 Data Transfer 25
5 5 Non-Rotating Surfaces 26
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM 26

6.1 Cockpit Controls 26

6.2 Mechanical Linkages 26
6.3 Actuators 26
6.4 Swash Plate 26
6.5 Stability Augmentation Systems 26
WEAPONS SYSTEMS 27
7.1 Forces and Motions 27
7.2 Firing Effects 27
7.3 Ejected Material 27
7.4 Fire Control System 27
7.5 External Noise 27
7.6 Gas Contamination 28
GROUND SUPPORT INSTRUMENTATION 28
8.1 Atmosphere 28
8.1.1 Wind Speed 28
8.1.2 Wind Direction 28
8.1.3 Ambient Air Temperature 28
8.1.4 Ambient Air Pressure 28
8.2 External Noise 28
8.3 Thrust 29
8.4 Space Positioning 29
8.4.1 Instrumented Range Operations 30
8.4.2 Remote Site Operations 30
9. REFERENCES 32
Appendix I Typical Helicopter Instrumentation Requirements Al

Appendix II Typical Instructions for Developing and Maintaining Recorded Instrumentation

Parameter List A2
 HELICOPTER FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION
Kenneth R. Ferrell
US Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity
US Army Aviation Research and Development Command
Edwards Air Force Base, California 93523

SUMMARY

This document discusses the helicopter characteristics with which the instrumen-
tation must contend and outlines typical tests that are conducted. Major aircraft com-
ponents and systems which may be instrumented are listed and suggestions are made for
sensors, locations, and installation. Details are provided for instruments peculiar to
helicopters. Interface of the test instrumentation with data recording systems and ground
support facilities are also considered.

A summary of instrumentation requirements is provided along with recommended

range, accuracy and resolution. A sample instrumentation management technique is also
included.

1, INTRODUCTION

The definition of flight test will vary as widely as the activity of those who
are pursuing the subject. Perhaps the only consensus is that the vehicle be in free at-
mosphere as opposed to a wind tunnel or an enclosure. Scale models, unpiloted vehicles,
tethered, or constrained vehicles are flight tested. The type of power or even the absence
of power is not a decisive factor. Flight test may involve measurements, rely upon opinions,
or simply be a demonstration of success or failure. This document will deal with flight
testing of helicopters where it is necessary to record data which describe the vehicle
operation and response to specified conditions and maneuvers.

Individual sensors, systems, and recording devices must be incorporated into the
test vehicles in a manner that will meet the data requirements within the known constraints.
The total instrumentation system is best designed by starting with the data requirements.
Accuracy, data quantity, reliability, and physical characteristics of the test vehicle are
first considerations. Sensors can then be selected within cost, availability, and instal-
lation limitations. Characteristics of the sensor are evaluated to determine recording
system requirements. Calibration schedules for sensors and systems can then be established.

A helicopter flight test installation requires consideration of some parameters

that are unique to the helicopter. In other instances the instrumentation is common to
other airborne vehicles; however, special attention must be given to items such as re-
cording range or sensitivity. The instrumentation must provide data which will allow the
flight crew to establish flight conditions as well as record data for engineering appli-
cations.

1.1 Test Vehicles

The instrumentation discussed is directly applicable to helicopters. In a more
general sense it is intended for any vehicle which operates in a low speed omni-
directional flight regime. The helicopters flight envelope introduces a need for special
instrumentation. For example, it may be necessary to determine airspeed in all directions
and the altimeter must be capable of operating over a large height band while retaining
high accuracy for operations near the ground. Mechanical complexity is necessary to inte-
grate engines, rotors, and control systems. Losses in the power transfer system are often
small and are difficult to define accurately. The mechanical problems associated with
rotating masses introduces a need to measure many angular motions, positions, and torques.
The rotating members cover the range from engine speeds to very low shaft speeds. Transfer
of information from rotating to stationary members is a particular problem. In addition,
rotating parts experience various types of loads and quickly amass a high cyclic count.
Testing must be accomplished to establish a fatigue life for each part. Vibrations in all
directions are prevalent and encompass a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes. The
aerodynamics of the helicopter produce stability and control characteristics that often
require improvement through use of mechanical, hydraulic, or electronic systems. Complex
control systems require that actuator motions and electronic inputs be measured. Instru-
mentation must consider each system relative to the basic flight controls. Rotor blade
information can include static and dynamic pressures, positions, angles, and stresses. The
blade tip may be in the transonic regime while reverse flow may exist at the hub. Blade
instrumentation must have minimum Influence on the lift and drag characteristics. The
large volume of air displaced by the rotor at hover and low speed can have a strong
Influence on weapons firing or personnel working near the helicopter. In this flight
regime the helicopter Is usually near the ground and the downwash can Introduce environ-
mental problems associated with high velocity and hot engine exhaust gases. Combined rotor
wash and flight In any direction may require measurement of unusually large angle airflows
Into the engine Inlets and on lifting surfaces. The rotor ground effect Is usually quite
strong which mandates that heights within one rotor diameter above the ground be deter-
mined very accurately. Considerable noise Is generated by the engines, power transfer
mechanisms, and other rotating parts. In addition, the rotors contribute significant
aerodynamic noise that may Include a wide range of frequencies and magnitudes.
1.2 Types of Tests
The type of test being conducted will significantly Influence the instrumentation
requirements. A typical listing of tests Is shown In Table 1.2-1.

TABLE 1.2-1
Typical Helicopter Flight Tests

Performance
Hover Performance
Take-off Performance
Climb Performance
Vertical
Forward Flight
Level Flight Performance
Maneuvering Performance
Acceleration and Deceleration
Turning
Dive Recovery
Return to Target
Terrain Following
Autorotatlonal Descent Performance
Landing Performance
Handling Qualities
Control System Characteristics
Control Positions In Trimmed Forward Flight
Static Longitudinal Stability
Static Lateral-Directional Stability
Maneuvering Stability
Dynamic Stability
Controllability
Ground or Deck Handling Characteristics
Takeoff and Landing Characteristics
Slope Landing Characteristics
High and Low-Speed Flight Characteristics
Power Management
Mission Maneuvering Characteristics
Effects of Weapons Firing
Stores Jettison Envelope
Instrument Flight Capability Aircraft Systems Failures
Simulated Engine Failure
Automatic Flight Control System Failure
Hydraulic System Failure
Tall Rotor Failure
Autorotatlonal Entries
Autorotatlonal Landings
Structural Dynamics
Vibration
Structural
Human Factors
Cockpit Evaluation
Night Evaluation
Internal Noise
Temperature
Toxicity
Reliability and Maintainability
Subsystem Tests
Engine Performance
Aircraft Pltot-Statlc System
Weapons System
Electronic Equipment and Antennas
Hydraulics
Environmental Aspects
External Noise
Radar Reflectivity
Infra Red Radiation
Downwash Effects
Types of Instruments, ranges, accuracies and environmental aspects must all be
considered. The optimum situation Is to have a fully Instrumented aircraft capable of
recording all parameters. However, for some tests, satisfactory results can be obtained
with limited Instruments at considerable time and cost savings. The most exacting Instru-
mentation requirements are for the performance tests. In these tests quantitative data are
the primary results and subjective opinions are used to evaluate pilot ability and machine
capability relationships. Power measurement Is the most difficult and most important.
Small helicopters often have engines In the range of 150 to 225 KW (200 to 250 SHP) and
a one percent error Is most difficult to measure. A limited amount of stability and control
or user data can be obtained during the performance tests. Stability and control tests
are a combined quantitative and qualitative effort. For these tests, emphasis is placed on
flight control systems, aircraft motions, and positions. Power and atmospheric conditions
are not as critical as for the performance tests. The data provide design Information and
establish flight capability and flight envelopes. Qualitative pilot comments are used to
assess pilot workload and man/machine compatibility. Test pilots must relate their experi-
ences with the test vehicle to the expected ability of the operational pilots. A very
important part of these tests Is the failure mode tests. Characteristics of the control
system are evaluated in great detail and all possible combinations of failures are con-
sidered. Appropriate caution or warning notes are generated and placed in the pilots
operating manuals. User tests will be peculiar to the mission of the organization or
dictated by the aircraft characteristics. Those tests may be quantitative or qualitative.
Operators can be either test pilots or user pilots. The instrumentation may be special
test equipment or It can be the standard aircraft equipment. A common approach Is to have,
combinations of the variations mentioned above. The user tests cannot be done with the
quantitative accuracy that Is possible in the performance or stability and control tests.
The greatest difference Is In the atmospheric conditions. Performance and stability tests
are normally conducted in a stable air mass while the user tests are conducted In opera-
tional conditions. Turbulence, wind, snow, Ice, rain, and dust are ever changing and
create complex effects that are presently beyond our ability to account for or measure.
Thus, the suitability of the machine Is largely determined by the pilot comments or the
capability to accomplish a specific task at a general set of conditions. While inexact
from an engineering viewpoint, these tests are a good measure of the ability of the men to
live with the machines and of the capability of the machine to accomplish the mission.

1.3 Instrumentation Environment

Helicopter Instrumentation often must survive In conditions more adverse than are
generally present during flight tests of fixed wing aircraft. Small helicopters have
limited space available and various compartments may be used. The Instrumentation system
may have components separated, which can cause many electrical problems. Electrical power
may be limited, and, in the case of transmission driven alternators, power may be inter-
rupted at low rotor speeds. Throughout the helicopter high vibrations should be expected.
The amplitudes and frequencies can vary widely. Basic frequencies will be multiples of the
main rotor speed. Superimposed will be the tail rotor frequencies as well as those from
structural components and other rotating parts. The main rotor will generate In-plane and
vertical vibrations. Fuselage vibration absorbers may be used. These absorbers are usually
effective only within a certain frequency range. During operation at other frequencies
they may amplify the basic vibration. Aircraft compartments usually have no environmental
control and Instrumentation placed there will experience a variety of conditions. Where
there Is no heating the compartment temperature will vary from 40°C in desert conditions
to -25°C during high altitude tests. When instruments are placed in compartments near
engines or transmissions special care must be used to determine compartment temperatures
prior to installation. A marine environment leads to consideration of any salt spray that
may occur. Tests in a desert situation generate dust and debris from the rotor wash. This
dust can be very fine and dense and will probably enter any compartments not specially
sealed. In addition to the cold temperatures, Ice on the rotor and airframe can signifi-
cantly change the vibration environment of sensors and recorders. Weapons firing tests
generate severe local pressure variations and alter the aircraft vibration character-
istics. Special landing tests such as minimum distance over an obstacle, shipboard landings,
or autorotational landings may generate significant normal acceleration loads.

1.4 Systems Planning

The Instrumentation system must be carefully planned to Insure that the necessary
data will be recorded In the best manner within the physical and cost limitations. The
recorded data may be used in different forms or may be processed in several ways which
require consideration of the data processing facility. The test objectives must be care-
fully analyzed to determine the required number of measurements. These results determine
the size of the installation and the recording device. They also have an Impact on the
method of recording. Volume or weight conflicts may arise which dictate priorities among
the desired Information. Essential, desirable, and non-essential items can then be deter-
mined accordingly.

Test requirements set the initial data accuracy goal and then appropriate system
characteristics are established. Required data accuracy must be considered for all system
components. Transducer requirements are established and signal conditioning is designed.
Throughout this effort the magnitude of the expected error must be known. Close coordina-
tion must be maintained between flight test and Instrumentation engineers to Insure that
accuracy requirements are not overly stringent. Compromise or relaxation of the require-
ments may be needed to prevent escalating complexity or cost.

Helicopter flight tests usually require an instrumentation system with a wide

range of dynamic response. Design emphasis In this area can have a most significant Impact
on the system. The parameters can be divided Into low frequency atmospheric conditions and
aircraft operation, medium frequency aircraft motion and response, and high frequency
vibration and structural loads measurements. The data parameters should be grouped by
dynamic response and maximum use should be made of electrical filters and multiplexing.

Decisions must be made regarding the form of the data recording and the data
processing methods to be used (Ref 1 ) . The minimum requirement will be dictated by the
tests. The most common method is recording electrical signals on magnetic tape. The tape
may be on board the aircraft or the data may be transmitted to a ground station. It Is
not unusual for both methods to be used. Documentation of the data can be accomplished by
use of a voice track In the recording system or with written notations by the instrumenta-
tion operator. Provision should be made for automatic data numbering and data event markers.
Event markers are extremely Important for the flight crew to note significant data points
or unusual occurrences during the test. Cockpit and/or ground playback and monitoring
capability contributes to data validity and assurance that desired test data Is being
recorded. When feasible and cost effective the data should be machine processed. In most
modern facilities the instrumentation and data processing systems are difficult to sepa-
rate. Thus, It Is mandatory to consider this Interface when designing the Instrumentation
system.
1.5 Installation
The Instrumentation Installation must be designed to be compatible with the test
vehicle, facilitate pre-fllght Inspection and maintenance, and to minimize crew workload
during the testing. Access to the test vehicle or scale drawings are necessary to establish
the location of instrumentation. The Instrumentation buildup can usually be accomplished
more easily In the shop than In the aircraft. The Instrumentation layout must consider:
a) Accessibility for check-out and maintenance,
b) Structural Integrity for flight safety, and crash worthiness,
c) Mass locations for aircraft weight and balance considerations,
d) Possible influence on vibration characteristics,
e) Convenience for flight crew operation.
An effective test program requires that the pre and post flight Instrumentation
activities can be accomplished in a minimum time. Centralized location of the necessary
equipment reduces time and eases checkout or correction procedures. Maximum accessibility
is gained by placing racks away from the sides of the compartments and by using a minimum
of closed panels. Routing of cables should consider electro-magnetic Interference as well
as allow visual and electrical inspection.
The racks containing the instrumentation and Instrument mountings must be designed
to withstand specified loadings. The Instrumentation should be able to withstand forces
greater than the occupant seats or restraints to insure safety during an accident. Typical
design Is for impact forces of ±20 g's In each axis. Wires, cables, or other restraining
devices should not present hazards during normal operations around or with the equipment.
The weight and location of each piece of equipment must be known. The Instrumen-
tation engineer should coordinate with the flight test engineer to consider the total
weight of the instrumentation with respect to performance capability of the aircraft, and
location of Instruments or components with respect to the center of gravity and Inertia.
Weight and locations are often critical for small test vehicles. Common practice Is to
write the weight on the larger pieces of equipment. This provides a rough accounting
during the installation. When the,Installation is complete an aircraft weight and balance
is required to account for wiring and small miscellaneous items.

2. ATMOSPHERIC
2.1 Air Data Instrumentation
All flight tests require some measurements of atmospheric data. Measurements
Include pressure, temperature, liquid water content, dust or debris concentrations,
humidity, and flow angles. The measurements may be devoted to the far field, relative to
the aircraft, or local conditions at a component or surface. Special problems arise
during climb and descent or dynamic maneuvers near the ground in various surface winds. In
the latter case a ground station Is often used to define the far field environment.
2.1.1 Free A'lr Temperature
Free air temperature systems must be Installed so that they will receive a minimum
influence from the aircraft. The sensor should be shielded from heat generating sources or
from hot airflow. Solar radiation should also be considered. Common practice is to Install
a calibrated test system to record the data. This test system is then used as the standard
to evaluate the basic aircraft temperature sensing installation.
The test sensor is usually mounted on the airspeed boom. When a boom is not
available the sensor is often mounted on the underside of the nose of the aircraft. Many
test sensors have a de-ice capability, however care must be used to insure that the de-ice
is on only at the specified conditions. Typically, operation above 0°C or below 30 m/s
(59 Kn) will introduce a 2°C error. The activation of the de-ice may be manual or auto-
matic. The system must include a cockpit Indicator for use in establishing flight test
conditions. This Indicator should have at least 1°C increments.
Helicopter flight test temperature conditions may vary from climatic hangar or
arctic tests at -55°C to a desert condition where the temperature Is 55°C. For other than
extreme environmental tests a commonly used instrumentation range is from -35°C to 50°C. A
platinum element resistance probe Is generally used to sense the free air temperature.
Pure platinum has been selected as the International standard temperature measurement
from -182.97°C to 630.5"C, and when properly used and calibrated, accuracy to 0.1°C can
be realized in field operation. To achieve accuracies of this magnitude, care must be
taken in both calibration and system Integration of the probe. For a calibration covering
the entire range of the platinum probe, measurements of probe resistance are made at four
specific temperatures and these values are employed to generate values of resistance for
any other desired temperature. This Is accomplished through the resistance-temperature
relationship for platinum which Is given by the Callendar-Van Dusen equation:

S
R
-
{L ( TOO
* _i){ 100
* ) -6<TI«-1)<JL1
° 100 100

where R_ is the element resistance at T°C, R is the element resistance at 0°C, .and 3, S,
and B are constants for each individual plat?nura element. A platinum probe system provides
greater output voltage, therefore has greater tolerance to noise than thermocouples and
does not require a reference junction temperature or other compensating device. The
platinum probe is superior to most other methods of on-board temperature measurements, but
care must be taken In signal conditioning to Insure that effects such as self heating do
not occur. Signal conditioners specifically designed for platinum probes are available and
can produce excellent results. For instrumentation systems requiring both cockpit display
and data recording, dual element probes are available to prevent undesirable interaction
of electronics.
2.1.2 Altitude

Altitude measurement is accomplished In terms of atmospheric pressure and height

above the ground. The data is required In the cockpit so the pilot can stabilize at an
altitude or maintain a prescribed path relative to the ground. The information is also
made available to the Instrumentation system. Typically, pressure altitude measurements
will range from 60 m (200 ft) below sea level to 7500 m (25,000 ft) during climbs to
service celling. Radar altimeters are often required for operations less than 300 m
(1000 ft) above ground level.

