University of Zahko

College of Engineering

Petroleum Engineering Department

Second Year- 2018-2019

ELECTRICITY LAB

Name :- Nazeer Alyas Khalaf

Stage :- Second Year
Class :- 1
Group :-
 List of Contents
1.Introduction( Power supply)

2.Types of Power Supply

3.(2-1) Dc power supply

4.(2-2) Ac power supply

5.Resistance

6.Ammeter

7.Voltmeter

8.Ohmmeter
1-Introduction
Power supply:- is an electrical device that supplies electric
power to an electrical load. The primary function of a
power supply is to convert electric current from a source
to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to power
the load. As a result, power supplies are sometimes
referred to as electric power converters. Some power
supplies are separate standalone pieces of equipment,
while others are built into the load appliances that they
power. Examples of the latter include power supplies
found in desktop computers and consumer electronics
devices. Other functions that power supplies may
perform include limiting the current drawn by the load to
safe levels, shutting off the current in the event of an
electrical fault, power conditioning to prevent electronic
noise or voltage surges on the input from reaching the
load, power-factor correction, and storing energy so it
can continue to power the load in the event of a
temporary interruption in the source power
(uninterruptible power supply).
All power supplies have a power input connection, which
receives energy in the form of electric current from a
source, and one or more power output connections that
deliver current to the load. The source power may come
from the electric power grid, such as an electrical outlet,
energy storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells,
generators or alternators, solar power converters, or
another power supply. The input and output are usually
hardwired circuit connections, though some power
supplies employ wireless energy transfer to power their
loads without wired connections. Some power supplies
have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for
functions such as external monitoring and control.
2-Types of Power Supply
(2-1): DC Power Supply
DC power supply A DC power supply is one that supplies
a constant DC voltage to its load. Depending on its
design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC
source or from an AC source such as the power mains.
AC-to-DC supply

Schematic of basic AC-to-DC power supply, showing

(from L-R) transformer, full-wave bridge rectifier, filter
capacitor and resistor load
DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy
source. Such power supplies will employ a transformer to
convert the input voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage.
A rectifier is used to convert the transformer output
voltage to a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed
through an electronic filter to convert it to an
unregulated DC voltage. The filter removes most, but not
all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC voltage
is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple
dictates the minimum amount of filtering that must be
provided by a power supply. In some applications, high
ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required.
For example, in some battery charging applications it is
possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply
with nothing more than a transformer and a single
rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the output to
limit charging current.
Fig (2-10):-DC power supply
(2-2): AC power supplies
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a
wall outlet (mains supply) and uses a transformer to step
up or step down the voltage to the desired voltage. Some
filtering may take place as well. In some cases, the source
voltage is the same as the output voltage; this is called an
isolation transformer. Other AC power supply
transformers do not provide mains isolation; these are
called autotransformers; a variable output
autotransformer is known as a variac. Other kinds of AC
power supplies are designed to provide a nearly constant
current, and output voltage may vary depending on
impedance of the load. In cases when the power source
is direct current, (like an automobile storage battery), an
inverter and step-up transformer may be used to convert
it to AC power. Portable AC power may be provided by an
alternator powered by a diesel or gasoline engine (for
example, at a construction site, in an automobile or boat,
or backup power generation for emergency services)
whose current is passed to a regulator circuit to provide a
constant voltage at the output. Some kinds of AC power
conversion do not use a transformer. If the output
voltage and input voltage are the same, and primary
purpose of the device is to filter AC power, it may be
called a line conditioner. If the device is designed to
provide backup power, it may be called an
uninterruptable power supply. A circuit may be designed
with a voltage multiplier topology to directly step-up AC
power; formerly, such an application was a vacuum tube
AC/DC receiver. In modern use, AC power supplies can
be divided into single phase and three phase systems.
"The primary difference between single phase and three
phase AC power is the constancy of delivery." [3] AC
power Supplies can also be used to change the frequency
as well as the voltage, they are often used by
manufacturers to check the suitability of their products
for use in other countries. 230 V 50 Hz or 115 60 Hz or
even 400 Hz for avionics testing.

Fig (2-2):- AC power supply

3- Resistance (R) (ohm)
Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the
flow of electric current. It is represented by the
uppercase letter R. The standard unit of resistance is the
ohm, sometimes written out as a word, and sometimes
symbolized by the uppercase Greek letter omega: Greek
letter omega when an electric current of one ampere
passes through a component across which a potential
difference (voltage) of one volt exists, then the resistance
of that component is one ohm. (For more discussion of
the relationship among current, resistance and voltage,
see Ohm's law.) In general, when the applied voltage is
held constant, the current in a direct-current (DC)
electrical circuit is inversely proportional to the
resistance. If the resistance is doubled, the current is cut
in half; if the resistance is halved, the current is doubled.
This rule also holds true for most low-frequency
alternating-current (AC) systems, such as household
utility circuits. In some AC circuits, especially at high
frequencies, the situation is more complex because some
components in these systems can store and release
energy, as well as dissipating or converting it. The
electrical resistance per unit length, area, or volume of a
substance is known as resistivity. Resistivity figures are
often specified for copper and aluminum wire, in ohms
per kilometer. Opposition to AC, but not to DC, is a
property known as reactance. In an AC circuit, the
resistance and reactance combine vectorially to yield
impedance. Resistance contrasts with conductance,
which is a measure of the ease with which electrical
current flows through a substance.

