A GRAMMAR OF MEHEK

by

Adam Hatfield

June 1, 2016

A dissertation submitted to the

Faculty of the Graduate School of
the University at Buffalo, State University of New York
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Linguistics
Acknowledgements
The work in this dissertation was made possible by two grants from the National

Science Foundation (NSF). The first grant was under Matthew Dryer, my major

professor. The second grant was an NSF Dissertation Improvement Grant, BCS1263554,

designed to allow for additional data collection. Below are lists of the main consultants

who provided data, time, generosity and hospitality to me while learning Mehek. The

primary consultants are the ones who provided ongoing and/or daily time for long

periods. The secondary consultants provided large amounts of data over a fixed time

period, either hours or multiple times over several days. In addition to those listed

below, there were well over 50 different people who gave different kinds of language

data. Their time and assistance are graciously appreciated. I would also like to thank the

members of my dissertation committee (listed below), and the faculty, staff and

students of the Linguistics Department at the State University of New York at Buffalo.

Primary Consultants Secondary Consultants

Mehek Tok Pisin Village Mehek Tok Pisin Village
Name Name Home Name Name Home
Wafukaha Pius Wilwil Afkoi Judah Kafle 3
Yakwaro Vero Sibilanga (Yiminum) Koule Sara Wilwil
Nurkuminga Rosalyn Sibilanga (Wilwil) Kumbun Peter Mansuku
Komtalmbu Michael Wilwil Manbo Florian Nuku
Yimansamba Leo Wilwil Sokoni Titus Kafle 3
Wolsauwo Paul Wilwil
Dissertation Committee Yala Abel Yifkindu
Matthew Dryer (major professor), Karin Michelson, Jeff Good

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................ii
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................iii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... xii
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xiv
Citation Convention for Glossed Examples.................................................................... xv
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. xvi
Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.0 Overview ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 The Linguistic Scene and Language Vitality .............................................................. 2
1.2 Genetic Classification of Mehek ............................................................................... 4
1.3 Previous Research ..................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Dialects ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Fieldwork................................................................................................................... 8
1.6 Theoretical Background .......................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2: People and Culture.......................................................................................... 11
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 11
2.1 Geography ............................................................................................................... 11
2.1.1 Regional Maps.................................................................................................. 13
2.1.2 Village Maps ..................................................................................................... 15
2.1.3 Map Attributions .............................................................................................. 20
2.2 History ..................................................................................................................... 20
2.3 People and Traditional Culture ............................................................................... 22
2.3.1 Food ................................................................................................................. 23
2.3.2 The Village and Land ........................................................................................ 25
2.3.3 Family and Clan Structure ................................................................................ 28
2.3.4 Marriage and Death ......................................................................................... 30

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 2.3.5 Celebrations ..................................................................................................... 33
2.3.6 Magic and the Spirit World .............................................................................. 35
2.4 Modern Adaptations ............................................................................................... 40
2.4.1 Economy and Western Influence ..................................................................... 42
2.4.2 Christianity ....................................................................................................... 46
2.4.3 Education ......................................................................................................... 48
2.4.4 Local Government and Representation ........................................................... 50
Chapter 3: Phonology ....................................................................................................... 54
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 54
3.1 Consonant Phonemes ............................................................................................. 55
3.2 Vowel Phonemes .................................................................................................... 55
3.2.1 Diphthongs ....................................................................................................... 56
3.3 Additional Phones ................................................................................................... 57
3.3.1 Voiceless Glottal Fricative [h] .......................................................................... 57
3.3.2 Glottal Stop [Ɂ] ................................................................................................. 58
3.3.3 Voiceless Bilabial Stop [p] ................................................................................ 59
3.4 Allophones .............................................................................................................. 60
3.4.1 Consonants ...................................................................................................... 61
3.4.2 Vowels .............................................................................................................. 62
3.5 Minimal Pairs .......................................................................................................... 63
3.5.1 Consonants ...................................................................................................... 63
3.5.2 Vowels .............................................................................................................. 65
3.6 Syllabification .......................................................................................................... 66
3.7 Phonotactics............................................................................................................ 68
3.7.1 Onset Combinations ........................................................................................ 68
3.7.2 Coda Combinations .......................................................................................... 69
3.7.3 Vowel Coalescence .......................................................................................... 70
3.8 Stress ....................................................................................................................... 72

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 3.9 Orthography ............................................................................................................ 73
3.10 Onomatopoeia and Sound Symbolism ................................................................. 77
Chapter 4: Brief Grammatical Overview ........................................................................... 79
4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 79
4.1. Overview of Morphology ....................................................................................... 79
4.2. Nominal and Predicate Clitics ................................................................................ 81
4.2.1 Noun Phrase Clitics .......................................................................................... 81
4.2.2 Predicate Clitics ................................................................................................ 92
Chapter 5: Nouns and Noun Phrases ................................................................................ 97
5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 97
5.1 Gender .................................................................................................................... 98
5.2 Diminutive ............................................................................................................. 102
5.3 Number ................................................................................................................. 109
5.4 Pronouns ............................................................................................................... 110
5.4.1 Subject Pronouns ........................................................................................... 111
5.4.2 Object Pronouns ............................................................................................ 113
5.4.3 Imperative Pronouns ..................................................................................... 116
5.4.4 Possessive Pronouns ...................................................................................... 119
5.4.5 Emphatic Pronouns ........................................................................................ 122
5.4.6 Demonstrative Pronouns ............................................................................... 126
5.4.7 Interrogative/Indefinite Pronouns ................................................................. 136
5.4.8 Reflexive kuna ................................................................................................ 140
5.4.9 Use of Pronouns ............................................................................................. 143
5.5 The Determiner di ................................................................................................. 144
5.6 Adjectives and Adjective Phrases ......................................................................... 149
5.7 Numerals ............................................................................................................... 153
5.8 Possession ............................................................................................................. 157
5.9 Relative Clauses .................................................................................................... 162

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 5.10 Relational Nouns and the Locative/Instrumental Clitic ...................................... 165
5.10.1 Locative and Instrumental =k ...................................................................... 165
5.10.2 Relational Nouns .......................................................................................... 173
5.11 Compounds ......................................................................................................... 186
5.11.1 Asymmetrical Compounds ........................................................................... 186
5.11.2 Symmetrical Compounds ............................................................................. 188
5.11.3 Animals and Plant Names ............................................................................ 189
5.11.4 Series Compounds ....................................................................................... 192
5.11.5 Hierarchical Compounds .............................................................................. 192
5.12 Place Names ........................................................................................................ 195
5.13 Conjoined Noun Phrases ..................................................................................... 197
5.14 Noun Phrase Structure........................................................................................ 200
Chapter 6: Verbs ............................................................................................................. 209
6.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 209
6.1 Subject Suffixes ..................................................................................................... 210
6.1.1 First Person Marking without Present Tense ................................................ 213
6.2 Tense Marking....................................................................................................... 216
6.2.1 Present Tense −ya .......................................................................................... 217
6.2.2 Past Tenses −wa and −m................................................................................ 219
6.2.3 Future Tenses −kya and −ka .......................................................................... 220
6.3 Mood Suffixes ....................................................................................................... 222
6.3.1 Desiderative −kwa ......................................................................................... 223
6.3.2 Conditional −na .............................................................................................. 225
6.4 Aspect Suffixes ...................................................................................................... 229
6.4.1 Repetitive −yu ................................................................................................ 230
6.4.2 Continual −kla ................................................................................................ 231
6.5 Imperative −ta and −tn ......................................................................................... 233
6.6 Negative -nak ........................................................................................................ 236

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 6.7 Subordinating Suffixes .......................................................................................... 237
6.8 Combinations of Verbal Suffixes ........................................................................... 238
6.9 Dialect Variation in the Verbal Paradigm ............................................................. 242
Chapter 7: Clause Structure ............................................................................................ 245
7.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 245
7.1 Subjects and Objects ............................................................................................. 246
7.2 Mood Particles ...................................................................................................... 250
7.2.1 Realis ka ......................................................................................................... 251
7.2.2 Irrealis wa....................................................................................................... 253
7.2.3 Omission of the Mood Particle ...................................................................... 257
7.3 Adjuncts and Adverbs ........................................................................................... 263
7.3.1 Adjuncts ......................................................................................................... 263
7.3.2 Adverbs .......................................................................................................... 263
7.3.2.1 Manner Adverbs .................................................................................................. 265
7.3.2.2 Locative Adverbs ................................................................................................. 266
7.3.2.3 Temporal Adverbs ............................................................................................... 270
7.3.2.4 Interrogative Adverbs .......................................................................................... 271
7.3.2.5 Ideophonic Adverbs............................................................................................. 272
7.3.3 Word Order Position of Adjuncts and Adverbs ............................................. 277
7.4 Serial-Verb Constructions ..................................................................................... 284
7.5 Clauses with Nonverbal Predicates....................................................................... 289
7.5.1 Clauses with the Verb na ............................................................................... 289
7.5.2 Nonverbal Clauses ......................................................................................... 293
7.6 Passive Clauses...................................................................................................... 296
7.7 Interrogative Sentences ........................................................................................ 299
7.7.1 Interrogative Clitic =ka ................................................................................... 299
7.7.2 Interrogative Clitic =a..................................................................................... 305
7.7.3 Use of kamben or =ben in Polar Questions ................................................... 307