Test system static and pitot sources are placed in a location which will minimize
effects from aircraft and best reflect the true atmospheric conditions. When possible
these sensors are placed on a nose boom. The static pressure Is connected to both cockpit
Indicators and Instrumentation transducers. For most altitude applications, a standard
indicator is used with 6 ra (20 ft) resolution. This type of Indicator Is generally accept-
able for pilot Information. The Instrumentation system altimeter can be a strain gage
pressure transducer, capacitive transducer, or other suitable transducer. The capacitive
transducers come In both analog and digital output formats. Temperature effects can be
sizeable, and therefore should be quantified for necessary correction by appropriate
circuitry, enclosure of the transducer In a temperature controlled oven, or data manipula-
tion during analysis. Care should be taken to provide any necessary prefllght warraup time
for these transducers. From one to thirty minutes may be required for proper stability.
With proper Installation and appropriate data correction, accuracies of better than ±34 Pa
(0.01 in of mercury) can be realized which meets the requirements of most applications.

Very accurate height above ground information is often needed during hover and
take-off and landing tests, and a radar altimeter is used to supplement the pressure
altitude measurement. The antenna for the radar altimeter is mounted to insure no return
signal from the airframe. This Is a particular problem for aircraft with fixed gear or
skids. The cockpit Indication of radar altitude Is of special importance during tests near
the ground and In some cases a . 3 m (1 ft) resolution Is required. In all cases the pilot
should know height within 3 m (10 ft). A typical radar altimeter is the Honeywell model
APN 171. This altimeter has an accuracy of ±.5 m (1.5 ft) plus one percent plus five
percent of the average range rate, and offers a test mode switch for system checkout and
prefllght. Auxiliary outputs are used on the radar altimeters to provide inputs to the
instrumentation system for recording both absolute height and rate of change of height.
These signals are most often in analog format.

2.1.3 Humidity

At a given atmospheric pressure and temperature, humidity can affect helicopter

performance relative to dry air by a decrease in power available or an increase In power
required. In the first Instance, the humidity decreases air density and thus mass flow
through the engine; and in the second case, the rotor will experience an effective In-
crease in density altitude. The effect of humidity can cause several percent error In the
density which can have a significant Impact on helicopter performance. Humidity effect,
while large in theory, have not adequately been measured in flight. However measurements
of humidity should be made in order to build up a data bank for further analysis. The
crltlcallty of density changes Increase with higher temperature and higher relative humidity.

The density can be measured directly with nuclear radiation devices (Refs 2
and 3 ) . The accuracy of the referenced devices are 1 to 2% as they existed at the time.
Increased accuracy can be obtained by increasing the signal strength. However, extreme
care must be used relative to the radiation hazards. Electronic hygrometer equipment is
also available to measure the relative humidity directly. Quoted accuracy Is ±1.5%. When
engine power Is being corrected for humidity, the measurement must be recorded for each
test condition.
Independent measurements of free air temperature and dew point allow calculation
of relative humidity and the effect of air density (Refs 4 and 5 ) .
2.1.4 Icing
Helicopter Icing tests require that the water characteristics of the cloud be
measured for correlation with Ice accretion and effects on the performance or handling
qualities of the helicopter. Measurements Include droplet size and distribution as well as
liquid water content. The airflow characteristics around the helicopter are extremely
complex for other than high speed flight, and It Is difficult to find a sensor location
which is free from aircraft disturbance or contamination. While it is expected that ice
will accrete on all parts of the aircraft, it is not practical to measure Ice thickness on
blades or other rotating parts. It is common practice to paint or tape the blades in a
grid which identifies span and chord locations. Photographs are then taken to establish
patterns and amount of ice accreted. Those determinations are correlated to the atmos-
pheric conditions and accretion measured on the fuselage or other non-rotating parts.
Droplet size can be determined by various types of Impact measuring devices.
Slides coated with oil, gelatin, or carbon are exposed to the airstream for a short period
of time. The droplets are either captured by the surface or leave marks representative of
their size. Examination under a microscope allows determination of size and distribution.
Another technique involves a water sensitive tape or paper which is continuously moving
behind a slot exposed to the cloud (Ref 6). This provides a time history of the droplets
being encountered. Droplet size can also be determined by the rotating cylinder method.
This method exposes cylinders of various diameters to the airstream with their axis
perpendicular to the airflow. The cylinders are rotated slowly so that the ice build up is
uniform. The collection efficiency of each cylinder Is different and thus accretes Ice
from different droplet sizes. From the amount of Ice on the different cylinders a profile
of droplet size and distribution can be constructed. For other than conditions of cold
temperature and low liquid water content the cylinders have limitations which can cause
significant errors (Refs 7 and 8). A newer method uses a laser driven spectrometer (Knollen-
berg probe). This instrument operates on the principle that the laser light will be
scattered by the droplets as they pass the light beam. An optical system collects the
scattered light and through electronic means the practical size and distribution is
determined (Refs 9, 10, and 11). Each probe is designed for a range of droplet sizes and
care must be taken to insure that a sufficient number is used to encompass all the droplet
sizes. The output from the laser system can be recorded on magnetic tape, or with proper
equipment, can be viewed in real time.

Liquid water content can be calculated from accreted Ice or measured directly in
the atmosphere (Ref 12). The previously discussed rotating cylinders accrete Ice which can
be removed and, In conjunction with the collection efficiency can be used to calculate the
liquid water content. The visual Ice detector probe has a small airfoil with a steel rod
protruding forward of the leading edge. The protruding rod Is marked or color coded In
Increments for visual or photographic documentation of Ice accretion. The buildup on the
rod gives an Indication of Ice accretion on non-aerodynaralc surfaces, while the airfoil Is
Indicative of conditions on lifting surfaces and may correlate with main or tail ro'or
conditions.
The Rosemount ice detector uses magnetostriction to drive a sensing probe at its
natural frequency. As the probe accretes Ice, the natural frequency changes due to the
increased mass. The change Is calibrated In terms of Ice accretion rate. The calibration
of such a system must take Into consideration factors such as airspeed which affect ice
accretion. When the ice thickness reaches a predetermined value, the probe is deiced and
the cycle repeated. Cycle counting can be used to obtain total ice accretion. The probe is
housed In an electrically heated aspirator shroud which uses engine bleed air to Induce
ambient airflow over the probe during hover and low airspeed.
The Leigh Ice detector consists of a light emitting diode/photo transistor
assembly which provides an optical path that is partially occluded by accretion of ice on
the ice detector probe. The assembly is encased in an annular duct and ejector nozzle
which is supplied with bleed air to induce high velocity airflow over the ice collecting
probe and provide anti-lclng. When the ice accumulation reaches a pre-set level the probe
is electrically deiced and the cycle Is repeated. The Icing signal Is displayed on cockpit
indicators and recorded by the data system. Cycle counting is used to establish total
accumulation. Electronic circuitry Is Incorporated which calculates rate of accretion
during each cycle.
The hot film anemometer Is an electrically heated surface which is one leg of a
wheatstone bridge network powered by the output of a high-frequency, high-gain, differential
amplifier where bridge unbalance determines the amplifier output. When a water droplet
impinges on the sensor it is abruptly cooled. The resistance of the sensor is highly
temperature dependent and the cooling causes a bridge unbalance which Is sensed by the
differential amplifier. The amplifier applies sufficient power to the bridge network to
return the sensor to equilibrium temperature. The number of cycles indicates the droplet
distribution and the applied voltage shows the droplet size. Calibration data are then
applied to calculate droplet information and liquid water content. The frequency response
of the system Is critical with respect to the distortion and attenuation of the droplet
data signal In the processing and recording portions of the system. Large droplets or
multiple droplet strikes may cause data loss If the temperature does not recover before
the next strike occurs. Network noise must be minimized in order for the output from small
droplets to be recognizable.
2.2 Airspeed and Relative Wind Direction

Standard airspeed systems are oriented for conventional level flight. These
systems are fixed pitot-statlc differential pressure probes. They are usually designed and
arranged to show a minimum error at cruise airspeed. The threshold is relatively high and
the systems are often unuseable at indicated airspeeds- below 15 m/s (30 Kn). In level
flight, sideslip effects on position error normally Increase with airspeed. Sideslip
angles up to 5 degrees will not usually introduce noticeable errors. This Is an Important
consideration since most helicopters have sldeforce cues which allow the pilot to stay
within these limits. Very steep climbs or descents will cause noticeable shifts In the
position error for angle of attack or sideslip, and separate calibrations are accomplished
for those flight regimes (Refs 13 and 14). Standard cockpit indicators normally have
2.5 m/s (5 Kn) increments and the instruments are not calibrated but are accepted with a
specification accuracy tolerance. Thus, the accuracy of a particular instrument in a given
aircraft is not known. When the standard sensors are used for test data it is common
practice to mount a test indicator in the pilot's instrument panel. The test Indicator is
calibrated and can be read to 0.5 m/s (1 Kn) increments. During the test, data will also
be taken from the copilot's standard instrument to obtain information concerning what the
operational pilot will be seeing. This standard instrument is often satisfactory for user
or flying qualities evaluations.

2.2.1 Swivel-Head Test System

To minimize effects of angles of attack and sideslip or pressure distortions near

the fuselage, a swivellng pltot-statlc probe Is mounted on a boom extending forward from
the helicopter. Ideally, the boom length should place the sensor beyond the rotor downwash
in hover. However, this Is usually not practical. When the boom cannot be placed on the
nose, other possibilities Include wing, fuselage, or vertical stabilizer mountings.
Unusual airflow and vibration conditions should be expected in these locations. Consider-
ation must be given to the natural frequency of the boom to prevent excessive rotor
Induced vibrations. The boom Is attached to the airframe on one end and supported by
cables from the other end. A typical boom is 2.5 to 3 ID (8 to 10 ft) long and Is constructed
of 2024-T3 aluminum with a 4.45 cm (1-3/4 in) outside diameter with a .32 cm (1/8 In) wall
thickness.

The boom and pltot-static probe combination can be precisely aligned with the
aircraft axes by use of survey equipment. The center line of the aircraft as determined
from known airframe reference points is projected approximately 15 ra (50 ft) in front of
the vehicle. The offset distance from the boom mounting point on the fuselage and the
aircraft center line Is then determined. A transit is placed at the end of the center line
projection and offset laterally the same as the boom mount is from the aircraft center
line. By sighting the length of the boom through the transit, adjustments are made to the
boom until it Is parallel to the line of sight. This insures the boom is aligned with the
aircraft center line. A similar method is used with a plane through a water line to
assure proper angle of attack alignment. Free stream angle of attack and sideslip are
obtained by mounting movable vanes on the airspeed boom. A vertical vane gives sideslip
and a horizontal vane provides angle of attack. Suitable fixtures are constructed to
calibrate the vanes relative to the boom. A typical swivel-head probe and vane installa-
tion is shown In Figure 2.2.1-1.

PITOT - STATIC SWIVEL HEAD PROBE

C 21° MINIMUM ANY DIRECTION

PITCH \«NE

YAW VANE •

Figure 2 . 2 . 1 - 1
Boom Installation of Airspeed, Angle of Attack,
and Sideslip System

A suitable pltot-static probe has a swivel head gimbal freedom of at least

20 degrees in all directions, airspeed capability up to 100 m/s (200 Kn), angle of attack
and sideslip motion of ±45 degrees. Airspeed error should be less than 0.5% at angles of
attack and sideslip to 30 degrees. The vanes are mass balanced and airfree to align with
the relative airflow. Since the positioning torque Is low, the sensor must have low friction
bearings and extremely good balance. Potentiometers and bending beam strain gages are the
most common methods of sensing angle of attack and sideslip vane positions.
 Pitot-s tatlc systems are usually volume balanced to eliminate airspeed Indication
errors caused by differential pressure lags in the two ci rcults during climb or descent,
The pitot and st atic circuits are trial and error balance d by applying a pressure or
vacuum to both t he pitot and static sources simultaneous!y. The pressure or vacuum Is then
bled to ambient pressure at a constant rate ^20 m/s (4000 ft/mln) and the pressure dlffer-
ential read on t he installed sensitive airspeed Indicator . Care should be taken to avoid
over pressuring the airspeed Indicator, particularly in t he negative direction. A known
volume ('v.160 cc (10 cu in)) i s then added, usually to the pitot side and the process
repeated. The flnal volume to be added can then be calcul ated by linearly extrapolating/
Interpolating th e change In d ifferential pressure caused by the known change In volume,
Usually two Iter at Ions are sufflclent to balance the syst eras within 5 m/s (10 Kn) at
20 m/s (4000 ft/mln) vertical rate.

2.2.2 Omni-Dlrectlonal Airspeed Systems

Many helicopter tests require airspeed information at low airspeeds and In various
directions. Several systems have been developed which provide data in hover, vertical
climb and descent, and during sideward or rearward flight. These systems are also operable
in high speed conventional flight. Hover performance is very sensitive to relative wind
which must be measured within 0.5 m/s (1 Kn). The wind direction can also affect the
power required or critical directional control margin and should be measured with an
accuracy of ±2 degrees.

Location of the sensor Is critical since it is desired to measure a ircraft

velocity and not local flow conditions. Rotor wash is the largest single fac tor, although
disturbed flow from the fuselage, wings, or stores must also be considered It is expected
that each Installation on a particular aircraft model will be unique and the system will
require a flight calibration to determine the position error. Typical change s In position
error with sensor location are shown by Ref 15. Most of the low airspeed systerns have been
developed further since the referenced tests were completed. In fairness to all manufac-
turers and to avoid misinforming the reader, resolution, threshold, and accu racy numbers
will not be presented here. Capabilities of the various systems are summarlzed In
Table 2.2.2-1. Performance and special characteristics of the systems as the y were tested
may be obtained from references 16 through 21.

TABLE 2.2.2-1

SUMMARY OF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL
AIRSPEED SYSTEM CAPABILITIES

Longitudinal Lateral Vertical Angle of Angle of

System Airspeed Airspeed Airspeed Attack Sideslip
<V Kn -- Kn •. Ft/Min ". Deg ij D e g

0 Rearward to 50 left to None ± 180

Aeroflex 50 right None
250 forward

40 rearward 40 left to 0 to ± 180

Elliott ± 180
150 forward 40 right 4000 up

30 rearward to 40 left to ± 180

J-TEC None None
130 forward 40 right

50 rearward to 50 left to None None ± 180

Loras 150 forward 50 right

40 rearward to 50 left to Hone ± 130

Rosemount None
60 forward 50 right

50 rearward to 50 left to 0 to 0 to ± 180

Honeywell 200 forward 50 right 5000 up 90 up

NOTES: 1. Data shown are for the sensor mounted vertically. Forward or lateral mounting
will change the capability In the various axes.
2. With the exception of the Elliott, rotor downwash will adversely affect
performance.

a. j.erof lex
Aeroflex Laboratories, Inc., Plainview, Long Island, New York, was responsible
for development of the true airspeed vector system (TAVS). The TAVS consists of an air-
stream direction sensor, a true airspeed sensor, a visual indicator, and the associated
electronics. The corresponding sideslip angle in degrees and true airspeed In knots are
available as DC signals suitable for recording on an oscillograph or magnetic tape system.

The airstream direction sensor consists of four hot-wire sensors (bolometers)

mounted on top of the airspeed stream tuoe. The bolometers form an error-sensing bridge of
the airflow direction with respect to the longitudinal axis of the stream tube. Airflow at
an angle to the turbine duct causes the right and left bolometers to be cooled unequally,
which unbalances the error-sensing bridge. A servo system then rotates the pylon until the
bridge Is balanced and the stream tube Is parallel with the airflow. A vertical stabilizer
is externally mounted on the aft portion of the stream tube to provide directional sta-
bility at high speeds.
The true airspeed sensing unit Is a hollow tube mounted on a pylon base. The
forward portion of the tube contains a honeycomb structure, which assures axial flow at
the Inlet and also creates turbulent flow through the stream tube throughout the speed
range of the sensor. The rear portion of the tube contains a 16-blade turbine and two "V"
bolometer assemblies aft of the turbine. The principle of operation Is based on the premise
that for a given airflow through the turbine duct, the turbine can be rotated at a speed
(synchronous speed) which will permit undisturbed axial flow. An Illustration of the
sensor and a vector representation of Its operation Is shown In Figure 2.2.2-1. If the
turbine Is not at synchronous speed with the alrstream am (V
(V f V T p ) * t n e t w o " v " bolometer
assemblies sense the resultant airflow, V R , as a dev lation from axial flow, and a servo-
motor adjusts the turbine speed until the error signal is nulled. Thus, the component of
the airstream parallel to the turbine axis is synchronous with the turbine speed.

DIRECT10N SENSING BOLOMETER—7 METERING TURBINE

OPTICAL PULSE GENERATOR? / TURBINE DRIVE MOTOR
SPEED SENSING BOLOMETER

DIRECTION SYNCHRO
SENSOR
AC MOTOR DIRECTION DRIVE'

Figure 2.2.2-1
Aeroflex Airspeed Sensor

The airspeed and directl on sensors drive a visual Indicator and provide DC volt-
age outputs. The Indicator cental ns a roller-suspended, servo-driven tape, marked In
.5 m/s (1 Kn) Increments at Its c enter, to display airspeed In the range of zero to
180 m/s (350 Kn). At the perlmete r of the Indicator face, a servo-driven ring continuously
displays the sensor head position relative to the sensor base, through 360 degrees of
rotation. The DC output has three separate output recording terminals. Each output consists
of four buffered channels and can drive as many as four oscillograph galvanometers or
similar recorders. The DC outputs consist of a coarse signal for airspeed (zero to
130 m/s (250 Kn)), a coarse signal for direction (zero to 360 degrees), and a fine signal
for airspeed and direction which cycles every 13 m/s (25 Kn) and 36 degrees, respectively.