Fig (3-1):- Resistance (R) (ohm)

4-Ammeter
A-An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring
instrument used to measure the current in a circuit.
Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the
name. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in
the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as
milliammeters or microammeters. Early ammeters were
laboratory instruments which relied on the Earth's
magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century,
improved instruments were designed which could be
mounted in any position and allowed accurate
measurements in electric power systems. It is generally
represented by letter 'A' in a circle. Ammeters have very
low resistance and are always connected in series in any
circuit.
B- Ammeter Definition: The meter uses for measuring the
current is known as the ammeter. The current is the flow
of electrons whose unit is ampere. Hence the instrument
which measures the flows of current in ampere is known
as ampere meter or ammeter. The ideal ammeter has
zero internal resistance. But practically the ammeter has
small internal resistance. The measuring range of the
ammeter depends on the value of resistance. Symbolic
Representation The capital alphabet A represents the
ammeter in the circuit.

Fig(4-1)
Connection of Ammeter in Circuit The ammeter is
connected in series with the circuit so that the whole
electrons of measurand current passes through the
ammeter. The power loss occurs in ammeter because of
the measurand current and their internal resistance. The
ammeter circuit has low resistance so that the small
voltage drop occurs in the circuit.

Fig(4-2)
The resistance of the ammeter is kept low because of the
two reasons. The whole measurand current passes
through the ammeter. The low voltage drop occurs
across the ammeter. Types of Ammeter The classification
of the ammeter depends on their design and the type of
current flows through the ammeter. The following are
the types of an ammeter regarding construction.
Permanent moving coil ammeter. Moving iron ammeter.
Electro-dynamometer ammeter. Rectifier type ammeter.
By the current, the ammeter categorises into two types.
AC ammeter DC ammeter
1. PMMC Ammeter – In PMMC instrument the conductor
is placed between the pole of the permanent magnet.
When the current flows through the coil, it starts
deflecting. The deflection of the coil depends on the
magnitude of current flows through it. The PMMC
ammeter used only for the measurement of the direct
current.
2. Moving Coil Ammeter (MI) – The MI ammeter
measures both the alternating and direct current. In
this type of ammeter, the coil freely moves between
the poles of a permanent magnet. When the current
 passes through the coil, it starts deflecting at a certain
angle. The deflection of the coil is proportional to the
current passes through the coil.
3. Electro-dynamometer Ammeter – It is used for the
measurement of both AC and DC. The accuracy of the
instrument is high as compared to the PMMC and MI
instrument. The calibration of the instrument is same
both for AC and DC, i.e. if DC calibrates the instrument
then without re-calibration, it is used for AC
measurement.
4. Rectifier Ammeter – It is used for measuring the
alternating current. The instruments using the
rectifying instrument which converts the direction of
current and pass it to the PMMC instrument. Such
type of instrument is used for measuring the current
in the communication circuit. The instrument which
measures the DC is known as the DC ammeter and
ammeter which measures AC is known as the AC
ammeter,
Ammeter Shunt:- The high-value current directly
passes through the ammeter which damages their
internal circuit. For removing this problem, the shunt
resistance is connected in parallel with the ammeter.

Fig(4-3)
If the large measurand current passes through the circuit,
the major portion of the current passes through the
shunt resistance. The shunt resistance will not affect the
working of the ammeter, i.e., the movement of the coil
remains same.
Effect of Temperature in Ammeter
The ammeter is a sensitive device which is easily affected
by the surrounding temperature. The variation in
temperature causes the error in the reading. This can
reduce by swamping resistance. The resistance having
zero temperature coefficient is known as the swamping
resistance. It connects in series with the ammeter. The
swamping resistance reduces the effect of temperature
on the meter.
 Fig(4-4)

The ammeter has the inbuilt fuse which protects the

ammeter from the heavy current. If substantial current
flows through the ammeter, the fuse will break. The
ammeter is not able to measure the current until the new
one does not replace the fuse.

Fig(4-5):- Ammeter
5-voltmeter
The ammeter has the inbuilt fuse which protects the
ammeter from the heavy current. If substantial current
flows through the ammeter, the fuse will break. The
ammeter is not able to measure the current until the new
one does not replace the fuse.

