Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 127 (2020) 109883

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Minimising the present and future plastic waste, energy and environmental
footprints related to COVID-19
Ji�rí Jaromír Kleme�s a, *, Yee Van Fan a, Raymond R. Tan b, Peng Jiang c
a
Sustainable Process Integration Laboratory – SPIL, NETME Centre, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brno University of Technology - VUT Brno, Technick�
a 2896/2,
616 69, Brno, Czech Republic
b
Chemical Engineering Department, De La Salle University, 2401 Taft Avenue, 0922, Manila, Philippines
c
Department of Systems Science, Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR, Singapore, 138632, Singapore

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The COVID-19 pandemic has had growing environmental consequences related to plastic use and follow-up
Plastic waste footprint waste, but more urgent health issues have far overshadowed the potential impacts. This paper gives a pro­
Dynamic waste management spective outlook on how the disruption caused by COVID-19 can act as a catalyst for short-term and long-term
Environmental footprints reduction
changes in plastic waste management practices throughout the world. The impact of the pandemic and epidemic
COVID-19 pandemic
following through the life cycles of various plastic products, particularly those needed for personal protection
and healthcare, is assessed. The energy and environmental footprints of these product systems have increased
rapidly in response to the surge in the number of COVID-19 cases worldwide, while critical hazardous waste
management issues are emerging due to the need to ensure destruction of residual pathogens in household and
medical waste. The concept of Plastic Waste Footprint (PWF) is proposed to capture the environmental footprint
of a plastic product throughout its entire life cycle. Emerging challenges in waste management during and after
the pandemic are discussed from the perspective of novel research and environmental policies. The sudden shift
in waste composition and quantity highlights the need for a dynamically reponsive waste management system.
Six future research directions are suggested to mitigate the potential impacts of the pandemic on waste man­
agement systems.

1. Introduction terrestrial and marine ecosystems [3]. Worldwide waste management

systems have already been unable to deal with existing plastic waste
The current COVID-19 pandemic has been progressing rapidly [1], as satisfactorily, the impending surge in the volume of waste from the
shown by the reported statistics [2]. One of the acute environmental COVID-19 pandemic threatens to overwhelm existing waste manage­
effects of the pandemic is the sudden surge in the demand for and use of ment systems as does healthcare capacity.
plastic products to protect the general public, patients, health and ser­ Medical waste from hospitals is particularly problematic due to the
vices workers. The widespread use of protective gear throughout the need to destroy any residual pathogens [4]. Treatment facilities are
world as the pandemic creates massive upstream supply chain disrup­ typically designed to handle steady-state conditions where the medical
tions and downstream waste disposal problems. The demand trend is waste is handled at a predictable average flowrate and composition.
expected to match the global pandemic curve for various plastic prod­ Various treatment technology options are based on thermal processes as
ucts, as personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves and masks incineration, steam treatment (autoclaving), plasma treatment, and
for health workers, disposable plastic components for life support microwave treatment. The choice of treatment is dictated by multiple
equipment, respirators, and general plastic supplies including syringes. economic, technical, environmental, and social acceptability [5]. Rapid
Used plastic products are frequently pathogen-contaminated, and ought scale-up of waste volume likely upsets systems that are designed for
to be handled as hazardous waste. Even before the start of the COVID-19 steady-state conditions. Experience in Wuhan shows that optimisation
pandemic, the management of plastic waste was considered to be a models can be used to provide decision support for the reverse supply
major environmental issue due to growing concerns about pollution in chain problem of hospital waste management [6]. A related problem is a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.J. Kleme�s).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109883
Received 15 April 2020; Received in revised form 24 April 2020; Accepted 24 April 2020
Available online 27 April 2020
1364-0321/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.J. Kleme�s et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 127 (2020) 109883