Elliott
The Elliott low airspeed system Is manufactured by Elliott Flight Automation Ltd,
Airport Works, Rochester, Kent, England. In the United States the equipment is the respon-
sibility of E-A Industrial Corporation, Chamblee, Georgia, the associate company. The
sensor and vector resolution Is shown In Figure 2.2.2-2.
10

SWIVEL
TOTAL PRESSURE - j
I i *

CIRCULAR VANE
STATIC PRESSURE J

SENSED LATERAL
AIRSPEED V t i n fi

SENSED SENSED
I l '• THRUST
V cot tin a FORWARD AIRSPEED
V COt 0 CO! >

.V cat 0

. : A/c
k. 'VERT
AIRCRAFT " ;
FORE A F T

PROBE

Figure 2.2.2-2
Elliott Airspeed Sensor
The sys tem Includes a swlveling total and st atic pressure sensing probe, a
computer and ai rspeed Indlcat ors for three axes. The resultant downwash aligns the probe
with loc al relat Ive wind (vect or sum of aircraft velo city and rotor induced velocity) and
provides adequat e dynamic pressure at all airspeeds. The angle of the probe and the
dlfferen tial pre ssure are used to calculate aircraft speed and relative wind direction,
Static p ressure Is measured an d rate of change is calculated to provide rate-of-cllmb
Informal Ion. The airspeeds pre sented to the pilot are longitudinal, lateral, and vertical
componen ts. A resultant Is not presented, nor is angl e of attack or angle of sideslip
calculat ed. Free air temperatu re is measured and the computer calculates true airspeed.
Individual longitudinal and lateral airspeed indicators (type 71-011-01) consist
of a stepper motor and a feedback potentiometer. This provides an indicator rate signal
and position signal which is fed back to the airspeed computer. The signals are summed
with the computer longitudinal airspeed and are checked by the servo monitor. Detected
failures are indicated by a warning flag on the indicator.
c. J-TEC
The VT-1003 vector airspeed sensing system Is manufactured by J-TEC Associates,
Inc. of Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The J-TEC vector airspeed sensing system measures relative
wind speed and direction with no moving parts. The VT-1003 consists of a sensor head, an
electronic processor, and an airspeed and direction indicator. The sensor Is Illustrated
In Figure 2.2.2-3.
The sensor head consists of six Identical tubes 6.67 cm (2-5/8 in) long, mounted
radially on a 13.65 cm (5-3/8 In) diameter hub. it Is mounted on the aircraft so that one
pair of tubes is aligned with the lateral axis of the aircraft and the other tubes are
30 degrees either side of the longitudinal axis. The sensor weighs approximately 1.6 kg
(3-1/2 lb).
Regardless of wind direction, flow exists in at least two adjacent tubes at any
time, allowing two equations to be solved simultaneously for the two unknowns.
 II

FORWARD

LEFT RIGHT

REARWARD

Figure 2.2.2-3
J-TEC Airspeed Sensor

At the inboard end of each tube, near the hub, is a vortex strut (a wire of known
diameter) located just ahead of an ultrasonic transducer. As air moves through the tube
and across the strut, a series of alternating vortices Is created. The frequency of these
vortices is directly proportional to true air velocity, and Is independent of density. The
vortices pass through an ultrasonic beam transmitter, modulating It. The modulation
frequency Is detected and Is sent to Its receiver where It Is converted to an audio
frequency signal.
The electronic processor and its case, a box 12.7 cm (5 in) wide by 20.32 cm
(8 in) high by 50.8 cm (20 In) long, weighs 3.18 kg (7 lb). It converts the Input audio
frequency signals from the sensor to voltages, and determines which two adjacent tubes
have the greatest velocities. The processor outputs two voltages proportional to longi-
tudinal and lateral true airspeed. Typically, the calibration is approximately 100 mv/ra/s
(50 mv/kt). Airspeeds are calculated within the processor.
The cross-pointer indicator in the cockpit has a fixed display in the form of
concentric circles 10 Kn (5 m/s) apart with zero located at the geometric center and
50 Kn (25 m/s) at the outer ring. The horizontal pointer moves up with Increasing forward
airspeed; the vertical pointer moves in the direction of lateral aircraft motion. The
Intersection of the two pointers Indicates resultant vector airspeed.
d. LORAS 1000
The LORAS 1000, made by Pacer Systems Inc. of Arlington, Virginia, consists of a
sensor unit, air data converter, omnl-dlrectlonal airspeed/density altitude indicator, and
a control panel. The sensor consists of two venturi tubes mounted on opposite ends of a
tubular rotor. The Venturis are connected to opposite sides of a differential pressure
transducer. A motor drives the rotor at a constant speed of 720 rpm in the horizontal
plane to assure adequate dynamic pressure in the Venturis, Independent of aircraft motion.
The air data converter combines the sensor unit outputs (differential pressure and the
corresponding angular position ol the Venturis) with temperature and static pressure and
outputs longitudinal, lateral, and resultant true airspeed. Density altitude is also an
optional output of the computer. The system was designed to operate over an airspeed range
of 25 m/s (50 Kn) true airspeed (KTAS) rearward to 100 m/s (200 Kn) forward and to 25 m/s
(50 Kn) In lateral flight. The system was also designed to be Insensitive to vertical
motion and its method of operation Is shown by Figure 2.2.2-4.
12

HIGHER PRESSURE IS
INDUCED IN THE
RETREATING ARM, WIND
DUE TO THE LOWER
AIRSPEED THROUGH

0
THE RETREATING
VENTURI

<^7
LOW PRESSURE I S INDUCED
4JVT rt IN THE ADVANCING ARM
DUE TO THE INCREASED
SPEED THROUGH THE
ADVANCING VENTURI

Figure 2.2.2-4
LORAS Airspeed Sensor
e. Rosemount
The Rosemount orthogonal airspeed sensor is manufactured by Rosemount Engineering
Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota. The system includes a sensor, airspeed Indicator,
transducer/analog multiplier unit and tubing. Sensor dimensions and operation Is outlined
In Figure 2.2.2-5.
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR -
0.75 DIA

15 WATTS/IN

FORWARD

SECTION A

Figure 2.2.2-5
Rosemount Airspeed Sensor
The sensor contains Internal electrical wiring for deiclng. Power consumption
with deicing operations is 250 watts in flight and 150 watts in still air.
The Rosemount orthogonal airspeed indicator Is a dual pointer instrument, with
both pointers moving rectlllnearly. The dual traversing pointers are driven by DC signals
from the Rosemount transducer and move the pointers through scales representing 60 Kn
(30 m/s) forward to 40 Kn (20 m/s) aft, and 50 Kn (25 m/s) left to 50 Kn (25 m/s) right,
respectively, when the airspeed sensor is mounted parallel to the aircraft's vertical
axis. Those Indicator limits were chosen to provide maximum sensitivity while encompassing
the expected range of helicopter operation.
 13

The Indicator scale Is presented In the form of concentric rings located at

10 Kn (5 m/s) circle Increments, with zero located at the geometric center of the Indicator
and a 40 Kn (20 m/s) circle being the most distant ring. The horizontal pointer reflects
forward velocity by moving upward, and rearward by moving downward. The vertical pointer
Indicates transverse velocity (right, left). A left vertical pointer deflection Indicates
flow coming from the left and, similarly for right deflection, a flow from the right.
Viewing the Intersection of the horizontal and vertical pointers will depict the vector
resultant of airspeed.
f. Honeywell

The Ultrasonic Wind Vector Sensor (UWVS) is designed and manufactured by the
Government and Aeronautical Products Division of Honeywell Inc., St Louis Park, Minnesota.
The system was designed to provide an accurate measure of the relative wind while using no
moving parts, giving linear sensitivity over the airspeed range, and responding to rapid
changes In wind magnitude and direction. The UWVS operates on a principle Involving ultra-
sonic signal transmissions through the moving air mass. The sensor and relative wind
vectors are shown In Figure 2.2.2-6.

3 TRANSMITTERS

TEMPERATURE
SENSOR

a --AIRCRAFT ANGLE OF ATTACK

0 = AIRCRAFT ANGLE OF SIDESLIP
W = WIND VECTOR ,W

+WZ

Figure 2.2.2-6
Honeywell Airspeed Sensor
The system Is a sensor head and an associated electronics package. The sensor
head has three receiver probes spaced at 120" Intervals around a transmitter and a tem-
perature sensor. The transmitter Is a piezoelectric transducer resonant at 75 kllohertz
and the receivers are wide band-width ceramic microphones with response to 400 Kllohertz.
The temperature sensor is a platinum element, thermally Isolated from the structure. The
sensor unit also contains a temperature sensor amplifier and three receiver preamplifiers.
The transmitter drive, timing logic, pulse detection circuitry and electronics used to
solve the equations are contained in the electronics unit.
14

Defining the wind velocity components is done with a geometric arrangement of

three ultrasonic transmission paths deployed In the airflow. From this, three equations
can be derived to express the velocity components as functions of the measured trans-
mission times along the paths. The temperature sensor is needed to compute the wave
velocity In air as a function of temperature. The transmitters are simultaneously pulsed
and at a later time, typically 200 to 300 microseconds, the wave arrives at the receivers.
By writing the equations for the other two transmitter/receiver pairs as a
function of their respective transit times, three equations with the three unknown vectors
result. These are not of a closed form because the vectors are a function of total vector
and therefore must be solved by Iterative or feedback methods. With zero relative wind
velocity, the three transit times will be identical and equal to the ultrasonic wave
transit time at the particular temperature.
With a relative wind along the X axis only, the times are equal, but increase In
value for forward aircraft motion. For relative wind in an arbitrary direction, the three
times will be different In value. In general the times can be considered as quantities
which vary by a percentage around the still air value. The total vector can be used to
provide three airspeed components as well as angles of attack and sideslip.

3. PROPULSION SYSTEM
The propulsion system data Is critical for all performance tests. The system
includes engines, transmissions and drive train components. Emphasis Is placed on para-
meters which are used to determine power required and power available. Power measurements
vary considerably with test objectives. For engines which have been previously defined It
may be necessary to only measure power input to the rotors. With new engines or new
Installations It may be required to measure every element in the propulsion system. The
most direct method to determine power Is measurement of torque and speed which are then
used to calculate power. Other methods include use of fuel flow and temperature in con-
junction with engine charts and engine characteristics data. The engine/alrframe Interface
must be established In terms of Inlet and exhaust characteristics. Engine cooling and
vibration can also have a significant Impact on suitability.
When system losses must be determined, each component will be instrumented to
provide input and output data. Accessory power must be determined for any power extracted
to operate aircraft systems. The instrumentation may Include electrical, hydraulic, or
pneumatic measurements. For tests of the dynamic compatibility of new or modified engine-
alrframe combinations and tests to evaluate engine/rotor response characteristics the
accuracy may need to be compromised to obtain satisfactory dynamic response from the
Instrumentation. In some cases redundant instrumentation will be necessary to meet both
steady state accuracy and dynamic response requirements.
3.1 Shaft Speed Measurements
Contained within the propulsion system are a wide variety of rotating components;
and measurements of the rotational velocities of these components are often of critical
interest to the test being conducted. Evaluation of the methods now available to measure
these rotational velocities centers around the magnitude and transitory nature of the
velocity. Those of high or low speed with little short term variation are easily measured;
but rapid changes In velocity must be given special attention. In general, less transient
parameters are handled by measuring the frequency of rotation in a rather direct fashion.
As an example, a constant rotor speed Is often measured by outputtlng the rotor tachometer
generator to a frequency to D.C. voltage converter. This provides a D.C. voltage level
proportional to rotor speed. While this technique provides good results with little or no
transient rotor conditions, large rotor speed variations can result in sizeable measure-
ment errors. By providing high resolution, high sample rate period measurements of variable
low speed shaft parameters, problems of response to rapid frequency changes and/or Invalid
data averaging associated with frequency to D.C. measurement techniques, can be eliminated.
Accuracies greater than ±1% are possible. Consideration should be given to measurement
repetition rate, master clock frequency, etc. required for the particular transient condi-
tions present.

3.1.1 Engine Speed

Engine speeds usually vary from high compressor or turbine speeds to lower shaft
speeds following gear reductions. Measuring Internal engine speeds with a test system Is
difficult at best, and may not be possible in some cases. Most engines have an Integral
rotational speed sensor which provides an electrical signal whose frequency is propor-
tional to the speed. This signal is used to drive standard cockpit Instruments and can
also be Input to a test recording system. The standard Instrument is usually not suitable
for recording test data from the cockpit and is often replaced or paralleled with a high
resolution test instrument. This method Is most useful for the pilot when conducting tests
or for use by observers monitoring test progress for completeness or quality of test
results.
Power turbine speed measurement Is often a tachometer generator system similar to
that described for the compressor speed and comparable methods are used. The power turbine
shaft may be directly available or may have an integral gear reduction transmission. The
most convenient shaft Is fitted with speed measurement Instruments and if necessary gear
ratios are used to calculate the turbine speed. A typical test instrument to measure
engine output shaft speed is a frequency to D.C. converter. The output of the converter is
a voltage proportional to the speed and is recorded by the instrumentation system.
3.1.2 Drive Shaft Speed

The drive shaft speeds which must be measured will depend on the test require-
ments and tbe physical nature of the test vehicle. In some Instances it may be necessary
to know the speed, while In other Instances the power being transmitted Is of prime
importance. An example of the first case is determination of rotor speed by measurement of
input shaft speed to a transmission. The second case arises when power must be known for
each component In the drive system. Transmission losses can only be established by measuring
input and output power. This necessitates a shaft speed measurement. A magnetic sensor and
recording system similar to that used for the engine output shaft Is the most common
method.

3.2 Engiae Torque

Engines commonly have a torquemeter which can be incorporated into the test
instrumentation system. The wide variety of aircraft types requires that the Instrumen-
tation system have great flexibility for Interfacing with engine torque sensors. Rather
than measuring torque directly, it Is more common to sense some characteristic which is
proportional to torque. The sensing devices in use include monitoring electrical per-
meability of the shaft, optical measurement of the shaft twist, and strain gages for
torsional measurements. Appropriate electrical circuits must be developed to provide
signals to cockpit indicators and aircraft systems. These circuits are normally used as
Input to the instrumentation system and care roust be taken not to alter the operation of
the standard torquemeter system. Isolation amplifiers may be required to Insure separation
of the aircraft torque system and the instrumentation system. In most cases the signal
level of the torque system will be less than one volt and noise reduction techniques
should be included. The engine is placed In a test cell and the torque is measured directly
with a dynamometer and the indicator reading Is noted. From this calibration, torque can
be determined for any indicated reading. Engine torquemeters have an accuracy on the order
of ±5% although, in one instance, an accuracy of ±l?o is claimed. The engine torquemeter
output must be recorded during the test since the operators manual will be developed in
terms of the power indication to the pilot.

During development of new engines, or for standard torquemeters that provide

inadequate data, it may be necessary to install a test torque measuring system. The test
power measurement system is usually placed on the engine output shaft. The torque must be
measured on the shaft for which the speed measurement was taken. Extreme care and close
coordination with the flight test engineer Is needed to determine what power Is being
measured and that It Is the correct power for the data requirements. Note should be made
of the power being measured relative to transmissions and power extraction sources.
Resistance type strain gages are commonly used to sense the torsion in the shaft. Tempera-
ture compensation must be adequate for the installation and consideration must be given to
shaft bending moments.

The strain gages are connected to a slip ring brush assembly which transmits the
signal. The electrical and mechanical properties of the slip ring assembly must be compat-
ible with the strain gages being used. After the strain gage installation the shaft is
calibrated in terms of force and deflection. Checks are made for adequacy of compensation
efforts and if necessary those influences are included In the calibration. It may also be
necessary to dynamically balance the shaft to compensate for the added Instrumentation. In
some cases slip rings have been replaced with telemetering systems which transmit torque
data from the rotating shaft to a stationary receiver.

3.3 Shaft Torque

Torque measurements on the Individual drive train shafts are made at the same
place as the speed measurements. Shaft speeds, diameters, and environments will vary
considerably and special care must be taken to compensate for mechanical or environmental
effects. A strain gage system similar to the engine torque is most commonly used. Me-
chanical, optical and electromagnetic systems have been used to measure shaft deflection
with applied torque.

3.4 Inlet
Inlet conditions are a critical item in the analysis of the propulsion system and
for determination of all aircraft performance. Data must be obtained which will show the
nature of the flow into the compressor, establish the mass Into the engine and establish
the starting point for a thermodynamic analysis of the engine. The Inlet may be all or any
part of the total ducting, shaping, guiding or holding apparatus between the free air
stream and the compressor face. Consideration must be given to the extreme range of
conditions generated by the helicopter flight regime. Vertical, forward, rearward and
lateral flight produce the full range In terms of sideslip and angle of attack. Rotor
downwash is usually present and there may be engine exhaust gas Ingestion caused by circu-
lation of the rotor wash. The Inlet performance Is usually defined in terms of pressure
and temperature conditions at the engine compressor face. Test requirements may dictate
establishing the turbulence or distortion in the Inlet flow. During the Instrumentation
design phase, special care should be given to obtaining data compatible with any previous
16

engine calibrations or any data needed to operate the engine computer program. Any Instru-
mentation must be fully certified for the expected dynamic pressures, temperatures, and
vibrations before it is placed in the inlet. Cockpit Instruments are usually provided for
In-flight recording of pressure and temperature and should there be multiple sensors a
switch should be provided to allow the flight crew to monitor the data.
3.4.1 Inlet Pressure
Most engines are delivered with at least one total inlet pressure sensor in-
stalled. For a well defined engine or for a cursory performance evaluation, this may
provide sufficient Information. A single sensor is not satisfactory for rigorous perfor-
mance tests or for dealing with a new engine or installation. To obtain data which will
show distortions and provide construction of pressure profiles, It Is necessary to use
several sensors mounted on a rake and placed in a suitable location in the inlet. The rake
will best show engine inlet conditions when It Is placed near the compressor face. The
number of sensors on the rake will depend on the data requirements, physical nature of the
inlet, and the recording system capability. Accuracy of the profile and distortion Infor-
mation Is very sensitive to the number of probes and the probe array (Ref 22). Struts or
any other physical characteristics of the inlet will Influence the flow and may change
engine performance. A typical Inlet rake Is shown In Figure 3.4.1-1.

