Numerical With Answer2

16EC712 - Fiber Optical Communication
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

K.S.R. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING: TIRUCHENGODE – 637 215.
COURSE / LESSON PLAN SCHEDULE
NAME : A.JAYAMATHI CLASS: IV ECE A , B
SUBJECT CODE AND NAME : 16EC712 & FIBER OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
TEXT BOOKS
1. John M. Senior ,“Optical Fiber Communication”, Pearson Education ,3rd Edition, 2013
2. Gerd Keiser, “Optical Fiber Communication”, Mc Graw Hill, 4th Edition. 2010
REFERENCES
1. GovindP.Agrawal, “Fiber-optic communication systems”, John Wiley & sons. 4th Edition, 2010.
2.Harry J.R Dutton, “Understanding Optical Communications”, IBM Corporation, International
Technical Support Organization, 2012.
3.J.Gower, “Optical Communication System”, Prentice Hall of India, 2nd Edition, 2003.
4.R.P.Khare, “Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics”, Oxford University Press, 2007.
C). LEGEND:
L - Lecture BB - Black Board
OHP - Over Head Projector pp - Pages
Tx - Text Rx - Reference
Teaching
Lecture
Sl. No Topics to be covered Aid Book No./Page No
Hour
Required
UNIT I - OPTICAL FIBER WAVEGUIDES
TX1/PP 12-14, TX2/PP 26-31,

1 L1 Introduction and Ray theory transmission BB
RX1/PP 1-7, RX3/PP 33-36
Characteristics of Light-Total internal reflection, TX1/PP 14-20, TX2/PP 32-35
2 L2 BB
Acceptance angle RX3/PP 35-36
TX1/PP 14-20,TX2/PP 32-35,
3 L3 Numerical aperture , Skew rays BB
RX3/PP 36-37
Electromagnetic mode theory of optical TX1/PP 24-28, RX3/PP 46-49
4 L4 BB
propagation -EM waves ,Modes in Planar guide RX1/PP 28-36
5 L5 Phase and group velocity BB TX1/PP 103-104,RX3/PP 69-70
BB TX2/PP 35-53
Cylindrical fibers- modes, mode coupling step
6 L6 RX3/PP 40-46
index fiber, graded index fiber
RX1/PP 23-27
SM fibers – cutoff wavelength, mode field BB TX1/PP 54-71, TX2/PP 62-65
7 L7
diameter and spot size ,RX3/PP 34-40,190-195
Fiber Attenuation measurements- Total fiber BB
TX1/PP 909-918
8 L8 attenuation, Fiber absorption loss measurement,
Fiber scattering loss measurement
Fiber Numerical Aperture Measurements, Fiber BB
9 L9 TX1/PP 938-943, RX1/PP 40-42
diameter measurements, Photonic crystal fibers
UNIT II- SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS
TX1/PP 88-90,90-95
Attenuation and Material absorption losses in
10 L10 BB TX2/PP 90-94,93-97. RX3/PP 89-
silica glass fibers
93, RX1/PP 56-57
TX1/PP 96-97
11 L11 Linear and Non linear Scattering losses BB TX2/PP 97-101, RX3/PP 93-98,
RX1/PP 57-63
TX1/PP 100-101,100-102,103-
Fiber Bend losses and Midband and farband
12 L12 BB 105
infrared transmission
TX2/PP 105-106
TX1/PP 109-113,124-131,TX2/PP
Intra and inter Modal Dispersion and Over all
13 L13 BB 113-115-107, RX1/PP 41-43,
Fiber Dispersion
RX3/PP 157-159,180-181
TX1/PP 140-148, 51-154, TX2/PP
14 L14 Polarization, non linear effects
105-110, RX1/PP 64-67
BB
TX1/PP 243-250,219-232,
BB TX2/PP 231-235, 215-
15 L15 Optical fiber connections: Fiber alignment and
223RX1/PP 152-153, RX3/PP
Joint Losses
231-236
L16,L BB TX1/PP 233-241, TX2/PP 115-
16 Fiber Splices and Fiber connectors
17 121, RX3/PP 230-236
TX1/PP 251-255,280-
Fiber Couplers, Optical isolators and
17 L18 BB 283,RX2/PP 256-259 RX3/PP
circulators
236-239
UNIT III – OPTICAL SOURCES
Optical sources: Light Emitting Diodes - LED BB TX1/PP 396-410,TX2/PP 150-
L19,L
18 structures -Surface and edge emitters , Mono and 153, RX3/PP 258-259,
20
hetero structures RX1/PP 87-91,
BB TX1/PP 412-419,342-349,TX2/PP
19 L21 Internal quantum efficiency of LED
153-154, RX3/PP 211-212
Laser diode: Fabry-Perot laser, Distributed BB TX2/PP 161-171, RX1/PP 94-99
20 L22
feedback laser
Injection laser diode structures , Comparison of BB TX2/PP 171-176, RX3/PP 361-
21 L23
LED and ILD 372
22 L24 Modulation of laser diodes, Temperature effects OHP TX2/PP 168-172 TX2/PP 174-175
Power launching and coupling: Source to fiber BB RX3/PP 118-121
23 L25
power launching TX2/PP 191-196
BB TX2/PP 196-199, TX1/PP 419-
24 L26 Lensing scheme for coupling improvement
421
BB TX2/PP 208-209 TX2/PP 392-399
LED coupling to SM fibers, Optical sensor TX1/PP 866-870
25 L27
system
UNIT IV- OPTICAL RECEIVER
BB RX3/PP 138-141, TX2/PP 223-
Optical detectors: PIN photo detector, Schottky
26 L28 barrier photodiodes
226,
TX1/PP 432-434
Avalanche photodiodes- Construction and BB RX3/PP 142-147,TX2/PP 227-
27 L29 properties 230, TX1/PP 441-442
Photo detector: noise sources, signal to noise BB RX3/PP 155-158,TX2/PP 231-234
28 L30
ratio TX1/PP 502-505
Detector response time, Comparison of photo BB TX2/PP 235-239
29 L31 detector
Fundamental receiver operation: Digital Signal BB TX1/PP 503-505,TX2/PP 275-281,
30 L32
Transmission, Error sources
L33,L Front end amplifier: Pre amplifiers – high BB TX1/PP 524-525,TX2/PP 305-308
31
34 impedance FET amplifier
32 L35 Bipolar, trans impedance amplifier TX1/PP 526-530,TX2/PP 309-311
BB
TX2/PP 281-289
Probability of Error and Quantum limit, Optical
33 L36 RX3/PP 524-526 TX2/PP 493-494
packet switching
TX1/PP 1000-1002
UNIT V – DIGITAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
34 L37 Point to point links : system consideration BB RX3/PP 183-185,TX2/PP 284-286

35 L38 Link power budget BB TX2/PP 286-288
BB RX3/PP 192-193
36 L39 Rise time budget, problems
TX2/PP 289-292
37 L40 Noise effects in system performance BB TX2/PP 297-304,TX1/PP 122-124

BB RX3/PP 339-360
38 L41 Operational principles of WDM
TX2/PP 341-345 TX1/PP 976-978
BB RX3/PP 404-410,TX2/PP 442-449
39 L42 Solitons & problems
TX1/PP 792-801
40 L43 Erbium doped Fiber amplifiers OHP RX3/PP 250-260,TX2/PP 400-407
41 L44 Basics of SONET/SDH OHP TX2/PP 467-475