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 7.7.4 Interrogative Words in Content Questions ................................................... 307
7.7.4.1 em 'who' .............................................................................................................. 308
7.7.4.2 bu 'what' .............................................................................................................. 310
7.7.4.3 o- i- and iroko ~ oriko ‘where’ ............................................................................. 312
7.7.4.4 biki 'which' ........................................................................................................... 314
7.7.4.5 biki ~ biki biki 'how' ............................................................................................. 315
7.7.4.6 biki rokok 'when'.................................................................................................. 316
7.7.4.7 biki naka 'why' ..................................................................................................... 317
7.7.4.8 biki saima 'how much/many' .............................................................................. 318
7.8 Negation ................................................................................................................ 319
7.8.1 iki 'not' and the negative verbal suffix -nak ................................................... 319
7.8.2 mehek 'no' ...................................................................................................... 326
7.8.3 Negative Imperative mana ............................................................................ 327
7.8.4 Other Words with Negative Meaning ............................................................ 327
7.9 erka 'want'............................................................................................................. 330
7.10 Light Verbs .......................................................................................................... 332
7.10.1 eku 'do' ......................................................................................................... 332
7.10.2 rete 'put' ....................................................................................................... 334
7.11 Repetition............................................................................................................ 336
Chapter 8: Complex Sentences ....................................................................................... 341
8.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 341
8.1 Conjoined clauses ................................................................................................. 343
8.1.1 naka ~ na ‘and’ .............................................................................................. 344
8.1.2 na 'but' ........................................................................................................... 347
8.1.3 kamben ~ =ben 'either/or' ............................................................................. 350
8.2 Subordinators yombo, yungu and roko ............................................................... 352
8.2.1 yombo ............................................................................................................ 352
8.2.2 yungu ............................................................................................................. 354
8.2.3 rokor ............................................................................................................... 357

viii
 8.3 Subordinating Suffixes .......................................................................................... 361
8.3.1 Subordinate Suffix –k ..................................................................................... 362
8.3.2 The Infinitival Suffix –r ................................................................................... 367
8.3.3 Gerundial Suffix –m........................................................................................ 370
8.4 Conditional Clauses ............................................................................................... 371
8.5 Other Clause Relationships ................................................................................... 374
8.5.1 Comparative Constructions ........................................................................... 374
8.5.2 Perception Complements .............................................................................. 374
8.5.3 Reported Speech ............................................................................................ 376
Chapter 9: Discourse and Paralanguage ......................................................................... 378
9.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 378
9.1 Interjections .......................................................................................................... 378
9.2 Greetings ............................................................................................................... 380
9.3 Expressions of Anger and Pain .............................................................................. 382
9.4 The Discourse Clitic =yu / =u ................................................................................. 385
9.5 Discourse Techniques ........................................................................................... 387
9.6 Gesture.................................................................................................................. 389
9.7 Personal Names .................................................................................................... 389
9.7.1 Given Name sir ............................................................................................... 390
9.7.2 Bad Name sir kaha ......................................................................................... 392
9.7.3 Good Name sir nalingi ................................................................................... 394
9.7.4 Name Whistle isi ............................................................................................ 394
9.7.5 The Name Song hokwa .................................................................................. 395
9.8 Whistled Speech and Other Sounds ..................................................................... 396
9.9 Songs ..................................................................................................................... 398
9.10 Garamut Drum Communication ......................................................................... 398
9.11 Sign Language ..................................................................................................... 400
9.12 Tok Pisin .............................................................................................................. 404

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 9.12.1 Borrowings and Translations ....................................................................... 406
9.12.2 Code Switching............................................................................................. 412
Chapter 10: Lexical Fields................................................................................................ 414
10.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 414
10.1 Kinship System .................................................................................................... 414
10.2 Colors .................................................................................................................. 420
10.3 Lexical Patterns ................................................................................................... 421
10.3.1 kaiembo versus kanda 'small' ...................................................................... 421
10.3.2 Words relating to 'everybody' ..................................................................... 423
10.4 Postural Verbs ..................................................................................................... 424
10.5 Dialect Variation ................................................................................................. 428
Appendix A: Sample Texts............................................................................................... 430
A.1 Mombu Ketelu Story ............................................................................................. 430
A.2 Songs ..................................................................................................................... 443
A.2.1 Safungrow ...................................................................................................... 443
A.2.2 Wulmba ......................................................................................................... 443
A.2.3 Kafle ............................................................................................................... 444
A.2.4 Kitalako Story................................................................................................. 444
A.2.5 Felnde Afu Story............................................................................................. 445
A.2.6 Personal Songs (Gasiwatimba and her Children) .......................................... 445
A.3 Garden and First Harvest Description .................................................................. 446
Appendix B: Mehek-English-Tok Pisin Dictionary ........................................................... 454
Appendix C: English-Mehek Dictionary........................................................................... 498
Appendix D: Tok Pisin-Mehek Dictionary ....................................................................... 528
Appendix E: Animal and Plant Species ............................................................................ 557
E.1 Animals .................................................................................................................. 557
E.2 Plants ..................................................................................................................... 564
Appendix F: Thematic Vocabulary .................................................................................. 571

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Appendix G: Personal Name Index ................................................................................. 582
Appendix H: Names, Songs and Whistles ....................................................................... 593
Appendix I: Place and Clan Names.................................................................................. 605
I.1 Place Names ........................................................................................................... 605
I.2 Clan Names ............................................................................................................ 610
Appendix J: Garamut Drum Beats ................................................................................... 611
J.1 Clan Beats .............................................................................................................. 612
J.2 Message Beats ....................................................................................................... 617
References ...................................................................................................................... 627

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List of Tables

# Table Title Location

1 Consonant Phonemes........................................................................... §3.1
2 Vowel Phonemes .................................................................................. §3.2
3 Diphthongs ........................................................................................... §3.2.1
4 Mehek Words with /p/ ......................................................................... §3.3.3
5 Stop Allophones.................................................................................... §3.4.1
6 Other Consonant Allophones ............................................................... §3.4.1
7 Vowel Allophones ................................................................................. §3.4.2
8 Consonant Minimal Pairs...................................................................... §3.5.1
9 Vowel Minimal Pairs ............................................................................. §3.5.2
10 Some Monophthong and Diphthong Minimal Pairs ............................ §3.5.2
11 Possible Syllables .................................................................................. §3.6
12 Onset Consonant Clusters .................................................................... §3.7.1
13 Coda Consonant Clusters ..................................................................... §3.7.2
14 Vowel Coalescence ............................................................................... §3.7.3
15 Orthographic Vowels and Diphthongs ................................................. §3.9
16 Orthographic Consonants .................................................................... §3.9
17 Animal Names with an Onomatopoeic Component ............................ §3.10
18 Third Person Noun Phrase Clitics ......................................................... §4.2.1
19 First and Second Person Predicate Clitics ............................................ §4.2.2
20 Third Person Noun Phrase Clitics ......................................................... §5.1
21 Exclusively Feminine Nouns ................................................................. §5.1
22 Homophonous Feminine and Masculine Nouns .................................. §5.1
23 Subject Pronouns.................................................................................. §5.4.1
24 Object Pronouns ................................................................................... §5.4.2
25 Imperative Pronouns ............................................................................ §5.4.3
26 Possessive Pronouns ............................................................................ §5.4.4
27 Emphatic Subject Pronouns ................................................................. §5.4.5
28 Emphatic Object Pronouns ................................................................... §5.4.5
29 Emphatic Predicate Pronouns for First Person .................................... §5.4.5
30 Demonstrative Pronouns ..................................................................... §5.4.6
31 Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns ..................................................... §5.4.6
32 Interrogative/Indefinite Pronouns ....................................................... §5.4.7
33 Numerals 1-4 ........................................................................................ §5.7

xii
34 Numerals for 'five' and Above .............................................................. §5.7
35 Relational Nouns .................................................................................. §5.10.2
36 Animal and Plant Category Terms ........................................................ §5.11.3
37 Sample Place Names ............................................................................ §5.12
38 Subject Suffixes..................................................................................... §6.1
39 Tense Suffixes ....................................................................................... §6.2
40 Mood Suffixes ....................................................................................... §6.3
41 Aspectual Suffixes................................................................................. §6.4
42 Temporal Adverbs ................................................................................ §7.3.2
43 Key to Ideophonic Adverb Types .......................................................... §7.3.2
44 Ideophonic Adverbs ............................................................................. §7.3.2
45 Passive Derivation from the Active Clause ........................................... §7.6
46 Question Words.................................................................................... §7.7.4
47 Summary of Clausal Relationships ....................................................... §8.0
48 Syntax of Linked Clauses ...................................................................... §8.0
49 Interjections.......................................................................................... §9.1
50 Mehek Gestures ................................................................................... §9.6
51 Conventionalized Speech Sounds......................................................... §9.8
52 Garamut Beats ...................................................................................... §9.10
53 Mehek Deaf Signs ................................................................................. §9.11
54 Common Tok Pisin Words with no Mehek Equivalent ......................... §9.12.1
55 Mehek Equivalent Which Makes a More Complex Distinction ............ §9.12.1
56 Mehek Equivalent Which Makes a Similar Distinction ......................... §9.12.1
57 Comparison of Mehek and Tok Pisin Personal Pronouns .................... §9.12.1
58 Non-Lexical Borrowings ........................................................................ §9.12.1
59 Mehek Equivalent Developed .............................................................. §9.12.1
60 Summary of Kin Terms ......................................................................... §10.1
61 Male-Centric Kin Terms ........................................................................ §10.1
62 Female-Centric Kin Terms .................................................................... §10.1
63 Mehek Color Terms .............................................................................. §10.2
64 Kafle Dialect Variants ........................................................................... §10.5

xiii
Abbreviations
Each abbreviation of a linguistic feature used in the glosses of this grammar is listed

in the table below. They are alphabetical by abbreviation, along with the full name of

the feature and a typical example for which that abbreviation would be used.

Abbreviation Meaning Example Abbreviation Meaning Example

1, 2, 3 Person - INS Instrumental =k
ADV Demonstrative -kwra INT Interrogative =ka
Adverb
CAUS Causal Marker rokor IRR Irrealis wa
COMP Complementizer rokor LOC Locative =k
COND Conditional -na M Masculine =r
CONT Continual -kla NEG Negative iki
DIM Diminutive =t OBJ Object re, me…
DEP Dependency yungu P Plural =m
DESD Desiderative -kwa PAST1 Past of Today -wa
DET Determiner di PAST2 Remote Past -m
DISC Discourse =yu POSS Possessive -ko-
Particle
DIST Distal o- PRES Present -wa
Demonstrative
DU Dual =f PROH Prohibitive mana
EMP Emphatic -ra PROX Proximal ke-
Demonstrative
F Feminine =s REAL Realis ka
FUT1 Future of Today -kya REM Remote yal,
Demonstrative kasik
FUT2 Remote Future -ka REP Repetitive -yu
GER Gerundial -m SG Singular
IMP Imperative -tn SIM Simultaneous yombo
INF Infinitive -r SUB Subordinate -k
INJ Interjection e VNEG Verbal -nak
Negator

xiv
Citation Convention for Glossed Examples

Each glossed example used in this grammar is followed by a four digit number or

the letters “ELIC” or “OVH”. For numbers, the first digit represents which of the seven

notebooks the data are recorded in and the last three digits represent the page or story

number from that notebook. The letters “ELIC” are short for “elicitation” and represent

an example from direct elicitation. The letters “OVH” are short for “overheard” and

represent an example heard in natural speech.