„. _ IMMERSION
•RAKE
SENSORS
0 TOTAL
D STATIC

Figure 3.4.1-1
Inlet Rake
Both static and total pressure sensors are required and should be located at the
same engine station. The sensors must have a sensitivity, range, and response compatible
with the data required. For a large number of sensors It Is common practice to use a
scanl-valve arrangement where each sensor is switched to single pressure transducer in
sequence rather than being continually Input to the transducer. The time Increment between
samplings must be carefully considered. A good technique is to measure selected sensors
continuously while still Including them in the sampling sequence. This provides a check on
data validity and aids correlation of data from all the sensors. Total pressure ranges
from ambient to dynamic pressure at maximum airspeed. Pressure should be measured very
accurately since a small change can result In significant differences in calculated engine
power available or power required. When scanl-valve arrangements are used, dynamic response
of the pressure transducer must be considered to Insure proper performance with the multi-
plexed Inputs.
Some Inlets have filters, particle separators, and flow control or by-pass devices
which may require evaluation. In most cases a single upstream and downstream pressure
differential across the device will be adequate; however, a rake similar to that for the
compressor face may be necessary to provide the needed data. It is only possible to gener-
alize here and let specific decisions be made for each individual situation.
 17

3.4.2 Inlet Temperature

As in the case for pressure, an inlet temperature sensor is oft en standard with
the engine and may be used as a suitable data source in some cases. Duri ng hover or in low
speed omnl-dlrectlonal flight, the engine exhaust may be trapped In thedown wash and be
re-clrculated into the engine. Heat from transmission systems can also f ind its way to the
engine inlet. These heat sources can cause large inlet temperature rises with dramatic
effects on engine or aircraft performance (Ref 23). For re-ingested gas the temperature
may be uniform across the inlet while for radiated heat it may be concen trated in a parti-
cular sector of the inlet. Complete inlet temperature data require a rak e with probes
spaced at different levels and azimuths. Temperature sensors can also be placed on the
pressure rake as previously discussed. The number of sensors Is established by the degree
to which the profile must be determined. Hot gas re-lngestlon may cause temperature rises
of 50*C and the flow Is very turbulent which causes large rapid fluctuat ions and dictates
a high response characteristic for the sensor. A suitable Inlet temperat
chromal-constantan thermocouple. With a large number of sensors, It mayure sensor is a
use a time dependent sampling technique. A large time increment between be necessary to
restrict capability to establish variations in the temperature and a con samples will
selected sensors may be necessary. tinuous record of

3.4.3 Inlet Devices

The status of Inlet devices such as guide vanes, by-pass doors or variable geo-
metry equipment must be recorded. This Information is needed to evaluate and correlate
inlet flow characteristics and calculate airflow. In addition there may be drag consider-
ations. These inlet devices are usually mechanical and position sensors such as potentio-
meters or micro switches are used to record their motion. There may also be Inlet ram air
bleed devices and it may be necessary to measure the flow taken from the inlet.
3.5 Engine Temperature

Engine temperature requirements can vary from a single parameter to detailed

measurements at various engine stations. Engine stations and nomenclature usually varies
with each engine, however, the system to be used must be defined prior to instrumentation
system design. A typical engine layout and definition is shown in Figure 3.5-1.

STATION NUMBER
10
' I
*
LJ===
Tv

a
.'•'•'.'. , .'. , .'.V.' f T'•*>.?,'•" - • • •* • •• 'I 1 L \

\/n/nW/i//n/n/nnin/n/i/nm/nnirrL
r ;
, ' 'JT/-^-- ** , 1'jJ: / mm a.

FREE FREE
STREAM EXHAUST
AIRFRAME AIRFRAME
INLET 1 - EXHAUST
ENGINE LAST
INLET—I -TURBINE AND
FIRST ENGINE EXHAUST
COMPRESSOR FIRST
ASSY.
LAST
L •TURBINE ASSY
BURNER
COMPRESSOR- -DIFFUSER
ASSY

Figure 3.5-1
Engine Station Definition
18

Instrumenting for a detailed engine temperature evaluation Is an extremely diffi-

cult task and should only be conducted with the assistance of the engine manufacturer.
This Is advisable because ol potential engine performance changes or structural Impli-
cations caused by the test Installation. The temperature evaluation may be for Internal
gas flow parameters or for external surface and compartment conditions.
The Internal engine temperatures are ambient at the inlet and increase to a
maximum in the burner section. Engine design Information can be used to select sensors
which are suitable for the range and response requirements. Most flight tests require
measurements of only compressor discharge, power turbine, and exhaust gas temperatures.
These measurements are commonly taken from standard engine sensors which are usually
available. Additional temperature information is obtained by placing thermocouples at
selected stations shown In Figure 3.5-1.
Engine surface and compartment temperature measurements are necessary to estab-
lish the engine environment and assess the heat being transmitted to the surrounding
structure. Surface temperatures can be measured within ±1% by use of color coded tempera-
ture sensitive material. A change In color shows that a specified temperature has been
exceeded. This material is available as a paint or as a template. A wide range and choice
of increments can be selected to meet the expected requirement. More accurate data can be
obtained from thermocouples bonded to the test surface. Compartment temperature is measured
with a resistance thermometer using the techniques discussed for free air temperature
measurements.
3.6 Engine Pressure
Engine power and compressor performance Information requires measurement of
compressor discharge pressure. Engine specifications will provide the compressor ratio
data which is used to select a sensor with the proper range. Exhaust gas pressure is
measured with individual sensors or with an array of sensors on a rake as discussed for
the engine Inlet. Care should be taken to Insure that the sensor chosen Is operationally
compatible with the Installation as well as suitable for the gas temperature being measured.
3.7 Fuel
Fuel measurements Include flow rate, temperature, and quantity used. Flow rate
and temperature are necessary for engine or aircraft performance tests while quantity used
Is needed to determine aircraft weight. A careful study of the fuel system should be made
prior to designing the flow measurement instrumentation. Special attention must be given
to relative flow from various tanks, fuel transfer for CG control, fuel by-pass valves or
vapor return lines. Fuel tank level devices must also consider aircraft attitudes and
flight conditions.
3.7.1 Fuel Flow
The fuel mass being used by the engine can be measured directly with a mass
flowmeter or calculated from volume and temperature measurements. Sensors are available
for various flow rates and the appropriate one should be selected for each engine Instal-
lation. It should be noted that small helicopters have flow rates as low as 9 kg/hr
(20 Ib/hr) at Idle while large machines use up to 1130 kg/hr (2500 Ib/hr) at rated power.
In flight test, the flow is most commonly determined by measuring volume flow and
temperature and then calculating the mass flow. The volume flow is obtained from a turbine
flowmeter. Prior to installation the flowmeter is calibrated so that for a given turbine
rotational speed the flow can be determined. Calibration of the flowmeter is critical and
requires precise control of calibration fuel parameters to Insure definition of the number
of cycles of output from the turbine flowmeter for a specific unit of flow. Most test
turbine fuel systems use the cyclic output to determine total fuel used information. Both
cockpit display and digital output for Instrumentation system recording of fuel total are
generally used. Fuel flow rate Is computed by Interfacing a frequency to D.C. voltage
level converter to the turbine output. Again, both cockpit and Instrumentation system
recording of this data Is normally used. The flowmeter creates a small resistance to flow
which may affect engine operation and should be considered prior to Installation. The
sensor is placed in the fuel line as near the engine as practical. Extreme care must be
used to insure that the installation plumbing is the same as that used during the calibra-
tion. Variations can cause flow effects which will invalidate the calibration. The speci-
fied flowmeter Installation requirements should be met. These usually specify the diameter
of the input/output plumbing, length of straight line tubing required at Input/output and
may provide limits ol vibration exposure.

3.7.2 Fuel Temperature

To obtain a true mass flow the fuel temperature must be measured at the same
place as the volume flow was measured. When the measurements are made very near the
engine, the system will usually be enclosed by the cowling and fuel temperatures up to
50°C are not uncommon. Consideration must be made for any oil-fuel heat exchanges in the
system. Fuel flow measurements are usually made at relatively steady flow conditions and
for maneuver situations, dynamic response of the sensor must be considered. The tempera-
ture sensor Is placed directly upstream of the flowmeter. A suitable type of sensor for
 19

this application would be a platinum element probe designed for Immersion In fluids. Any
number of platinum element probes can be obtained for this application, but attention must
be given to proper design of the Installation utilizing them. Frlctlonal heating of the
probe due to fluid motion, stem conduction errors, and flow obstruction must be considered
In the design. Some relief from these requirements for engineering can be obtained by
Implementing a platinum probe/tubing combination sometimes called an in-line sensor. These
sensors install as a short piece of tubing with the platinum probe Integrated Into the
tubing by the sensor vendor and can be ordered to meet the specific application at hand.

3.7.3 Fuel Quantity

Prior to flight, the fuel mass and aircraft weight are precisely known. There-
fore, an accurate In-flight gross weight requires determination of fuel used from engine
start to the time test data is recorded. Fuel used Is determined by the flowmeter cycles
and the fuel density in the fuel tank. Specific gravity of the fuel In the tank Is estab-
lished In the laboratory for samples taken before and after each flight.

Any flow through fuel return or by-pass lines is measured and used to correct
fuel flow and fuel used data.

3.8 Power Extraction

Power may be extracted from the engine to operate electrical systems, hydraulic
systems, and environmental control systems for the occupants. For exacting aircraft
performance tests these powers must be considered in the power required terms. During a
propulsion system analysis these powers affect the total engine power available, and In
the case of airflow taken from a particular engine station, may influence the thermo-
dynamics of engine operation. The systems are often complex and redundant and each must be
carefully analyzed to determine sensor location so that the proper power is being measured.

Electrical power from the alternator Is determined by measuring power directly or

Indirectly from measured values of voltage, current, and the phase angle between voltage
and current. Standard engine sensors normally are provided and the signal can usually be
recorded by the test data system. High accuracy requirements for power usage by any com-
ponent will dictate Installation of test sensors.

Hydrayllc system power may require measurement of power to drive the pumps or the
flow of hydraulic fluid. The pump may be driven by engine gear box, rotor transmission,
electrical power, or bleed air. Gear trains or drive shafts require a speed and torque
measurement as previously discussed. Provided the density of the hydraulic fluid is known,
the hydraulic mass flow may be determined from the measurement of volume using a method
similar to that for determination of fuel mass flow as discussed In paragraph 3.7.1.
Electrical pumps need voltage and current measurements. Bleed air flow Is measured by
pressure and temperature sensors.,Another determination of power loss to bleed air can
often be obtained from engine test cell data with bleed air on and off.

Cockpit or cabin environmental control systems are often combined electrical/

airflow devices. Cooling may be obtained by circulating outside or cabin air through a
refrigeration unit. This unit may be electrically driven or may use engine bleed air.
Previously discussed Instruments can be used to obtain power and airflow data.

3.9 Power Plant Controls

Power plant controls Include those In the cockpit and at the engine. Reciprocating
engines usually have cockpit controls whose positions need to be measured while turbine
controls are normally on-off or three position devices. Automatic engine controls are
often instrumented to provide correlation data and Insight to engine performance char-
acteristics. Engine and cockpit control relationships are needed to evaluate dynamic
response and engine/rotor capabilities. Potentiometers or microswitches are generally
used as sensors for these applications.

The amount of motion can be expressed in degrees or linear measurement around the
arc for a control which moves about a fulcrum. Calibration of control motion Is generally
done by using an Inclinometer to measure the angular motion in degrees and then by measur-
ing the radius of the control arm. Attention must be given to properly identifying the
radius of the control arm. The distance from the center of hand contact to the fulcrum is
most often used.

3.9.1 Cockpit Controls

Power levers or twist grip throttles are Instrumented with position transducers
to show position from closed to full open. For on/off controls, microswitches are used to
record the positions. Microswitches or position transducers can also be used to show
activation of engine trim devices. Strain gages are placed on the controls to measure
forces applied by the pilot.

3.9.2 Engine Controls

To determine lost motion and delay in activation, the controls at the engine are
Instrumented and results are compared to control motions In the cockpit. Fuel control
levers can be measured In terms ol angular or linear displacement. A very sensitive sensor
20

must be used since the displacements may be very small. Engine controls such as droop
compensation are not controlled directly by the pilot and motion must be correlated with
Items other than cockpit engine controls. Engine governor Inputs to these can be Instru-
mented as previously discussed.
3.10 Engine Vibration
It may be necessary to measure either vibration generated by the engine or the
vibration from the airframe to the engine. Transducers are placed on the engine to measure
motion in all axes. The sensors must be located relative to any absorbers or dampers so
that the desired vibration Is being measured. In the case of more than one engine, each
must be instrumented because of potentially large changes with asymmetric power. The
sensors are usually placed on the engine mounts.
Transducer types employed can vary greatly due not only to environmental and
parameter requirements, but also as a result of the analysis philosophy employed. In most
instances, accelerometers are used to assess vibration levels, but some analysts use
velocity sensors Instead. No attempt will be made in this document to Influence the reader
In favor of one method or the other, but a brief discussion of transducer types Is pre-
sented.
Vibration levels at engine stations are due to a broad frequency spectrum of
input. The rotor system excites the area with low frequency, while rapidly rotating de-
vices including the engine, provide high frequency excitation. Most often, the full range
of Inputs can be sensed using piezoelectric accelerometers. These have a flat frequency
response of approximately 3 to 30,000 HZ. Mounting of the accelerometer should be accom-
plished without changing the vibrational characteristics of the test article. That Is, the
mass of the accelerometer and the mounting device or material should be carefully chosen.
Often, glue is used to attach the accelerometer. If this method is employed, the tempera-
ture of the surface should be used as one criteria for selection of the glue. Further
comment on accelerometer useage will be given in the discussion of airframe vibration.

Velocity transducers are generally of two types, piezoelectric or a permanent

magnet/coil combination. The piezoelectric transducer Is actually a piezoelectric accel-
erometer with an Integral amplifier/Integrator and has a frequency response range of
approximately 1 HZ to 2000 HZ. The permanent magnet/coil combination transducer has a
lesser frequency range (typically 10 HZ to 1000 HZ), but Is self generating and therefore
does not require a regulated power supply as does the piezoelectric transducer. Both
provide a millivolt output proportional to velocity.

4. AIRFRAME
The airframe measurements are needed for a variety of tests. Performance testing
Includes drag determination, which requires attitude and relative wind data. In some
cases, the data must be corrected for linear or angular accelerations. Attitudes, rates,
and accelerations are critical for stability and control tests. In these tests the struc-
tural and dynamic maneuvers require measurement of loads or stresses in various components
to establish component life of flight envelope limitations. Airframe vibration Information
Is needed to evaluate occupant environment and conditions experienced by Instruments and
aircraft sub-systems.
4.1 Attitude
The aircraft attitude is measured relative to an earth axes system. Usually it Is
necessary to measure pitch, roll, and yaw attitudes. Sensor location relative to the
aircraft body axes must be precisely known. For tests near the ground, photographs showing
flight path and an earth reference can be used to measure the attitude. Most tests are
sufficiently above the ground that ground mounted cameras cannot be used. Photographs from
chase aircraft seldom show true angles and thus cannot be used for engineering data. With
the proper equipment, celestial bodies in conjunction with earth position can be used to
determine the aircraft attitude. These photographic and optical techniques require special
equipment. The data are difficult to process and cannot be used in certain atmospheric
conditions. For steady state condition, pendulum type sensors can use earth gravity to
measure the relative position of the aircraft. Acceleration effects render such a system
unuseable for most flight test purposes. Gyroscopes mounted on each of the aircraft axes
provide the best approach to obtaining the aircraft attitude. Certain helicopter character-
istics alter the requirements somewhat from those needed in a fixed wing application.
While some helicopters are fully aerobatic, pitch attitude will seldom be more than ±60"
and roll is usually within ±100°. In several tests the helicopter Is required to yaw 360°
at hover and low speeds. The gyroscope data Is usually recorded continuously for times of
less than one minute, which should be taken Into consideration when selecting suitable
sensors.

4.1.1 Pitch and Roll Attitude

Attitudes are measured with a 2 axes gyroscope. For most engineering flight tests
a nominal range is ±45° in pitch and ±60° In roll with a 0.5° resolution. The resolution
is dependent on the signal conditioners and encoders. Electrical conversion of pitch and
roll position is accomplished, in most instances, by one of two methods. Synchro signals
are, in some cases used for position information output, but this method requires conver-
sion of the synchro data into an electrical form compatible with the data recording systems
 21

signal conditioners or encoder. More direct Input of position data to the recording system
can be achieved by using gyros with potentiometers for position encoding. These are most
often directly compatible with recording system signal conditioners. The attitudes are
measured for steady state conditions as well as deviations from the trim during maneuvers.

4.1.2 Yaw Attitude

Yaw attitude must be measured from some reference point. The gyroscope Is similar
to those for pitch and roll with the addition of a caging feature. At trim or some desired
starting condition the gyroscope is uncaged and then will show deviations from Initial
aircraft heading. The range Is then ±180° from that heading with a linearity of 0.5% of
full range. For some instruments, yawing more than 180° will cause the gyro to tumble.