42 L45 Optical time domain Reflectometre BB TX2/PP 535-540,TX1/PP 952-958
UNIT I – OPTICAL FIBER WAVEGUIDES

TWO MARKS
1. Define acceptance angle and critical angle of the fiber. (CO1)(Remembering)(MAY/JUNE
2009, May 2010,Nov 2012,Nov/Dec 2014,June 2018)
Acceptance angle :The acceptance angle is the maximum angle to the fiber axis at which light may
enter the fiber axis in order to be propagated. Θin(max) = Sin-1 n12-n22)
Critical angle :The critical angle is the angle of incidence that causes the refracted light to travel
along the interface between two different mediums. Θc = Sin-1(n2/n1)
2. Why do we prefer step index single mode fiber for long distance communication? (CO1)
(Remembering) (NOV 2011)
Step index single mode fiber has i) low attenuation due to smaller core diameter ii) higher
bandwidth and iii) very low dispersion.
3. What is V number of fiber or normalized frequency of fiber? (CO1) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec
2010), (Nov 2013)
V number of fiber or normalized frequency of fiber is used to find the number of propagating
modes through the fiber. V= 2 Π a (N.A)/λ
In step index fiber number of modes propagating through the fiber=V2/2. Taking the two possible
polarizations, total number of possible modes propagating through the fiber= (V2 /2)* 2 =V2
4. Write short notes on: total internal reflection? (CO1) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2010)
(Dec/Jan 2017)
i)Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium. ii) The angle of incidence should be
greater than the critical angle of the denser medium.
5. What are the advantages of single mode fiber over multimode fiber? (CO1) (Remembering)
(Nov 2012),(Apr/May2008,Nov/Dce 2014) (Dec/Jan 2017)
i.Very low attenuation ii. High quality signal transfer because of absence of modal noise iii.
Largest available bandwidth distance product.
6. Calculate the cutoff wavelength of a single mode fiber with core radius of 4μm and Δ = 0.003 .
(CO1) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2012)
Cut off wavelength λc = 2πan1(2Δ)1/2/Vc for single mode Vc =2.405 and n1=1
λc = 2*3.14*4*1*(2*0.003)1/2 / 2.405 = 0.809μm
7. What is the energy of a single photon of the light whose λ = 1550 nm, in eV? (CO1)
(Remembering) (Nov/Dec 2011)
λ= 1.240/Eg(eV) =1.240/1550 X 10-3 =0.8eV
8. Assume that there is a glass rod of refractive index 1.5, surrounded by air.Find the critical
incident angle. (CO1) (Applying)(Nov/Dec 2011)
Фc=sin-1(n2/n1) = sin-1(1.5/1.0)= 0.66
9. A typical relative refractive index difference for an optical designed for long distance
transmission is 1%. Estimate the numerical aperture for the fiber when the core index is
1.46.Find the critical angle at the core cladding interface within the fiber. (CO1) (Applying)
(May/June 2012)
Numerical aperture of fiber is given by NA = n1 ∆ = 1.47 = 0.21
Critical angle фc = sin-(n2/n1) n2=(n12-NA2)1/2 = 1.4448 фc = 81.9
10. Define a fiber- optic system. (CO1) (Remembering)
Fiber – optic system is nothing but a fiber-optic cable is essentially light pipe that is used to
carry a light beam from one place to another.
11. Write the advantages of fiber –optic cables over conventional cables. (CO1) (Remembering)
The primary advantage of fiber –optic cables over conventional cables and radio are wider
bandwidth, lower loss, light weight, small size, strength, security, interference immunity and safety.
12. Mention the disadvantages of fiber-optic cables. (CO1) (Remembering)
The main advantages of fiber –optic cable is that its small size and brittleness makes more
difficult to work with.
13. Write down the ranges of optical frequency. (CO1) (Understanding)
The frequency of the optical spectrum is in the range of 3x1011 to 3x1016Hz.This includes both
infrared and ultraviolet as well as the visible parts of the spectrum. Light frequencies used in optical
fiber communications systems are between 1x1014Hz and 4x1014Hz(100,000GHz to 400,000GHz).
14. Define a repeater. (CO1) (Remembering)
Repeater is nothing but a re-generator of the original signal which is affected by noise. It is not
an amplifier.
15. What is the relationship between information capacity and bandwidth? (CO1) (Remembering)
The information –carrying capacity of any electronic communication system is directly
proportional to bandwidth. Optical fiber cables have, for all practical purposes, an infinite
bandwidth.
16. Contrast glass and plastic fiber cables. (CO1) (Understanding)
Fiber – optic cables are made from glass and plastic. Glass has the lowest loss but it brittle.
Plastic is cheaper and more flexible, but has high attenuation.
17. Write down the wavelength regions corresponding to first, second and third windows. (CO1)
(Remembering)
1.First window - 800to 900 nm
2.second window -1100 to 1350nm
3.Third window-1500 to 1650nm
18. For a low power optical signal which type of photo-diode can be used? Why? (CO1)
(Understanding)
Avalanche photo diode since it has a greater sensitivity owing to an inherent internal gain
mechanism (avalanche effect).
19. Define Numerical aperture of a step index fiber. (CO1) (Remembering) (APR/MAY 2005, may
2010,Nov 2012)
Numerical aperture (N.A) of the fiber is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber and is the
measure of the amount of light rays that can be accepted by the fiber. It is equal to the sine of
acceptance. N.A=sinφmax=(n12-n22)1/2 where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of core and
cladding respectively.
20. What is meant by refractive index of a material? (CO1) (Remembering)
The amount of refraction is called the index of refraction (n) and is the ratio of the speed of
light in air to the speed of light in the material.
Index of refraction(n)= Speed of light in air (c)/Speed of light in substance (v) .
21. What is the function of an optical receiver in an optical repeater? (CO1) (Remembering)
An optical receiver detects the optical signal and converts it to an electric signal, which is
amplified, reshaped and sent to the electric input of the optical transmitter.
22. Write the advantages of optical communication. (CO1) (Remembering)
i).Small size and weight ii).Immunity to interface and crosstalk iii).High signal security iv).Low
transmission loss v).System reliability and ease of maintenance. vi).Wide band width and greater
information capacity.
23. Define refraction. (CO1) (Remembering)
Refraction is the bending of a light ray that occurs when the light rays pass from one medium to
another.
24. Write a short note on a) Angle of incidence (b) Angle of reflection. (CO1) (Understanding)
Angle of incidence: The angle at which light strikes a surface with respect to the normal is called
the angle of incidence. The angle of the incident light ray determines whether the ray will be
reflected or refracted.
Angle of reflection: The angle at which light is reflected from a surface is called the angle of
reflection. The law of reflection is usually expressed in the following form: The angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Angle of incidence =Angle of reflection
25. Mention any two limitations of fiber optical communications. (CO1) (Understanding)
(1) High initial cost: The initial cost of installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all
other system.
(2)Joining and test process: Since optical fibers are of very small size. The fiber joining process is
very difficult and costly. It requires skilled manpower.
26. Write the function of light sources. (CO1) (Understanding)
The light source has two main functions. 1)It generates the optical (light) signal. 2)It also gives
modulation of the light wave carrier with information signal.
27. Mention the necessary conditions for TIR. (CO1) (Understanding)
Two necessary conditions for TIR to occur are: i)T he refractive index of first medium (n1)
must be greater than the refractive index of second one (n2). ii)The angle of incidence of the ray
exceeds the critical value(ф1 >фc) .
28. What is a step – index fiber? (CO1) (Remembering)
If the refractive index of the core in a fiber is uniform throughout and undergoes an abrupt
change or step at the cladding boundary, it is called step index fiber.
29. What is a graded index fiber? (CO1) (Remembering)
If the refractive in a fiber is made to vary as a function of the radial distance from the center of
the fiber, it is called graded – index fiber, i.e., refractive index decreases as the radial distance
increases (moves away from the center)
30. What is order of a mode ? (CO1) (Remembering)
The order of a mode is equal to the number of field zeros across the guide.
31. Define a intermodal distortion. (CO1) (Understanding)
When an optical pulse is launched into a fiber, the optical power in the pulse is distributed
overall of the modes of the fiber. Each of the modes that can propagate in a multimode fiber
travels at a slightly different velocity. So the optical pulse arrive at the fiber end at slightly different
times, thus causing the pulse to spread out in times as it travels along the fiber. That is called
intermodal dispersion (or) Intermodal distortion.
32. What is meridional ray? (CO1) (Understanding)
Meridional rays are pass through the fiber (core) axis after each total internal reflection from
the core cladding boundaries. Meridional ray lies in a single plane, its path is easy to track as it
travels along the fiber.
33. On what laws the bounded rays get propagated? (or) What is bounded rays? (CO1)
(Understanding)
The bounded rays that are trapped in the core and propagate along the fiber axis according to
the laws of geometrical optics.
34. What are skew rays? (CO1) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2009)
Skew rays are the rays following the helical path around the fiber axis when they travel
through the fiber and they would not cross the fiber axis at any time. It is very difficult to track the
skew rays as they do not lie in a single plane.
35. What do you meant by modes? (CO1) (Understanding)
The modes are referred to the number of paths for the light rays in the fiber cable.
36. What is an index profile? (CO1) (Understanding)
The index profile of an optic fiber is a graphical representation of the magnitude of the
refractive index across the fiber.
37. Define graded index fiber. (CO1) (Understanding)
The core refractive index is made to vary as a function of the radial distance from the center of
the fiber. This type is a graded – index fiber. The index of refraction varies smoothly and
continuously over diameter of the core.
38. What are unbound rays? (CO1) (Remembering)
The unbound rays that are refracted out of the fiber core.
39. Mention the names of different optical fiber configuration. (CO1) (Remembering)
Depending on the refractive index profile of fiber and modes of fiber, three configurations are
commonly used. This optic – fiber configuration are i)Single mode step – index fiber ii)Multimode
step - index fiber iii)Multimode graded index fiber
40. What is ray theory approach? (CO1) (Remembering)
A ray of light is the one dimensional approach and indicates the direction of propagation of
light through the fiber. The ray theory is otherwise known as tracing approach or geometrical optics
representation.
41. Write the expression for the acceptance angle for skew rays. (CO1) (Understanding)
The acceptance angle for skew rays is expressed as Θa =sin-1(NA/cosγ). At each reflection, the
fiber will give a 2γ direction change for rays.
42. Define weakly guiding approximation. (CO1) (Remembering)
In a step index fiber the difference in the core and cladding indices of refraction is very small
(Δ<<1) . This is the basis of the weakly guiding fiber approximation. Usually Δ is less than 0.003
(3%) for optical communication.
43. What is linearly polarized mode? (CO1) (Understanding) (May/June 2013)
In a step index fiber the difference in the core and cladding indices of refraction is very small
(Δ<<1) . This is the basis of the weakly guiding fiber approximation. Usually Δ is less than 0.003
(3%) for optical communication. With this weakly guiding assumption, only four field components (
HE,EH,TE and TM) need to be considered and their expressions become significantly similar. The
field components are called linearly polarized components.
44. What is degenerate modes? (CO1) (Remembering)
In weakly guiding fibers Δ is small , then HE-EH mode pairs occur which have almost identical
propagation constants and electromagnetic field patterns. Such modes are said to be degenerate.
45. What are TE modes? (CO1) (Remembering)
Consider electromagnetic waves propagating along the cylindrical fiber. If the axis of the fiber
lies along the z-axis of the cylindrical co-ordinate system when Ez = 0, the modes are called
transverse electric (TE) modes.
46. Write the expression for the total number of guided mode supported by the graded index fiber.
(CO1) (Understanding)
The total number of the guided modes or mode volume M supported by the graded index fiber
is given by M= (α / α+2) (n1ka)2 Δ Where, r is the radial distance from the fiber axis, a is the core
radius, n1 is the refractive index at the core axis, n2 is the refractive index of the cladding and α is
the profile parameter which gives the characteristic refractive index profile of the fiber core and ∆ is
the refractive index index difference.
47. What are TM modes? (CO1) (Remembering)
When HZ=0, the modes are called transverse magnetic (TM) modes.
48. What is meant by mode coupling? (CO1) (Remembering)
Mode coupling is the coupling of energy from one mode to another arises.
49. Why single mode fiber is widely used in telecommunication? (CO1) (Understanding)
1).Single mode fiber utilize transmission bandwidth effectively and have lowest losses in the
transmission medium. 2).They have a superior transmission quality over other fiber types because of
the absence of modal noise. 3).They offer a substantial upgrade capability for future wide
bandwidth services using either faster optical transmitters and receivers or advanced transmission
techniques. 4).They are compatible with the developing integrated optics technology. 5).The
installation of single-mode fiber will provide a transmission medium which will have adequate
performance such that it will not require replacement over its twenty-plus anticipated li
50. What are the factors involved in the mode coupling? (CO1) (Understanding)
The coupling of energy from one mode to another arises because of
i) Structural imperfections ii)fiber diameter variations iii)Refractive-index variations iv)Cabling-
induced micro bends and v)-Irregularities at core-cladding interference.
51. Write the expressions that support the single mode operation in a graded index fiber? (CO1)
(Understanding)
The cutoff value of normalized frequency Vc to support a single mode in a graded index fiber is
given by Vc =2.405(1+2/α)1/2 Using this expression, it is possible to determine the fiber parameters
which give single-mode operation.
52. What is mode field diameter? (CO1) (Remembering)(APR/MAY 2004), (Nov/Dec 2010)
The Mode Field Diameter (MFD) is an important parameter for characterizing single mode
fiber properties which takes into account the wavelength dependent field penetration into the fiber
cladding. This parameter can be determined from the mode – field distribution of the fundamental
LP01 mode.
53. Define effective refractive index. (CO1) (Remembering)
Effective refractive index for single-mode fiber is defined by the ratio of the propagation
constant of the fundamental mode to the vacuum propagation constant neff = β/k
54. What are hybrid modes? (CO1) (Remembering)
When both Hz and Ez are non-zero , the modes are called hybrid modes. These are designated
as EH or HE modes, depending on whether Hz or Ez makes a larger contribution to the transverse
field.
55. Mention the advantage of multimode fibers over single mode fiber. (CO1) (Remembering)
(May/June 2013)
Multimode fibers have several advantages over single mode fibers:
1).the use of spatially incoherent optical sources(eg. LED’s) which cannot be effectively
coupled to single mode fibers.2).Larger numerical apertures as well as core diameters, facilitating
easier coupling to optical sources.3).Lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors.
56. Write the expression for the refractive index in graded index fibers. (CO1)
(Understanding)(APR/MAY 2004,June 2016)
n(r)= n1[1-2∆(r/a)α]1/2 for 0 ≤ r ≤a
n1(1-2∆)1/2 ≈ n1(1-∆) =n2 for r ≥ a
r - radial distance from fiber axis , a - core radius ,n1 - refractive index at the core axis , n2 -
refractive index at the cladding, α - shape of the index profile, ∆ - index difference
57. Give the expression for linearly polarized waves. (CO1) (Understanding)
The electric or magnetic field of a train of plane polarized waves travelling in a direction k can
be represented in the general form A(x,t) = eiAoexp[j(wt-k.x)] with x=xex+yey+zez representing a
general position vector and k=kxex+kyey+kzez representing the wave propagation vector.
58. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the ray optics theory. (CO1)
(Understanding)((NOV/DEC 2008)
Advantages: i. It gives more direct physical interpretation of light propagation characteristics in an
optical fiber. ii. Good approximation methods to the light acceptance and guiding in fiber in
small Wavelength unit.
Disadvantages: i. Ray optics does not predict every mode of cure fiber. ii. It does not solve the
interference problem. iii. Inaccurate for non- zero wavelength unit when number of guided mode
is large.
59. What is Snell’s law? (CO1) (Remembering)
The relationship at the interface is known as Snell’s law and is given by n1sinφ1=n2 sinφ2
60. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber? (CO1) (Understanding)(Dec 2015,June
2016,May 2019)
i) To provide proper light guidance inside the core ii) To avoid leakage of light from the fiber
iii) To avoid mechanical strength for the fiber iv) To protect the core from scratches and other
mechanical damages
61. What are the uses of optical fibers? (CO1) (Understanding)
i) To transmit the information which are in the form of coded signals of the telephone
communication, computer data, etc. ii) To transmit the optical images (Example : Endoscopy) iii)
To act as a light source at the inaccessible places. iv) To act as sensors to do mechanical, electrical
and magnetic measurements.
62. What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light guides? (CO1) (Understanding)
The phenomenon of total internal reflection is used to guide the light in the optical fiber. To get
total internal reflection, the ray should travel from denser to rarer i.e. from core to cladding region of
the fiber and the angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the critical angle of
that medium.
63. Relate between numerical aperture of skew rays and meridional rays. (CO1) (Understanding)
(N.A) skew = cosγ(N.A) meridional when the fiber is placed in air. Here γ is the half of the
angular change in every reflection.
64. What is fiber birefringence and fiber beat length? (CO1) (Understanding) (MAY/JUNE 2009)
Fiber birefringence: The modes propagate with different phase velocities, and the difference
between their effective indices is called the fiber birefringence. B y = ny -nx
Fiber beat length:If light is injected into the fiber so that both modes are excited, one mode is
delayed in phase relative to the order as they propagate. When the phase difference between two
modes is an integral multiple of 2π, the modes will beat at this point and the input polarization will
be reproduced. The length over which the beating occurs is known as fiber beat length. Lp = 2π / λ
65. Give the expression for numerical aperture in graded index fibers. (June 2016)(CO1)
(Understanding)
N.A(r)=N.A.(0) (1-(r/a) α)1/2 for r ≤ a where N.A(0) = axial numerical aperture = (n 12-n22)1/2 a- is
core radius and α is the refractive index profile.
66. Give the relationship between rays and modes. (CO1) (Understanding) (NOV/DEC 2007)
Ray gives the direction of travel of a plane wave. A guided mode travelling in the z direction
along an optical fiber can be decomposed into a family of plane waves. Since with each plane wave,
a light ray can be associated, the family of plane waves corresponding to a mode forms a set of
rays called ray congruence.
67. A silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.5 and a cladding refractive index of
1.47.Determine the Numerical aperture, acceptance angle and critical angle in air for the
fiber. (CO1) (Applying)(NOV/DEC 2007),(Apr/May 2008) (Nov 2013),(May/June 2013)(Dec
2015)
Given : n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1.47 NA = (n12-n22)1/2 = 0.3 Acceptance angle = sin-1(NA) = 1.74˚
Critical angle= sin-1( n2/n1)= sin-1( 1.47/1.5) = sin-1 (0.98)
1.47. (CO1) (Applying)(NOV/DEC 2008), (Nov/Dec 2012)
Numerical aperture of fiber is given by NA = n1 ∆ = 1.47 = 0.2
69. A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80 μm and a relative index difference of
1.5% is operating at a wavelength of 0.85 μm. If the core refractive index is 1.48, estimate the
normalized frequency for the fiber and the number of guided modes. (CO1)
(Applying)(April/May 2010), (May/June 2012)(Dec 2014)
i. Normalized frequency (V) = 2πa n1 ∆ =(2 X 3.14 X 40 / 0.85) X 1.48 x =75.8
λ
ii. Number of guides modes (M) = ½ V2 = ½ (75.8)2 = 2873
70. An optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. Find the acceptance angle for meridional rays? (CO1)
(Applying)
Acceptance angle θa = n0 sin-1NA , n0 = 1 for air, θa = n0 sin-1 NA = sin-1 0.4 = 23.6˚
71. A single mode fiber has a beat length of 9 cm at 1300nm. Find the birefringence of the fiber.
(CO1) (Applying)(Nov/Dec 2010)
Birefringence of the fiber β = 2π = 2 π = 69.7cm-1
Lp 0.09 m
72. What is tunnel effect in optical fiber? (CO1) (Understanding)(Nov/ Dec 2009)
The leaky modes are continuously radiation their power out of the core as they propagate along
the fiber. This power radiation out of the waveguide in quantum mechanical phenomenon is referred
to as tunnel effect.
73. List the important requirements to be satisfied while selecting materials for optical fiber?
(CO1) (Evaluating)(Nov2012)
i.It must be possible to make long, thin, flexible fibers from the material.ii.The material must be
transparent at a particular optical wavelength in order for the fiber to guide light efficiently.
iii.Physically compatible materials that have slightly different refractive indices for the core and
cladding must be available.
74. Calculate the numerical aperture and solid acceptance angle in air for a fiber with core
refractive index of 1.46 and core cladding index difference Δ= 0.01(CO1) (Applying)(May/June
2013)
NA = n1(2Δ)1/2 =1.46 (2*0.01)1/2 =0 .2064
75. What is need of fiber attenuation measurements techniques ?(Analayzing)
Fiber attenuation measurement techniques are used in order to determine the total fiber
attenuation loss due to both absorption losses and scattering losses.
76. Mention the names of different techniques used for determining attenuation in fiber.
(Remembering)
For determining attenuation in fibers three major techniques are used (i)Cutback
technique (ii)Insertion loss method (iii)Optical Time Domain Reflectometers (OTDR)
77. Write expression for the measurements of attenuation in cutback method. (Remembering)
Let PF and PN represent the output power at far and near ends of the fiber,
respectively .Then the attenuation in decibels per kilometer is expressed as
=10/L log PN/ PF, ,L is the separation distance of two measurement points (km)
78. Write the importance of the refractive index profile measurements.(Understanding)
i.The refractive index profile of the fiber core plays an important role in characterizing
the properties of optical fibers.
ii.It allows determination of the fiber’s numerical aperture on the number of modes
propagating within the fiber core.
79. What are the common methods used for determination of fiber NA?(Understanding)
Commonly used techniques for determination of fiber NA are i. Measurement of the far
field radiation pattern from the fiber ii. Far field pattern by trignometric mean.
80. State the significance of maintaining the fiber outer diameter constant. (Analyzing)
(Nov/Dec 2014)
i)Outer diameter is constant within 1% ii)Speed is large iii)More accuracy
81. What are the methods used to measure fiber refractive index profile? (Remembering)
(May/June 2012)
i.Interferometeric method ii.Near field scanning method iii. Refractive near field method
16 MARKS
1. Discuss mode theory of circular waveguides. (CO1) (Creating)( NOV/DEC 2004),(Nov/Dec
2009),(Nov/Dec 2013,Nov/Dec 2014)(Dec 2015, June 2018)
2. Discuss the theory of Graded Index Fibers. Derive the expression for the numerical aperture of
Graded Index Fiber. (CO1) (Creating)(NOV/DEC 2004),(Nov/Dec 2013), (May/June 2012),
(May/June 2013),(Nov/Dec2014)
3. i. Discuss the propagation modes in single – mode fiber. ii. Discuss the structure of graded index
fiber. (CO1) (Creating)(APR/MAY 2005)
4. Derive an expression for number of modes propagating in a graded index fiber from the first
principle. (CO1) (Understanding)(Apr/May2008)
5. i.Derive an expression for numerical aperture of a step Index fiber.(Understanding) ii. The relative
refractive index difference between the core axis and the cladding of a graded index fiber is 0.7%
when the refractive index at the core axis is 1.45. Estimate values for the numerical aperture of the
fiber along the axis when the index profile is assumed to be triangular. (CO1) (Apr/May
2008),(Applying)(apr/May 2010) (May/June 2013)
6. i.Briefly explain the evolution of fiber optic system. ii. Compare the configurations of different
types of fibers. (CO1) (Understanding)(NOV/DEC 2005)
7. i. Derive modal equation. ii. Discuss the modes in step – index fibers.(Creating) (CO1)
( NOV/DEC 2005)
8. i. List the advantages of optical fiber communication. ii. Draw the elements of an optical fiber
transmission link and explain. (CO1) (Remembering) (MAY/JUNE 2006, Nov 2012),(Nov/Dec
2013),(Nov/Dec 2009), (Nov/Dec 2008) (Dec 2015,MAY 2019)
9. Explain mode propagating in circular waveguides. Obtain its wave equation and modal equations for
step index fibers. (CO1) (Understanding) (MAY 2010)
10. i)What is numerical aperture of an optical fiber? Deduce an expression for the same. (ii) Calculate
NA of silica fiber with its core refractive index (n1) of 1.48 and cladding refractive index of 1.46.
What should be the new value of ‘n1’ in order to change the NA to 0.23. (CO1) (Applying)
(Nov/Dec 2011)(Apr/May 2019)
11. i)Explain the phenomenon of total internal reflection using Snell's law with figures and calculations.
(Evaluating) (ii) Distinguish step-index from graded index fibers. (CO1) (Analyzing) (Nov/Dec
2011, June 2018)
12. i.Starting from the Maxwell’s equation, derive the expression for the wave equation of an
electromagnetic wave propagating through optical fiber. ii.Derive the ray theory behind the optical
fiber communication by total internal reflection. State the application of Snell’s law in it. (CO1)
(Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2012)
13. (i) A Si fiber with silica core refractive index of 1.458, v = 75 and NA = 0.3 is to be operated at
820nm. What should be its core size and cladding refractive index? Calculate the total number
of modes entering this fiber. (ii) Derive expression for the linearly polarized modes in optical
fibers and obtain the equation for V number. (CO1) (Applying) (Nov/Dec 2012)
14. i. Derive the wave equations for the step – index fiber and explain. ii. A step index fiber has
normalized frequency 26.6 at a 1300 nm wave length. If the core radius is 25μm find the
numerical aperture and mode volume. (Applying) iii. What is meant by weakly guiding
approximation? (CO1) (Remembering)