Proper names (including those for people, plants and animals) are glossed in English

with the same word used in Mehek where an English or Tok Pisin equivalent does not

exist.

xv
Abstract

This is a grammar which provides a detailed linguistic description of the phonology,

morphology, syntax, discourse, lexicon and cultural environment of the Mehek language

and its speakers. Mehek is a language spoken in Papua New Guinea by approximately

6300 people. It belongs to the Sepik language family, Tama branch. The theoretical

background employed is Basic Linguistic Theory. Mehek shares general features with

many non-Austronesian Papuan languages, including: a relatively simple phonological

system; verb-final word order, typically SOV; agglutinative verbal morphology; and the

morphology of other word classes is relatively simple.

xvi
Chapter 1: Introduction

1.0 Overview

Mehek (ISO code nux) is a language of the Tama branch of the Sepik family spoken

in Sandaun Province of Papua New Guinea. There are approximately 6300 speakers

(Gordon 2005) spread out over an area of roughly 65 square miles. The data for this

study were gathered in three field trips during the summers of 2010, 2012 and 2014.

The total length of the trips was nine months and time was spent in each of the Mehek-

speaking villages, though the primary location was the village of Wilwil (see §2.1 below).

There is no prior published grammatical information on Mehek, though some

neighboring languages have had partial Bible translations done or a grammatical sketch

done.

The goal of the present grammar is to provide a detailed linguistic description of the

phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse, lexicon and cultural environment of Mehek

and its speakers. In the present chapter, information on the language and speakers is

given and the following areas will be discussed: linguistic scene and language vitality

(§1.1), genetic classification of Mehek (§1.2), previous research (§1.3), dialects (§1.4),

fieldwork (§1.5) and theoretical background (§1.6). Chapter 2 will discuss topics relevant

to culture and environment. After that, chapter 3 will provide a brief grammatical sketch

of the language and its primary features. Chapters 4-11 will discuss linguistic topics of

the language, specifically: phonology (chapter 4), word classes (chapter 5), nouns and

1
noun phrases (chapter 6), verbs and verb phrases (chapter 7), clause types (chapter 8),

clausal relations (chapter 9), discourse and paralanguage (chapter 10), and lexical fields

(chapter 11). Following these chapters are several appendices of additional information

and reference. These include sample texts (Appendix A); multi-lingual dictionaries:

Mehek-English-Tok Pisin (Appendix B), English-Mehek (Appendix C), and Tok Pisin-

Mehek (Appendix D); lists of animal and plant Species (Appendix E); thematic vocabulary

(Appendix F); personal name index (Appendix G); names, songs and whistles (Appendix

H); place and clan names (Appendix I); and garamut drum beats (Appendix J).

1.1 The Linguistic Scene and Language Vitality

Papua New Guinea is the most linguistically diverse country in the world (Gordon

2005). There are more than 800 languages spoken in the country, and more than 1000

spoken on the island of New Guinea. These languages are still not well documented and

language family groupings are often tenuous and disputed. The primary linguistic

grouping in Papua New Guinea is the “Trans-New Guinea” language family, which

contains almost 500 languages. With more documentation, many smaller family

groupings have been established, though these are often uncertain as well. The Sepik

family to which Mehek belongs is one of these smaller families.

Languages of Papua New Guinea have some broad features in common, many of

which Mehek shares. These shared features include: a relatively simple phonological

system; verb-final word order, typically SOV; complex, agglutinative verbal morphology

2
(though Mehek verbal morphology is not overly complex); and the morphology of other

word classes is usually simpler. Beyond these generalizations, it is difficult to otherwise

group all (or even most) languages of Papua New Guinea based on any specific criteria.

The origin of the name of the Mehek language is unknown, though it does follow

the naming pattern of many other languages in the immediate geographical area, up to

the Torricelli Mountain Range. This is a practice of the Lumi District administration

wherein languages are named after their word for 'no'. (Laycock 1968) The name is

sometimes pronounced without the /h/ or instead with a glottal stop [mɛɛk] or [mɛɁɛk].

In careful speech, it is sometimes pronounced with both, [mɛhɛɁɛk]. The people, for the

most part, adhere to this practice and call their own language Mehek or Mehek Suma

'Mehek Language'. According to Ethnologue (Gordon 2005), it is also known as

Indinogosima, Driafleisuma and Nuku. The former two names have been attested from

some speakers. Suma is a word meaning 'voice' and the words indi numgo are a

demonstrative and possessive pronoun meaning 'our'. The term driaflei is an erroneous

rendition of dinafle, 'one'. Naming the language Nuku, after the most prominent village

where it is spoken, is another common naming practice in the area, though typical of

languages that are only spoken in one village (Laycock 1968). This is an exonym rather

than a term the speakers use for their own language.

The language is currently still used on a daily basis by most of the adult speakers.

Their attitudes towards the language are good, though it is only irregularly transmitted

3
to children. Despite this, most children primarily have a passive understanding of the

language and do not actively use it except in limited form with adults. Amongst each

other, children (roughly, those under the age of about 20), speak Tok Pisin almost

exclusively. See §2.4.3 for more information on intergenerational transmission.

Tok Pisin is a creole language spoken by most people within Papua New Guinea. Its

lexifier language is primarily English, though many core vocabulary items come from

nearby Melanesian languages (primarily Malay and Tolai) as well as German. Tok Pisin is

spoken by all but the most elderly and English is spoken only by those who have had

schooling beyond the sixth grade. Children (ages approximately <14) do not have as

great a command of Mehek as do adults, particularly in the lexical domain. They do not

speak it as often or as readily as adults, though they do understand it and can respond

to basic utterances. The use of Tok Pisin in the schools is likely the reason that children

use Tok Pisin in more situations than adults. Because children seem to be using Tok Pisin

more than Mehek, the youngest generation will likely speak Tok Pisin to their children

even more than their parents currently do. This may lead to the decline in the vitality of

Mehek in the coming generations. See §9.12 for more information on the influence of

Tok Pisin on Mehek.

1.2 Genetic Classification of Mehek

Mehek belongs to the Tama branch of the Sepik family. The name Tama is based on

the word for 'man' in these languages. Ethnologue lists six languages which are currently

4
classed as Tama languages: Ayi, Kalou, Mehek, Pahi, Pasi, and Yessan-Mayo. Warasai is

now listed as a dialect of Yessan-Mayo. See 2.1.1 for a map of Sepik language family

branches.

1.3 Previous Research

Not much previous research has been done among the Mehek. There are a few very

brief published accounts as well as brief grammatical and lexical sketches gathered.

Makwru Suma Buk I by Ignas Wunum, published by University of Papua New Guinea in

1975-76, has been mentioned in one survey (Bugenhagen). I was able to speak with him

personally and he has indicated that he does still have a copy of it, though it was not

available for inspection at the time. According to Bugenhagen, it is a Gudschinsky-style

primer and is 64 pages in length. There is a short dictionary of basic vocabulary items

printed by the University of Sydney. It is quite accurate and uses an orthography quite

similar to that proposed here. Comparative word lists were gathered by Laycock (1965)

for many languages spoken in the surrounding region. It was this survey which placed

Mehek in an “Upper Sepik Phylum” and grouped Mehek as a Tama language along with

Pahi, Yessan-Mayo, and Warasai. There is also a short dictionary of about 400 words

produced by two native speakers in conjunction with researchers from the University of

Sydney (Paulon and Kakukra 2002). The orthography used mostly agrees with that used

here.

5
 There is quite a bit of published material on Yessan-Mayo, including a tagmemic

grammar (Foreman 1974) and several surveys and papers on phonological issues. None

of the other Tama languages have a grammatical description or other material, though

Pahi and Pasi are briefly covered in an SIL survey article (Hutchinson 1981). As for other

languages of the Sepik family (Ethnologue lists 56 languages), there are several in the

Ndu branch with grammars and other papers available. These languages are spoken

more than one hundred miles to the south of Mehek, and include Manambu, Iatmul,

Ambulas and Boiken.

The Mehek people also tell stories about Westerners coming at different times in

the past to “write down the language.” One man in particular remembered “an

American and an Australian” as the ones who came long ago to collect data. This likely

refers to Robert Bugenhagen and Don Laycock, respectively. Additionally, the time

period of surveys conducted by each of these men (1980 and late 1960s) coincides well

with his recollection. There is otherwise no grammatical information available about

Mehek.

1.4 Dialects

There are two primary dialects within Mehek, each of which subdivides into minor

varieties. The differences among the sub-dialects are mostly lexical in nature.

Nevertheless, all of the different varieties are quite similar to each other and are

mutually intelligible to all speakers. The primary dialect is spoken in every village except

6
the Kafle villages (see §2.1). Despite a few minor dialectical differences, the Kafle area is

still very much a part of the Mehek cultural and linguistic group, and has regular

interchange and contact with the other villages.

The primary distinction between the Kafle dialect and the main dialect is lexical. The

people themselves acknowledge these differences and Kafle residents and non-Kafle

residents alike say that “[Kafle people] they turn their talk”. It is difficult for most people

to come up with many specific differences, though some people have one or two

obvious ones that they mention. There are a variety of words and expressions which are

peculiar to the Kafle speakers, but these are, by and large, understood by the rest of the

community. Entries in the dictionary are marked with a “K” when they are particular to

the Kafle area. The Kafle dialect is completely mutually intelligible and is roughly

probably best equated to the difference between (standard broadcast) American and

Canadian English. See §6.9 and §10.5 for more on the dialects.