Certain tests of navigational systems or earth referenced maneuvers require

magnetic headings. This data is obtained by use of the aircraft gyroscope with signal
conditioning such as a synchro to D.C. or binary converter which tracks the compass head-
ing. Yaw attitude changes can be computed using Euler angle transformations.

4.2 Angular Rate

Angular rate data can be calculated from the attitude gyroscope output. In addi-
tion to the computation requirements, a portion of the data Is lost with this approach and
helicopter flight tests usually require installation of rate gyroscopes. The rate will be
measured from an Initial test condition which can be either static or dynamic. Following a
control input, the maximum rate will usually occur within two seconds, and appropriate
sensor characteristics should be selected. The rates are measured for each aircraft axis,
and the location of the sensor must be accurately established. The rates generated during
the tests are considerably less than lor high performance fixed wing aircraft, and sensor
selection should be influenced accordingly. The range must be sufficient to encompass
aircraft motions which are generated by 2.54 cm (1 in) control inputs that are held for
one second. Typically a rate gyro with ±30"/sec in pitch, ±100°/sec in roll and ±60°/sec
in yaw is used. The format of the electrical output of the rate gyro motion will vary but
a high level single-ended output Is most often used.

4.3 Angular Acceleration

Angular acceleration data is needed to assess the helicopter controllability and

for use In aircraft energy calculations. Angular accelerations are often computed by
differentiating the rate gyro output. When necessary, accelerometers are usually mounted
at the aircraft center of gravity and are aligned with the pitch, roll, and yaw axes. The
alignment and location of each sensor must be accurately established and recorded. The
helicopter angular acceleration can be up to 200°/sec . Stability and control systems
input must be considered and the sensor is usually sized for systems "off" which produces
the highest acceleration. The pitch, roll, and yaw accelerations are Inversely propor-
tional to aircraft moments of Inertia and therefore are usually highest in the roll axis.
Presently available angular accelerometers are highly susceptible to vibration contami-
nation, making mounting critical.

4.4 Linear Acceleration

Linear accelerations are required for energy analysis in performance testing and
for certain stability and control tests. When the data are to be used for power correc-
tions due to accelerations In the various axes, the sensors are placed as near the center
ol gravity as possible to minimize the effects of angular motion. During systems testing
or handling qualities evaluations, it may be necessary to measure the total acceleration
(linear plus angular) at a component or at the pilot's station. In these specialized
cases, It may not be required that all axes be instrumented. The omni-directlonal flight
capability of the helicopter imposes requirements somewhat different than fixed-wing
aircraft. Sideward and forward acceleration capability are nearly equal and may be up to
1 G. Normal acceleration seldom exceeds 3 G. The accelerometer data should be very accurate
since small errors can introduce large variations In the performance calculations. In
addition to high accuracy, the sensitivity and frequency response must be sufficient to
record rapidly changing conditions during maneuvers. A large variety of accelerometers are
available for measuring this range of acceleration. The requirement to measure accelera-
tion In a frequency band which Includes static accelerations can be satisfied by the use
of strain gage or piezoreslstlve accelerometers. Although both types provide a lower
frequency response of D.C., the upper limit can vary from 600 to 8000 HZ and requires
excitation. Careful selection of pre-sarapling or signal conditioner low-pass filtering
will eliminate the acceleration Inputs from the sensor above a predetermined maximum
frequency of interest. The general frequency band desired is from D.C. to main rotor
frequency. Selection of the proper accelerometer should consider ambient conditions, size
constraints, the acceleration range present, and the frequency range desired. As with
attitude gyros, the accelerometer orientation should be exactly defined by the aircraft
axis. Accelerometers are usually calibrated to the standard gravitational acceleration
value. For some tests, output may be corrected for local gravity.

4.5 Vibration
Airframe vibration frequencies are predominantly multiples of the main and tall
rotor speeds. An out of balance or out of trim blade will generate a vibration with a
frequency equal to the rotor speed. Helicopter main rotor speeds may produce vibration
22

with a frequency as low as 3 HZ. Other vibration sources usually have frequencies greater
than those from the main rotor. It Is necessary to define both frequency and amplitude In
order to evaluate the effect on structures, components, and occupants. The testing often
will Include ground operation to insure that natural frequencies of the airframe are
different than rotor excitation frequencies. These types of test are mainly concerned with
structural Integrity. The flight tests are generally concerned with crew or passenger
environment or determination of conditions to be experienced by avionics, aircraft systems,
or cargo.
4.5.1 Sensor Locations
Sensors should be located in all areas where vibrations can be transmitted to the
crew members. Typical location are the seats, flight controls, instrument panels, foot
rests, and consoles in the cockpit. Each potential location must be analyzed to determine
the number and orientation of the required sensors. Consideration should also be given to
instrumenting external stores, pylons, doors, horizontal and vertical tall surfaces. It
may also be necessary to obtain data for wings and landing gear. Vibration of aircraft
components is measured and compared with excitations to evaluate performance of the
mounting or damping mechanisms. Mounting of the sensors will vary according to the physical
makeup of the accelerometer and the mounting location. In all cases, however, the vibra-
tional characteristics of the structure under test should be altered as little as possible.
Care should be taken to insure that the natural frequency of the accelerometer is not
shifted into the frequency range of interest by the mounting technique. This can happen
quite easily if poor surface contact results from Improper mounting. Alignment of the
sensors is critical and should be traceable to a known reference.
4.5.2 Sensors
Velocity pickups or acceleroraeters are suitable, with the latter being in most
common usage. It may be necessary to sense vibration in a single axis or In 3 axes. A
suitable single axis sensor is a piezoelectric with a frequency response of 5 to 2000 HZ.
Piezoelectric accelerometers are a good choice because they have self generating output,
wide frequency response, small size and are easily mounted. For dynamic acceleration,
which is of interest In airframe assessment, the piezoelectric sensor also has the advan-
tage of not responding to input frequencies much below 3 HZ. These devices do require some
care In application, however. By employing the piezoelectric effect, the sensor produces a
charge that is proportional to the acceleration level. It is then necessary to convert
this charge to a voltage for input to the instrumentation signal conditioning. The voltage
produced will be proportional to the charge and the capacitance of the sensor, cable and
signal conditioner input combination. Unfortunately, the capacitance of the cable will
vary with length, which hampers interchangeability and by flexing the cable, charge noise
can be generated and Is indistinguishable from the sensor charge output. These drawbacks
can be overcome by using a well placed charge amplifier rather than a voltage or source
follower amplifier and by using low noise cable. The output of a charge amplifier is
strictly a function of the sensor charge output, the amplifier feedback capacitor and
charge noise generated by the cable. By placing a low gain miniature charge amplifier near
the sensor and then amplifying the resultant voltage output with the instrumentation
signal conditioning, low noise measurements can be made. This low gain configuration helps
in suppressing the triboelectrlc noise (cable charge noise) and eliminates cable capacitance
effects. A number of manufacturers produce suitable charge amplifiers.

4.6 Loads
The structural loads demonstration is conducted in conjunction with the early
vibration testing. During the performance, or stability and control testing, the limits of
the envelope will be reached and new conditions or maneuvers may be attained. Loads data
can be used to evaluate the hardware suitability under mission operating conditions, allow
comparison with design Information, and contribute to fatigue life calculations. Loads
Instrumentation is extremely critical with respect to sensor location and number of
sensors. Analysis of design information, bench or component testing results, and previous
flight tests will suggest critical locations. Models can also be constructed of materials
which will visually show stress concentrations. Comparisons of data from these different
sources are most accurate when sensors are in exactly the same location on the structure.
4.6.1 Sensor Location
Sensors should be placed on all components expected to be fatigue critical.
Special consideration should be given to structures directly transmitting or receiving
thrust or lift forces. Examples would be tail boom mounting structures, transmission
mounts, and wing or stabilizer attachments. Specific guidance on sensor location is not
possible, and the instrumentation must follow the directions of the stress analyst who
will consider local stress concentrations, operating environment, and inter-relations with
other components or structure.
4.6.2 Sensors
Load measurement is best accomplished with a bonded strain gage bridge. Particular
attention must be given to the gage factor, type of material being tested, environmental
temperature, and conditions at the mounting location. Bonding must be of the highest
quality. Calibrations can be calculated on the basis of sensor specifications and verified
dynamically.
 23

4.7 Cockpit and Cabin Environment

Tests may be conducted to measure the operating environment of the crew compart-
ments to insure that occupants can function adequately throughout the helicopter flight
envelope and during the mission requirements. The data is obtained during ground tests,
climatic hangar tests, and flight tests. In addition to vibration, which has previously
been discussed, the compartment temperature, quality of air and noise environment are of
primary concern. Ground tests and climatic hangar tests often generate absolute data which
is used In assessment of basic design or hardware modifications. Flight test data is
usually evaluated in terms of how the conditions affect the occupants.
4.7.1 Air Temperature and Airflow

The stabilized temperature within the compartment is dependent upon the outside
ambient conditions, the quantity of heating or cooling added, the efficiency of the distri-
bution, and the heat transferred from the compartment to the outside. The vertical and
lateral temperature gradients should be measured at the crew stations. Solar radiation or
extraneous heat sources should be considered when selecting sensors. Thermocouples, shielded
or unshielded as required, provide satisfactory results. Depending on the accuracy desired
and temperatures to be measured, the systems in use range from iron-constantan thermocouples
to platinum element probes with very exacting wiring practices and signal conditioning.
The number of sensors and the distribution within the space can be based on a human factors
evaluation, analysis of the airflow pattern, or qualitative judgement of occupants. A
similar procedure is used for avionics and cargo compartments.

The quantity of airflow and heat being provided to the compartment is measured at
the duct outlet or the heater. Outlet air temperature Is measured with a thermocouple as
discussed above. Total and static pressure sensors are also placed at the outlet to deter-
mine airflow. Selection of sensors must consider the very low velocities to be expected.
Planning information can be obtained from design specifications or from systems test
results.
Humidity In the compartment can be measured with any suitable hygrometer.
The airflow patterns within the compartment can be measured with a hot wire
anemometer. The anemometers can be mounted on a rack and moved to different locations or
the sensors can be placed at the position where the temperature profile Is being determined.

Air quality can be measured with various instruments to monitor and sample dif-
ferent types of gases and toxicity levels. In addition it is common practice to obtain air
samples In suitable containers and then to perform a laboratory analysis.

4.7.2 Surface Temperature

The temperatures of Interior compartment surfaces and any exposed ducting are
measured with thermocouples. Calculation of heat loss through windows requires that both
Interior and exterior surface temperatures be measured.

4.7.3 Internal Noise

The Internal noise level In the helicopter must be measured to evaluate crew
comfort, performance, communication, and safety aspects. Consideration must be given to
measurement at point locations such as the pilot's ear or to obtaining data needed to
create noise profiles. Noise data for the passenger section are of particular interest
since these personnel do not normally wear helmets or protective gear. Selection of the
sensors and recording equipment must accommodate a frequency range from 20 to 10,000 HZ
and overall decibel levels up to 120. This will be influenced by windows, rotor and engine
speed variations and any weapons firing. Sensor and recording requirements will be further
addressed In the far field measurements, Section 8.2.

b. ROTORS AND PROPELLERS

Rotors and conventional fixed wing aircraft propellers have a great deal in
common, however; rotors have several features which render them considerably more difficult
to instrument and test. Significant differences are:
a) Rotors have blades which are longer and thinner with less rigidity.
b) Rotors are controlled with both collective and cyclic pitch Inputs.
c) Blades may be attached to the hub with various hinge arrangements.
d) Rotors have different and complex axial and in-plane flow relations.

The critical nature of the rotor system dictates that a great deal of data and
analysis be considered before conducting flight tests. Ground vibration tests are conducted
to determine the blade natural frequency and mode shapes. The blades and hubs (all possible
actual hardware) are then placed in a whirl tower to confirm the ground tests. Further
vibration and stress data are then obtained from a restrained aircraft. These tests provide
information concerning stress distributions, magnitudes of loads, and boundaries for blade
compressibility or stall.
24

As a rule, the preliminary tests do not accurately simulate flight conditions and
It is necessary to obtain flight test data to accurately assess rotor performance, stability
and structural capabilities. In some cases the instrumented rotor components from the
ground test are available for the flight tests. Such equipment will reduce the instrumen-
tation needed for the flight test and will produce the best comparative data for deter-
mination of effects of actual flight conditions. New instrumentation must make maximum use
of all test results to insure that the proper sensors are placed in the correct locations.
Occasionally a blade will be fully instrumented. More common practice is to instrument the
most critical locations for comparisons with design expectations and previous test results.
Most rotor systems have symmetrical parts so that it is only necessary to Instrument
typical components, such as one blade, one hub attachment, or one control linkage. When
this Is done, consideration must be given to any mass Imbalance that may result.
5.1 Blades
The sensors placed on the blade must consider aerodynamics as well as structures.
The sensors must not create extra drag or reduce lift. An aerodynamicist should provide
guidance as to the best locations. A stress analyst should be consulted to insure that the
desired loads are being measured. Equal consideration must be given to any wiring on the
blade from the sensor to the recording system. Significant aerodynamic effects can result
from wires placed Incorrectly on the lifting surface.
Vibratory stresses are best measured with resistance gages. The strain gages are
bonded to the blade using the proper technique and the greatest possible care. The gages
are oriented to provide blade measurements of torsion in pitch, flapping, and in-plane
bending.
5.1.1 Airflow
In certain cases It Is necessary to determine the nature of the airflow around
the blade. Visual displays such as tufts, smoke, or oil films provide qualitative informa-
tion and are most useful as a guide to the best location for the sensors. The sensor
location and data to be measured are provided by an aerodynamicist. A common technique Is
a matrix of small holes drilled In the blade and tubing is then used to duct the static
pressure to differential pressure transducers. Physical alteration of the blade must be
accomplished under the direction of structural engineers. The tubing should be as short as
possible to reduce lag in the system and to provide the best response to rapid pressure
changes. In order to determine the pressure distribution accurately, such a large number
of pressures must be sensed that the recording capability is often overloaded. Commutation is
used to reduce the number of recording channels. The speed of commutation and the type of
data must be such that interruptions do not invalidate the results. The static pressure
changes are usually small values and high sensitivity is needed.
5.1.2 Blade Positions
The blade positions are controlled by inputs of collective pitch to all blades
and cyclic pitch which varies as the blade azimuth changes. Aerodynamic forces cause
vertical blade motions (flapping), In-plane motions (lag), and torsional pitching motions.
The sum of those motions combine with rotational speed and free stream air to produce a
local blade angle of attack. The blade angle of attack Is different at each blade section
and Is changing very rapidly. Blade angle of attack Is not measured directly but can be
calculated from the pressure distribution data. For articulated or teetering rotors, blade
flapping Is measured at the blade hub attachment with a position transducer. Lag angle is
also measured at the blade root in a similar manner. These transducers are generally
potentiometers or linear variable differential transformers.
Blade azimuth during each revolution must be measured to evaluate significance of
blade behavior. The main rotor speed can be measured with a tachometer, however, this does
not give the azimuth of a particular blade at a point In time. One way to record blade
azimuth is with stationary receivers which sense passage of a magnetic or optical device
attached to the blade. The number of sensors needed per revolution will depend on the
accuracy with which the azimuth must be established. The sensor signals can also be
correlated with the rotational speed measurement from the tachometer. Optical and acoustic
devices may also be used for blade position measurements.
5.2 Hubs
The rotor hub experiences large tension loads caused by centrifugal forces on the
blade, bending moments from in-plane motion, vertical moments from blade flapping and
torsion caused by blade pitching moments. Rotor hubs are usually complex forms and stress
analysis Is required to determine the location for the strain gages. The number and
location of the sensors will be unique to each installation and must be established on a
case by case basis. Resistance strain gages are used in a manner similar to that discussed
for the blades.
5.3 Pitch Links
The collective and cyclic control is transmitted to the blades by pitch links.
Aerodynamic and blade dynamic loads from the blades are also fed into the pitch links as
are static loads when the rotor is not turning. Stress analysis will determine number and
location of strain gages required. The gages are mounted to measure vibratory tension and
compression. Strain gage specifications and mounting considerations have been previously
 25

discussed. In most designs the pitch link loads are transferred directly to the swash
plate and can be measured at that location.

5.4 Data Transfer

The rotor data measured on the rotating parts must be transferred to the station-
ary data recording system In the aircraft. Mechanical slip ring and brush devices are the
most common method. The strain gage signals are very low voltages and the slip ring assembly
must not generate noise which will influence the data. Factors which must be considered In
the slip ring design are:

a) Shaft speed and diameter

b) Slip ring material and surface condition (hardness, finish, eccentricity)
c) Brush material, contact pressure and number of brushes.

The slip rings can be mounted on the shaft and the brushes mounted on the stationary
airframe. This arrangement usually gives poor performance because the main rotor shaft may
move Independently from the airframe which will affect the brush slip ring performance.
This can be avoided by mounting the brushes on a stationary standplpe mounted inside the
rotor shaft. With this installation, there is no relative movement between the brushes and
the slip rings. Wiring is then routed Inside the standplpe through the transmission and
then to the data recorder. A typical standpipe Installation is shown in Figure 5.4-1.