decision where new facilities should be built to handle the increased long-term changes in plastic waste management practices throughout
waste volume. The relevant aspects include economics, emissions, the world. The concept of Plastic Footprint (PF) [13] is introduced and
safety, regulatory issues, and public acceptance. However, at the onset then extended to Plastic Waste Footprint (PWF) [14] as a metric for
of the pandemic, it is too late for those thoughts. environmental burdens. The current pandemic introduced disruptive
Fig. 1 illustrates the matching of the supply of and demand for changes in production systems. The disruptions through a "butterfly
medical waste treatment during the pandemic. The expected amount of effect" can lead to negative and positive shifts that becoming more
waste far exceeds the available capacity for treatment of hazardous permanent features of post-COVID-19 economies.
medical waste since these systems were designed for waste quantities
generated during normal operations. If suppressions measure alone is 2. The impact of the pandemic on plastic waste
not sufficient, new facilities can be built, or mobile units used [7] to
ramp up capacity. A Pinch Point occurs where this expanded capacity The pandemic has led to major challenges in the handling of
meets the peak of the suppressed curve and ensuring that hazards from municipal solid waste (MSW) and hazardous medical waste. China has
pathogen-contaminated wastes are managed. It can be seen that a large the most data on this issue. According to the 11 March press releases of
surplus is treatment capacity would be left in place after the pandemic the State Council’s Joint Prevention and Control Mechanism in China
subsides. It is unlikely that these treatment facilities are to be in­ [15], the amount of MSW in large and medium cities was reduced by
cinerators with heat recovery, and that they can be repurposed for 30% during the disease outbreak. However, the generation of medical
municipal solid waste. waste increased sharply (þ370%) in Hubei Province, with a high pro­
Given the technology options available for medical waste treatment, portion of plastics. From 20 January to 31 March, the accumulated
life cycle assessment (LCA) and related approaches can provide essential medical waste in all of China was estimated as 207 kt. In Wuhan,
guidance for identifying the most environmentally preferable alterna­ medical waste increased from the normal level of 40 t/d to about a peak
tive. Incineration of medical waste coupled with waste heat recovery is of 240 t/d, exceeding the maximum incineration capacity of 49 t/d [16].
an option that allows the chemical energy content of plastics to be The incineration cost of hazardous medical waste in China is estimated
recovered for useful purposes. An early LCA [8] with sensitivity analysis at 281.7–422.6 USD/t as compared to 14.1 USD/t for MSW [16]. Fig. 2
of heat recovery efficiency confirms that environmental impacts are shows the trends in waste flow compared to treatment capacity. Treat­
minimised by maximising energy recovery. This is confirmed by more ment systems designed for waste quality and quantity under normal
recent LCA, even when non-thermal options as chemical disinfection are conditions have to cope with dramatic changes that force abnormal
considered [9]. However, there are obstacles to the widespread use of operations. Engineering analysis is essential to ensure that these systems
incineration with heat recovery. Public concerns about trace emissions are able to cope with the dynamic and evolving nature of the pandemic.
of dioxins and furans can become problematic [10]. Another complication is that much remains unknown about the virus
Social acceptability issues may not loom as large in the current itself, as it is still unclear what products and processes would be needed
pandemic since fears of contagion are likely to be greater than any to manage the pandemic.
concerns about environmental footprints, including GHG and pollutants. The COVID-19 crisis is highlighting the essential role of plastic in
A problematic issue is a mismatch between the supply of and demand for daily life. Management of the virus requires single-use plastic [17], even
the recovered heat. It can be both temporal and spatial. Some experts if disposability is largely seen as an environmental liability in most other
[11] expect the pandemic may peak in the second quarter of 2020 when applications. An effective assessment tool can summarise the key envi­
the demand for heat in most of the Northern Hemisphere declines due to ronmental footprints of plastic products. Fig. 3 shows the plastic demand
warmer weather. Waste-to-energy facilities may not be conveniently by segment. Demand for medical products and packaging is increasing
located for energy recovery since priority is inevitably put on safe sharply during the COVID-19 pandemic.
disposal of contaminated waste. Xu et al. [12] show perspectives on Various mitigation or suppression measures being implemented in
balancing heat supply and demand to handle spatial and temporal im­ different countries are changing both the quantity and quality of plastic
balances. However, it remains uncertain if systems to be built on short waste. Single-use plastics are seen by consumers as a safe alternative for
notice or bring the mobile units to handle rapidly escalating volumes of many applications. Van Doremalen et al. [21], studied the survival of the
medical waste can be engineered for optimal energy recovery. virus on different surfaces, including plastics. Kampf et al. [22]
Sustainability of plastics has been under scrutiny even before the corroborated these results. Although plastics were shown to be no better
COVID-19 pandemic. This paper gives a prospective outlook on how the than other materials in terms of virus retention, disposability is regarded
disruption caused by COVID-19 can act as a catalyst for short-term and as an important advantage by consumers prioritising hygiene. This has
led to an increase in the use and disposal of plastic products, even for
non-medical applications. On the other hand, the plastic demand in the

Fig. 2. The expected trend of medical and MSW waste flow along with the
Fig. 1. Flattening the COVID-19 pandemic medical waste curve. epidemic/pandemic crisis.