The survey by Bugenhagen also did a lexical similarity analysis of the different

dialects. This survey determined that Wilwil and Kafle formed a dialect group opposed

to the other several villages. This survey was based on an SIL 106-word list. It is highly

likely that this list did not capture the extent of the differences between Kafle and

Wilwil, the latter of which shares more in common with Nuku and the other villages

than with Kafle. Wilwil is somewhat farther from the other non-Kafle villages than they

are from each other, and people in those villages do state that there are some distinct

7
speech patterns in Wilwil. These are mostly lexical in nature, while the phonology and

grammar are virtually identical to those of the other villages.

1.5 Fieldwork

The lack of a recent grammatical description on a Tama language motivated the

selection of Mehek as a field site. The particular villages chosen were due to the

availability of family homes to stay in for an extended period. The initial contact with

Mehek speakers occurred in the village of Sibilanga, a village several miles north in the

Torricelli Mountains. This village has an airstrip and available accommodations for

visitors. Two Mehek speakers reside in Sibilanga and agreed to be language consultants.

After doing preliminary work with them, it was agreed for me to spend time with each

of them and their families in their home villages. This enabled me to collect additional

data from the active speech community as well as gain a more thorough understanding

of their ways of life. The data in this grammar are based on the following material:

Elicited material – These were primarily vocabulary and simple sentence

elicitations. The bulk of the elicited sentences were done early on in Sibilanga, after

which more complex data was gathered. Vocabulary elicitations, other than initial word

lists, were primarily done in the domains of plants, animals, and names (both personal

and place names). Elicitation was also used to get complete paradigms or to fill in

assumed gaps in some domains (personal names being a particularly notable one).

8
 Descriptions – Once the domains of plants and animals seemed to be fully covered,

verbal descriptions of each plant and animal were recorded. These recordings included

descriptions of physical characteristics, locations where they could be found, and uses

employed by the community.

Stories and myths – These include traditional tales, histories of clans and individual

people, family histories, explanations about why the world is the way it is, and

explanations of processes, such as scraping sago and house construction.

Written material – Very little native-produced written material was gathered,

though some speakers did write short stories or letters for me. The knowledge of

writing in Tok Pisin was applied to Mehek and was often very similar to the orthography

that I had developed. In addition, some basic educational materials had been created by

local primary school teachers and these were shared with me.

Natural speech – by this is meant speech which was spoken in my presence or

overheard. These often provided excellent insights into the way the language is actually

used and also provided examples of things never encountered in any of the above

settings. There were at least a dozen instances of natural speech (often a single word or

phrase) that provided the impetus for further documentation. In nearly every case,

follow-up yielded fruitful results.

All of the collected data were either written directly in a notebook from the elicited

speech or audio-recorded. The recordings were made with a Tascam DR-07 Portable

9
Digital Recorder. Several brief videos were also recorded. In every case, each recording

was later transcribed by me with the help of a consultant (the one who originally made

the recording when possible). All of these data were typed and entered into a database

of materials. The database contains approximately 105,000 words or 225 pages of

single-spaced text. This includes the notebooks and other notes I wroted in the field.

The total of distinct entries in the dictionary is just over 3200 words. All consultants gave

their permission for their speech to be used in whatever manner is appropriate for the

preservation of the Mehek language. It is my ultimate goal to present a basic grammar,

full dictionary, collection of stories, and, possibly, basic educational materials to the

Mehek speakers as a gift for their generosity in spending time assisting in this work.

1.6 Theoretical Background

The theoretical framework followed in this description is that of Basic Linguistic

Theory (Dixon 2010). That is, there is no formalism necessary to describe the linguistic

features of a given language; plain English is sufficient, along with the standard

descriptive terminology (i.e. grammatical labels) employed by most linguists. To that

end, it is my goal that this grammatical description can be understood and profited from

by anyone, regardless of theoretical persuasion.

10
Chapter 2: People and Culture

2.0 Introduction

This chapter details facets of the Mehek people and their way of life. Because of

fairly dramatic and recent changes due to contact with the West, traditional ways of life

are still within living memory, though many of them have been completely lost. A

description of the traditional ways of life is followed by the major changes which have

occurred since Western contact. Together, these descriptions provide a fairly complete

overview of the Mehek cultural zeitgeist. The topics discussed are the following:

geography (§2.1), history (§2.2), people and traditional culture (§2.3), and modern

adaptations (§2.4). Except where noted, the information reported here was gathered

through my own observations, interactions, and conversations with the local people.

2.1 Geography

Mehek is spoken in a mountainous area south of the Torricelli mountain range. It is

in the Nuku District, Makru-Klapei Census Division. (Provinces are divided into multiple

districts, and each district consists of population-based census areas.) There are eight

primary villages, each of which consists of anywhere from a few to several dozen

“micro-villages”. There are subdivisions within each village by clan, comprising a half to

a third each of the village, though these are not strict boundaries and are more notional

groupings than physical. A micro-village is a kin grouping of five to twenty houses

located relatively close to each other. The speakers have names for each of the micro-

villages and call them kom kandar, or liklik ples (Mehek and Tok Pisin for 'small village').

11
To people from other villages (Mehek-speaking or otherwise), speakers will identify

their home village by the high-level name, but to nearby neighbors, they will identify the

liklik ples as their primary residence. Aside from scale, this organization is not entirely

different from Western metropolitan areas which consist of a series of connected

suburbs which are, for the most part, indistinguishable from each other, but

nevertheless have different names and identities.

In this region of Papua New Guinea, villages are built along mountain ridges and are

therefore long, narrow, and winding. Direct routes between two distant points are often

circuitous, so there are also many shortcuts which go down one mountainside, through

the jungle, and back up the other mountainside. Five of the villages are clustered in the

northern part of the Mehek area and the two end points are about two and a half hours

distant by walking. The five northern villages include Nuku (written as such on maps, but

pronounced /nuwku/ – see §3.9 for information on orthography and pronunciation),

which has a government station, hospital and airstrip. The other villages are Yiminum,

Mansuku (sometimes Mantsuku on maps), Yifkindu (sometimes Ifkindu on maps), and

Wilwil (not shown on most maps). These four villages do not have many services,

though each has a small school and medical aid post. The southern three villages,

collectively known as Kafle (also Klapei on maps) are half a day’s walk from Wilwil, the

southernmost of the northern villages. The Kafle villages are numbered: Kafle 1, Kafle 2,

and Kafle 3. Each of these Kafle villages also consists of many micro-villages. (Many

place names have interesting meanings: nuwku 'survey', yim inum 'in two days we will

12
go', yifki duw 'salt valley', wilwil 'for eyes to roll around in their sockets'. See §9.7 for

more information on naming.)

2.1.1 Regional Maps

The following two maps orient Papua New Guinea and the general location of the

Mehek language and its speakers.1 Map (1) orients Papua New Guinea in its region, to

the north of Australia. It occupies the eastern half of the island of New Guinea; the

western half is part of the archipelago nation of Indonesia.

Map (1): Regional Map of Papua New Guinea

1
Map (1) and Map (3) below were retrieved from Wikimedia Commons and are in the public domain
because they contain materials that originally came from the United States Central Intelligence Agency's
World Factbook. Map (2) was provided to me by Matthew Dryer.

13
 Map (2) shows the location of Mehek on a map of New Guinea. It is spoken in

Sandaun Province, about 40 miles south of the northern coast and about 100 miles east

of the border with Indonesia. The largest town in the Mehek-speaking area is Nuku,

which has an airstrip and a few stores.

Map (2): Location of Mehek within New Guinea

Map (3) shows the locations of different branches of the Sepik family. The area

marked with a “2” is the area where Tama languages are spoken, including Mehek.

Mehek is spoken in the central part of that region.

Map (3): Branches of the Sepik Language Family

14
2.1.2 Village Maps

The following four maps show the main highway, primary roadways and micro-

village names and locations of each of the Mehek-speaking villages. These maps were

created by hand from travels in all these areas, and oriented with regional maps which

are widely available. Map (4) shows the entire area where the Mehek-speaking villages

are located. Map (5) shows Yiminum and Mansuku, map (6) shows Wilwil and Yifkindu,

and map (7) shows the Kafle villages. See §2.1 for more on each of the villages.

Some general remarks on the contents of the maps are as follows: Darker lines

indicate primary roadways, while lighter black lines are secondary roadways. Arrows

indicate that the roadways continue on, along with a note as to the next most populous

destination. Wavy lines show where river and stream crossings occur, though the full

paths of these waterways are not possible to assess without much more extensive

exploration. Micro-villages are indicated with numbered dots. In general, numbering

occurs from north to south (top of the map to the bottom), following the roads as one

might walk them while visiting each micro-village. Not every dot is numbered, so as to

avoid cluttering the maps. When not indicated, numbering is continuous along a

generally southward trend. Where the numbering becomes discontinuous, numbers will

be used. These numbers correspond to the place names listed in Appendix I. Schools are

marked on the map as “es” and “ps” for “elementary school” and “primary school”,

respectively (see §2.4.3).

15
 On map (4), the primary roadway is what is referred to as “the highway” and is

generally passable to vehicle traffic. Furthermore, it is the road that is shown on

commercially-printed maps. The secondary roadways on map (4) correspond to the

main, primary roadways shown on maps (5) through (7). The small rectangles indicate

the locations of airstrips. The Nuku airstrip is regularly used, while the Kafle airstrip is

often not in a suitable condition for use.

Map (4): Mehek-speaking villages and surrounding areas

On maps (5) through (7), the primary roadways are mostly walking paths. When the

weather has been dry, sometimes vehicles will be able to drive along them, though this

is not common. The secondary roadways are jungle paths and are impassible to vehicles.

16
Map (5): Yiminum and Mansuku

17
Map (6): Wilwil and Yifkindu

18
Map (7): Kafle 1, 2, and 3

19
2.1.3 Map Attributions

These maps were all retrieved from Wikimedia Commons and copied with the

following copyright information: Map (2) was created by slawojar with a Creative

Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Maps (1) and (3) are in the

public domain because they contain materials that originally came from the United

States Central Intelligence Agency's World Factbook. All village maps, (4) to (7), have

been created by the present author based on data gathered in the field.