15. i. Discuss the major elements of an optical fiber transmission link. (Creating) ii. Briefly explain the
various generations of the fiber optic communication. iii. Define Mode field Diameter and
Birefringence. (CO1) (Remebering)
1.47. (CO1) (Applying) (Apr /May 2010)
17. i. Explain with neat diagram the elements of an optic fiber transmission link. (CO1)
(Understanding) (NOV 06),(Nov 13)
ii. A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80 μm and a relative index difference
of 1.5% is operating at a wavelength of 0.85 μm. If the core refractive index is 1.48, estimate the
normalized frequency for the fiber and the number of guided modes.Determine the number of guided
modes if Δ is reduced to 0.003. (CO1) (Applying)(May/June 2012)
18. i. Sketch and explain the electric field distribution of the lower order guided modes in
symmetrical slab waveguide. ii. Draw the structures of step index and graded index fibers with their
typical dimensions. (CO1) (Understanding)(NOV/DEC 06)
19. i.Discuss briefly about linearly polarized modes. ii. Mention the advantages of optical fiber
communication systems. (CO1) (Creating)(Nov/Dec 2009), (Nov/Dec 2012)
20. Explain optical laws ray optics theory. (CO1) (Understanding)
21. Explain the various fiber types, modes and its configuration. (CO1) (Analyzing)(Nov/Dec
10,Nov/Dec 2014)
22. Explain Key modal concept and Graded index fiber structure. (CO1) (Understanding)(Nov 2012)
23. With the help of suitable digrams, explain the following concepts in optical fiber
communication.1.Evanescent field 2. Goos – Haenchen field shift 3. Mode coupling. (CO1)
(Understanding)(Nov/Dec 09)
24. A multi mode GI fiber has an acceptance angle in air of 80 .Estimate the relative refractive index
difference between the core axis and the cladding when refractive index at the core axis is 1.52.
25. (i) Explain With Simple ray diagrams (1) the multimode SI fiber and (2) the single mode SI fiber.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of these two types. (CO1)
(Evaluating)(Nov/Dec09)(Dec 2015)
26. A single mode step index fiber has core and cladding refractive index of 1.498 and 1.495
respectively. Determine the core diameter required for the fiber to permit its operation over the
wavelength range 1.48 and 1.60 micro meter. Calculate the new fiber core diameter to enable single
mode transmission at the wavelength of 1.3 micro meter. (CO1) (Applying)(Nov/Dec 09,Apr/May
2019)
27. Draw and explain the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber and drive
expression for both. (CO1) (Remembering)(May/June 2012)
28. i.Explain the ray theory of fiber with special mention about TIR, acceptance angle and numerical
aperture. Ii. Describe single mode fiber and their mode field diameter. (CO1)
(Understanding)(May/June 2013)
29. (i) Starting from the Maxwell’s equation, derive the expression for the wave equation of an
electromagnetic wave propagating through optical fiber (ii) Derive the ray theory behind the
optical fiber communication by total internal reflection. State the application of Snell’s law in it.
(CO1) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 2012)
30. (i) A Si fiber with silica core refractive index of 1.458, v = 75 and NA = 0.3 is to be operated at
820nm. What should be its core size and cladding refractive index? Calculate the total number
of modes entering this fiber (Applying) (ii) Derive expression for the linearly polarized modes
in optical fibers and obtain the equation for V number. (CO1) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 2012)
31. Write notes on the following (i) Fiber refractive index profile measurement (ii) Fiber cut off
wavelength measurement iii. NA Measurement (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2012),(Nov/Dec 2014)
32. i. Explain the insertion loss method used for attenuation measurement. ii. Explain the technique used
in frequency domain intermodal dispersion measurements. (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2013)
33. Explain the measurement technique used in the case of i. Numerical aperture ii. Refractive index
profile iii. Fiber cut-off wave length iv. Fiber diameter.(Remembering)( Nov/Dec 2011)
34. Explain the following measurements i.Attenuation measurements using cut back techniques ii.
Frequency domain measurement of fiber dispersion. (Understanding) (May/June 2012)
35. A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80µm and refractive index difference of 1.5%
is operating at a wavelength of 0.85µm.If core refractive index is 1.48 . Calculate 1) V-number
2)Number of guided modes.(Dec 2015)(CO1)(Applying)
36. Draw and explain the working of single mode fiber.(Dec 2015)(CO1)(Understanding)
37. What are the functions of Core and Cladding in an optical fiber? Why should their refractive
indices be different? Would it be possible for light to be guided without cladding?(June
2016) (CO1) ( Understanding)
38. Explain the concept of electromagnetic modes in relation to a planar optical waveguide.
Discuss the modifications that may be made to electromagnetic mode theory in a planar
waveguide in order to describe optical propagation in cylindrical fiber.(June 2016) (CO1)
(Understanding)
UNIT II-SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS
TWO MARKS
1. Give the expression of the effective number of modes that are guided by a curved multimode
fiber of radius ‘α’. (CO2) (Understanding)(NOV/DEC 04)
Neff = N∞ {1- α+2 ( 2a+ ( 3 )2/3)}
2 αΔ R 2n2kR
α - Graded index profile , Δ - core – cladding index difference n2 – refractive index of
cladding, k = 2π/λ propagation constant, N∞ = α ( n1k a) 2
α+2
2. What are the causes of absorption? (CO2) (Remebering)(APR/MAY 05, June
2018,MAY2019)
i). Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition ii).Extrinsic absorption by impurity
atoms in the glass material. iii). Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of thefiber
material.
3. What causes mode coupling? (CO2) (Remembering)(MAY/JUNE 06)
Mode coupling is the coupling of energy from one mode to another arises because of structural
imperfections fiber diameter and refractive index variations and cabling induced micro bends.
4. List the basic attenuation mechanism in an optical fiber. (CO2) (Remembering)(NOV/DEC
06)
i. Absorption ii. Scattering iii.Radiative losses.
5. What are the types of fiber losses which are given per unit distance? (CO2)
i.Attenuation ii.Scattering losses iii. Bending losses iv.Dispersion
6. What do you mean by polarization mode dispersion? (CO2) (Understanding)(NOV/DEC 06),
(Nov/Dec 2010,2013) (Dec 2015)
Signal energy at a given wavelength occupies two orthogonal polarization modes. Due to
varying birefringence along a fiber, each polarization mode travel at a slightly different velocity.
This difference in propagation times, results in pulse spreading. This is polarization mode
dispersion.
7. List the factors that cause intrinsic joint losses in a fiber. (CO2) (Understanding) (Nov/Dce 2014)
i.Different core and/or cladding diameters ii.Different numerical aperture and/or relative refractive
index difference iii.Different refractive index profiles iv. Fiber faults
8. Distinguish dispersion shifted and dispersion flattened fibers. ((CO2) Analyzing)(NOV/DEC 07)
Dispersion shifted fiber : By creating a fiber with large negative waveguide dispersion &
assuming the same values for material dispersion as in a standard single mode fiber the addition of
waveguide & material dispersion can then shifted to zero dispersion point to long wavelength. The
resulting optical fiber is known as dispersion shifted fiber.
Dispersion flattened fiber: The reduction of fiber dispersion by spreading the dispersion
minimum out over a wide range .This approach is known dispersion flattering.
9. What is group delay? (CO2) (Remembering) (NOV/DEC 08),(Nov/Dec 2013)
In an optical fiber there are various modes present. Then the optical input, which is propagated
along the fiber, will travel in various modes. Because of these modes the velocity of the signal will
vary also there may be a delay in the optical signal of these various modes. This is called as the ‘
Group Delay’. τg= L = Distance travelled by pulse
Vg Group velocity
10. A multi mode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of 0.1 μs over a distance of 15
km. Estimate the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming RZ coding without
intersymbol interference. (CO2) (Applying)(NOV/DEC 08 & 09)
τ = 0.1μs , L = 15 km, Maximum possible bandwidth BT = 1 = 1 = 5 MHz
2 τ 2 X 0.1
11. A 100 km fiber is used in a communication system. The fiber has 3.0 dB/km loss. What will
be the output power, when the input power fed at the input of fiber is 500 μW. (CO2)
(Applying)
Total attenuation at 100 km fibers end = 100 X 3 dB/km = 300 dB
300 dB = 10 log10(500 X 10-6) x = output power i.e; log10( 500 X 10-6) = 30
x x
x = output power i.e; log10( 500 X 10-6) = 30 x = 500 X 10-36 watts
x
12. What is the need for mode coupling in optical fiber? (CO2) (Remembering) (MAY/JUNE 08)
Pulse distortion will not increase because of mode coupling. Coupling of energy from one
mode to another arises because of structural imperfections, fiber diameter, and refractive index
variations and micro bends. Mode coupling tends to average out the propagation delays and thereby
reduces intermodal dispersion.
13. Mention the two causes of intramodal dispersion. (CO2) (Analyzing)(MAY/JUNE
07),(April/May 2010,June 2016)
There is two main causes of intra modal dispersion. They are: i.Material dispersion –Which
arises from the variation of the refractive index to the core material as a function of wavelength.
ii.Wave guide dispersion – Which occurs because a single mode fiber confines only about 80
percent of the optical power to the core.
14. Define fiber loss. (CO2) (Remembering) (MAY/JUNE 07), (Nov/Dec 2010)
Signal attenuation is otherwise called as fiber loss. It is one which determines the maximum
transmission distance between a transmitter and a receiver. The basic attenuation in fiber are
absorption, scattering and radioactive losses.
15. What is intermodal dispersion? What is it cause? (CO2) (Remembering) (APR/MAY 08),
(Nov/Dec 2010)
The intermodal distortion arises due to the variation in the group delay for each individual
mode at a single frequency. When the group velocity of different mode varies, the group delay will
be formed.
16. Distinguish intrinsic and extrinsic absorption. (CO2) (Analayzing)(APR/MAY 08)
Intrinsic absorption: Intrinsic absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure state with no
density variation, impurities and material in homogeneities. Thus intrinsic absorption set the
fundamental lower limit on absorption for any particular material. Extrinsicabsorption:
Absorption due to impurities in the fiber material i.e, transition metal impurities and OH ions. The
transition metal ions produce losses from 1 to 10 dB/km.
17. What is Intra Modal Dispersion? (CO2) (Remembering)
Intra Modal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading arises
from finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is also called as group
velocity dispersion.
18. What is material dispersion? (CO2) (Remembering) (Nov 2012)
Material dispersion arises from the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a
function of wavelength. Material dispersion is also referred to as chromatic dispersion. This causes
a wavelength dependence of group velocity of given mode. So it occurs because the index of
refraction varies as a function of optical wavelength. Material dispersion is an intra modal
dispersion effect and is for particular importance for single ode wave-guide.
19. What is waveguide dispersion? (CO2) (Remembering)
Wave guide dispersion which occurs because of a single mode fiber confines only about 80% of
optical power to the core. Dispersion this arises since 20% of light propagates in cladding travels
faster than the light confined to the core. Amount of wave-guide dispersion depends on fiber design.
Other factor for pulse spreading is inter modal delay.
20. What is group velocity? (CO2) (Understanding)( June 2018)
If L is the distance traveled by the pulse, b is the propagation constant along axis then the
group velocity in the velocity at which energy is a pulse travels along the fiber. Vg = C.(db/ k)
21. What is polarization? (CO2) (Understanding)
It is a fundamental property of an optical signal .It refers to the electric field orientation of a
light signal which can vary significantly along the length of a fiber.
22. What is pulse Broadening? (CO2) (Remembering)
Dispersion induced signal distortion is that a light pulse will broaden as it travels along the
fiber. This pulse broadening causes a pulse to overlap with neighboring pulses. After a time‘t’, the
adjacent pulses can no longer be individually distinguished at the receiver and error will occur.
23. What is Profile Dispersion? (CO2) (Remembering)
A fiber with a given index profile (alpha) will exhibit different pulse spreading according to the
source wavelength used. This is called as Profile Dispersion.
24. What is M-C fiber? (CO2) (Understanding)
Fibers that have a uniform refractive index throughout the cladding is called as M-C fiber or
Matched-cladding fiber.
25. What is D-C fiber? (CO2) (Understanding)
In depressed cladding fiber the cladding portion next to the core has a lower index than the
outer cladding region.
26. What is effective cut-off wavelength? (CO2) (Remembering)
It is defined as the largest wavelength at which the higher order LP11 mode power relative to
the fundamental LP01 mode power is reduced to 0.1db.
27. Write a note on scattering losses. (CO2) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2010)
Scattering losses in glass arise from microscopic variation in the material density from
compositional fluctuation and from structural in homogeneities or defects occurring during fiber
manufacture.
28. What is Rayleigh scattering? (CO2) (Remembering)
The index variation causes a Rayleigh type of scattering of light. Rayleigh scattering in glass
in the same phenomenon that scatters light from sun in the atmosphere, giving rise to blue sky. The
expression for Rayleigh scattering loss is given by αscat=(8π3/3λ2)(n2-1)2kBTfβT
n = refractive index kB= boltzman constant βT= isothermal compressibility
Tf =fictive temperature λ =operative wavelength
29. What is intramodal delay? (CO2) (Remembering)
The other factor giving rise to pulse spreading is intramodal delay which is a result of each
mode having a different value of Group velocity at a single frequency.
30. What is the measure of information capacity in optical wave guide? (CO2) (Understanding)
It is usually specified by bandwidth distance product in MHz. For a step index fiber the various
distortion effects tend to limit the bandwidth distance product to 20MHz.
31. What are the losses or signal attenuation mechanism occurs in optical fibers. (DEC
2015)(CO2) (Remembering)
Absorption losses, Scattering losses and bending losses
32. Define microscopic bending? (CO2) (Remembering)
Fiber losses occur due to small bending arise while the fiber is inserted into a cable.
33. Define macroscopic bending? (CO2) (Remembering)
If any bending present in the fiber while cabling, the optical power get radiated.
34. The optical power launched into the fiber is 200μw. The transmission distance is 20 km.
The optical power at the output of the fiber is 50 μw. Calculate the signal attenuation Per
unit length and overall signal attenuation. (CO2) (Applying)(April/May 2010)
Signal attenuation Per unit length = 10 log Pi = 10 log 200 X 10-6 == 0.3 dB/km
L P0 20 50 X 10-6
Overall signal attenuation = Attenuation / km X 20 km = 0.3 X 20 = 6 dB.
35. What are the types of non – linear scattering losses? (CO2) (Remembering)
i. Brillouin scattering ii. Raman scattering
36. What are atomic defects? (CO2) (Remembering)
Atomic defects are imperfection of the atomic structure of the fiber material such as missing
molecules, high – density clusters of atom groups , or oxygen defects in the glass structure.
37. Mention the way to reduce macro bending losses? (CO2) (Understanding)
1.Designing fibers with large relative refractive index difference and 2. Operating at the shortest
wavelength possible.
38. What is linear scattering? (CO2) (Remembering)
Linear scattering transfers linearly the optical power in one propagation mode to different
mode. This will occurs in the leaky mode or radiation mode. All linear processes there are no
change of frequency on scattering.
39. What do you mean by nonlinear scattering? (CO2) (Remembering)
Nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either the
forward or backward direction to the same, or other modes, at a different frequency. It depends
critically upon the optical power density within the fiber and hence only becomes significant above
threshold power levels.
40. What is need of GVD? (CO2) (Remembering)
Group Velocity Dispersion parameter determines how much a light pulse broadens as it
travels along an optical fiber.
41. What is matched cladding? (CO2) (Remembering)
Matched cladding 1300nm optimized fiber has a uniform refractive index throughout the
cladding.
42. What are micro bends? How they are formed? (CO2) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 09)
Micro bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis.
They are formed either by non-uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber or by non-uniform
lateral pressures created during cabling of fibers.
43. What is coupling efficiency? (CO2) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 2010)
A measure of the amount of optical power emitted from a source that can be coupled into a
fiber is given by coupling efficiency .η = PF/PS
44. A Graded index fiber has a core with parabolic refractive index profile which has a diameter
of 50µm. The fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.2 . Estimate the total number of guided
modes propagating in the fiber when it is operating at a wavelength of 1µm. (CO2)
(Applying)(Nov 2012)
V= (2πaNA/λ) = ((2 X 3.14 X 25 X 10-6X 0.2) / 1X10-6)) = 31.4
M= V2/4 =(31.42/4) = 247
45. What is attenuation? (CO2) (Remembering) (Dec/Jan 2017)
Attenuation is the measure of decay of signal stength or loss of light power that occurs as light
pulse propagate through the length of the fiber.
46. Compare axial, longitudinal and angular misalignment. (CO2) (Evaluating)
Axial misalignment :Lateral or axial misalignment occurs when the axes of two fibers are
separated by distance d. Longitudinal misalignment :Longitudinal misalignment occurs when the
fibers have the same axis but have a gap ‘s’ between their end faces. Angular misalignment:
Angular misalignment occurs when two fiber axes from an angle ‘θ’ between fiber end faces.
47. What are the factors of splicing? (CO2) (Understanding)
The factors to be considered in splicing are i. Geometrical difference between two fibers
ii. Fiber misalignments at the joint and iii. Mechanical strength of the splice
48. What are the techniques used in splicing? (CO2) (Understanding)
Three splicing techniques are used i. Fusion splice ii. V – groove mechanical splice iii. Elastic
tube splice
49. Compare splice and connector. (CO2) (Analyzing)
Splice is a permanent joint and the bonding formed is permanent. Connector is a temporary
joint or demountable joint. Splice loss is very small when it is compared with connector loss.
50. What are splices? What are the requirements of splices? (CO2) (Understanding)
The splices are generally permanent fiber joints, whereas connectors are temporary fiber joints.
Splicing is a sort of soldering. The requirements of splices are: i. Should cause low attenuation ii.
Should be strong & light in weight iii. Should have minimum power loss iv.Should be easy to
install
51. What are connectors? What are the types of connectors? (CO2) (Understanding)
The connectors are used to join the optical sources as well as detectors to the optical fiber
temporarily. They are also used to join two optical fibers. The two major types of connectors are
:i.Lensed type expanded beam connector ii. Ferrule type connector.
52. What are the requirements of a good connector? (CO2) (Understanding)
The requirements of a good connector are as follows: i.Low loss ii. Repeatability iii.
Predictability iv. Ease of assembly and use v. Low cost & reliability vi. Compatibility
53. What are the techniques used for end – preparation? (CO2) (Understanding)
Saving, grinding and polishing, and controlled – fracture techniques are used for end-
preparation.
54. List the different types of mechanical misalignments that can occur between two jointed
fibers. (CO2) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 07)
i.Lateral (axial) misalignment ii.Longitudinal misalignment iii.Angular misalignment
55. Define the attenuation coefficient of fiber. (CO2) (Remebering)(Nov/Dec 2011)
The standard formula for expressing the total power loss in an optical fiber cable is
αdB = 10 log (Pi/P0) where αdB is total reduction in power level(attenuation) in decibels, P0 -cable
output power(Watts) Pi- cable input power (Watts)
56. Calculate the cut off wavelength of an optical signal to the fiber with its core refractive index
of 1.50 and that of cladding 1.46. The core radius of 25µm.The normalised frequency is 2.405.
Cut off wavelength λc = (2πan1(2Δ)1/2/V , Δ=(n1-n2)/n1=(1.50-1.46)/1.50 = .0267
For single mode, normalised frequency Vc=2.405
λc = [2X3.14X1.50X25X(2X.0267)1/2] / 2.405 =26µm
57. What are the two reasons for chromatic dispersion? (CO2) (Analyzing)(Nov/Dec 2012)
i)This dispersion arises due to the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a
function of wavelength or frequency of light. ii) this causes a wavelength dependence of the
group velocity of any given mode. i.e pulse spreding occurs even different wavelengths follow
the same path.
58. What are the most important non-linear effects of optical fiber communication? (CO2)
This nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either
the forward direction to the same, or other modes at a different frequency.
59. Interpret bandwidth distance product.(CO2)(Understanding)(APR/MAY2019)
The information –carrying capacity of any electronic communication system is directly proportional
to bandwidth. The product of bandwidth and distance is bandwidth distance product. Optical fiber
cables have, for all practical purposes, an infinite bandwidth.
16 MARKS
1. i).What is meant by wave guide dispersion? Derive the expression for the
same.(CO2)(Understanding)(Nov/Dec 2013) (Dec 2015)
ii).What is meant by material dispersion? Derive the expression for the pulse broadening due
to material dispersion. (Understanding)( (NOV/DEC 04,June 2016) (or) Discuss in detail about
intra-modal dispersion with relevant expression and diagrams. (CO2) (Nov/Dec 10)(Dec 2015)
2. Discuss pulse broadening in graded index fibers.(CO2) (Creating)(APR/MAY 05)& (Nov/Dec
09),(Nov/Dec 2013), (Nov/Dec 2011)
3. i. Sketch the fundamental mode field in a curved optical wave guide and explain how bending
losses occur? (Understanding) ii. Find the radius of curvature at which the number of modes (in a
bent fiber) decreases by 50% in a graded index fiber. α = 2, n 2 = 1.5, Δ = 0.01, a = 25μm and λ =
1.3μm. (CO2) (Applying)
4. Discuss the design optimization of single mode fibers. (CO2) (Creating) (NOV/DEC 06, Nov 2012,
Nov/Dec 2014 Apr/May 2010)
5. When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 120 µW, the mean optical
power at the fiber output is 3 µW. Determine (i) Over signal attenuation in dB/km. ii) The overall
signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fiber with splices at 1km intervals, each
giving an attenuation of 1dB. (CO2) (Analyzing)(NOV/DEC 07,Apr/May2019)
6. Explain with suitable diagrams the different mechanism that contributes to attenuation in optical
fibers. (CO2) (Evaluating)(NOV/DEC 07),(Nov/Dec 2010),(Nov/Dec 2013, June 2018)
7. Discuss in detail intermodal and intramodal dispersion with relevant expression and diagrams.
(CO2) (Creating) (NOV/DEC 07, June 2018)
8. Explain the scattering and bending losses that occur in an optical fiber with relevant diagrams and
modes expressions. (CO2)(NOV/DEC 08, Nov 2012),(Nov/Dec 2013, Nov/Dec 2014) (Dec 2015)
9. Discuss polarization mode dispersion and its limitations. (CO2) (Understanding)((NOV/DEC
08,Apr/May2019)
10. i. Explain the effects of signal distortion in optical waveguide. (Understanding) ii. Compute the
total intermodal, intramodal and total dispersion for a fiber having fiber length 1 km, line width
50nm, intermodal and intramodal dispersion 5 ns/km and 80 ps/km respectively. (CO2) (Applying)
11. Discuss the various kinds of losses that an optical signal might suffer which propagating
through fiber. Which is most important one? What if the effect of these losses on light power and
pulse shape? (CO2) (Analyzing) (MAY/JUNE 07)
12. A 6 km optical link consists of multimode step index fiber with a core refractive index of 1.5 and
a relative refractive index difference of 1%.Estimate the delay difference between the slowest and
fastest modes at the fiber output and the rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion on the
link. Also derive the expression involved in it. (CO2) (Applying) (APR/MAY 08, Nov 2012)
13. Describe the linear and non linear scattering losses in optical fiber. (CO2)
14. Silica has an estimated fictive temperature of 1400 K with an isothermal compressibility of 7 X 10 -
11
m2N-1.The refractive index and the photo elastic coefficient for silica are 1.46 and 0.286
respectively. Determine the theoretical attenuation in dB/km due to the fundamentals Rayleigh
scattering in silica at optical wavelengths 850 nm,1310nm and 1550nm. (CO2)
(Evaluating)(Nov/Dec 09,Apr/May 2019)
15. i.What is meant by fiber splicing. Explain fusion splicing of optical fiber. ii.Explain expanded beam
fiber connector with neat schematic. (CO2) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 2011) (Dec 2015,Apr/May
2019)
16. Explain the different lensing schemes available to improve the power coupling efficiency. (CO2)
(Understanding)(Nov2012),(Nov/Dec 2013, June 2018)
ii. Explain the fiber splicing techniques with necessary diagrams. (CO2)(Understanding) (Nov/Dec
07), (Nov/Dec 10) (Dec 2015)
17. Explain the mechanical misalignments that can occur between two joined fibers with necessary
diagrams. (CO2) (Understanding)((Nov/Dec 08, Nov 2012)
18. Describe the three types of fiber misalignment that contribute to insertion loss at an optical fiber
joint. (CO2) (Understanding)( Nov/Dec 2014)
19. (i) What do you mean by pulse broadening? Explain its effect on information carrying capacity of a
fiber. (Understanding) (ii) An LED operating at 850 nm has a spectral width of 45 nm.What is the
pulse spreading in ns/km due to material dispersion? What is the pulse spreading when a laser diode
having a 2 nm spectral width is used? The material dispersion is 90 ps/nm km. (CO2) (Applying)
(Nov/Dec 2011)
20. (i)What is meant by ‘fiber splicing’? Explain fusion splicing of optical fibers.(ii) Explain expanded
beam fiber connector with a neat diagram. (CO2) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2011) (Dec 2015)
21. (i) Describe the linear and non-linear scattering losses in optical fibers.(ii) An LED operating at
850nm has a spectral width of 45mm. What is the pulse spreading in ns/km due to material
dispersion? What is the pulse spreading when a laser diode having a 2nm spectral width is
used? (CO2) (Analyzing) (Nov/Dec 2012)
22. (i) Draw and explain the various fiber alignment and joint losses.(ii) Write notes on fiber splices
and connectors . (CO2) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2012, June 2018)
23. A multi mode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of 0.1μs over a distance of 15 km.
Estimate the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming no inter symbol interference, pulse
dispersion/ unit length, bandwidth length product for the fiber. (CO2) (Applying) (May 2010)
24. Outline the major categories of multiport fiber optic coupler. (CO2) (Understanding)( Nov/Dec
2014)
25. Discuss dispersion mechanisms with regard to single – mode fibers indicating the dominating
effects. Hence, describe how intramodal dispersion may be minimized within the single – mode
region.(June 2016) (CO1)(Analyzing)
UNIT III-OPTICAL SOURCES