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J.J. Kleme�s et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 127 (2020) 109883

Even advanced healthcare facilities have become insufficient for coping

with the rapidly increasing number of infected. Patients with mild
symptoms self-isolated at home generate contaminated MSW. This re­
quires a substantial structural change in waste management, from the
sorting rules, collection, waste treatment to the safety protocol of the
waste collection workers. Various safety precautions can be found in
ACRþ [24]. In the EU, waste masks, gloves, tissues and other contami­
nated waste are required to be double-bagged. In Germany, food con­
tainers which would normally be classified as recyclable waste. Now
they have to be treated as hazardous waste if there is a risk of contam­
ination with pathogens [24]. Households with positive or suspected
COVID-19 cases are suggested to limit the use of separate waste
collection systems [24]. These practices serve as precautions; however,
it stimulates the use of plastic and the generation of mixed waste. They
Fig. 3. Plastic demand by segment [18] and the expected increasing trend in
create logistical challenges for waste management systems, and other
medical and packaging. However, the net plastic demand is yet to be assessed.
economic and environmental issues take a back seat in the coronavirus
The plastic demand in the medical sector to help in combating the COVID-19
crisis.
including the face shield (PP), gown (LDPE), vinyl gloves (PVC), disposable
bag, tube, masks (plastic sheet and non-woven fabric) etc. [19]a. The vast de­ Incineration and steam sterilisation (90 min, 120 � C) are the com­
mand for food delivery or take out as well as grocery delivery [20]b increase PP, mon pathways for thermal treatment of hazardous medical waste. The
LDPE, HDPE, PETE and PS, which are the common packaging materials. residue of these processes can be safely handled after the adequate
decontamination cycle in accordance with non-hazardous solid waste
other sectors (e.g., automotive and aviation applications) is dropping in regulation [26]. In Germany, incineration temperature is required a
the likely global economic recession. Lockdown measures have also led strict procedure, to be at 1000 � C to ensure safe destruction [24].
to an increase in the amount of packaging used for the delivery of food Recommendation by the WHO for healthcare waste is between 900 and
and groceries to residences. These shifts may exacerbate environmental 1200 � C [28]. The main challenge is that COVID-19 is creating a waste
issues with plastics, which already existed even before the pandemic surge that can exceed treatment capacity by a large margin. Whether to
occurred. Although this increase is unavoidable, environmental pro­ utilise the MSW incineration capacity for medical waste in this critical
tection efforts should be sustained. In particular, metrics to facilitate situation remains an open question. In Spain, it is stated that if neces­
system design and comparison of alternatives, footprints, should be sary, cement plants can co-incinerate waste upon request [24]. Norway
developed and fully utilised. allows a temporary change in landfill permits and permits to carry waste
elsewhere to cope with the medical waste surge [24], if necessary. One
3. New challenges in waste management of the current debates dealing with this unexpected crisis is to have
on-site, mobile or off-site treatment [29]. In China, on-site and mobile
During the outbreak, many types of additional medical and hazard­ treatment is considered to be preferable due to its flexibility in
ous waste are generated, including infected masks, gloves and other responding to shifting demands. They have always been advantages and
protective equipment, together with a higher volume of non-infected drawbacks and are subject to context-specific constraints.
items of the same nature. Recent reports of airborne transmission [23] Plastics have calorific values comparable to conventional fuels
have led to recommendations to use masks in public environments. (Table 1). The calorific value of 25% in MSW is estimated to be the
Sound management of this waste can minimise unforeseen effects on plastics portion [30]. The assumptions (e.g. the incentives, taxes, over­
human health or the environment. Effective management of biomedical simplification on exact the plastic composition, collection system) made
and healthcare waste requires appropriate identification, collection, during the planning of waste management systems are suddenly no
separation, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal, as well as longer fully valid. They were justified by the need to achieve levels of
important associated aspects including disinfection, personnel protec­ collection, recycling and recovery defined at the political level, has led
tion and training. to under-sizing of recovery and disposal facilities, favouring recycling
Fig. 4 summarises the waste treatment approaches during the even when it was neither possible nor sustainable, as in the case of the
outbreak. The source of contaminated waste is not limited to hospitals. current pandemic. Fig. 5 shows the environmental and economic per­
formance of different plastic waste management approaches. Pyrolysis
and gasification are in development, stimulated by the request of more
sustainable waste treatment options [31]. An economic assessment
proposes the present scenario is sustained by tipping fee that is