2.2 History

Not much is known about the history of the Mehek people prior to contact with the

West. One elder’s recollection suggests that they originated around present-day Lake

Sentani in West Papua, Indonesia. This lake was mentioned by name. It is a large lake in

northeastern West Papua, not very far from Jayapura and also not far from the western

border of Papua New Guinea. The people reportedly came from this area via two

different routes to their present locations. The Kafle (southern people) came east along

the beach and then headed south, while the northern groups followed the inland river

systems until they arrived at their modern-day locations. According to this legend, the

area was already inhabited, but the Mehek-speaking people fought them off and took

their land. This is corroborated by most traditional stories which involve heavy fighting

with neighboring peoples. It has been reported that there was cannibalism at this time,

but most people say that this has not been practiced for a very long time. Some people

also say that cannibalism was never practiced. It seems likely that if it ever was practiced

20
by the Mehek people, it was infrequent and not part of any ritual or ceremony. While

this is the “historical” recollection of Mehek history, see §2.3.6 for the “mythical”

recollection.

There is also a long history of fighting up to relatively modern times with the nearby

village of Seim to the northeast (this is a group of people whose language, Mende,

belongs to a different branch of the Sepik family). The Mehek people refer to them as

wane and as recently as mid-century, there was extensive fighting over land as well as

various disputes. The two groups live in relative harmony now, though there is still a

large degree of distrust for the wane group. A common sentiment is “they’re not like

us”. Even though there was frequent fighting with the wane, the villages surrounding

the Mehek-speaking villages in other directions, all of which speak languages from

different language families, got along and still do get along well with the Mehek.

During the time of World War II, the Mehek people assisted the Allies to fight

against the Japanese. Older members of society vividly recall these events and still look

on the Japanese today with a great deal of suspicion and distrust. They tell stories of

alerting the “whites” to the presence of the Japanese by using a variety of whistle calls

(see also §9.8 and Appendix H). There are many places that can still be pointed out as

locations where there were encounters with the Japanese. A variety of herb, called siri

sau ('get up faint', Latin name mimosa pudica) grows throughout the area (and

presumably throughout Papua New Guinea as well). It is interesting because its leaves

21
fold together when touched and then reopen several minutes later. The Mehek people

report that this plant was used by the Japanese around their camps during WWII to

serve as a signal of possible intruders. It became widespread as its seeds travelled in

their vehicles tires. It is unknown if this is an accurate historical recounting, but it does

illustrate that even today, the effect of the Japanese in the people’s historical memory

remains strong.

2.3 People and Traditional Culture

The Mehek speakers are an egalitarian group of gardeners and hunter-gatherers.

They practice a sedentary lifestyle without any form of economic specialization. They

share and support each other in most endeavors, primarily within the family and clan

groupings. However, with larger-scale needs such as house building and marriage, the

whole community often will get involved. This way of life is practiced today and is, by

most accounts, the same as it has been for a long time. The traditional way of life for

Mehek speakers (and truly for all the different cultural groups in the region) is

remembered directly by many people who are still living. While the period prior to

contact with the West is not, there had not been much dramatic change until perhaps

the 1960s or so. Therefore, older members of the community do still remember a time

before contact with outsiders. This section details practices which are descriptive of life

before contact with the West. Some of the following are still practiced almost

unchanged today (hunting with bow and arrow); others are substantially similar but

modified (sago preparation with metal tools); while others are falling out of use or only

22
remembered because they have been made obsolete by Western influence (use of

garamut drum for communication, see §2.3.5 and §9.10). As a particularly salient

example, one area that has changed dramatically is personal dress. Traditional everyday

dress for men was limited to a molkon 'penis covering' and for women a waran 'grass

skirt'. However, nowadays people wear Western clothes: shirts, dresses, shorts, and

underwear.

2.3.1 Food

The primary means of subsistence are family garden plots, occasional hunting and

gathering of food. All people still own and maintain traditional plots of land which

contain extensive gardens for food production and land for houses. Most people spend

their days working in their gardens. Garden work includes the following: collection of

root vegetables (of which there are dozens of species); the collection of edible leaves;

weeding and planting new foods; burning overgrown land in preparation for new

planting; and the preparation of staple foods. The first, sago, is a starchy powder and is

described below. Root vegetables are the other staple crop of this region and are

divided into three broad categories based on the way they grow: walndo 'yam', kaku

'mami', and al 'taro'. These require a lot of attention to grow properly, but each unit

planted will yield five to ten additional units which themselves can be replanted or

eaten. The Tok Pisin term mami is used to describe a type of yam which is widely

distinguished from yams throughout Papua New Guinea. There are dozens of different

23
varieties of both yams and mami. The only noticeable difference between the two broad

classes (to me) is that yams grow on slopes, while mami grows on flat land.

All of the garden tasks are very labor-intensive and must be carried out regularly,

though many people do take Sunday off, whether they attend church services or not

(see §2.4.2). Garden work is generally differentiated by gender and done in family

groups; people must work together to plant and collect food. Men will occasionally go

hunting for game in the jungle, though this is not a reliable source of food. Hunting trips

are carried out over a period of several days in jungle areas distant from the villages. It is

also common for small groups or individuals to go hunting at night when the moon is

bright enough to hunt by. Hunting is still done by traditional methods, utilizing spears,

bows and arrows, and axes. These are constructed with jungle material, primarily

bamboo and vines. When they are not hunting, the men work in the gardens with the

women, though the particular tasks they do are different from those women do. Other

sources of food include yam 'banana', suwa 'coconut', and gulma 'insects' and samdo

'spiders'.

As mentioned above, one of the staple crops in this region is sago palm (naku), the

production of which it is useful to understand due to the frequency of discussion and

large number of terms related to it. When the sago palm is mature (typically several

years, depending on species), it is chopped down and a section of the bark not too

distant from the base is removed. This area is then hacked at (usually by men) with a

24
special tool (naku yalwan) which pulverizes the wood into small pieces. When a large

amount of this pulp is gathered, it is taken by the women to an area with a water supply

and a complex system of bedding is built (naku yofu) where the pulp is washed. The pulp

is hand wrung several times to remove the starch from the wood, which is filtered

through a sieve (suwa sauwa) and falls to a collection area below. This whole process

usually takes about a week – as the man chops, the woman washes. After a week, the

tree begins to rot and the pulp is no longer able to be processed. The rotting trunk

attracts a species of beetle (naku owe) which lays its eggs inside. After about two

months, the grubs eat their way out and collect on the surface. The people go back to

check on them and then collect and eat them live or cooked; they are considered a

delicacy.

2.3.2 The Village and Land

There is a distinction between traditional clan land and common (village) land.

Traditional land is held freely and in perpetuity by clans. Each clan lays claim to different

blocks of land which derive from historical first claims. These lands are those that are

used for gardens, hunting grounds and as resource stores (i.e. places to plant large

numbers of sago palms). Any parcel can become available to any family of the clan;

undeveloped land is freely available to anyone in the clan. Once a parcel of clan land is

claimed by a given family, it will remain the right of that (extended) family to use it

exclusively for as long as they make active use of it. Everyone in the village will know

25
where everyone else’s plots lie, usually with a great deal of precision. Though there is

occasionally some disagreement over exact boundaries, there is almost never a dispute

over which areas belong to which families. In conjunction with this is the fact that every

parcel of land is named. There are not exact boundaries to every named parcel of land,

but the names correspond roughly to each garden plot or village location and they are

known by most adult members who access them with any regularity. It is a named

parcel which is available to be claimed; not just any segment of land.

The village is simply an area that is held in common by all members of the local

group; everyone is responsible for its cleaning and maintenance. The exact extent of the

village changes slowly over the course of time. It may increase, decrease, shift in one

direction or another, or be abandoned. As mentioned in §2.1, the Mehek-speaking

villages are located on the tops of mountain ridges and consequently are very long and

narrow. Direction-finding is also based on this feature. Rough equivalents of 'north' and

'south' are used: tol and tombo, respectively. These can also refer to upstream and

downstream, as rivers tend to flow in a southerly direction. 'East' and 'west' can be

referenced by the position of the sun, though this is not usually done. There are “micro-

villages” along the extents of the mountain ridges. Each micro-village carries the name

of the land it occupies. If a micro-village changes location or is abandoned, the plot of

land it occupied keeps that name. If a new site is occupied, even if by the exact same

group of people, the name of that new village will correspond to the name of the new

plot of land that it occupies, rather than the name of the old village. The high-level

26
village names (Nuku, Yiminum, etc.), by contrast, are modern names to describe a

concatenation of traditional land areas. (See §5.12 for more on place names, as well as

Appendix I for a complete list of place names.) When travelling, there are established

trails through the villages or shortcuts through the jungle. It is important to make one’s

presence known when travelling, especially when in the jungle. When near an area that

may be occupied (such as a garden plot), the traveler will make noise, call out if the

(presumed) occupants are known, or strike trees on the path with the bush knife. The

purpose is twofold: to allow the other person to adjust their behavior as necessary (this

includes people who may be bathing or having intercourse in the jungle), and to

broadcast that the traveler is a good person (because they are not trying to conceal

their presence). Groups of travelers typically are talking and do not need to make any

further announcements beyond that noise.

Each family has multiple plots of land in different locations that they improve as

they see fit. It is in each family’s interest to maintain these divergent plots in order to

protect against possible calamity (Diamond 2011). Though the weather is quite

predictable from year to year, other events outside the norm (such as interlopers,

invaders, or wild animals) can adversely affect each plot’s food production. By having

different foods grown in different areas, these problems are mitigated. If one plot of

land is ravaged by wild pigs and the yam harvest is lost, there will be other yams in other

plots that can still be harvested. The same is true for different food types. Sago only

grows under swampy conditions, but not every plot that a family holds will be suitable

27
for growing sago. Therefore, it is necessary to localize sago in two or three gardens that

are suitable for it, and to grow food that requires more sunlight in other plots.

Furthermore, some foods require a slope to grow properly, while others require flat

land. All of these varieties of growing conditions are typically available to a family in

their different land holdings.

2.3.3 Family and Clan Structure

There are four primary clan groupings in the northern villages, and two in the

southern villages. These are, respectively: Mansuku, Krafo, Makruw, and Nukuw in the

north, and Ende, Wala in the south. There are also smaller, minor clans in each location.