INSTRUMENTATION

STANDPIPE- SEALED BEARING

MAST NUT-

MAIN ROTOR

ENGINE -«- TRANSMISSION

CASE

ATTACHED BY PIN, SCREWS

TO DATA RECORDING OR SNAP RING
SYSTEM

Figure 5.4-1
Typical Rotor Shaft Standpipe Installation

An alternate method to transfer the data is to use a telemetry system. A trans-

mitter, receiving power inductively from stationary coils, is mounted on the shaft and a
receiver is stationary on the airframe. The distance between the two should be minimized
to reduce transmitter size and power requirements. Extreme care roust be used so that shaft
balance problems are not Introduced by the transmitter Installation. Some advantages of
telemetry compared to slip rings are:

a) System can be designed for variety of Installations whereas a slip ring Is

usually unique to one application.
b) Less noise and better quality data.
c) Less maintenance and more reliability
During development testing, testing of new rotor systems or flight In extreme aerodynamic
conditions where rotor behavior must be closely monitored, a telemetering system on the
rotor hub may be used with recording and analysis equipment on the ground.
26

5.5 Non-Rotating Surfaces

Many helicopters use horizontal and vertical stabilizers for stability and con-
trol and wing lift to augment rotor lift. The stabilizers can be fixed, connected to the
flight controls, driven by electronic controls systems or dynamic pressure. The operation
of the system will determine the instrumentation required. Instrumentation for stress and
pressure distribution is accomplished as discussed for the blades. Surface position is
usually measured as control and displacement or angular deflection from a specified zero
or trim point. Transducers for those applications are usually potentiometers or linear'
variable displacement transformers.

6. FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

Helicopter flight control systems vary from the most elementary mechanical
arrangements to very complex systems which include mechanical, hydraulic, and electronic
components. Control inputs in the cockpit are transferred through the system to the rotor
and lifting surfaces. The input may be modified or shaped during the process. Aerodynamics
of the rotor are continually providing feedback throughout the system. Aircraft motions
provide pilot cues and those motions may also cause stability systems to respond. The
Instrumentation may simply measure the pilot actions or it may be required to measure each
input and motion of every system component. When instrumenting the control system, special
care must be used to insure that the instruments do not introduce forces, cause inter-
ference, or change the characteristics even if the test system should fail.
6.1 Cockpit Controls
Basic helicopter cockpit controls are cyclic stick for longitudinal and lateral
control, pedals for directional control, and a collective lever for thrust control. When
free, those controls are essentially cantilever beams and will vibrate as driven by the
airframe or control system feedback forces. Linear accelerometers are placed at the top of
the cyclic control and oriented to measure longitudinal and lateral vibrations. An accelero-
meter is placed on the collective to measure vertical vibrations. Similar accelerometers
are placed on the pedals to measure longitudinal accelerations. Cockpit control forces are
usually not measured directly unless a specially instrumented hand grip or hand held force
gage Is used. Normal practice Is to mount strain gages on the control rod attached to the
end opposite the hand grip or foot pedal. The cockpit control is usually a lever; and from
the mechanical advantage and the measured force, the actual pilot input force can be
calculated. Cockpit control motions are measured with position transducers. Those trans-
ducers are placed on the control rods attached to the cockpit controls. The transducer
output is calibrated by moving the controls through full range of travel.
6.2 Mechanical Linkages
In structural tests it may be necessary to instrument all linkages from the
cockpit controls to the stationary swash plate. This instrumentation will usually be
strain gages or position transducers which are treated as discussed under cockpit controls.
6.3 Actuators
Control systems may have hydraulic or electrical actuators which transfer pilot
inputs to the rotor. The actuators may also be driven by any stability and control devices.
The resultant Inputs are thus a sum of all inputs and must be measured to obtain the net
control input. Electrical Inputs are measured and the voltages are then used to determine
equivalent linear deflection of the control Input. The actuator stroke may be measured, or
more commonly, the motion of the control member connected to the actuator Is measured.
These motions are sensed with a position transducer. Any electrical signals within the
control system must be measured in a way which insures no change in the signal character-
istics. This may require an isolation type of amplifier to eliminate any detrimental
effect caused by tying signal conditioners to the control signals. In control system
development It may be necessary to Instrument for hydraulic fluid pressure or flow.
6.4 Swash Plate
The resultant of all control Inputs culminate at the non-rotating swash plate
where they are transferred to the rotary control system. In certain stability and control
analysis the swash plate angle is a requirement. The longitudinal and lateral angles
relative to the shaft or the airframe are measured with position transducers.
6.5 Stability Augmentation Systemss
Most helicopters have systems to Improve the stability and control characteristics.
Increasing use is also being made of flight director systems which assist the pilot in
normal flight and increase the capability to operate in adverse weather conditions. These
systems may be self contained or may use parts of the standard helicopter systems. The
systems are essentially a computing device which receives information and on the basis of
calculations or predetermined logic, makes an input to the flight control system. The
instrumentation needed for the system varies greatly with type of test being conducted.
During control system development and optimization tests, each Input and response must be
measured. For conventional flight tests, the system input to the flight control system is
 27

measured and correlated to aircraft behavior as recorded by the test Instrumentation

system. As was the case with actuator signal measurement, stability system electrical
signals should be carefully assessed for requirement of electrical Isolation of the
measurement.
The stability system output Is usually an electrical signal to an actuator placed
in the flight control system. The voltage can be measured directly and through calibration
or specification data the actuator motion can be determined. A more common practice is to
measure the actuator motion with a position transducer.

7. WEAPONS SYSTEMS

Current helicopter practice Is to use weapon systems that are an integral part of
the design as opposed to earlier vehicles where the systems were added in the field as
required. This development allows installation of more powerful systems and at the same
time, gives an opportunity to minimize the weapons effects on the flight vehicle. However,
greater complexity usually accompanies the increased capability and, In turn, more Instru-
mentation Is needed to measure and record the data. The total weapon system includes
sighting and aiming controls and the weapon. The weapon system is usually developed and
tested independently of the aircraft. This effort is concerned with assuring the system
will deliver the specified ordnance without electrical, mechanical, or explosive deficien-
cies. The flight test of a weapon system then becomes a task of determining the weapon
compatibility with the helicopter and crew. The weapon system will usually add drag,
Introduce loads Into the airframe, and alter the stability and control characteristics.

7.1 Forces and Motions

Externally mounted weapons generate drag which transmits forces through the
attachment hardware into the airframe. Recoil forces will be added during firing. Strain
gages are placed on the airframe or on the weapon structure attached to the airframe. In
the non-firing mode the weapon will react to rotor induced vibration through the airframe
and, when firing, vibrations will be generated by the weapon. Instrumentation design must
consider that rotor vibrations are usually low frequency while weapon firing rates can be
up to 2000 rounds per minute which generates high frequency reactions. Accelerometers are
usually oriented along the recoil axis of the weapon. Traversing or elevating weapons may
require accelerometers In three axes.

7.2 Firing Effects

Gun type weapons generate significant overpressures which can cause structural
damage. A pressure transducer is attached to the airframe where air pressures are the
greatest. The number and location of sensors will depend on each particular installation.
Missiles create exhausts which can impinge on airframe structure, stabilizers, and tail
rotors. Those exhausts may cause surface heating which can be measured with thermocouples.
In addition, ingestion of gun-gas products or missile propellant products can have a
severe impact on engine operation. The hot gases can cause airflow disturbances which
affect stabilizer lift or tail rotor thrust and cause a change in stability and control.
Aerodynamics studies will determine the necessity of using anemometers to measure the
exhaust.

7.3 Ejected Material

Gun systems usually eject shell casings, links, or cartridges Into the free
stream. Still air patterns from ground tests and expected airflow are used to estimate the
In-flight dispersion patterns. Cameras are mounted to photograph the ejected material. The
camera installation must not disturb the airflow or change flutter or structural character-
istics of the member to which they are attached. Camera speeds of 400 frames per second
will provide data suitable for a pattern analysis.

7.4 Fire Control Systems

Complex fire control systems utilize data Inputs concerning the atmosphere,
target, and aircraft conditions. These Inputs may be from standard aircraft sensors or
they may be an Integral part of the weapon system. The Inputs are fed to a computer which
aims the weapon or makes corrections prior to firing or during the missile flight. In
either case there may be a requirement to compare the system input to the computer with
measurements from an independent test instrumentation system. Typical comparative parameters
Include airspeed, angle of attack, aircraft attitude, or acceleration. A completely instru-
mented test aircraft as previously discussed will provide adequate comparative data. In
other cases the data requirements must be carefully studied and Instrumentation added as
required. Generally, measuring the fire control system Is required to Insure that the
proper functions are being recorded. .

7.5 External Noise

Noise from weapon systems must be considered from crew exposure and from aircraft
detection by ground personnel. Crew stations are instrumented to measure noise levels.
Ground recording stations are established In a grid around the helicopter to record the
noise for different flight and firing conditions. During forward flight, the helicopter is
flown over a prescribed course through an instrumented range. Additional noise measurement
discussion is presented in section 8. 2.
28

7.6 Gas Contamination

Toxic or explosive gas from the weapon may enter the crew compartments and engine
Inlet or may impinge upon the airframe or rotors. Measurement of crew compartment contami-
nation was discussed In the airframe section. Significant amounts of gas In any external
area may require obtaining samples for laboratory analysis. Gas temperature is measured
with thermocouples.

8 GROUND SUPPORT INSTRUMENTATION

Helicopter missions involve a relatively large amount of time spent near the
ground at hover and low speeds; and it is necessary to accomplish much of the testing in a
similar environment, in hover, the helicopter may contaminate the near field atmosphere
such that airborne measurements are inaccurate or unreliable. Hover performance is most
easily and safely conducted by measuring thrust rather than loading the aircraft with
weight. During takeoff and landing maneuvers or near ground maneuvers the flight path must
be corrected to a zero wind condition which requires measurement of ground distances and
wind velocities. Independent data recording systems may be used and can cause extremely
difficult data correlation problems.

8.1 Atmosphere

Atmospheric measurements include wind speed and direction, ambient air tempera-
ture, pressure, and humidity. The measurements should be taken as near to the helicopter
as possible while ensuring that the air mass Is undisturbed by the downwash. Temperature
and wind conditions usually vary with height above the ground so that a ground surface
measurement does not describe the helicopter operating environment. Best results are
obtained when the sensors are mounted on a tower at various heights above the ground. The
data then gives a profile of the gradients, inversions or shears. More than one tower
allows comparison of the air upstream and downstream from the helicopter.

8.1.1 Wind Speed

Accurate measurement of small, rapid wind speed changes or local air velocities
are best accomplished with a hot film anemometer. An ultrasonic sensor could also be
adapted to this application. Lower response or time averaged data is usually obtained from
a vane mounted pressure transducer or a cup anemometer.

Rotating cup anemometers carefuly constructed to minimize weight and friction,

can be sensitive to speeds down to .25 m/s (.5 Kn). The greater the sensitivity, the more
the Instrument will respond to speed variation. However, these Instruments are usually
fragile and pose reliability problems. They are usually designed for a low speed range and
can be damaged by gusty, turbulent air.

8.1.2 Wind Direction

Trl-axlal hot film or ultra sonic sensors will provide the total vector In space
(wind speed and direction). These high response instruments will show rapid changes.

For most applications a wind vane will provide acceptable data. With careful at-
tention to design and construction details, vanes can provide data accurate to 0.5 degrees.
8.1.3 Ambient Air Temperature

The temperature sensors are usually placed at the same location on the tower as
the wind instruments. This eases the equipment Installation and aids the data correlation.
The sensor must be shielded from solar radiation. Sensitivity and response are the most
important criteria in selecting a sensor which will meet the data requirements. Time
averaged data suitable for most requirements is provided by a low response sensor such as
a resistance probe. Small rapid variations such as required for quality of airflow are
obtained with hot wire or hot film anemometers.

8.1.4 Ambient Air Pressure

The ambient air pressure Is usually measured at ground level and a standard lapse
rate decrease for height above the ground is subtracted to obtain the pressure at the test
vehicle.

8.2 External Noise

The helicopter noise is generated by the engines, transmissions and rotors.

The helicopter internal noise measurements were discussed In section 4.7.3. The external
noise Is measured with fixed or portable ground located sensors. The noise is evaluated
for tactical suitability for the military and In terms of environmental impact when opera-
ting in the public sector. Helicopters are inherently noisy despite efforts to reduce
noise levels. These efforts include transmission design and manufacture noise isolation
techniques, Insulation application as well as number of blades and airfoil design. The
sensor performance will be influenced by the atmospheric environment and these parameters
must be measured. In addition, the ambient noise level must be established prior to taking
measurements of the test vehicle noise.
 29

The noise measurements are usually taken at different azimuths at specified

distances from the helicopter while it is on the ground or hovering. Piezoelectric type
microphones are commonly used. An amplifier system Is Interfaced to the microphone with
preamplifiers used In some cases. The circuitry can be designed to meet program specific
frequency response characteristics and provide the desired output by Incorporating the
necessary filters. The amplifier output data is recorded by magnetic tape or oscillographs
for later analysis. Whether this Is recorded In a direct or FM format on tape, care should
be taken to insure that the frequency response is not degraded by the magnetic tape recorder.
With oscillographs, the galvanometers must be selected and set up to insure that desired
signal information is not degraded. Quick look capability can be provided in a fixed base
system by use of a real time narrow band spectrum analyzer in parallel with the recorder.
With the spectrum analysis, the number of samples averaged and therefore the degrees of
freedom must be carefully chosen to obtain a desired confidence limit. This scheme allows
the driving inputs at different frequencies to be quickly assessed for contribution to
overall noise production.

Noise measurements lor flight regimes other than hover may be necessary to eval-
uate speed effects on noise propagation. The most important effect is the impulse noise
generated by blade tlp-vortex Interactions. The most common method Is to fly over or near
the hovering ground matrix of microphones. An alternate in-flight technique has been
developed (ref 25). With this technique, microphones are placed on a pacer aircraft. The
Impulse noise from the rotor may be dlrectlonally sensitive and a lateral displacement of
the microphones may be advisable. The pacer aircraft is fitted with an automatic recording
device or equipment that will transmit the signals to a ground station. Provision should
be made to adjust the instrumentation gain to optimize the signal to noise ratio. The
typical peak pressure will vary from 10 to 500 Pa(1.45 x 10 to .07 PSI) with the maximum
occurring at high advancing tip mach numbers in forward flight. The noise of the pacer
aircraft is obtained prior to the test and taken Into account either through instrument
adjustments or later in the data analysis.

8.3 Thrust
Hover performance requires measurement of the thrust that the helicopter gener-
ates for a given power setting. This is usually accomplished by restraining the aircraft
to the ground and measuring the various forces generated as a function of power or varia-
tion ol thrust devices. To be effective the thrust stand must have the capability to
change height above the ground and vary heading through 360° (Ref 24). Another system
involves suspending the aircraft, and sensors are used to measure the changes In the
forces (Ref 26). The sensors are usually an Integral part of the thrust stand, and the
data Is recorded on the ground. Since the aircraft Is restrained, the easiest way to
transfer data Is by electric cabling.

For other than thrust stand operations, a suitable ground restraint system with
great flexibility can be constructed with instrumented cargo hooks or load cells. Load
cells may be constructed by the test Instrumentation group, or a commercial sensor may be
used. The commercial equipment comes with various ranges and the sensor selected should be
compatible with the expected thrust of the particular helicopter. The load cell is placed
in series with cables attached to a ground restraint. It is important that the instal-
lation does not allow the load cell to drop and be damaged when the emergency cable release
mechanism Is activated. When the load cell is ground restrained, an electrical quick
release must be placed between the aircraft and the load cell. The sensors are usually
strain gages and the output is wired into the airborne data system and when possible is
ground recorded.

The longitudinal and lateral deviation angles are measured with linear accelero-
meters mounted on the load cell. When vertical, the accelerometers read zero G and when
horizontal, the output is 1 G. The angle is calculated from the measured G recorded. The
accelerometer output is also displayed on the pilot's Instrument panel to assist in estab-
lishing a hover that minimizes the deviation angle.

8.4 Space Positioning

Many tests require precise measurement of the helicopter position in space at a

given time. These tests Include take-off, landing, acceleration In three axes, and various
agility maneuvers. In all cases, the distances are relatively short and the aircraft Is
near the ground. The space positioning system Includes data acquisition, range support,
and atmospheric measurements, and provisions for subsequent data processing.

The Initial instrumentation planning should consider: (1) Test Site — whether
the tests will be conducted on an instrumented range or at a remote site; (2) Equipment
location — whether the equipment will be located in the aircraft or on the ground;
(3) data recording — whether the data will be ground recorded or recorded on the test
aircraft. In all cases, provision must be made for items needed to control and conduct the
test as well as document the data for later correlation, merging and processing.

With rare exceptions the space positioning system ground station layout will be
needed. This will normally be precisely determined and readily available from an Instru-
mented range. For temporary Installations a survey Is required. The space position systems
provide motion relative to the ground while the aircraft is moving within the air mass.
Atmospheric data Is necessary to obtain correlation of air distance and ground distance.
In either case the aircraft instruments must be able to measure the atmospheric conditions
and any necessary performance or stability and control parameters.
30

8.4.1 Instrumented Range Operations

A permanent range Installation will provide a space position data acquisition and
recording system. Details concerning the equipment specifications should be obtained from
the manufacturer or the range facility (Ref 27) . The range support Instrumentation must
provide means for conducting the test, measurement and recording of all data, data pro-
cessing unique to the range equipment and any necessary Interface with the test aircraft.
The range timing system must be available to control the test sequence and provide corre-
lation of data recorded at various locations. The range timing method may be different
from the airborne time code generator and provision must be made to Integrate the systems.
Various methods of synchronizing timing systems include a physical connection between
ground station and the test aircraft, using an R.F. link to impose time at one location on
the other recording location, and recording a common standard source at each location.
Communications for test control are usually voice transmissions over radio or telephonic
instruments. Precise data information Is communicated over wire lines or radio or tele-
metry links. The atmospheric measurements at the range will usually include Information
necessary to correct the raw data obtained from the acquisition system. Parameters such as
noise, humidity, pressure, and temperature are necessary for assessment of aircraft
performance and are usualiy measured by aircraft sensors. These data may be telemetered to
the ground station and recorded with the space position data. Range facilities have
various data processing capabilities. Typical equipment provides data readout, transla-
tion, format-conversion and automatic display.