A voltmeter in a circuit diagram is represented by the

letter V in a circle. Voltmeters are made in a wide range
of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel
are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus.
Portable instruments, usually equipped to also measure
current and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are
standard test instruments used in electrical and
electronics work. Any measurement that can be
converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that
is suitably calibrated; for example, pressure,
temperature, flow or level in a chemical process plant.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an
accuracy of a few percent of full scale, and are used with
voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand
volts. Digital meters can be made with high accuracy,
typically better than 1%. Specially calibrated test
instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory
instruments capable of measuring to accuracies of a few
parts per million. Meters using amplifiers can measure
tiny voltages of microvolts or less. Part of the problem of
making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to
check its accuracy. In laboratories, the Weston Cell is
used as a standard voltage for precision work. Precision
voltage references are available based on electronic
circuits. A B

Fig (5 :-(A - B) ) voltmeter

6-ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures
electrical resistance, the opposition to an electric current.
Micro-ohmmeters (microhmmeter or microohmmeter)
make low resistance measurements. Megohmmeters
(also a trademarked device Megger) measure large
values of resistance. The unit of measurement for
resistance is ohms (Ω).

Design evolution The first ohmmeters were

based on a type of meter movement known as a
'ratiometer'. These were similar to the galvanometer
type movement encountered in later instruments, but
instead of hairsprings to supply a restoring force they
used conducting 'ligaments'. These provided no net
rotational force to the movement. Also, the movement
was wound with two coils. One was connected via a
series resistor to the battery supply. The second was
connected to the same battery supply via a second
resistor and the resistor under test. The indication on the
meter was proportional to the ratio of the currents
through the two coils. This ratio was determined by the
magnitude of the resistor under test. The advantages of
this arrangement were twofold. First, the indication of
the resistance was completely independent of the
battery voltage (as long as it actually produced some
voltage) and no zero adjustment was required. Second,
although the resistance scale was non linear, the scale
remained correct over the full deflection range. By
interchanging the two coils a second range was provided.
This scale was reversed compared to the first. A feature
of this type of instrument was that it would continue to
indicate a random resistance value once the test leads
were disconnected (the action of which disconnected the
battery from the movement). Ohmmeters of this type
only ever measured resistance as they could not easily be
incorporated into a multimeter design. Insulation testers
that relied on a hand cranked generator operated on the
same principle. This ensured that the indication was
wholly independent of the voltage actually produced.
Subsequent designs of ohmmeter provided a small
battery to apply a voltage to a resistance via a
galvanometer to measure the current through the
resistance (battery, galvanometer and resistance all
connected in series). The scale of the galvanometer was
marked in ohms, because the fixed voltage from the
battery assured that as resistance is increased, the
current through the meter (and hence deflection) would
decreased. Ohmmeters form circuits by themselves,
therefore they cannot be used within an assembled
circuit. This design is much simpler and cheaper than the
former design, and was simple to integrate into a
multimeter design and consequently was by far the most
common form of analogue ohmmeter. This type of
ohmmeter suffers from two inherent disadvantages.
First, the meter needs to be zeroed by shorting the
measurement points together and performing an
adjustment for zero ohms indication prior to each
measurement. This is because as the battery voltage
decreases with age, the series resistance in the meter
needs to be reduced to maintain the zero indication at
full deflection. Second, and consequent on the first, the
actual deflection for any given resistor under test
changes as the internal resistance is altered. It remains
correct at the centre of the scale only, which is why such
ohmmeter designs always quote the accuracy "at centre
scale only". A more accurate type of ohmmeter has an
electronic circuit that passes a constant current (I)
through the resistance, and another circuit that measures
the voltage (V) across the resistance. These
measurements are then digitized with an analog digital
converter (adc) after which a microcontroller or
microprocessor make the division of the current and
voltage according to Ohm's Law and then decode these
to a display to offer the user a reading of the resistance
value they're measuring at that instant. Since these type
of meters already measure current,voltage and
resistance all at once, these type of circuits are often
used in digital multimeters.

Precision ohmmeters For high-precision

measurements of very small resistances, the above types
of meter are inadequate. This is partly because the
change in deflection itself is small when the resistance
measured is too small in proportion to the intrinsic
resistance of the ohmmeter (which can be dealt with
through current division), but mostly because the meter's
reading is the sum of the resistance of the measuring
leads, the contact resistances and the resistance being
measured. To reduce this effect, a precision ohmmeter
has four terminals, called Kelvin contacts. Two terminals
carry the current from and to the meter, while the other
two allow the meter to measure the voltage across the
resistor. In this arrangement, the power source is
connected in series with the resistance to be measured
through the external pair of terminals, while the second
pair connects in parallel with the galvanometer which
measures the voltage drop. With this type of meter, any
voltage drop due to the resistance of the first pair of
leads and their contact resistances is ignored by the
meter. This four terminal measurement technique is
called Kelvin sensing, after William Thomson, Lord Kelvin,
who invented the Kelvin bridge in 1861 to measure very
low resistances. The Four-terminal sensing method can
also be utilized to conduct accurate measurements of low
resistances.