Within each of these main groupings, there are three sub-clans which have the same

title in every clan. These are: ter 'head', bor 'middle' and kin 'tail'. These can optionally

be preceded by walndo 'yam', as the metaphor for clan groups is the growth of a yam

over time. An example of a full clan designation would be makwru walndo kin. Everyone

born or married into a Mehek-speaking family belongs to the clan of the head male of

that family. Everyone in the same immediate family will belong to the same sub-clan,

though people in the same extended family typically do not. They will, however, usually

belong to the same primary clan. Each sub-clan has a single head man who is the oldest

man in that sub-clan. This head man is typically very knowledgeable about village life,

clan history, and traditional practices. His opinion is highly valued by everyone in the

clan and, often, the entire village. As described in §2.2 and as held in local tradition,

28
ancestors from different family groups came to settle in the current Mehek-speaking

area. This first wave of people consisted of different families, and each family

corresponds to each of the different modern-day clans. This first wave became the

modern sub-clan ter 'head' in each of the respective clans. After these people had

conquered land and established gardens and villages, they sent for their extended

families who were still in the ancestral areas. These families arrived and constituted the

second wave of their respective clan and gave rise to the people now called bor 'middle'.

The third wave, kin 'tail' came in the same way as the second. According to the people,

clan membership does not play as prominent a role in village life as it did in the past,

though all people know which clan they belong to and who is important in each clan. In

the past, there were marital restrictions based on clan membership, though this has

relaxed quite a bit now. However, it is still taboo to marry within one’s own clan.

Gender roles are differentiated from childhood. Aside from the division of labor

between men and women, there are different behavioral roles for each. In short, men

are in charge of hunting, gathering bush materials for construction, construction of tools

for hunting as well as all dwellings, and clearing the ground in the gardens. Women are

in charge of all food preparation, carrying of goods, making baskets and implements for

cooking, and lighter work in the gardens. Men are the ones who do all the public

discussions and long-distance visiting. Women stay home in order to prepare food and

typically do not speak in public. In mixed company, women will remain distant from the

men and not interact very much with them. It is considered quite forward for a woman

29
to approach a man or initiate a conversation with him, except that married women with

older children do this often without any social objection. When people (men or women)

have disagreements, it is often necessary to “broadcast” one’s dissatisfaction to the

community. Most arguments are not face-to-face, but are initiated by the aggrieved

party to walk through the transgressor’s home area and loudly and repeatedly declare

their misdeeds. It is then the responsibility of the transgressor’s family to speak to the

aggrieved and help rectify the situation. Often, the broadcast itself is sufficient for minor

transgressions such as breaking someone’s property. Major transgressions, like stealing

or killing another’s animals, require compensation payments. These are negotiated

between the two families and often require a long time to completely resolve. Major

disagreements between two men, particularly younger men, often will escalate to the

brink of fighting. This involves the men yelling face to face, accumulating supporters on

both sides. One or the other may brandish a bush knife or go to their house to get a

spear or bow and arrow. In practice, these fights almost never come to blows. The

transgressing party often will walk away slowly, giving an excuse to do so. People almost

never hit, punch or kick each other. Heightened altercations always involve weapons,

whether or not they come to blows.

2.3.4 Marriage and Death

Some basic details of major life events are given below. This is not meant to be an

exhaustive description, but rather a brief overview of some areas of interest.

30
 For marriage, the clans of each potential spouse discuss and arrange the match,

including the eventual payment of a bride price. Most marriages are within the Mehek-

speaking villages. There is not an elaborate ceremony surrounding marriage, but once

both parties agree, the woman goes to her husband’s family’s house. A feast of yams

and mami is prepared by the woman, but she does not eat it until after he has eaten.

The morning after the first day of marriage, the woman prepares yams again, but this

time mixes in her fingernails and hair. This is a tradition that guarantees that the man

will remain faithful to her. After a child is born, it is taboo to have sex while there it is a

still a newborn. Once the child is independent (able to walk on its own), the couple may

resume having sex. There are also other taboos against having sex at certain times,

particularly during hunts. After the marriage has been shown to be successful, vis.

several children have been born and neither party is dissatisfied with the other, the

bride price becomes payable. When this time is reached, a day is agreed upon by the

wife’s family and the husband’s family and the whole community comes together to

contribute. A pig is slaughtered and sago is prepared. Many people come from all over

and individually pay one to twenty kina (45 cents to eight dollars or so). They receive a

share of meat and sago proportional to their contribution. In the past, rather than

money, beads were given. If one party is dissatisfied with the other and before any

children are born, the wife can run away or be sent away back to her family. They can

choose to accept her back or try to arrange a reconciliation. Men of substantial means

were able to support multiple wives, and some still do so now.

31
 At the time of death, there is a period of mourning in which the mourners do no

work (initially) and do a little bit more as time goes on. The body of the deceased was

traditionally wrapped in limbum bark (a type of palm tree) and hung from a tree deep in

the jungle in a place reserved for this. Now, bodies are buried in keeping with the

Western custom. This period ends after two to three months at which time there is a

feast. The extended family goes out hunting for pigs in addition to preparing sago and

yams. The feast is presented to the mourners as a symbol that it is time to resume their

normal daily duties. If a husband dies, the wife typically does very little, including

avoiding bathing. If a wife dies, a husband will wail and refuse to eat. He may leave the

village and stay somewhere in the jungle by himself. There is not a substantial amount

of mourning for very young children, as death in childhood historically was quite

common. If there is an unexpected death of a healthy adult, there is a ritual undertaken

to determine the (presumed malevolent) source. The body is placed in its limbum

basket and tapped with the stick of the same tree. The people ask questions pursuant to

the death, “was it poison?, was it from this or that village?” etc. The basket then starts

shaking in response to the questions and moving to point in the direction of the poison.

When the culprit is identified, the people confront him and work out a compensatory

payment for the death. See also §2.3.6 for the connection between life and death.

32
2.3.5 Celebrations

There are parties at regular intervals (though nowadays at less frequent scale and

frequency) which involve dancing, singing, music, costumes and story-telling. The Tok

Pisin term, singsing, is widely used throughout Papua New Guinea to refer to such

parties, though the exact details differ from region to region and from village to village.

In Mehek, there are several different terms used for these parties. They include minga,

romo, and lom. These terms can be used in combination with each other and with a

'food', for example, a romo, a minga romo and a lom. Parties are conducted in a

designated area. This will be a large, open area in a central location. A pole is erected in

the central area and this will be the focus for the dancing. Parties surrounding the

harvest will have hundreds of yams or mami laid out in piles, ready for distribution.

The singing and dancing are always accompanied by drum music. A strong, regular

beat is kept, though there is no “official” beat. It does not vary much over the course of

the party, nor is there is much improvisation in the timing. The tempo is 2-3 beats per

second, depending on the energy of the group. Larger parties will include the mu (Tok

Pisin garamut), a large ceremonial drum common throughout Papua New Guinea (see

§9.10). As the drum is played, people dance around in a circle, singing (see Appendix A.2

for more information on songs and Appendix J for more on the garamut beats). The

tempo will speed up, slow down, and stop for short periods of time, and then resume,

all as if by collective agreement. Often, the beat will slow, but someone in the group will

33
then loudly resume singing the current song, and the group will then take it up and the

drum beat will resume.

All parties, including the large ones, will also include the mengu (Tok Pisin kundu), a

small personal drum, also common throughout the country. Many people in the group

will be holding one and playing it together with the mu, if present. The mengu is carved

from wood into a distinctive hourglass shape, is hollow, and has a small handle. It is

often carved and colored with pigment. The drumhead is made from the dried skin of a

particular species of lizard, called kundu palai 'drum lizard' in Tok Pisin (nembe mekte in

Mehek). In order to get the particular timbre of sound that is desired from the

drumhead, the eggs and young of small non-biting flies, momo seya, are gathered and

mixed with ash to make a tacky, gum-like substance. This substance, wusunal, is rolled

into small balls and pressed into the surface of the drum, altering the timbre. Typically,

several balls are added in turn and the positioning depends on the sound produced. The

correct sound is quite distinct. It is sharp and crisp, with minimal reverberation, but a

slight echo. Everyone recognizes and agrees on this particular sound.

The people make and wear special decorations and costumes for parties. Common

decorations involve gathering brightly-colored leaves of specific plants (usually red and

yellow-green in color) as well as palm fronds which are split into a particular way to

make long fringe, which is hung. Flowers and flower petals are also gathered and

distributed throughout the area in pleasing patterns. The people will also dress in

34
costumes which always include grass coverings which are placed around the ankles.

Bark from a particular tree (kita) is soaked in water, the outer skin is removed, the inner

part is dried in the sun, and these are then sewn together. This process takes several

months. Around the waist, women wear knee-length grass coverings, while men wear a

bamboo wrap (gila dofo). Additional costume components include feathered

headdresses (marko and wasune belmun), necklaces (wanga lako) armbands (sow) and

bracelets (wiski). These sometimes include shells and beads (both referred to as kul).

Each individual makes his/her own artifacts and will elaborate them with different

patterns, sizes, and colors. The amount of additional artifacts is also dependent on each

person’s own taste and skill.

In the past, singsings were a powerful way to cement social relationships, to share

the spoils of the harvest and/or hunt and to ward off or appease evil spirits. With the

widespread adoption of Christianity (see §2.4.2), these parties occur less often and no

longer fulfill these roles to the same extent. Nevertheless, the modern community does

still gather with regularity for weddings and harvests.

2.3.6 Magic and the Spirit World

The world of the Mehek people is full of spirits and magic. There are a variety of

spells that can be performed to benefit the performer, to harm the target, or both

(huma and welku). These are not incantations, but rather concoctions that are either

ingested or buried. There are spells to improve the results of hunting, to bless the new

35
harvest, to divine the source of a person’s death when it is unexpected, to cause a

person to forget the recent past or their anger, to make them remember again, or to

make a person fall in love. There are likely other achievable results as well. The name for

a practitioner of magic is numba noko or 'poison gatherer'. The Tok Pisin term sanguma

'sorcerer' has also been borrowed into Mehek and is used somewhat more frequently

than the native term. The specifics of each type of spell are slightly different, but the

basic routine is to gather scraps of food or castings from the body of the intended victim

(hair and fingernails in particular) and to mix them with certain plant species. This

mixture is consumed and spit onto a stone which is buried near the victim’s house.