Table 1
The calorific value of plastic and the exhaust gas released by incinerating MSW,
hazardous waste and sewage sludge.
Type of Plastics LHV (MJ/kg) [30]a, [33]b

PE 42–45a
PVC 15–25a
PA 36.76b
PET 21.81b
PP 30.90–45a
PS 38.97–40a
Fines (12 mm mesh) 15a
Type Exhaust gas release (m3/kt) [30]
Fig. 4. The main waste handling approaches for contaminated waste during MSW 5.5
Hazardous waste 7.0
COVID-19. Double bagged [24], Holding time [25], treatment methods [26],
Sewage sludge 8.0
on-site, off-site and mobile facilities [27].

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J.J. Kleme�s et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 127 (2020) 109883

Fig. 7. The embodied energy and value chain of plastic without considering the
supply chain (transporting).The % of energy recoveryc is estimated by the ef­
ficiency of waste to energy. [40]a [33]b.

extraction, refining, production of naphtha and olefins as well as poly­

Fig. 5. Environmental and Economic Performance of Various Plastic Waste merisation can be avoided. This energy is lost when the material ends up
Management approaches. Adapted from Vanapali et al. [31]. in landfills or as a solid plastic pollutant in the environment (against the
Circular Economy concept [38]). The net GHG footprint of each recov­
continuously rising due to the high costs of transportation towards the ery/disposal pathway can be estimated based on the energy consump­
treatment processes, both those for recovery as well as those for disposal tion in Fig. 7, in line with the concept of Plastic Waste Footprint Eq (1).
[32]. Plastic Waste Footprint highlights the importance of downstream pro­
Many countries have restricted the use of plastic bags. In the EU, cesses in defining sustainability.
even if the food packaging is plastic, the carrying bag is made of paper. Plastic recycling is an alternative but has some drawbacks. Some
However, the environmental footprint advantage of paper bags is recycling technologies are highly sensitive to purity. Zheng and Suh [39]
questionable, especially since they have limited potential for reuse. stated that replacing fossil-based energy with renewables can reduce the
Fig. 6 shows the material share for packaging. The typical paper bag environmental footprint of plastic significantly, especially GHGs. Plas­
(2.62 MJ/bag) has a higher energy footprint than a typical plastic bag tics have characteristics that are important for applications related to the
(0.76 MJ/bag), which is much lighter. This reduced weight also incurs management of COVID-19. However, prior to this crisis, public
reduced footprints elsewhere in the supply chain. A study by the UK perception and government regulations have sought to minimise plastic
Royal Society of Chemistry [34] reports that paper has a higher Water use. It is important to note that many of their environmental impacts (e.
Footprint and generates more air pollutants throughout its life cycle. g., microplastics pollution) are not inherent properties of the materials
This figure indicates that plastics can have superior environmental but are consequences of behavioural patterns of consumers (e.g.,
sustainability if properly used and disposed of. The concept of Plastic improper disposal).
Waste Footprint (PWF) was introduced [14] to quantify such aspects. It
is defined as the total mass of plastic waste used for a process, product or 4. Future outlook
service minus amount of plastic avoided þ reused þ recycled þ
reprocessed, as expressed in Eq (1). Public health is being prioritised over all other considerations during
each pandemic. Recovery plans and economic stimulus packages are
MPt – Mev - Mreu – Mrec – Mrep (1) being developed. IEA [41] is calling for putting clean energy at the heart
The energy embodied in plastic waste can be recovered if adequately of stimulus plans for the coronavirus crisis. Economic and environ­
managed. Fig. 7 shows the typical life cycle energy consumption of mental impacts of the plastic surge have not yet been fully analysed. The
plastic products. The embodied energy in the plastic can be recovered amount of waste threatens to overwhelm existing treatment and disposal
through primary and mechanical recycling, energy recovery and facilities, posing the risk of secondary contagion from improper waste
possibly chemical recycling (depolymerisation). The energy required for management. As highlighted by Barry [42], the impacts induced by
pandemic should be used as a foundation/lesson to build a better and
different future society. An important concern is how the emergency
measures put in place to deal with the surge will translate into long-term
waste management options after the pandemic. Fig. 8 summarises the
discussion covered by this article.
The current problem stems from the failure to anticipate the occur­
rence of a pandemic of this scale. It is also important to consider other
scenarios for the future:

