Materials can be classified into two categories

1. Conductors
2. Insulators (Dielectrics)

Electrons are
free to move
around

Electrons are
attached to
atoms
 ELECTRIC FIELDS IN CONDUCTORS
Important properties of conductors
1. 𝐸𝐸 = 0 inside a conductor

2. Any excess charges reside on the

surface

3. There is no net charge inside

4. A conductor is an equipotential 𝐸𝐸 = 0
surface

5. Just outside the conductor, 𝐸𝐸 is

perpendicular to the surface
 CAPACITORS What is a capacitor?
A device that can store electric charges

A capacitor consists of two conductors, each of The conductors can take any shape
which is connected to one of a battery’s terminal

At a given voltage, the amount of

Amount of charge charge stored on the conductors is
determined by the capacitance 𝐶𝐶
stored in a capacitor
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Unit for capacitance 𝑪𝑪
Capacitance : a measure of how much
charge can be stored at aa given
Farad (F)
voltage
CAPACITANCE What determines the capacitance?

The geometry (shape) of the capacitor

Parallel plate capacitor Parallel plate capacitor

𝜖𝜖0 𝐴𝐴 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋0
𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 =
𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏
ln
The capacitance depends on
𝑎𝑎
1. The area of the plates
The capacitance depends on
2. The distance between the plates
1. The inner radius 𝑎𝑎
2. The outer radius 𝑏𝑏
CAPACITORS
If we look inside a capacitor, we will
find that it consist of two metal foils
rolled up together. The foils are
Here is what real capacitors look like separated by a dielectric material

Metal
Metal
Smaller Greater plate
plate
capacitance capacitance
(47 μF) (2200 μF)

At a given voltage, the 2200-μF capacitor (blue) can store more charge than the
47-μF (black) capacitor

For example, at 𝑉𝑉 = 12 V,

1. The 2200-μF capacitor can store 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 2200 × 10−6 12 = 26.4 mC

2. The 47-μF capacitor can store 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 47 × 10−6 12 = 0.564 mC

HOW TO CALCULATE THE CAPACITANCE
General procedure
(Applicable to all types of capacitors)
STEP 1
Determine the electric field between the
plates
(using either Gauss’s law or Coulomb’s law)
STEP 2
Determine potential difference
between the plate +
𝑉𝑉 = − � 𝐸𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙⃗
−
STEP 3
Determine the capacitance
𝑄𝑄
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑉𝑉
CAPACITANCE: PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
STEP 2 – Find 𝑽𝑽 between the plates
Recal that
𝑄𝑄
𝑄𝑄 = 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴 or 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 = The potential difference is given by
𝐴𝐴
+
𝑉𝑉 = − � 𝐸𝐸 . 𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙⃗
−
The line integral is to be evaluated along the green
path. Note that along this path, 𝐸𝐸 and 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙⃗ are
𝐸𝐸− 𝐸𝐸+ everywhere antiparallel (𝜃𝜃 = 180∘). Therefore, the
line integral reduces to
+
𝑉𝑉 = − � 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙⃗ cos 180∘
−
𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆
STEP 1 – Find 𝑬𝑬 between the plates Substituting 𝐸𝐸 = and 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙⃗ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, we get
𝜖𝜖0
𝑧𝑧+
𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆
The electric field due to each plate is given by 𝑉𝑉 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −1
𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 𝑧𝑧− 𝜖𝜖0
Positive plate: 𝐸𝐸+ = (downward) 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 𝑧𝑧+ 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆
2𝜖𝜖0
𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑧𝑧+ − 𝑧𝑧− = 𝑑𝑑
Negative plate: 𝐸𝐸_ = (downward) 𝜖𝜖0 𝑧𝑧− 𝜖𝜖0 𝜖𝜖0
2𝜖𝜖0
The total electric field between the plate can be Substituting 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 = 𝑄𝑄/𝐴𝐴, we get
determined using the superposition principle. Since 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄
𝑉𝑉 =
𝐸𝐸+ and 𝐸𝐸− point in the same direction, we should 𝐴𝐴𝜖𝜖0
add their magnitude STEP 3 – Find the capacitance
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸+ + 𝐸𝐸−
𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 Finally, the capacitance is given by
= + 𝑄𝑄 𝜖𝜖0 𝐴𝐴
2𝜖𝜖0 2𝜖𝜖0 𝐶𝐶 = =
𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑
= (downward)
𝜖𝜖0
ASSIGNMENT (CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR)