There are also more elaborate spells which involve kidnapping babies and mixing more

elaborate concoctions.

Some spells are also not designed to work harm, and therefore not performed by

the numba noko. Many of these spells are designed to improve the food harvests or the

hunt. There is a special flute, difi, which is played over the first-planted taro of the

season. This guarantees a good taro harvest. At the time of the mami harvest, a large

celebration is held. The first mami, however, cannot be eaten. When hunting for wild

pigs, a mixture is placed in a coconut shell which is hung, and smoke from a fire dries it

out. The hunters then eat this powder with mami, give some to their dogs, and this will

aid the men and dogs in the hunt.

36
 While magic is only infrequently called upon, spirits are a much more regular part of

people’s day-to-day lives. Every time a man or woman dies, their spirit (Tok Pisin tewel)

lives on and inhabits the area around which they died. There is no one spot particular to

each; they simply dwell in the jungle around their village. This is near their ancestral

land to which they belong. In the case of women who marry to another village, they can

split their time. There is an area in the jungle where they can congregate, though it is

unknown where and is nearly impossible to see them there even if found. They

occasionally can appear in human form, though they are most often invisible. When

they do appear as humans, they may be like smoke or may be solid. If they appear on

the road, they will not speak; that is how you know they are a spirit. In times of trouble,

you can call on your deceased parents or grandparents for help. You simply speak aloud

to them and they will appear to you when you are alone. They can materialize or come

through a wall, though physical appearance is rather uncommon. Typically, they will

speak to you in a dream or to a family member in their dream. If one ancestor does not

answer, you can try others. Whoever helps you will be the primary one you call on in the

future. Women who have allegiances to two different clans can call on either set of

ancestors. The spirits are good-natured and want to help for the most part. If you are ill

or injured, they may spontaneously speak to you to tell you if you were poisoned or if

you had some sort of bad behavior which brought it on. It is unclear if spirits live on

eternally or if only a few generations are able to be called upon. If the latter, it is unclear

if the others simply can't be called or if they are gone altogether. With the initial

37
appearance of white-skinned people fifty years ago, it was commonly thought that they

were either the ghosts of departed loved ones or ancestor spirits. This belief is less

widely held today, though there are still many people who subscribe to it. However, it is

still widely believed that it is important to avoid incurring the wrath of spirits or

sorcerers while travelling. To avoid the former, one must pay close attention to the path

being travelled and to not laugh and be too easy-going, lest one fall prey to being lured

to a spirit’s home or wander off the path and be taken advantage of. To avoid the latter,

it is important to not leave any scraps of food on the roadside. Since sorcerers need a

person’s personal effects to cast most spells, preventing them from acquiring them is

paramount. This is more likely while travelling since sorcerers from one’s own village

typically will not harm one.

In addition to spirits of the dead, there are also eternal spirits called maure (Tok

Pisin masalai). Each one is particular to a clan and has a particular abode in the jungle

near the clan's traditional ground. They are the legendary founders of their clan and

have magical powers, particularly the power to appear as different entities, both

animate and inanimate. They typically have a particular animal whose form they prefer.

They have volition and will interact with humanity. It is forbidden to cross into their land

or to make noise or otherwise disrupt their area. Whether intentional or not, these

interferences will anger the spirits. Once angered, they will have revenge, typically by

causing sickness, injury, or death. When any of these strikes, it is necessary to find out if

it was caused by a person who wished you ill (possibly due to some prior behavior of

38
yours) or if you angered a masalai. Masalai-induced punishments will be fairly

immediate; minor transgressions will result in minor punishments. Apologies and

offerings to the masalai will appease them and end the punishment. Often a tewel can

be called upon to determine the source and resolution of the punishment. They are

usually invisible and remain in their own areas. They often inhabit artifacts in the jungle,

such as trees, lakes, and vines, in addition to appearing as animals. When a person has

left the village for an extended period (often for travel), that person will be seen in

around the village, but will not speak. This is the masalai of that person's clan appearing

as a reminder of his own existence and to not forget him.

The mythical origins of the Mehek-speaking people are two-fold. There is the

creation of the world, and then there is the genesis of the Mehek-speaking people

themselves. The world was created by maure sofo, an ancestor who assumed the shape

of a snake. The Mehek speakers themselves initially dwelt underground and were still

humans, but resembled pigs. One of their number found a hole to the surface and came

outside and explored. After several of these trips, he told his fellows to come with him.

As they lived on the surface, experienced the sun and ate the food, they gradually

assumed the completely human forms they have now. Those who were afraid to come

above ground gradually became what are now pigs and live as pigs to this day.

39
2.4 Modern Adaptations

In brief, the history of Papuan contact with the West is as follows. Starting in the

mid-1800s, trading ships from Europe began arriving, particularly from Spain, the

Netherlands, and England. Each of these nations established a colony on the island of

New Guinea, dividing it amongst themselves. The western half became Dutch territory

(now part of Indonesia), and the eastern half was again divided horizontally in half: the

northern half going to Germany and the southern half going to England, and transferred

to Australia in the early twentieth century. After World War I, Germany lost its claim and

the entire eastern half of the island was under Australian administration. In 1973, the

nation began self-governance and was granted independence two years later and is now

run by its own people, with a great deal of assistance from Australia in the form of

financial aid and technical expertise.

During the early twentieth century, exploratory groups of land surveyors, beginning

on the coastal regions and moving inwards, made contact with ever more remote tribes.

Industrial plantations were established on the coast and people from all over the

country came to them to work, the primary industries being extraction of minerals such

as gold, oil, and natural gas as well as production of edible commodities such as coffee,

oil palm and coconut oil. While there are still tribes today who have little or no contact

with outsiders, it is unlikely there are many left who are unaware of the existence of the

outside world. The discovery of natural gas in the central mountain ranges (the

“Highlands”) has brought a huge amount of interest from Western companies who bring

40
people, materials and technologies to these regions. This development is having a

dramatic impact on the cultures and lifestyles of Papua New Guinea.

The advent of foreign-produced goods and technology has begun to change the

cultures of Papua New Guinea dramatically, though there is quite a range in the amount

of contact different groups have had with the West. For example, there are still cultural

groups within the country who have had very limited contact with outside cultures and

know very little of different ways of life. This is particularly true in Western Province, a

province that is still quite inaccessible and inhospitable to outsiders (due to its swampy

conditions, lack of roads, and high mosquito populations). On the other hand, the

cultures of the mountainous central highland areas have had extensive contact with the

West for a very long time. This is due to primarily to the large deposits of natural gas

and other resources that have been discovered there. Many Western companies have

entered the area and, with the government’s blessing, begun extracting and exporting

those resources. The cultural groups south of the Torricelli mountain range (including

the Mehek) fall more or less right in the middle of these extremes. They are familiar

with Western people, have easy access to a decent selection of Western goods, and

many of the men have travelled to the coastal areas to work on various industrial

installations. There, they were familiarized with Western people, schedules, technology,

and ways of life. Life in the villages remains mostly as it did before Western contact,

however. People now know much about the outside world and interact with it in limited

ways on a regular basis. The following sections illustrate the changes which have come

41
specifically to the Mehek speakers since the early 1900s. This information is based on

observation of current patterns of daily life as well as memories of elders who have lived

through some of the (ongoing) transitions.

2.4.1 Economy and Western Influence

For some people, there is some small reliance on paid work. This includes jobs such

as teacher, medical outpost nurse or community representative (see §2.4.4). With the

exception of community representatives, these jobs are reserved for people who have

completed education beyond high school (see §2.4.3). Nevertheless, the village

economy has not changed substantially in modern times, but it is now supplemented

with some Western economic principles and practices. Most people, as mentioned in

§2.3.2, still engage in subsistence farming along with hunting and gathering on

traditional lands. Western interests, however, have influenced some of the crops that

are grown and how people spend their time. The largest change in crops is with the

prevalence of vanilla, chocolate (cacao), and coffee. The last of these used to be grown

more often, but changes in the international market price have made it no longer

worthwhile to grow for most people. Coffee plants do still grow wild throughout the

area, though. The former two crops are actively grown by many people and are

processed by individuals and sold for money. Both vanilla and cacao (the precursor to

chocolate) are grown by individuals or families who are dedicated to doing so, as there

is quite a lot of work involved in the processing of both to prepare them for sale. This

42
time takes away from the time available for the other self-supporting activities that are

necessary for survival. Often, children must help in these activities to make it feasible

for a family to profit from them.

There is a lot of production necessary to prepare vanilla and cacao for sale. Vanilla

flowers must be pollinated by hand, and then beans must be harvested and dried in the

sun. Once a large enough amount has been dried, they are sold at the market price,

usually just a few kina per kilogram (about 25 cents per pound). This is substantially

below the price that individual vanilla beans are sold for in Western countries (by as

much as a factor of 1000 when calculated per bean), as there are several levels of

middlemen involved in these transactions. The process is similarly complex for cacao, as

each pod must be removed from its tree, shelled, and the individual beans must be

removed. Once removed, the cacao beans must be fermented for several weeks before

being sold overseas. There are small locally-operated fermenteries throughout the

region that buy the fresh beans from local growers and groups of men spend time

monitoring the fermentation process. The fermented beans are then sold to other

middlemen, again with a large series of markups as the product gets closer to its

destination. Neither vanilla nor cacao is a great source of income for most families who

sell them, though they can provide small amounts of cash which families can use to buy

Western goods or to save for their children’s school fees (see §2.4.3).

43
 Because all members of society are capable of providing for their own ongoing

support in all aspects of life (food, housing, transportation, etc.), selling goods for

money is purely a supplemental activity; no money is necessary to maintain the lifestyle

that most people pursue. However, there are small trade stores in the villages which sell

a variety of Western goods. These goods primarily consist of food items (canned meats,

rice, cooking oil and crackers); basic kitchen implements (pots, pans, plates and

utensils), household goods (sleeping mats, buckets, matches, towels), and other useful

tools (bleach and other similar products). These trade stores are stocked either through

purchases made from the larger stores in Nuku, or from the well-stocked coastal towns

(Wewak and Aitape being the most accessible). Families with financial means often will

set up these small trade stores as a way to provide a service to their community as well

as to make a small profit and to finance continued stocking of the store.