Commonly used space position systems are optical, radar, doppler, and laser. A
limited understanding of how the different systems operate is necessary to assess the
instrumentation requirements. Ballistic plate cameras record aircraft images on a glass
emulsion plate. These cameras may be fixed or may be tracking devices such as the Fair-
child Flight Analyzer. Askania cinetheodolltes track the aircraft and make a film record
of the azimuth and elevation relative to a known set of coordinates. Ribbon film cameras,
such as the Bowen-Knapp, track the aircraft and record the Image along with fiducial
markers which are projected onto the film. Recording optical tracking Instruments use a
telescope to track the helicopter and record the data on film. These systems have dif-
ferent accuracies and capabilities. A principal instrumentation consideration is that the
data recorded outside the aircraft is difficult to correlate or merge with airborne
recordings. A typical solution Is to photograph external event lights on the aircraft
while recording time or electronic identification data at other locations. In addition,
the sample rates are inadequate to obtain accurate acceleration data.
The radar range systems may use either pulse or continuous-wave (cw) equipment.
The most frequently used system Is a pulse type with high peak power, wide band-width
signal transmission, and a highly directive electro-mechanically steered antenna. The
apparent radar range Is derived from the time needed for the pulse to reach the target and
return. Tracking system electronics maintain the antenna parallel to the returning wave
front and the bearing is measured by tracking system. The data output Is range, angles,
and rate of change. The operation of the system and the many corrections which must be
applied to the raw data are usually beyond the capability of the flight test personnel and
must be accomplished within the range facility. Various equipment or tracking problems can
be expected because of low angle multi-path and refraction conditions, high target acceler-
ations and target-radar geometry. The cw radar determines distance by phase comparison of
the transmitted and return signal.
With a doppler system, a signal is radiated by a transmitter on the ground. This
signal Is received on board the aircraft and retransmitted at a different frequency by a
transponder. At least three receiver stations on the ground are needed to receive the
reference frequency and the retransmitted frequency. These two frequencies are electron-
ically subtracted and the difference is the doppler frequency at the particular receiver.
The doppler frequencies are used to calculate the three dimensional position in space.
Additional receivers allow statistical techniques to be used in accuracy analysis.
The most recent development in space position equipment utilizes a laser tracking
system. The system radiates a short wave length signal which Is highly colllmated and
power Is adjusted as a function of range. The system operation is much like the tracking
pulse radar system. The accuracy Is extremely good with capability for high density data
that can be transmitted in real time or recorded on magnetic tape. Tracking error Is
minimized by use of a retroreflector element, installed on the aircraft which provides a
strong return signal that Is tracked automatically. In addition to Improved tracking the
apparent range Is independent of the many atmospheric variables which must be corrected
for in radar systems. The Sylvania Electronics System has developed a self contained unit
which is van mounted and can be transported to road accessible sites. This system incor-
porates a mini-computer and assorted data handling equipment.
8.4.2 Remote Site Operations
The versatility of the helicopter allows testing in remote sites where ground
support and perhaps even a runway do not exist. All test equipment must be portable, use a
minimum of power, and be able to operate in an adverse environment. Systems which are
crude in comparison with range Instrumentation can produce surprisingly good data when
used with care. In most cases, some of the previously described optical systems are used
because of simplicity and low power requirements. When optical systems are used to record
data, visual theodolites can produce quick look data; and, in extreme situations, may be
 31

the source for final data. The greatest flexibility In remote site operations are achieved
with airborne acquisition systems. The simplest system Is a camera mounted on the aircraft
which records terrain or markers during the test maneuver. The markers are usually runway
lights or distances along the flight path. These markers must be carefully surveyed and
the data accuracy is highly dependent upon Interpretation of the film. Correlation of the
film with other recorded data Is also very difficult.
An aircraft portable radio ranging system has been developed by Del Norte Inc.,
Euless, Texas (Ref 28, 29, and 30). The system is solid state, compact and has a range of
4.8 km (3 miles). This system has a distance measuring unit (UMU) which controls all
operations, a master unit (MU) which transmits and receives all signals, and remote units
(RU) which receive signals from the master unit and retransmits a signal. The airborne
equipment operates on a 24 volt D.C. power while the ground units are powered with 12
volt D.C. battery power. The system Is line of sight and operates on radio frequency
signals. The DMU and MU are located in the aircraft and the remote units are placed along
the test area. As many as eight ground units may be used. The remote stations require no
ground support personnel and for simple runway distance a single remote unit can be used
without a site survey. The time for the signals to travel to the remote units and return
is measured and provides slant range distance. Data from individual ground stations can be
examined for random points, dropouts, or multi-path interference. Stations which provide
best data quality can be used to calculate horizontal and lateral displacement to within
±1 m (3 ft). However, at relatively low heights above the ground, small errors in range
create extremely large height errors In the computations and the data Is not useable.
Height above ground is best obtained from a radar altimeter. Extreme maneuvers may cause
radar altimeter problems, in which case, a precision pressure altimeter should be considered.
The system should be field calibrated before each test. The RU is placed 1000 m (3300 ft)
from the aircraft and the range calibrate screws on the DMU are adjusted until the correct
range is displayed on the unit. The system has an adjustable measuring rate.

The test aircraft may have a doppler or Inertlal Navigation System (INS) which
can be used to obtain accurate space position Information (Ref 31, 32, 33, 34, and 35).
Such a system may be used In conjunction with an Instrumented range; and since it is self
contained within the aircraft, may be useful lor remote site operation. The navigation
system may be a stand alone system, however, it is more common to have a central unit
which Interfaces with other aircraft systems. The system must be carefully analyzed to
determine what information is available from the system and how this data can be obtained
without altering the system operation. The navigation system measures component velocity
in the aircraft axes and in conjunction with a heading Input computes ground speed and
direction. Inputs from the airspeed system are then compared with ground speed to obtain
wind Information. Some systems also make navigation corrections for attitudes, angles of
attack and sideslip. With the doppler system, four signals are transmitted and speed Is
determined from the doppler shift In the return signal. Inertlal systems use accelero-
meters In the aircraft axes to provide data for speed calculations. Depending on the
system, it may be desirable to record either the acceleroraeter data or the differentiated
output. Navigation systems are Intended for trimmed flight and the true airspeed calcu-
lations may be affected by sideslip angle. This is of particular importance In helicopters
which frequently have large sideslip angles at low speed or during crosswind maneuvers.
Complete space positioning data is obtained from the navigation system ground speed com-
ponents combined with a low airspeed omnl-dlrectlonal airspeed system and ground atmos-
pheric measurements.
32

9 REFERENCES

1. A. Pool and D. Bosman, AGARD AG 160 Vol 1, Basic Principles of Flight Test Instrumen-
tation Engineering

2. D. W. Blincow, Prepared under AEC Contract AT (04-3), Nuclear Helicopter Lift Indicator
(NUH ELI), 1970, SAN-4007-1, (P 56)

3. C. R. Duke, B. Y. Cho, D. E. Cressman, Prepared for Naval Development Center. Warminster,

PA under contract N61169-69-C-0578, 1970, Development of a Feasibility Model Air Density
Gauge, Final Report No. 0-0772-FR (P 3-5)

4. F. E. Jones, Air Density and Helicopter Lift, 1973 Joint Army-Navy Aircraft Instrumen-
tation Research, Report No. 721201 (P 16-24)

5. D. Belte, F. L, Dominick, J. C. 0'Conner, US Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity,

1977, Helicopter Lift Margin System and Low-Speed Performance Evaluation, NUH-1M Helicopter,
USAAEFA Report No. 73-01 (P 14 and 78)

6. Paul Spyers-Duran, Meteorology Research Inc., Altadena, CA, Measuring the Size, Concen-
tration, and Structural Aspects of Hydrometers in Clouds with Impact and Replicator Devices
(P 3-6)

7. W. Kleuters and G. Woller, AGARD Advisory Report No. 127, Some Recent Results on Icing
Parameters (P 1-1 through 1-10)

8. A. R. Jones, W. Lewis, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, Moffett Field, CA, NACA Research
Memorandum A9C09, Apr 26, 1949, A Review of Instruments Developed for the Measurement of
the Meteorological Factors Conducive to Aircraft Icing (P 2-11)

9. R. G. Knollenberg, The National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO., Journal
of Applied Meteorology, Volume 9, February, 1970, The Optical Arran: An Alternative to
Scattering or Extinction for Airborne Particle Size Determination (P 86-90)

10. R. G. Keller, General Electric Company, Aircraft Engine Group, Cincinnati, OH, AGARD,
The Propulsion and Energetics Panel 5137 (A) Specialists Meeting, Icing Testing for Aircraft
Engines, London England, Apr 3-4, 1978, Measurement and Control of Simulated Environmental
Icing Conditions In an Outdoor Free Jet, Engine Ground Test Facility (P 7-2 through 7-4)

11. J. B. Hunt, SVERDUP/ARO, INC., AEDC Div, Arnold Air Force Stn, TN, AGARD, The Propul-
sion and Energetics Panel 5137 (A) Specialists Meeting, Icing Testing for Aircraft Engines,
London, England, Apr 3-4 78, Engine Icing Measurement Capabilities at the AEDC (P 6-3
through 6-10)

12. USAAMRDL TR 75-34A, Volume 1, Design Criteria and Technology Considerations, Develop-
ment of an Advanced Anti-Icing/Delclng Capability for US Army Helicopters, Eustis Direc-
torate, US Army Air Mobility Research and Development Laboratory, FT Eustis, VA (P 134-
142)

13. K. R. Ferrell, Cpt W. J. Hodgson, Air Force Flight Test Center 1964, YCH-47A Category I
Performance Stability and Control Tests, Report No. FTC-TDR-63-36 (P 19 and 89)

14. K. R. Ferrell, J. Shapley, Jr., J. Mishlof, US Army Aviation Systems Test Activity,
1970, Wind Tunnel and Flight Evaluation Rosemount Shielded Pitot-Static Tube Model 850N,
USAASTA Report No. 68-12 (P 11-13)

15. K. R. Ferrell, B. Bolrun, Cpt G. Hill, US Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity,
1977, Low-Airspeed Sensor Location Tests, AH-1G Helicopter, Final Report, USAAEFA
Report 75-19-1 (P 6-12)

16. K. R. Ferrell, A. Winn, J. Kishl, B. Jefferls, US Army Aviation Systems Test Activity,
1973, Flight Evaluation, Aeroflex True Airspeed Vector System Low-Airspeed System, Final
Report, USAASTA Report No. 71-30-2 (P 2-4)

17. F. Dominick, K. R. Ferrell, Cpt J. O'Conner, US Army Aviation Systems Test Activity,
1975, Flight Evaluation, Elliott Dual-Axis Low Airspeed System, LASSIE II, Low Airspeed
Sensor, Final Report VI, USAASTA Final Report 71-30-6 (P 12-18)

18. AGARD No. 219 Range Instrumentation, Weapons Systems Testing and Related Techniques

19. W. Abbott, Cpt S. Spring, Maj R. Stewart, US Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity,
1977, Flight Evaluation, J-TEC VT-1003 Vector Airspeed Sensing System, Final Report,
USAAEFA Report No. 75-17-2 (P 10-13)

20. W. Abbott, B. Boirun, Cpt G. Hill, Cpt J. Tavares, US Army Aviation Engineering Flight
Activity, 1977, Flight Evaluation, Pacer Systems Low-Range Airspeed System LORAS 1000,
Final Report, USAAEFA Report No. 75-17-1 (P 11-21)

21. W. Abbott, Maj J. Guin, US Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity, 1977, Flight
Evaluation Rosemount Low-Range Orthogonal Airspeed System with 853G Sensor, Final Report,
75-17-3 (P 12-17)
 33

22. B. Boirun, Cpt G. Hill, CW3 J. Miess, US Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity,
1976, Flight Evaluation Honeywell Ultrasonic Wind Vector Sensor System Fire Control Wind
Sensor Report, Final Report, USAAEFA Report No. 75-19-2 (P 10-14)

23. F. Stoll, J. W. Tremback, H. H. Arnaiz, 1979, Effect of Number of Probes and their
Orientation on the Calculation of Several Compressor Face Distortion Descriptions,
NASA TM 72859 (P 7-9)

24. K. R. Ferrell, Maj W. Welter, 1967, US Army Test Office, Engineering Flight Research
Evaluation of the XV-5A Lift-Fan Aircraft, Pt II, Performance, Final Report, USATO Report
No. 62-72-2 (P 72-75)

25. F. H. Schmitz, V. Duffy, 1977, In-Flight Measurement of Aircraft Acoustic Signals,

Advances In Test Measurement, Volume 14, Proceedings of the 23rd International Instru-
mentation Symposium, Las Vegas, Nev

26. Capt G. D. Tebben, USAF, R. K. Ransone, 1965, Evaluation and Checkout of the Air
Force Flight Center VTOL Test Stand, Feb 1965, AFFTC TR 64-37 (2-8)

27. R. G. Culpepper, R. U. Murphy, E. A. Gillespie, A. G. Lane, Aug 1979, A Unique Facility

for V/STOL Aircraft Hover Testing, NASA TP 1473 (P 7-28)
28. Trlsponder 202A Including 202 R06C, Del Norte Technology Inc., b Apr 76
29. F. D. Schick, An Electronic Method for Measuring TakeOff and Landing Distances,
Society of Flight Test Engineer Symposium Proceedings, 4-6 August 1976
30. W. Y. Abbott, Del Norte Space Positioning System Development Report and User's Manual,
Sep 1976, USAAEFA Technical Note 77-64 (Pl-4)

31. W. Beech, et. al., Air Force Flight Test Center, Propulsion System and Performance
Evaluation of the YC-15 Advanced Medium STOL Transport March 1977, AFFTC TR-7641

32. H. K. Cheney, YC-15 STOL Performance Flight Test Methods, Eighth Annual Symposium
Proceedings of the Society of Flight Test Engineers

33. E. K. Parks, Flight Test Measurement of Ground Effect, Eighth Annual Symposium Pro-
ceedings of the Society of Flight Test Engineers

34. W. C. Bowers, H. V. Miller, Inertially Derived Flying Qualities and Performance

Parameters, Society of Experimental Test Pilots Symposium Proceedings, Sep 22-25, 1976
35. J. N. Olhausen, Jr., The Use of a Navigation Platform for Performance Flight testing.
Society of Flight Test Engineers Symposium Proceedings, Aug 21 - 23, 1973
 Al-1

APPENDIX I

TYPICAL HELICOPTER INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS

This appendix prov ides typical requirements for a helicopter instrumentation

Installation. While certain characteristics can be specified for each parameter, It Is
usually necessary to make a djustments dependent upon the nature of the test. Some common
variances have been noted i n the remarks section. The accuracy stated Is based primarily
on the data requirements an d resolution should be adjusted as necessary. GREAT CARE SHOULD
BE USED TO SPECIFY NO MORE ACCURACY OR RESOLUTION THAN IS ESSENTIAL. Conversely, instru-
mentation should comply wit h the specification if feasible and of course, any additional
capability will enhance the quality of the results. The helicopter can be expected to
generate vibrations which w ill affect each sensor used. The vibration frequency will vary
from a one per main rotor r evolution to high speed jet engine frequencies. Each sensor
should be evaluated with re spect to the driving frequency it should experience. For a
particular location this va lue is then used to establish the maximum frequency of Interest
for electronic filtering an d signal conditioning. In many cases a careful study of the
sensor characteristics will greatly reduce the amount of electronics needed.