� Disaster waste management: Current disaster waste management

planning is mainly focused on debris (e.g. earthquake). Optimisation
and decision-making tools are needed to support waste management
planning: treatment approaches, infrastructure, capacity (scalabil­
ity), mobilised/automated (e.g. remote-controlled robots) treatment
and collection design, logistics, safety, and regulatory aspects link to
the bio disaster response.

Fig. 6. Packaging alternatives. [35]a, [36]b, [34]c, [37]d.

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J.J. Kleme�s et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 127 (2020) 109883

Fig. 8. Summary of the discussion and the outcomes in this article.

� Further, optimise disaster waste management planning (com­ � Expanded development of advanced engineering and management
plementing each other): The planning can be on the regional scale (e. tools. As an example, these problems can be dealt with by new de­
g., EU-neighbouring countries) instead of limiting to the local level. velopments of Pinch Analysis [44].
� Rethinking the strategies on minimising the impact of plastic yet
make use of its merits: The focus should not be targeted on plastics 5. Conclusion
(as being fundamentally bad) but society (appropriate utilisation)
and post-consumer plastic treatments. PWF can be used as a medium Among the many adverse consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic is
to assess sustainability compared to the alternatives (e.g. paper), by the sudden surge in the volume of plastic waste, particularly for products
considering GHG emissions and energy consumption. A dynamic used for personal protection and healthcare purposes. The environ­
LCA approach is preferable. mental issues are related to the life cycles of products and are measur­
� Incorporation of social factors and uncertainties: Although sustain­ able via metrics such as footprints (PF and PWF) highlighted in this
ability consists of three pillars, social factor is neglected in most of paper. The crucial priority is placed on the destruction of residual
the optimisation studies or assessment (e.g. techno-economic pathogens for the safe disposal of that waste. It is too early for
assessment). For future planning, either the sustainability of plastic comprehensive conclusions. However, they are some issues which can
or any other environmental footprint assessment, it is important to influence future environmental footprints: Would after the crises be
include the social factors as well as understanding the potential money and energy (oil and gas) cheaper, would developed countries
impacts to a selection. realise that ‘outsourcing’ to lower-cost bases is not always reliable, safe
� Amount control and fine-grid management: Although the surge in and or sustainable in the long-term? The collapse in crude oil prices to
the short term seems to be unavoidable [43], waste prevention negative values was reported in the USA recently. However, it is un­
should be at the highest priority of waste management. With the certain if this price level will persist during the post-pandemic recovery
inspiration from the pandemic disease and the analytics of energy period. The impact on the price, the demand for plastics, waste treat­
and environmental footprints, better trade-offs between medical/­ ment and 6R initiatives have to be assessed. Although there have been
healthcare plastics and regular single-use plastics need to be per­ studies suggesting the reduction in environmental impacts (e.g. NOX
formed to control the total amount and elevate the flexibility for emissions) related to COVID 19, it is too early to gauge the long term net
future uncertainties. All categories of plastics can be managed in a environmental effects. There is uncertainty over the economic recovery
fine-grid manner according to the newly proposed Plastic 4R pro­ path, and there may be changes in consumer habits. Some issues have
grammes in Fig. 8 and circular economy strategies. been highlighted as priorities in this contribution both for scientific
research and for environmental policies. The emergency rush to rapidly

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