TWO MARKS
1. Define radiance. (CO3)(Remembering) (Nov/Dec 04)
It is measure of optical power radiated into a unit solid angle per unit area of the emitting
surface. The unit of radiance or power is Watts. High radiances are required to couple sufficiently
high optical power levels into a fiber.
2. What is meant by population inversion? (CO3) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 04,Nov 2012)
Stimulated emission will exceed absorption only if the population of the excited states is greater
than that of the ground state. This condition is called as population inversion.
3. What is meant by indirect band gap semi conductor material? (CO3) (Remembering)
(Apr/May 05, June 2018)
For indirect band gap materials, the conduction – band minimum and valance –band
maximum energy level occurs at different values of momentum. In indirect band gap materials
direct transition is not possible from valence band to conduction. To perform band to band
recombination, it must involve third particle phonons to conserve momentum. e.g.Si, Ge
4. What is meant by hetero junction? Mention its advantages. (CO3) (Understanding) (Apr/May
05), (Nov 2012), (Nov/Dec2007)
A heterojunction consists of two adjoining semiconductor materials with different band gap
energies. They have adequate output power and efficiency, out power can be directly modulated
and they are dimensionally compatible with the optical fiber.
5. Mention the three key transition processes involved in laser action. (CO3) (Remembering)
(Nov/Dec 05),(Apr/May 2010)
Three key processes i. photon absorption ii. Spontaneous emission iii. Stimulated emission
6. Give the example for direct and indirect semiconductor materials. (CO3)
(Understanding)(May/June 06)
In direct band gap materials direct transition is possible from valence band to conduction band.
e.g.GaAs, InP, InGaAs. In indirect band gap materials direct transition is not possible fromvalence
band to conduction. e.g.Silicon, Germanium.
7. Define internal quantum efficiency of an LED. (CO3)(Remembering) (Nov/Dec 06) (Nov/Dce 2014)
The internal quantum efficiency in the active region is the fraction of the electron – hole pairs
that recombine radiatively. The internal quantum efficiency is defined as the ration of radiative
recombination rate to the total recombination rate. ηint = Rr/Rr + Rnr
Rr – Radiative recombination rate, Rnr – non radiative recombination rate
8. Distinguish direct and indirect band gap materials. (CO3) (Analyzing)(Nov/Dec 08) (Nov/Dec
09)(Dec 2015)
direct band gap indirect band gap
i.Direct recombination id possible To perform recombination it must
involve a third particle.
ii.Electron and hole have the same Different values of momentum
momentum value
iii.Life time of charge carriers is less Life time of charge carriers is
more
iv.Used in fabricate LED & LASER Used in fabricate transistor and
diode
9. An LED has radiative and non radiative recombination times of 30 and 100ns respectively.
Determine the internal quantum efficiency. (CO3) (Applying)(Nov/Dec 08)
Given :τr = 30 ns τnr = 100ns
Internal quantum efficiency ηint= τ/τr
Bulk recombination life time τ = τrτnr = 30 X 100 = 23.1 ns
τr + τnr 30 + 100
ηint = 23.1/ 30 = 0.77
10. When a LED has 2 V applied to its terminals, it draws 100 mA and produces 2 mW of
optical power. Determine the LED conversion efficiency from electrical to optical power.
(CO3) (Applying)(May/June 09)
Electric power = 2 X 100 nA = 200 mW
conversion efficiency = optical power / electrical power = (2mW / 200 mW )X 100 = 1 %
11. What is the principle of operation of LASER? (CO3) (Understanding)(May/June 09)
When a photon having energy equal to the energy difference between the two states (E2 –E1)
interacts with the atom in the upper energy state causing it to return to the lower statewith the
creation of a second photon, light emission occurs by this stimulated emission.
12. Compare LED and LASER. (CO3) (Evaluating)(May/June 07,June 2016, June 2018,May 2019)
LED LASER
i. The output obtained is incoherent i.The output obtained is coherent
ii. LEDs are coupled into multimode fiber only. ii.Single mode or multimode fiber.
iii. Less expensive and less complex iii. More expensive and more complex
iv. Long lifetime. iv. Less lifetime.
13. Compare LED source and ILD source. (CO3) (Evaluating)(Apr/May 08, Nov/Dec 2014)
LED ILD
i. LED emit incoherent light i.ILD emit coherent light