REFER- RESO-
ENCE PARAMETER UNITS RANGE ACCURACY LUTION REMARKS

2.1.1 Free Air °C 35 to 5b O.b 0.1 Expand Range to

Temperature -65°C for cold
•leather testing

2.1.2 Pressure ft -1000 to 5 ft 0.1 Quartz capsule with

Altitude 20,000 at SL microcomputer
2.1.2 Radar ft 0 to 1000 1.5 1.0 100 ft vernier with
Altitude 5 ft Increments for
cockpit

2.1.2 Pressure Rate ft/min IOOOO 5.0 2.5

of Climb

2.1.2 Radar Rate ft/sec ±100 1.0 ±1.0

of Climb

2.1.3 Dew Point °C -35 to 50 0.5 0.1

Temperature
2.1.4 Liquid Water G/MJ 0 to 3 0.1 0.05
Content

2.1.4 Droplet Size microns 0 to 400 1.0 1.0 Laser nepheloraeter

2.2.1 Pltot-statlc Kn 20 to 250 1.0 or 0.5% Swivel head with 20°

Airspeed .b% freedom in ail
directions

2.2.1 Angles of deg ±180 1.0 O.o

Attack and
Sideslip

2.2.2 Relative Wind deg ±180 1.0 0.5

Vertical

2.2.2 Relative Wind deg ±180 1.0 0.5

Azimuth

2.2.2 Omni-directional Kn 50 in all 2.0 0.5 Longitudinal may be

Airspeed directions extended to 250

3.1.1 Gas Generator % SO to 110 0.1 0.05 Frequency or period

Speed counting digital
tach with lOp sec
3.1.2 Shaft Speed rpm 0 to 100o 0.1 0.05 quartz clock refe-
rence

3.3 Shaft Torque ft-lb iiO to 100% b',:. 0.1 Transducer used Is
often the normal
aircraft torque
system

3.4.1 Inlet Pressure lb/in2 ±1 psld ±3.5% 0.1 Accuracy Includes

error of pressure
rake.
Al-2

REFER- RESO-
ENCE PARAMETER UNITS RANGE ACCURACY LUTION REMARKS

3.4.2 Inlet °C r.30°C ±1 0.1

Temoeratur"-*
3.5 engine •C 900 °C 12.0 0.5 Over normal operat-
Temperature ing range

3.6 Engine Pressure lb/in2 130 psig ±2% 0.5 jjleed Air
3.7. 1 Fuel Flow gal/hr Variable 1% 0. 1 Volume measurement
by acft used primarily with
type turbine sensor
3.7.2 Fuel Temperature °C 0 to 50 1 0.1 Platinum probe
3.7.3 Fuel Used Gal Vari able 1 f 0.1 Volume measurement
by acft gal used primarily with
type turbine sensor
3.8 Electromotive Volts 0 to 100% ±1.0 0. 1 A/C power; source
Force generally 28VDC or
115VAC
3. s Electric Current Amperes 0 to 100% ±1.0 0. 1 A/C power; source
generally 2SVDC or
115VAC
3.9.1 Cockpit Power deg 0 to 100% ±2% 0.5 Generally reper.t
Controls able to ±1%
3. 10 Engine Vibration G Varies by ±3% 0. 1 G Piezoelectric
locat ion typical accelerometer
and axis

4.1.1 Pitch Attitude deg ±45 ±1.0 0.5°

4.1.1 Roll Attitude deg ±60 ±1.0 0.5

4.1.2 Yaw Attitude deg ±180 max ±1.0 0.5° °180 max, but can
min be reduced for in-
creased resolution
4.2 Angular Pitch deg/sec ±30 ±1 0. 1
Rate

4.2 Angular Roll deg/sec ±100 ±1 0. 1

Rate

4.2 Angular Yaw deg/sec ±60 ±1 0. 1

Rate

4.4 Linear G Z +4, -1 ±0.1 0.001

Acceleration X and Y ±2
4.5 Airframe G 2 t3% 0.001 Can include both
Vibration low and high freq-
uency accelerometers

4.6.2 Structural (."/" 0 to 100% ±5% 0.5% 100% should be 10%

Loads above expected yield
point

5.1.3 Blade deg 0 to 100% ±2% 0. 5% 1005 should be 10%

Positions ibove the maxl.num
(•a 1 culated

6.1 Flight Control in 0 to 100% ±2% 0.5%

Positions

6.2 Flight Control lb Long, Lat, ±5% 0.5 Range iependent on

Forces & Dir = 10 aircraft and speci-
Podal = 25 fication requlre-
3.3 Actuator in 0 to lOO'.r ±15 0. 5
t-osit ion

6.4 Swasii Plate deg 0 to 100% t2% 0. 55 100,<i is maximum

Angle flight Control
incut
 A2-1

APPENDIX II
TYPICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING
RECORDED INSTRUMENT PARAMETER LIST
This appendix provides procedures and Instructions for preparation and use of an
instrumentation form during formulation and conduct of an engineering flight test program.
Emphasis must be placed on the bookkeeping to Insure that the Instrumentation configura-
tion and status Is correct for any proposed test. This information generally typifies the
approach of the flight test community, however, it should be modified to accommodate
specific procedures/Instructions that may vary widely. These instructions are for a pulse
code modulation (PCM) data system which is in most common use today. The purpose of the
form is to consolidate and standardize all of the airborne recorded instrumentation project
Information to eliminate common coordination errors. The sample form shown and these
Instructions should be modified to meet Individual requirements. A form should be com-
pleted for each project using airborne recorded Instrumentation.

The Instrumentation or data systems office Is the proponent for the form and Is
responsible for maintaining the status and instructions current.

Chronologically, the following actions are taken by the following responsible

individuals to prepare and maintain the Recorded Instrument Parameter List(s):
Flight Test Engineer (F.T.E.)

The F.T.E. requests airborne instrumentation from the Instrumentation or data

systems office. The request will contain schedules, controls, displays, instruments, and
other information. The majority of Information will be transmitted by attaching a draft
form with the first 9 columns (except PCM/FM CHAN) completed. This will be the basis for
completing the master list. Polarities should be conventional with the possible exception
of vertical acceleration which Is positive downward in some systems. Use of these polarities
is mandatory. Provisions should be made for multl-englne/rotor helicopters and FM data.
Nominal ranges and gains (zero count and max count or per count) are used on the draft.
Actual ranges and gains will be obtained from the calibrations.

Instrumentation Engineer (I.E.)

The Instrumentation engineer will arrange for calibration and installation of the
requested parameters. In coordination with the project engineer or programmer, he will
complete PCM/FM CHANNEL assignments and SIGNAL CONDITIONER information. The Instrumentation
engineer and flight test engineer will review and approve all calibrations after they have
been completed and plotted. Calibrations are then provided to the instrumentation
technician.

Instrumentation Technician (I.T.)

The Instrumentation technician Is responsible for the physical installation of

all requested parameters In coordination with the flight test and instrumentation engi-
neers. He is also responsible for performing required on board calibrations. The I.T. will
provide all information required In the transducer section for each parameter. This will
generally be done via the calibration data sheets.

Data Systems Technician

The data systems technician has overall responsibility for completion, maintain-
ing currency, and distributing copies of the Recorded Instrument Parameter List. He is
specifically responsible for providing information in the CALIBRATION section after he has
run the calibration and It has been approved by the engineers. The specific procedures
used to complete the initial list follow:
(1) As calibration data sheets are received, calibrations are run and plotted.
They are checked for obvious errors.
(2) The master plot and data sheet are then given to the I.E. and a plot copy to
the F.T.E. for approval.
(3) After approval (or recalibration) CALIBRATION information and TRANSDUCER
information are inserted in the master list draft. The calibration deck is assembled
simultaneously.
(4) Master plots and Calibration data sheets are then filed In the aircraft
Instrumentation file In the I.E. office.
(5) After receipt and approval of the last calibration, the draft form Is typed
for the initial master list.
(6) A listing Is made of the completed calibration deck. The original is filed
In the aircraft instrumentation file and a copy given to the F.T.E.
A2-2

UNITS: Engineering units used in calibration and data reduction software.

WORD NO: Software calibration channel assigned by F.T.E. or programmer in coordination
with Instrumentation engineer.
PCM/FM CHAN: PCM main frame location or FM band center frequency. D suffix Indicates
digital channel. Decimal notation Indicates bits used in split digital channels. Assigned
by instrumentation engineer in coordination with flight test engineer.
CALIBRATION
POSITIVE POLARITY: Direction or sense of physical input that corresponds to increasing
PCM counts or FM frequency.
Engineering value at:
ZERO COUNT: Engineering unit value that corresponds to zero (000) PCM counts or lower FM
band edge.
PER COUNT: Slope of relation between engineering units and PCM counts or FM subcarrier
(gain). Note; This also corresponds to the resolution of the parameter. For non-linear
calibrations, calibration function coefficients can be substituted.
MAX COUNT: Engineering unit value that corresponds to PCM full scale or FM upper band
edge.
PCM counts at:
ZERO VAL: PCM count or subcarrier frequency that corresponds to an engineering value of
"zero" if applicable (i.e., zero roll rate).
MAX VAL: PCM count or subcarrier frequency that corresponds to a maximum positive or
other specified engineering unit value, (I.e., "full" 100 percent control deflection).
Note: This does not necessarily correspond to the engineering value at Max Counts.
R-CAL: PCM count or subcarrier frequency that results from activation of a system self
test feature. An acceptance tolerance can also be specified for prefllght purposes.
DATE: Latest parameter calibration Julian date (last digit of year + day of year, i.e.
5052 = 21 February 1975.)
SIGNAL CONDITIONER
NO: Index number assigned to signal conditioning equipment used for parameter.
CHAN: Subdivision number in multiple channel signal conditioning unit.
FILTER: basic filter characteristic and corner of pre-sample filters used In analog
signal conditioning, I.e., BLP 10 = Butterworth low pass filter with 10 hertz cutoff.
TRANSDUCER
NO: Arbitrary Index of transducers
TYPE/MODEL: Manufacturers (name plate) type, model, or part number or transducer.
SERIAL NO: Manufacturers (name plate) serial number of transducer.
SIGNAL: Code identifying the form of the signal generated by the transducer. The code is
as follows:
Analog Signals
AHL = (DC) Analog High Level, Bipolar
AHLP = (DC) Analog High Level, Unipolar Positive
AHLN = (DC) Analog High Level, Unipolar Negative
ALL = (DC) Analog Low Level, Bipolar
ALLP = (DC) Analog Low Level, Unipolar Positive
ALLN = (DC) Analog Low Level, Unipolar Negative
AC Signals
CX = Control Transmitter
CT = Control Transformer
CR = Control Receiver
Yl = XI = Synchro Transmitter/Receiver Line Polarity
Y2 = Yl = Synchro Transmitter/Receiver Line Polarity
Y3 = Zl = Synchro Transmitter/Receiver Line Polarity
TG2 = Tachometer generator - number of poles
 A2-3

(7) Copies of the typed Recorded Instrumentation Parameter List are distributed
after the last calibration. The master list is filed in the aircraft instrumentation file.

(8) Normally six (6) copies are made and distributed; two to the F.T.E., one in
the aircraft, one in the Data Processingflie, one to the instrumentation technician and
one retained by the data systems technician as the master correction draft. The F.T.E. may
specify other distribution.

(9) All copies will be made In reduced size (8J x 11) and on both sides (if two
sheets are required) so that the complete information is on one piece of paper.
Normally a few minor changes can be made by hand on the copies. After several
changes have accumulated, the list will be revised using the following procedure:
(1) Last effective flight for that list version will be filled in and a full
size copy made and filed for historical purposes.

(2) New applicable first flight, last change date, and date, flight, and reason
for change of each affected parameter wili be completed and retyped.

(3) Copies and distribution will be made as on the Initial list.

(4) If applicable, a new calibration deck listing will be made, copies dis-
tributed, and filed. There should be a direct correlation between the Recorded Instrument
Parameter List versions and calibration deck listings.

(5) A brief chronological log will be maintained of all changes, their effective
date and flight and the reason for the change.

Detailed Instructions for completing the form. This contains detailed instruc-
tions for completing each entry on the form. II a particular entry is not required for a
parameter, enter NA (not applicable) in that block. For some parameters it may be desirable
to substitute Information other than that described here. In that case, inform the instrumen-
tation engineer so that future instructions can be updated.

Typing Information
This form is arranged for standard elite type spacing (12 characters per Inch,
6 lines per Inch with IJ space vertical spacing except lor heading information. The maximum
number of characters per column Is listed by each block title In the following instruc-
tions. The form size Is 11 x 17 inches and can be typed in standard size typewriters by
folding It on the line between the major headings of "CALIBRATION" and "SIGNAL CONDITIONER".
The entire form does not need to be retyped each time corrections or changes are made.
Correction tape can be applied over previous entries. The only requirement is that clear,
reduced size copies can be made.

NOTE: Great care should be taken in typing and proofreading this form as It is used by
several people for a variety of purposes. A single mistyped or misplaced character can
have a significant Impact.
Instructions for completing each blank are detailed below.
PROJECT Project Number

AIRCRAFT Test aircraft designation; status, mission, type, model and series.
S/N Serial number (tail number or other designation). Note: Programs, calibration decks,
tapes, etc., will be filed by S/N.
SHEET _ of _. Number in sequence of sheets required for complete list (normally two will
be required, i.e., 1 of 2 and 2 of 2.
EFFECTIVE FLIGHTS THROUGH Series of flights for which this version of list Is
applicable, i.e., flights 114 thru 149. Last effective flight will be filled in when list
is updated and before new copies are made.

ORIGINAL LIST DATE Date of completion of original basic list.

LAST CHANGE DATE Date when list was updated for recent changes and new copies were made
and distributed.
COLUMN ENTRIES

PARAMETER: Measurement name

DATA PROCESSING

NAME: Mnemonic name assigned to the measurement In data reduction software.

A2-4

Digital Signals
PD NB 08 example
First two characters: PD = Parallel digital
SD = Serial digital
Second two characters: NB = Natural Binary
BC = Binary coded decimal
2C = 2's complement
aC = 3's complement
OB = Offset Binary
GR = Grey code
Third two characters: Number of bits, decades, or octaves.

LOCATION: Location of transducer measurement using aircraft reference system numbers.

FS Fuselage station (longitudinal)

BL Buttllne (lateral)
WL Waterline (vertical)
WT Weight of transducer and associated equipment In pounds (to the nearest
pound)
CHANGE

DATE: Effective Julian date of last change to each parameter. Note: Not required on
original list.

FLT: First effective flight number for which the change is applicable.
REMARKS

REMARKS: Reason for latest change or any other pertinent Information relating to that
particular parameter.
 REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
1. Recipient's Reference 2. Originator's Reference 3. Further Reference 4. Security Classification
of Document
AGARD-AG-160 ISBN 92-835-1367-3 UNCLASSIFIED
Volume 10
5.Originator Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
7 rue Ancelle, 92200 Neuilly sur Seine, France
6. Title
HELICOPTER FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION

7. Presented at

8.Author(s)/Editor(s) 9. Date
K.R.Ferrell July 1980

10. Author's/Editor's Address 11.Pages

US Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity
US Army Aviation Research and Development Command 48
Edwards Air Force Base, California 93523, USA
12. Distribution Statement This document is distributed in accordance with AGARD
policies and regulations, which are outlined on the
Outside Back Covers of all AGARD publications.
13. Keywords/Descriptors

Helicopters Test facilities

Flight tests Aircraft instruments
Test equipment

14.Abstract

This AGARDograph is the 10th of the AGARD Flight Test Instrumentation Series and
discusses the helicopter characteristics with which the instrumentation must contend,
outlining typical tests that are conducted. Major aircraft components and systems
which may be instrumented are listed and suggestions are made for sensors, locations,
and installation. Details are provided for instruments peculiar to helicopters. Interface
of the test instrumentation with data recording systems and ground support facilities
are also considered.

A summary of instrumentation requirements is provided along with recommended

range, accuracy and resolution. A sample instrumenation management technique is
also included.

This AGARDograph has been sponsored by the Flight Mechanics Panel of AGARD.
AGARDograph No. 160 - Volume 10 AGARD-AG-160 Vol.10 AGARDograph No. 160 - Volume 10 AGARD-AG-160 Vol.10
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and
Development, NATO Development, NATO
HELICOPTER FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION Helicopters HELICOPTER FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION Helicopters
by K.R.Ferrell Flight tests by K.R.Ferrell Flight tests
Published July 1980 Test equipment Published July 1980 Test equipment
48 pages Test facilities 48 pages Test facilities
Aircraft instruments Aircraft instruments
This AGARDograph is the 10th of the AGARD Flight This AGARDograph is the 10th of the AGARD Flight
Test Instrumentation Series and discusses the helicopter Test Instrumentation Series and discusses the helicopter
characteristics with which the instrumentation must characteristics with which the instrumentation must
contend, outlining typical tests that are conducted. contend, outlining typical tests that are conducted.
Major aircraft components and systems which may be Major aircraft components and systems which may be
instrumented are listed and suggestions are made for instrumented are listed and suggestions are made for
sensors, locations, and installation. Details are provided sensors, locations, and installation. Details are provided
for instruments peculiar to helicopters. Interface of the for instruments peculiar to helicopters. Interface of the

P.T.O. P.T.O.

AGARDograph No. 160 - Volume 10 AGARD-AG-160 Vol.10 AGARDograph No. 160 - Volume 10 AGARD-AG-160 Vol.10
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and
Development, NATO Development, NATO
HELICOPTER FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION Helicopters HELICOPTER FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION Helicopters
by K.R.Ferrell Flight tests by K.R.Ferrell Flight tests
Published July 1980 Test equipment Published July 1980 Test equipment
48 pages Test facilities 48 pages Test facilities
Aircraft instruments Aircraft instruments
This AGARDograph is the 10th of the AGARD Flight This AGARDograph is the 10th of the AGARD Flight
Test Instrumentation Series and discusses the helicopter Test Instrumentation Series and discusses the helicopter
characteristics with which the instrumentation must characteristics with which the instrumentation must
contend, outlining typical tests that are conducted. contend, outlining typical tests that are conducted.
Major aircraft components and systems which may be Major aircraft components and systems which may be
instrumented are listed and suggestions are made for instrumented are listed and suggestions are made for
sensors, locations, and installation. Details are provided sensors, locations, and installation. Details are provided
for instruments peculiar to helicopters. Interface of the for instruments peculiar to helicopters. Interface of the

P.T.O. P.T.O.
test instrumentation with data recording systems and ground support facilities are also test instrumentation with data recording systems and ground support facilities are also
considered. considered.

A summary of instrumentation requirements is provided along with recommended A summary of instrumentation requirements is provided along with recommended
range, accuracy and resolution. A sample instrumentation management technique is range, accuracy and resolution. A sample instrumentation management technique is
also included. also included.

This AGARDograph has been sponsored by the Flight Mechanics Panel of AGARD. This AGARDograph has been sponsored by the Flight Mechanics Panel of AGARD.

ISBN 92-835-1367-3 ISBN 92-835-1367-3

test instrumentation with data recording systems and ground support facilities are also test instrumentation with data recording systems and ground support facilities are also
considered. considered.

A summary of instrumentation requirements is provided along with recommended A summary of instrumentation requirements is provided along with recommended
range, accuracy and resolution. A sample instrumentation management technique is range, accuracy and resolution. A sample instrumentation management technique is
also included. also included.

This AGARDograph has been sponsored by the Flight Mechanics Panel of AGARD. This AGARDograph has been sponsored by the Flight Mechanics Panel of AGARD.

ISBN 92-835-1367-3 ISBN 92-835-1367-3

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ISBN 92-835-1367-3