Cylindrical capacitors are formed in coaxial cables

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋0
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑏𝑏
ln
𝑎𝑎
ELECTRIC DIPOLES
An electric dipole consists of a positive and negative charge of equal magnitude but
opposite sign

-
AN ATOM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
𝐸𝐸
Force on
negatively
Force on charged
positively electrons
charged
nucleus

When the atom is placed in an external

A neutral atom consists of a
electric field,
positive nucleus and
• the electric field exert a force on the
negatively charged electrons
nucleus in the same direction as the
around the nucleus
electric field
• The electric field exerts a force on the
electrons in the opposite direction
• Hence, the atom becomes polarized
(stretched)

When a neutral atom is placed in an external

electric field, it becomes polarized (stretched)
A DIELECTRIC IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

What is a dielectric material?

• A dielectric material consists of
atoms
• the electrons of each atom are
tightly attached to the atom

In the previous slide, we have seen what happens when an atom

is placed in an external electric field

The next slide describes what happens when a dielectric material

is placed in an external electric field
A DIELECTRIC IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD External field that causes
𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 the atoms to become
When a dielectric is placed in an external electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 polarized (stretched)

• the atoms inside the dielectric become polarized (stretched)

• These polarized atoms set up a NEW electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 .

𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
• This new electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is directed opposite to the A new electric field
which is set up by
direction of the external electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , and its atoms that have been
magnitude is less than 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 polarized by 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

• So, now there are two different fields inside the dielectric, 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 and 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

• The total electric field inside the dielectric is the vector sum of 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 and 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 < 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

• Hence,

Inside the dielectric material, the net electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 is smaller
than the external electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
A DIELECTRIC IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
From the argument in the previous slide we come to the conclusion that

Inside the dielectric material, the net electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 is smaller
than the external electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

By how much smaller the net electric field becomes is determined by the so-called
dielectric constant, 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 , of the dielectric material

|𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 |
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =
𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟

Different dielectric materials have different values of dielectric constant, 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟

Material Dielectric constant, 𝝐𝝐𝒓𝒓

Teflon 2.1
Paper 3.5
Glass 4.7
A DIELECTRIC IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
(EXAMPLE)
10
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = = 2.13 N/C
4.7 𝐸𝐸𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 10 N/C

Glass Paper Teflon

𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 = 4.7 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 = 3.5 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 = 2.1

10 10
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 2.86 N/C 𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = 4.7 N/C
3.5 2.1

Notice that the electric field in each of the dielectric

material is smaller than the electric field in vacuum
A DIELECTRIC IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
From our previous discussion we can make the following generalization

In a region filled a dielectric material of dielectric constant 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 , all electrostatic

equations containing the vacuum permittivity 𝜖𝜖0 are to be modified by replacing 𝜖𝜖0
with 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0

Example

Charge distribution Vacuum Dielectric with dielectric

constant 𝝐𝝐𝒓𝒓
Point charge 1 𝑞𝑞 1 𝑞𝑞
𝐸𝐸 = 2 𝑎𝑎
�𝑅𝑅 𝐸𝐸 = 2 𝑎𝑎
�𝑅𝑅
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
Infinite straight line 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟
Infinite flat plate 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆 𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 =
2𝜖𝜖0 2𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0
Gauss’s law 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
� 𝐸𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴⃗ = � 𝐸𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴⃗ =
𝑆𝑆 𝜖𝜖0 𝑆𝑆 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0
EXAMPLE
The point charge is surrounded by vacuum

𝑃𝑃

+ 𝐸𝐸 =
1 𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 2 𝑎𝑎
�𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅

The point charge is embedded in a dielectric

material with dielectric constant 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟

𝑃𝑃

1 𝑞𝑞
The electric field is
𝑞𝑞 + 𝐸𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0 2 𝑎𝑎
�𝑅𝑅
smaller by a factor of 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟
𝑅𝑅

Dielectric material
𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟
CAPACITANCE WITH A DIELECTIC Dielectric
material

𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟

If the gap between the plates is now

filled with a dielectric material, the
In slide 8, we have derived the formula formula for the capacitance gets
for the capacitance of a parallel plate modified by replacing 𝜖𝜖0 by 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0
capacitor, for the case where the space 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖0 𝐴𝐴
between the plates is VACUUM 𝐶𝐶 =
𝑑𝑑
𝜖𝜖0 𝐴𝐴 Since 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 is always greater than 1, the
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑑𝑑 effect of the dielectric material is to
increase the capacitance by a factor of 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟

If the gap between the plates of a capacitor is filled with

Take-home
message a dielectric material, the capacitance 𝐶𝐶 is increased by a
factor of 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