ii. Radiant output power less ii. Radiant output power more than LED
iii. LED can not use a higher bit rates. iii. Used a higher bit rates.
14. What are the advantages of LED? (CO3) (Understanding)(Nov / Dec 2013)
LEDs are less complex circuits than Laser diodes 2.Fabrication is easier 3.They have long life.
15. What are the two types of confinement used in LEDs? (June 2016) (CO3) (Remembering)
i. optical confinement. ii. Carrier confinement.
16. What are the two types of LED configurations? (CO3) (Remembering)
i. homo junction ii. Single and double hetero junction.
17. What are the three requirements of Laser action? (CO3) (Remembering)
i. Absorption ii. Spontaneous emission iii.stimulated emission.
18. What are the three types of Laser diode structures? (CO3) (Remembering)
i. Gain indexed guide ii. Positive indexed guide iii. Negative indexed guide
19. What are the fundamental structures of Index guided lasers? (CO3) (Remembering)
i. buried hetero structure. ii. Selectively diffused construction iii. Varying thickness structure
iv. Bent layer configuration.
20. What are the three basic methods of current confinement? (CO3) (Understanding)
i. Preferential dopant diffusion. ii. Proton implantation iii. Inner strip confinement iv. Re
growth of back biased PN junction.
21. Define modulation. (CO3) (Remembering)
The process of imposing information on a light stream is called modulation. This can be
achieved by varying the laser drive current.
22. Define external quantum efficiency. (CO3) (Remembering)
The external quantum efficiency is defined as the number of photons emitted per radiative
electron-hole pair recombination above threshold.
23. Define threshold current. (CO3) (Remembering)
The threshold current is conventionally defined by extrapolation of the lasing region of the
power-versus-current curve. At high power outputs, the slope of the curve decreases because of
junction heating.
24. Define longitudinal modes. (CO3) (Remembering)
Longitudinal modes are associated with the length of the cavity and determine the typical
spectrum of the emitted radiation.
25. Define lateral modes. (CO3) (Remembering)
These modes lie in the plane of the pn junction. They depend on the sidewall preparation and
the width of the cavity. It determines the shape of the lateral profile of the laser beam.
26. Define transverse modes. (CO3) (Remembering)
Transverse modes are associated with the electromagnetic field and beam profile in the
direction perpendicular to the plane of the pn junction. They determine the laser characteristics as
the radiation pattern and the threshold current density.
27. Mention any four factors which affect the power launched into the fiber. (CO3)
(Understanding)
i. Core radius of the fiber ii. Radiation pattern of the source iii. Alignment between source
and fiber iv. Numerical aperture of the fiber.
28. Define the three modes of the cavity of laser. (CO3) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 09)
i.Longitudinal modes : Longitudinal modes are related to the length L of the cavity.
ii. Lateral modes : Lateral modes lie in the plane of the PN junction. These modes depend upon
the side wall preparation and width of the cavity. iii. Transverse modes: Transverse modes are
associated with the Electromagnetic field and beam profile in the direction perpendicular to the
plane of the PN junction. These modes determine the radiation pattern of the laser.
29. What is a DFB laser? What is its main difference from the other lasers? (CO3) (Analyzing)
(Nov/Dec 09)
In DFB laser the lasing action is obtained by periodic variations of refractive index, which
are incorporated into multilayer structure along the length of the diode. DFB laser does not require
optical feedback unlike the other lasers.
30. A double heterojunction InGaAsP LED emitting at a peak wavelength of 1310 nm has
radiative and nonradiative recombination times of 30 and 100ns respectively. The drive
current is 40mA. Find the bulk recombination lifetime and internal quantum efficiency.
(CO3) (Applying)(Nov 2012)
τ = (τrτnr/(τr+τnr)) = (30ns X 100ns/(30ns+ 100ns)) = 23.1ns

η =τ/τr = 23.1ns/30ns = 77%
31. Compare and contrast between surface and edge emitting LEDs. (CO3) (Analyzing)
(Nov/Dec 2012,MAY2019)
i)In surface emitting LEDs, the plane of active light emitting region is perpendicular to the fiber
axis. ii) Edge emitting LEDs emit a more directional pattern than the surface emitting LEDs.
Iii) In order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the beam
more directional, the light is collected from the edge of the LED. Such a device is known as
Edge emitting LED. iv) Edge emitter have a substantially better modulation bandwidth of the
order of hundreds of megahertz than comparable surface emitting structure with the same drive
level. V) The coupling losses with surface emitters are greater and they have narrow
bandwidths. Vi) Edge emitter couple 7.5 times more power into low NA fiber than a
comparable surface emitter.
32. What are the characteristics of semiconductor laser diode should posses?(CO3)
For optical fiber system, semiconductor laser diodes are used as an optical source because its output
radiation is highly monochromatic and the light beam is very directional.
33. Give the expression for total optical power emitted from an LED. (CO3) (Remembering)
(Nov/Dec 2010)
P = ηext Pint = Pint / n (n+1)2 whereηext= 1/ n (n+1)2
34. Why silicon is not used to fabricate LED or Laser diode? (CO3) (Analyzing)(Nov/Dec 2011)
The spontaneous and stimulated emission processes are vastly more efficient in direct band
gap semiconductors than in indirect band gap semiconductors, therefore silicon is not a
common material for laser diodes.
16 MARKS
1. Draw the two basic LED Configurations and discuss the Principle. Derive the internal quantum
efficiency of an LED. (CO3) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 04), (may2010),(Nov/Dec 10), (Nov/Dec
2013) (Dec 2015, June 2018)
2. i. Discuss the principle of optical feedback and LASER oscillation. (CO3) (Creating)(Nov/Dec 04)(
Nov/Dec 2014)
ii. Derive the threshold condition for LASER oscillation. (CO3) (Understanding)
3. Discuss the laser diode structures and radiation pattern. (CO3) (Creating) (Apr/May 05)
4. Discuss the LASER diode principle, modes and threshold condition. (CO3) (Understanding)
(Nov/Dec 05),(Nov/Dec 13) (Dec 2015)
5. What is meant by heterojunction? Give example. (CO3) (Remembering)(May/June 06)
6. Explain optical feedback and laser oscillation. (CO3) (Understanding)(May/June 06)
7. Draw the double – heterostructure light emitter and explain. (CO3) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec
06,Apr/May 2019)
8. Explain laser action with neat diagrams. (CO3) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 06)
9. A GaAs laser operating at 850 nm has a 500μm length and a refractive index n = 3.7. What are
the frequency and wavelength spacings? (CO3) (Applying)(Nov/Dec 06)
10. i.Draw and explain the LED structures based Double Hetero structure configuration. ii. Discuss
the principle of operation of laser diodes. What are the effects of temperature on the performance
of a laser diode? (CO3) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 07), (Nov/Dec 2013)
11. i. Draw and explain the different structures used to achieve carrier and optical confinement in
laser diodes. ii. Discuss the effects of temperature on the performance of a laser diode. iii. Give
a brief account of modulation of an LED. (CO3) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 08)
12. i. Derive expressions for the power coupled from a surface emitting LED into step index and
graded index fibers. (CO3) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 08, May 2010,Nov 2012)
13. Discuss about modulation of laser diodes. Why thermoelectric cooler are used in laser diodes?
(CO3) (Creating)(Nov 2012) (Dec 2015)
14. Derive an expression for the internal optical power level generated in LEDs. (CO3)
(Analayzing)(Apr/May 08)
15. Discuss the laser diode structures and radiation pattern. (CO3) (Creating)
16. Explain direct and indirect band gap material. (CO3) (Understanding)
17. Explain the theory of stimulated emission and lasing with the help of Energy band diagrams. Also
explain its temperature dependence characteristics. (CO3) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 09)
18. Compare the threshold current densities at 320C and 1000C for a AlGaAs injection Laser with
T0 = 160 K and the similar ratio for an InGaAlP device with T0 = 55K. (CO3)
(Applying)(Nov/Dec 09)
19. (i) Compare LED with a laser diode. (CO3) (Evaluating)(ii) With the help of a neat diagram
explain the construction and working of a surface emitting LED. (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2011)
20. (i)Draw and explain the LED structures based Double Hetero structure configuration.(ii) Discuss
the principle of operation of Laser diodes. What are the effects of temperature on the performance
of a laser diode? (Understanding) (CO3) (Nov/Dec 2007)
21. Explain the different lensing schemes available to improve the power coupling efficiency (CO3)
(Understanding) (May 2010),(Nov/Dec 2007) (Dec 2015)
22. (i)Draw and explain the different structures used to achieve carrier and optical confinement in laser
diodes. (ii) Discuss the effects of temperature on the performance of a laser diode.(iii) Give a brief
account of the modulation of an LED. (CO3) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2009, June 2018)
23. Derive expressions for the power coupled from a surface emitting LED into step index and graded
index fibers. (ii) Explain the mechanical misalignments that can occur between joined fibers with
necessary diagrams. (CO3) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2009)
24. The refractive index of the InGaAsP active region of an injection laser at a wavelength of 1.5µm is
3.5 and the active has an active cavity length of 400µm.For laser operation at a wavelength of
1.5µm determine: i) the laser emission mode index ii) the eligible number of wavelength inside the
cavity iii)the frequency separation of the modes in active cavity in order to produce constructive
interference.(CO2)(Applying)(June 2016)
25. A GaAs LED is forward- biased with a current of 120 mA and a voltage of 1.5 V.Each emitted
photon possesses an energy of 1.43 eV, and the refractive index of GaAs is 3.7. The configuration
of the LED is such that we may neglect back emission and self absorption within the
semiconductor. Assuming the internal quantum efficiency of the LED to be 60%, Calculate i)The
internal power efficiency of the device and ii)the external power efficiency of the device.
UNIT – IV OPTICAL RECEIVER
1. Define responsivity. (CO4) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 04),(Nov/Dec 2009),(Nov/Dec
2012),(Nov/Dec 2013)
The responsivity is a useful parameter as it gives the transfer characteristic of the detector. It
is defined as the ratio of output photocurrent to the incident optical power. R = Ip/P0 (AW-1)
2. Define long wavelength cut off related to photo diode. (CO4) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 04)
Long wavelength cut off is determined by band gap energy Eg of material.λc(μm = hC= 1.24
Eg Eg(eV)
Typical value of λcfor silicon is 1.06 μm and for germanium it is 1.6 μm.
3. A given APD has a quantum efficiency of 75% at a wavelength of 800 nm. If 0.5 μW of
optical power produces a multiplied photocurrent of 12μA, find the multiplication M. (CO4)
(Applying)
Given :IM =12 μA, λ = 800 nm = 8 x 10-7m , P0 = 0.5 μW = 5 x 10-7W
Multiplication factor (M) = IM/ IP
Primary photocurrent IP = RP0 = ηqP0 = ηqλP0
hυ hC
IP = 0.2415 μA
M = 12μA / 0.2415 μA = 49.5
4. Define quantum efficiency of a photo detector. (CO4) (Remembering) (Apr/May10),(
Nov/Dec2011), (Nov/Dec 2013)
It is defined as the number of the electron – hole pairs generated per incident photon of
energy hυ and is given by η = No.of electron-hole pairs generated = (Ip/q)
No. of incident photons P0/ hυ
5. Compare the performance of APD and PIN diode. (CO4) (Evaluating)(Nov / Dec 08),
(Nov/Dec 2009)
PIN APD
i. No internal gain i. Internal gain
ii. Less sensitive ii. More sensitive
iii. Low reverse biasing iii. High reverse biasing
iv. Simple circuit iv. Complex circuit
v. Low cost v. More expensive
6. A silicon APD has a quantum efficiency of 65% at a wavelength of 900 nm. If 0.5 μW of
optical power produces a multiplied photocurrent of 10μA, find the multiplication M. (CO4)
(Applying)
Given: IM =10 μA, λ = 900 nm = 9X 10-7m , P0 = 0.5 μW = 5 x 10-7W
Multiplication factor (M) = IM/ IP
Primary photocurrent IP = RP0 = ηqP0 = ηqλP0
hυ hC
IP == 0.65 x 0.6 x 10-6 x 1.602 x10-19 x 900X10-9 = 0.236 x 10-6 A
6.626 x 10-34 x 3 x108
M = 10μA / 0.236μA = 42.37
7. What is meant by impact ionization in APD? (CO4) (Understanding)(Dec 2015)
In order for carrier multiplication to take place, the photo generated carriers must traverse a
region where a very high electric field is present. In this high field region, a photo generated
electron or hole can gain energy so that it ionizes bound electrons in the valence band upon
colliding with them. This carrier multiplication mechanism is known as impact ionization.
8. Define avalanche effect. (CO4) (Remembering) (NOV-2011)
The newly created carriers are accelerated by the high electric field, thus gaining enough
energy to cause further impact ionization. This phenomenon is called avalanche effect.
9. Define ionization rate. (CO4) (Remembering)
The avg. no. of electron hole pairs created by a carrier per unit distance traveled is called
ionization rate.
10. What are the advantages of photodiodes? (CO4) (Remembering) (May 2010),(NOV-2011)
i. Small size ii. Suitable material iii. High sensitivity iv. Fast response time
11. Define photocurrent. (CO4) (Remembering)
The high electric field presents in the depletion region causes the carriers to separate and be
collected across the reverse-biased junction. This gives to a current flow in the external circuit,
with one electron flowing for every carrier pair generated. This current flow is known as
photocurrent.
12. What are the conditions to be met for a high signal- to- noise ratio in a photo detector? (CO4)
(Understanding)
i. The photo detector must have a high quantum efficiency to generate a large signal power
ii. The p and amplifier noises should be kept as low as possible.
13. Define minimum detectable optical power. (CO4) (Remembering)
It is defined as the optical power necessary to produce a photocurrent of the same magnitude
as the root mean square of the total current.
14. Define quantum noise. (CO4) (Remembering)
It is not possible to predict exactly how many electron-hole pairs are generated by a known
optical power incident on the detector is the origin of the type of short noise called quantum
noise.
15. Give the advantages of Pin photodiodes. (CO4) (Understanding)(Nov 2012)
i.Very low reverse bias is necessary ii. High quantum efficiency iii. Large bandwidth iv. Low
noise level
16. What do you mean by thermal noise? (CO4) (Understanding)
Thermal noise is due to the random motion of electrons in a conductor. Thermal noise arising
from the detector load resistor and from the amplifier electronics tend to dominate in applications
with low signal to noise ratio.
17. Give the equation for mean square shot noise. (CO4) (Understanding)
The mean square shot noise is given by <in2>=2qIB IB - average output current B -bandwidth of
the amplifier
18. Define avalanche multiplication M. (CO4) (Remembering)
The multiplication M for all carriers generated in the photodiode is defined by M = Im/Ip
IM - average value of the total multiplied output current, IP -primary un multiplied photocurrent
19. What is current mode of operation of photodiode? (CO4) (Remembering)
In photo conducting mode, the photocurrent is slightly dependent on the reverse bias. For a
constant reverse bias, the current is linear. This is called current mode of operation of the
photodiode.
20. What are the factors on which response time depends? (Or)On what factors the response time
of photo detector depends? (CO4) (Analayzing)(Nov/Dec 10,MAY2019)
i. The transit time of the photo detector carries in the depletion region. ii. The diffusion
time of the photo carriers generated outside the depletion region. iii. The RC time constant of
the photodiode and its associated circuit.
21. Define photodiode dark current? (CO4) (Remembering)
It is the current that continues to flow through the bias circuit of the device when no light is
incident on the photodiode. This is a combination of bulk and surface currents.
22. What is P+ ΠP n+ reach- through structure? (CO4) (Remembering)
The reach –through avalanche photodiode (RAPD) is composed of a high resistivity p- type
material deposited as an epitaxial layer on a p+ substrate. A p type diffusion is then made in the
high resistivity material, followed by the construction of an n+ layer. The configuration is called
P+ ΠP n+reach- through structure.
23. A photodiode is constructed of GaAs, Which has a band energy of 1.43eV at 300 K. Find
long wavelength cutoff. (CO4) (Applying)(May/June 07, Nov 2012)
Long wavelength cutoff λc = hc= 6.625 x 10-34 x 3x 108 = 869 nm
Eg 1.43eV x 1.6 x 10-19
24. List out the values of operating wavelength and responsivities of Si, Ge and InGaAs
photodiodes. (CO4) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 09)
Si : Operating wavelength = 400-1100nm &Responsivity = 0.4-0.6
Ge : Operating wavelength = 800-1650nm &Responsivity = 0.4-0.5
InGaAs : Operating wavelength = 1100-1700nm & Responsivity = 0.75-0.95
25. What is meant by (1/f)noise corner frequency? (CO4) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 09)
The (1/f) noise corner frequency fc is defined as the frequency at which 1/f noise, which
dominates the FET noise at low frequencies and has 1/f power spectrum becomes equal to the
high frequency channel noise given by Γ.
26. What is excess noise factor? (CO4) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 10)
The ratio of actual noise generated in an avalanche photodiode to the noise that would exist if
all carrier pair were multiplied by exactly M is called the excess noise factor F.
F = <m2> / <m>2 = <m2> / M2
27. What is the significance of intrinsic layer in PIN diodes? (CO4) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec
2012)
The pin photo detector structure consists of p and n regions separated by a very lightly n-doped
intrinsic region. When the photodiode is reverse biased, the intrinsic region of diode is fully
depleted of carriers
28. What are the drawbcks of avalnche photo diode? (CO4) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 2014)
Fabrication difficulty due to their more complex structure ii. Cost is high iii. High bias voltage is
required iv. Internal gain depends on temperature, thus temperature compensation is necessary to
stabilize the device operation.
29. A photon of energy 1.53X10-19 joules are incident on a photodiode which has responsivity of
0.75A/W.If the optical power level is 10μW then the find out the photo current generated.
Given : R0 = 0.5 A/ W Po= 10μW
Primary photocurrent IP = RP0 = .075A/W X 10 μW =7.5 Μa
30. What is meant by quantum limit? (CO4) (Remembering) (May/June 06), (Nov/Dec 10),
(Nov/Dec 11), (May/June 13)(Dec 2015, June 2018,MAY2019)
It is possible to find the minimum received optical power required for a specific bit error rate
performance in a digital system. This minimum received power level is known as quantum limit.
31. List the important requirements of an optical receiver. (CO4) (Remembering)
i. High sensitivity at the operating wavelengths. ii. High fidelity iii. Small size iv. Short response
time to obtain a suitable bandwidth. v. A minimum noise introduced by the detector.
32. What is meant by inter symbol interference (ISI) ? (CO4) (Remembering)
ISI results from pulse spreading in the optical fiber. The presence of this energy in adjacent
time slots results in an interfering signal. Hence it is called ISI.
33. What is meant by bit error rate? (CO4) (Understanding)
To divide the number Ne of errors occurring over a certain time interval t by the number Nt
of pulses transmitted during this interval. This is called bit error rate or error rate.
Bit error rate BER = Ne/Nt = Ne/ Bt Where B = 1/ Tb
34. Mention the drawbacks of high impedance amplifier. (CO4) (Understanding)
Drawbacks of high impedance amplifier i. For broadband application, equalization is
required ii. It has lime dynamic range.

35. Define rise time and fall time. (CO4) (Remembering)
Rise time : The rise time is measured from 10 to 90 percent of the leading edge of the output
pulse. Fall time : The fall time is measured from 90 to 10 percent of the falling edge of the output
pulse.
36. What are the benefits of a trans impedance amplifier? (CO4) (Understanding)(May/June 07),
(Nov/Dec 10)
i. It has a wide dynamic range compared with the high impedance amplifier. ii. The output
resistance is small so that amplifier is less susceptible to pickup noise, cross talk, electromagnetic
interference etc.
37. What is Dark current . (CO4) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 2012)
It is the current that continues to flow through the bias circuit of the device when no light is
incident on the photodiode. This is a combination of bulk and surface currents.
38. List out the various error sources. (CO4) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 2011),(Nov/Dec 2012),
(May/June 2013)
i. Quantum noise ii. Bulk dark current iii. surface leakage current iv.Thermal noise v.
Amplifier noise.
39. A Digital fiber optic link operating at 1310nm, requires a maximum BER of 10-8 .Calculate
the required average photons per pulse. (CO4) (Applying)(Nov/Dec 2013)
Pr(0) = e-N¯ = 10-9 Solving for N¯ = 8 ln10= 18.42
40. The photo detector output in cutback attenuation is 3.3V at the far end of the fiber. After
cutting the fiber at the near end, 5m from the far end, Photo detector output read was
3.92V.What is the attenuation of the fiber in dB/km. (CO4) (Applying)(Nov/Dec 2013)
αdB=[10/(L1-L2) ] X log10(V2/V1) =[10/( -5m)] X log10(3.92/3.3)=-2 X 0.07477=.-0149
41. A 2km length of multimode fiber is attached to apparatus for spectral loss measurement. The
measured output voltage from the photo receiver using the full 2km fiber length is 2.1V at a
wavelength of 0.85µm.When the fiber is then cut back to leave a 2m length, the output voltage
increases to 10.7V.Determine the attenuation per kilometer for the fiber at a wavelength of
0.85 µm and estimate the accuracy of the result(CO4).(Applying)
αdB=[10/(L1-L2) ] X log10(V2/V1)= [10/(2km-2m)] X log10(10.7/2.1) = 3.5 dB/km
Uncertainty = ±0.2/(L1-L2) =± 0.2/(2km-2m) = ± 0.1Db
42. Define threshold level. (CO4) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 2011)
A decision circuit compares the signal in each time slot with a certain reference voltage known
as threshold level
i. Received signal > Threshold = 1 ii. Received signal < Threshold = 0
43. An He-Ne laser operating at a wavelength of 0.63µm was used with a solar cell cube to
measure the scattering loss in multimode fiber sample. With a constant optical output power
the reading from the solar cell cube was 6.14nV. The length of the fiber in the cube was
2.92cm. Determine the loss due to scattering in dB/km for the fiber at a wavelength of 0.63µm.
(CO4) (Applying)
αsc= [(4.343 X105)/L(cm)] X[Vsc/Vopt]
=[(4.343 X105)/2.92] X[(6.14X10-9//153.38X10-6)=6dB/km
44. A trigonometrically measurement is performed in order to determine the numerical aperture
of a step index fiber. The screen is positioned 10.0cm from the fiber end face. When
illuminated from a wide-angled visible source the measured output pattern size is 6.2cm.
Calculate the approximate numerical aperture of the fiber. (CO4) (Applying)
NA= A/(A2+4D2)1/2 = 6.2/(38.44+400)1/2 = 0.30
45. What is bit period ? (CO4) (Remembering)
The transmitted signal is two level binary data stream consisting of either 0 or 1 in a
time slot of duration T. This time slot is referred to a bit period.
46. Define internal noise and its types? (CO4) (Remembering)
Internal noise is caused by the spontaneous fluctuation of current or voltage in electric
circuits. The two most common internal noises are (i) Shot noise and (ii) Thermal noise
Shot noise arises in electronic devices because of the discrete nature of current flow in the
device. Thermal noise arises from the random motion of electrons in a conductor.
47. What do you mean by excess noise factor? (CO4) (Remembering)
Excess noise factor is a measure of the increase detector noise that results from the
randomness of the multiplication process. It depends on the ratio of the electron and hole
ionization rates and on the carrier multiplication.
48. Write the functions of optical receivers. (CO4) (Understanding)
The receiver must first detect weak signal, distorted signals and then make decisions on
what type of data was sent based on an amplified version of this distorted signal.
49. What are the stages available in an optical receiver? (CO4) (Understanding)
The three basic stages are (i) Photo detector (ii) An amplifier and (iii) An equalizer
50. Define equalizer. (CO4) (Remembering)
The equalizer is a linear frequency-shaping filter used to compensate the effects of
signal distortion and inter symbol interference .It accepts the combined frequency response
of transmitter, fiber and the receiver and transform it into a signal response that it suitable
for the following signal processing.
51. How to evaluate a digital receiver performance? (CO4) (Understanding)
The digital receiver performance can be evaluated by measuring the probability of error
and quantum limit. The dispersion produces pulse broadening of light wave signals in
optical fibers, thereby limiting the information carrying capacity.
52. Mention the advantages of using transimpedance front and receiver configuration.
(CO4)(Understanding)(Nov/Dec 2014)
i).Wide dynamic range ii). Little or no equalization is required iii). Less susceptible to
pick up noise, crosstalk, EMI iv). It is very easily controllable and stable.
53. What are the significance of photodiodes used in optical communication?(CO2)
(Understanding)(June 2016, June 2018)
The significance of photodiodes are i)High sensitivity at the operating wavelengths
ii)Responsivity iii)Quantum efficiency iv)High fidelity v) Low bias voltage.
16 MARKS
1. Explain the operation of avalanche photodiode and pin photodiode. (CO4) (Understanding)
(Apr/May 08), (May 2010),(Nov 10,Nov11, Nov 12),(Nov/Dec 2013) (Dec 2015,June
2016,Apr/May 2019)
2. The quantum efficiency of a particular silicon RAPD is 80% for the detection of radiation at a
wavelength of 0.9μm, when the incident optical power is 0.5μW. The output current from the
device is 11μA. Determine the multiplication factor of the photodiode under these conditions.
(CO4) (Applying)(May 10)
3. Draw the circuit diagram of high impedance pre amplifier and explain its operation. (CO4)
(Understanding)(Nov 08,June 12),(May 2010)
4. Discuss the source of errors in the optical receivers. (CO4) (Creating)(May 2010)
5. An InGaAs pin photodiode has the following parameters to wavelength of 1300nm: ID=4nA,
η=0.9, RL=1000Ω and the surface leakage current is negligible. The incident optical power is
300nW (5dBm), and the receiver bandwidth is 20MHz. Find the various noise terms of the
receiver. (CO4) (Applying)(Apr/May 05)
6. Discuss the requirement of optical detector. (CO4) (Creating)
7. A silicon p-i-n photodiode incorporated into an optical receiver has a quantum efficiency of
60% at a wavelength of 0.9μm. The dark current is 3nA and load resistance is 4KΩ. The
incident optical power is 200nW and the receiver bandwidth is 5MHz. Determine i. mean
square quantum noise current, ii. mean square dark current and iii. Mean square thermal
noise current at a temperature of 20oC. (CO4) (Applying)(Apr/May 2019)
8. Discuss with necessary expressions the different types of noise that affect the performance of a
photo detector. (CO4) (Understanding)(May 13), ( Nov/Dec 2014, June 2018,Apr/May2019)
9. When 3 x 1011 photons each with a wavelength of 0.85μm are incident on a photodiode, on
the average 1.2 x 1011 electrons are collected at the terminals of the device. Determine the
quantum efficiency and responsivity of the photodiode at 0.8μm. (CO4) (Applying)
10. Derive the expression for signal-to-noise ratio obtained at the output of an optical receiver. (CO4)
(Understanding)(May 09, June 2018)
11. Describe the characteristics of responsivity against wavelength for an ideal silicon photodiode with
the help of expression. Explain the direct and indirect absorption in Si and Ge. (CO4)

12. Discuss the various sources of noise that affect the performance of Optical receivers. Derive
expression for the S/N of APD. (CO4) (Creating)(Nov/Dec 09)
13. Explain avalanche multiplication noise in detail. (CO4) (Understanding) (Nov 2012)
14. Explain the structure and working of silicon APD. (ii) Define S/N ratio of a photo detector. What
conditions should be met to achieve a high SNR. (CO4) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2011)
15. (i) Draw the structure and electric fields in the APD and explain its working. (CO4)
(ii) What are the three factors that decides the response time of photodiodes? Explain them in detail
with necessary sketches. (CO4) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec 2012), (Nov/Dec 2014)
16. Discuss in detail digital receiver performance calculation and sensitivity calculation. (CO4)
(Creating)
17. What is known as quantum limit? A digital optic link operating at 850nm requires a maximum
of 10-9. Find the minimum incidental optical power P0 to achieve this BER at a data rate of
10Mb/s for a simple binary level signaling scheme.(η = 1, 1/τ = B / 2). (CO4) (Applying)
18. Discuss the performance of digital receiver by defining the probability of error. (CO4)
(Understanding)
19. Discuss the fundamentals of receiver operation with neat block diagram. (CO4) (Understanding)
(Nov 2012),(Nov 2013)(Dec 2015, June 2018)
20. Write brief note on transimpedance amplifier. (CO4) (Understanding) (June 12)
21. Derive the expression for probability of error (Pe) in a Digital receiver, with necessary
diagrams. (CO4) (Understanding) ( Nov/Dec 10)
22. Write short notes on quantum limit. (CO4) (Understanding) (Nov 2012)
23. i. Draw the front end optical amplifiers and explain. ii. Considering the probability distributions for
received logic 0 and 1 signal pulses, derive the expressions for BER and error function. (CO4)
(Applying) (Nov/Dec 2012), (May/June 2013)
24. i. Explain any two types of amplifier used in receiver. ii. Define the term quantum limit and
probability of error with respect to a receiver with typical values. (CO4) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec
2013)
25. Discuss in detail digital receiver performance calculation and sensitivity calculation in detail. (CO4)
(Creating)
26. Draw and explain the operation of high impedance FET and BJT preamplifiers. (CO4)
(Understanding) ( Nov/Dec 2011) (Dec 2015)
27. Explain the error sources of fundamental receiver operations. Discuss the performance of digital
receiver by defining the probability of error. (CO4) (Understanding),( Nov/Dec 2014)
28. Explain the fiber optic receiver operation using a simple model and its equivalent circuit. (CO4)
(Understanding) ( Nov/Dec 2011)
29. Discuss the noise and disturbance affecting the optical detection systems. (CO4)
(Creating)(May/June2012)
30. (i) Explain the fiber optic receiver operation using a simple model and its equivalent circuit.
(ii) Explain the operation of a pre-amplifier built using a FET. (CO4) (Understanding)
31. (i) Draw the front end optical amplifiers and explain(ii) Considering the probability distributions for
received logic 0 and 1 signal pulses, derive the expressions for BER and error function. (CO4)
(Understanding) ( Nov/Dec 2012)
32. (i)A Silicon p-i-n photodiode Incorporate into an optical receiver has a quantum efficiency of 60%
at a wavelength of 0.9 f1m, The dark current is 3 nA and load resistance is 4 Kiloohm. The incident
optical power is 200 nw and the receiver and width is 5 MHz, Determine (1) mean square quantum
noise current,(2) mean square dark current and (3) mean square thermal noise current at a
temperature of 20°C.(ii) Draw and explain the operation of APD. (CO4) (Applying)( Nov/Dec
2007)
33. (i)Discuss the different noise sources and disturbances in the optical pulse detection mechanism.(ii)
Derive an expression for the bit error rate of an optical digital
receiver. (CO4) (Analyzing) (Nov/Dec 2009)
34. Discuss with necessary expressions the different types of noise that affect the performance of a
photodetector (Understanding) (ii)When 3 x 1011 photons each with a wavelength of 0.85 µm
incident on a photodiode, on average 1.2 x 1011 electrons are collected at the terminals of the
device. Determine the quantum efficiency and responsivity of the photodiode at 0.85µm. (CO4)
(Applying) (Nov/Dec 2009)
35. A PIN diode is characterized by a quantum efficiency of 60% at a wavelength of 900nm.

Calculate responsivity of the PIN diode at 900nm.(Dec 2015) (CO2) (Applying)
36. The avalanche photodiode and the photo conducting detector both provide gain. Compare their
merits for use in optical communication and other application.(CO2(( Analyzing) (June 2016)
UNIT V -DIGITAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
TWO MARKS
1. What are the factors to be considered in Link power budget?(CO5) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec
04)
The factors to be considered in link power budget are: i. transmission speed ii. optical
sources & detectors iii. optical fiber.
2. What is meant by soliton? (CO5) (Remembering) (Apr/May 05), ( Nov/Dec 10) (Nov
2012,May2019)
Soliton are pulses that travel along the fiber without change in shape or amplitude or velocity.T
here are two types of soliton: 1. Fundamental soliton : The family of pulses that do not change in
shape are called fundamental soliton. 2. Higher order soliton : The family of pulses that undergo
periodic shape changes are called higher order soliton.
3. What is meant by modal noise? (CO5) (Remembering) (Apr/May 05)
It arises when the light from a coherent laser is coupled in to a multimode fiber operating at
400Mbps and higher. It mainly occurs due to mechanical vibrations and fluctuations in the
frequency of the optical source.
4. List the system requirements needed in analyzing a point-to-point link. (CO5) (Remembering)
(Nov/Dec 05),(Nov/Dec 10),(Nov 13, June 2018,MAY2019)
i. The desired transmission distance ii. The data rate or channel bandwidth iii. The Bit Error Rate
(BER)
5. Discuss the concept of link power budget. (CO5) (Creating)(Nov/Dec 05)
In link power budget analysis, first determines the power margin between the optical
transmitter output and the minimum receiver sensitivity needed to establish a specific BER
Within this margin the connector, splice and fiber losses are allocated. It also require additional
margins for possible component degradations, transmission – line impairments or temperature
effect.
6. What are advantages of WDM? (CO5) (Remembering) ( Nov/Dec 07), ( Nov/Dec 10)
Capacity upgrade, transparency, wavelength routing and switching are the key advantages of
WDM.
7. What is the significance of rise time budget? (CO5) (Remembering) (Nov/Dec 08)
The rise time budget analysis is a convenient method for determining the dispersion limitation
of an optical fiber link. tsys =√( t2tx + t2mod + t2mat +t2rx)
8. Compare doped fiber amplifiers and conventional repeaters. (CO5) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 08)
Repeaters Fiber amplifiers
i.Amplification done conversion of optical to i. Its directly amplify the optical signal
electrical and amplify this signal and reconvert without any conversion.
of electrical to optical
ii. Used in short distance. ii. Used in long distance
iii. Complexity in this device iii. less complexity
iv. Bandwidth utilization is less. iv. Bandwidth utilized effectively.
9. Define mode partition noise. (CO5) (Remembering) (May/June 09)
The mode partition noise is associated with intensity fluctuations in the longitudinal modes of a
laser diode. It becomes more pronounced for the higher bit rates.
10. What are the advantages of using soliton signals through fiber? (CO5) (Remembering)
Solitons are very narrow, high intensity optical pulses that retain their shape through the
interaction of balancing pulse dispersion with the non linear property of an optical fiber. The
pulse broadening effects of GVD is overcome by silicon pulse transmission.
11. List the two analyses that are used to ensure system performance? (June 2016)(CO5)
(Remembering)
The two analysis that are used to ensure system performance are :i. link power budget analysis ii.
rise time budget analysis
12. Give the range of system margin in link power budget? (June 2016)(CO5) (Understanding)
The system margin is usually (6-8) dB. A positive system margin ensures proper operation of
the circuit. A negative value indicates that insufficient power will reach the detector to achieve the
required bit error rate, BER.
13. The specifications of the light sources are converted to equivalent rise time in rise time
budget. Why? (CO5) (Analyzing)
A rise time budget is a convenient method to determine the dispersion limitation of an optical
link. This is particularly useful for digital systems. For this purpose, the specifications of the light
sources (both the fiber & the photo detector) are converted to equivalent rise time. The overall
system rise time is given in terms of the light source rise time, fiber dispersion time and the photo
detector rise time.
14. What are the system components of system rise time? (CO5) (Remembering)(Dec 2015)
The 4 basic system components that contribute to the system rise time are: i. transmitter
(source) rise time ii. Receiver rise time iii. Material dispersion time of the fiber iv. Modal
dispersion time of the fiber link .All these four basic elements may significantly limit system
speed.
15. What are the noise effects on system performance? (CO5) (Remembering)
The main penalties are modal noise, wavelength chirp, spectral broadening and mode-
partition noise.
16. What are the measures to avoid modal noise? (CO5) (Understanding)( Nov/Dec 10)(Dec 2015)
The measures are i. use LEDs ii. use LASER having more longitudinal modes iii. use a fiber
with large numerical aperture iv. use a single mode fiber
17. What is meant by chirping? (CO5) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 09)
It means that the dynamic line broadening (line broadening is a frequency chirp) in the laser
which oscillates in the single longitudinal mode under CW operation when the injection current is
intensity modulated.
18. What is the best way to minimize the chirping? (CO5) (Remembering)
It is to choose the laser emission wavelength close to the zero-dispersion of the wavelength of
the fiber.
19. What is reflection noise? (CO5) (Remembering)
It is the optical power that gets reflected at the refractive index discontinuities such as in
splices, couplers and filters, or connectors. The reflected signals can degrade both the transmitter
and receiver performance.
20. What are the effects of reflection noise in high speed systems? (CO5) (Remembering)
They cause optical feedback which leads to optical instabilities that may lead to intersymbol
interference and intensity noise.
21. What are the basic performances of the WDM? (CO5) (Remembering)
i. Insertion loss ii. Channel width iii. Cross talk
22. What is WDM? (CO5) (Understanding)(Nov 2012, June 2018)
WDM is wavelength division multiplexing. The optical beam consists of different
wavelengths and several channel information is transmitted over a single channel.
23. What is meant as bidirectional WDM? (CO5) (Understanding)
A single WDM which operates as both multiplexing and demultiplexing Devices is said as
the bidirectional WDM.
24. What is the use of power budget in fiber optic system? (CO5) (Understanding)
The power budget is used to determine the power margin between the optical transmitter
output and the minimum receiver sensitivity needed to establish a specified BER.
25. What is the use of rise budget in fiber optic system? (CO5) (Understanding)
The rise time budget is used to verify that the overall system performance requirements like
maximum bit rate and maximum transmission distance.
26. What is SONET? (CO5) (Remembering)
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a standard developed by ANSI for fiber optic
networks. SONET defines a frame structure for transmitting TDM signals in the optical fiber
networks. It encodes bit streams into optical signals that are propagated over optical fiber.
27. What is relation between STS and OC levels? (CO5) (Analyzing)
SONET has defined a hierarchy of signals called Synchronous Transport Signals (STS).
Optical (OC) levels are the implementation of STSs or the physical links defined to carry each
level of STS are called Optical Carriers (OCs).
28. What is DWDM? (CO5) (Remembering)
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is an optical technology used to increase

bandwidth over existing fiber – optic backbones. DWDM works by combining and transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously at different wavelengths on the same fibers.
29. What is meta stable state? (CO5) (Remembering)
The meta stable means that the lifetimes for the transitions from this state to the ground
state are very long compared with the lifetimes to the states that led to this level.
30. What is stark splitting? (CO5) (Remembering)
The meta stable, the pump, and the ground state levels are actually bands of closely Spaced
energy levels that form manifold due to the effect known as stark splitting.
31. What are the techniques used for minimizing reflection noise? (CO5) (Understanding)
( Nov/Dec 09)
i. Prepare fiber end surfaces with a curved surface or an single relative to the laser emitting facet.
This directs reflected light away from the fiber axis. ii. Use index matching oil or gel at air glass
interface. iii. Use connectors in which end faces make physical contact. Iv. Use optical isolators
within the laser transmitter module.
32. Mention the significance of WDM.(CO3) (Understanding) (June 2016)
WDM is wavelength division multiplexing. The optical beam consists of different
wavelengths and several channel information is transmitted over a single channel. Capacity
upgrade, Transparency, Wavelength routing is features of WDM. The basic performance of
WDM is i). Insertion loss ii). Channel width iii). Cross talk.
16 MARKS
1. Discuss the principle of WDM with example and neat block diagram. (CO5) (Understanding)(Nov
2012),(Nov 2013) (Dec 2015),(Apr/May2019)
2. Explain the rise-time budget of a fiber optic point-to-point link. (CO5) (Understanding) (Nov/Dec
10, Nov 2012, Nov 13) (Dec 2015, June 2018,Apr/May2019)
3. Draw the point-to-point fiber optic link and discuss the system considerations. (CO5)
(Remembering)(June 12, Nov 13, June 2018)
4. Discuss the noise effects on fiber optic system performance. (CO5) (Creating)
5. Explain the principle of operation of erbium doped amplifier. (CO5) (Understanding)(EDFA).
6. Give brief account of the principles of SONET/SDH. (CO5) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 10, Nov
2012) (Dec 2015)
7. Explain the salient features of solitons using relevant expressions and diagrams. (CO5) (Evaluating)
(June 2018)
8. Give a brief account of the different types of losses to be considered in the design of an optical link.
(CO5) (Understanding)
9. Draw and explain the basic format of an STS-N SONET frame. (CO5) (Remembering)
10. Derive the expression for EDFA quantum conversion efficiency and amplifier gain. (CO5)
(Analyzing)(Nov/Dec 09)
11. Explain the amplification mechanism in EDFA. Discuss the possible configuration of EDFA with
neat diagram. (CO5) (Understanding)(Nov 2012) (Dec 2015)
12. Draw the soliton pulse and its envelop and describe its fundamental and its propagation in optical
fibers. (CO5) (Understanding)(Nov/Dec 09, Nov 13)
13. Explain SONET layers with neat diagrams. (CO5) (Remembering)(Nov/Dec 09)
14. Describe the operation of Unidirectional and bidirectional WDM. (CO5)(Understanding)
(Nov/Dec 09)
15. What are link power budget and rise time budget analyses? Perform these analyses for a fiber link
that uses a conventional single mode fiber that has been upgraded by DCF loops and optical
amplifiers.(CO5) (Understanding) (June 2016)
16. Outline EDFA designs incorporating both a CO – and Counter propagating pump. State the main
advantages of each configuration.(CO5)(Understanding)(June 2016)
17. Identify the key requirements needed for designing an optimal optical link and the choice of
components for fulfilling it. Discuss the implementation of a typical WDM link with various
components and different types of amplifiers. (CO5)(Understanding)(Apr/May 2019)

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16EC712 - Fiber Optical Communication

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

TX1/PP 12-14, TX2/PP 26-31,

34 L37 Point to point links : system consideration BB RX3/PP 183-185,TX2/PP 284-286

37 L40 Noise effects in system performance BB TX2/PP 297-304,TX1/PP 122-124

41 L44 Basics of SONET/SDH OHP TX2/PP 467-475

UNIT I – OPTICAL FIBER WAVEGUIDES

approximation? (CO1) (Remembering)

UNIT III-OPTICAL SOURCES

i. LED emit incoherent light i.ILD emit coherent light

τ = (τrτnr/(τr+τnr)) = (30ns X 100ns/(30ns+ 100ns)) = 23.1ns

required ii. It has lime dynamic range.

(Understanding) (Nov/Dec 09)

35. A PIN diode is characterized by a quantum efficiency of 60% at a wavelength of 900nm.

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is an optical technology used to increase

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