There are certain manufactured goods that most, if not all, families possess and in

many respects cannot live without. That is, they have completely incorporated these

products into their daily or regular lives and have forgotten the former ways of doing

things that the new goods have made possible. Some examples of this include metal

knives (these have been used for many decades now, replacing stone axes), clothes,

metal cooking implements (replacing clay pots garfu and au which are no longer

commonly made), cooking oil, salt, radios and flashlights. The latter has also replaced

the traditional method of night lighting, burning dried fronds from coconut palms (suwa

tikwasa), though many people do still practice this technique.

44
 There are several pieces of Western technological concepts that have permeated

life, many of them offering only minor improvements. Some of these include windows,

door locks, linear time, and scheduling. There is a traditional style of door which

involves putting slats crosswise in a frame, but this is only practiced now in temporary

jungle camps. Houses and kitchen houses now have doors with hinges and locks, both of

which must be purchased. Furthermore, people with more money are able to purchase

hammers and nails to build their houses, and this technology has altered the way

traditional homes are constructed. Most people still build in the traditional way,

however. This method involves constructing three rows of posts, the central row being

about 25% taller than the outer rows. Holes for the posts are dug with a knife and then

the posts are shoved into them until they remain strong. Crossbeams are attached for

the walls and the roof, and then a particular part of the coconut palm is cut to make

slats, which form the walls. The roof is made from sago palm leaves which are folded

and sewn together into panels, which are staggered like shingles. They are very effective

at keeping out the rain. No windows are typically built if a hammer and nails are not

available. Houses are long and dark; however, most people do not spend much time

during the day inside. Women do stay inside the kitchen house cooking, and the house

fills up with smoke and is heavily deposited with soot. This is a primary reason reported

for why many people have poor vision in old age.

As for time, people are now aware of dates and use them to varying levels of

precision. The day of the week is not greatly relevant to most people, though knowing

45
when it is Sunday is important for church attendance (see §2.4.2) and most people

generally know which day of the week it is. Otherwise, the month and year, while

known by some, are not necessary for daily use. Some people do have calendar books

and mark off the days, but this is not an important task for most village work. Big

celebrations (again, typically related to church) will be scheduled on a particular date

which people will be able to recite. But it is only as the date gets close enough to refer

to as happening within a week or so, will the majority of people know that the

celebration is near.

2.4.2 Christianity

Most people are at least nominally religious, always a branch of Christianity. There

are five main Christian groups in operation in this region, the Catholic Church and four

different Protestant groups. The latter are: Christian Brothers Church (CBC), Nupela Laip

bilong Olgeta (New Life for All: an evangelical group developed by a native of the area),

Foursquare and Assembly of God (AOG). They are broadly similar, though people are

usually quite loyal to the branch they adhere to. This is often an accident of location, as

a missionary belonging to one group will settle in one part of a village and evangelize

the people nearby, while a different missionary will settle in a different, nearby location

at a different time. Nevertheless, though people will often make snide comments about

the other groups as not being “true” or “pure”, there is not much inter-group animosity

46
and most people are quite tolerant of divergent beliefs. This includes people who do not

attend a church of any kind.

Many people regularly attend Sunday church services, which are led by trained lay

people. Sunday is also a day often reserved for community meetings in which the men

gather and try to reach consensus on issues of importance. The people greatly desire

their language to be written so that a Bible translation can be made. It is a particularly

sore point to many Mehek people that there is a translation of the New Testament for

Mende, the people of Seim with whom there is some tension.

Pre-Christian beliefs still hold clear influences over most people (see §2.3.6 for a

description of these beliefs). The practice of cargo cults (Worsley 1957) is not known in

the Mehek-speaking area, though there is a belief that following Western ways is likely

to bring about more material benefit. Many people say that they are the “last place” in

Papua New Guinea (and by extension, the world) to receive development. They

regularly talk about how their houses, roads, etc. are nogut or bagarap (Tok Pisin for

'bad' and 'ruined', respectively). There is a hope that by worshipping (what is thought to

be the primary) Western god, development and material benefit will come in time. In

general, Christian beliefs are grafted on top of the old belief system and no

inconsistency is perceived; the belief in spirits is alive and well. The Christian god is

viewed as a more powerful entity than the native spirits, as being over and above them,

47
though still a separate entity from them. The native spirits still exist in the same way and

with the same powers as they always have.

2.4.3 Education

Education is widely available throughout the Mehek-speaking area. The educational

system in Papua New Guinea is divided into elementary (grades 1-3), primary (grades 4-

8), and secondary schools (high school). There are also a small number of tertiary

institutions in the country; students must live away from home to attend these schools.

There are five elementary and two primary schools spread throughout the Mehek-

speaking villages. The nearest high school is an hour’s walk north of Yiminum, the

northernmost village. Students from throughout the region board there during the week

and return home on the weekends. There are fees associated with attending school,

though these fees are nominal until the eighth grade. In fact, in the last few years, the

government has decreed that all grades eighth and below must be free. In practice,

however, there is not yet another model to support teachers and the school

infrastructure, so schools in more rural areas still must charge fees. Most children

attend school regularly for some years and then many attend only sporadically in the

upper grades. As children must often help their parents with garden work and other

household tasks, school is often less of a priority. People who do continue through the

eighth grade must pass a test to be admitted to high school, and again to continue on to

the 11th grade. High school graduates are eligible for admission to universities and

48
vocational schools, of which there are only a few in the country. It is the graduates of

these post-secondary schools who become teachers and nurses and often return to

their own communities.

The government’s intention with respect to education is that all elementary courses

(grades 1-3) are to be taught in the home language. This is done where possible;

however, there are not nearly enough qualified teachers in each of PNG’s 800+

languages to accomplish this goal. Community members who achieve teacher

certification typically return to their own communities to teach and so can help fulfill

this mandate. However, there are many villages and language communities for whom

this is impossible. Non-native speakers are often assigned to teach in these communities

so native language instruction is impossible. Furthermore, even when a native speaker

teacher is available, there are little to no teaching materials available. Some teachers do

sometimes take the initiative to create very basic materials, however. In the primary

grades (4-8), it is intended to transition student instruction to Tok Pisin and English. In

practice, English is not well-spoken, especially in more distant communities (including

the Mehek-speaking areas), and Tok Pisin is the sole language of instruction to the

exclusion even of Mehek. This fact, along with high parental use of Tok Pisin, are two

contributing factors to the break in transmission of Mehek from one generation to the

next. (Though there are also additional factors influencing the parents’ choice to use Tok

Pisin with their children in the first place.)

49
2.4.4 Local Government and Representation

In the summer of 2012, there was a national election. These take place every five

years and I was privileged to observe the process firsthand as it is carried out in the

Mehek villages. There were two primary seats being voted on, a provincial and a district

representative. Due to widespread illiteracy, the system is set up to maximize

participation. Colors, photos, and numbers are used to identify races and candidates.

Each candidate was typically endorsed by a more well-known person, whose name and

photo also accompanied the candidate’s on campaign material. Campaigning often

involved a candidate’s supporters in each village encouraging them to come by building

a small grandstand. The candidate would come to make their speech and a feast would

usually be prepared. The candidate would often buy a pig to be slaughtered at the feast

or give gifts to people who promised to vote for them. This was not viewed with any

cynicism or as in any way “buying” votes; it is in keeping with the cultural practice of

reciprocal giving and mutual support.

A team of about ten election officials is assigned to each region, some of whom are

for security. Typically, the officials were natives of the region to which they were

assigned and were trained and paid for their services. There is a broad timeline for

elections, so that each village or group of villages gets a several day window in which

elections might take place. When the officials do show up, they set up a polling station

in a central area and wait for word of mouth to spread and for the populace to arrive. By

early afternoon, elections began. There is an official roll of registered voters, though

50
there was some contention about the number of people registered. The village of Wilwil

had 679 registered voters, though the adult population is likely closer to 1000.

Nevertheless, there was no great tension about this.

An area of about 50 feet around (it was stated to be “100 meters”) was cordoned

off with yellow tape and four voting stalls were set up inside. They were constructed

using available materials, including a metal roofing panel, cardboard and branches cut

for the purpose on site. No campaigning or gift-giving was allowed in the area, and bush

knives were not allowed in the voting area. Voting was conducted according to the

written roll. One of the officials would call out four names and those people, if present,

would make their way into the polling stalls. As almost no one has identification, group

consensus was relied on by the officials to confirm identity, though no one tried to

impersonate another. Men were listed in alphabetical order by their father’s name;

women were listed under their husband’s name. As one or two exited, more names

would be called. Absent people would be called again at the end of the list. The entire

list took about five hours to read through one time; if needed (i.e. not enough people

voted), a second day of voting would take place, though in this instance it was not

necessary. The large majority of the village stayed in the area throughout the day; there

was a small market on site and informal discussions occurred continually.

There was an official sheet on which three choices for each office would be written

in ranked order. Candidates regularly urged people to mark their number “either one or

51
two.” A witness (of the voter’s choice) was allowed to accompany each voter into the

voting area to assist them if they were completely illiterate; this only happened

sporadically. After voting, the voter placed their ballot in a locked container (one of

which had an official seal, the other of which was missing its seal and had been locked

by one of the security people’s own locks), and their left pinkie nail was painted with

indelible ink. The tally of votes is done in the national capital and the results are

reported a few months later.

At the same time, local elections are also carried out, but at a much more informal

level, typically by community consensus. There are five positions decided in this way in

the villages throughout the country. They are: council member, magistrate, police

officers, and a recorder. The council member is responsible for accepting and

distributing government funds for various purposes, including health, education, and

infrastructure. The magistrate supervises the local police officers and is responsible for

reporting large crimes to higher-level government authorities and taking criminals to

jails, which are only available at the district capitals. Police officers are similar to

“neighborhood watch” members, and do not have the level of police authority typical of

Western countries. They are more akin to mediators and try to resolve disputes before

they become intractable. The magistrate and council member also serve as judges in

mid-level disputes when necessary. These disputes are those which the police cannot

resolve, but which are not criminal in nature. The recorder is responsible for keeping

written records on any matters of importance to the community.

52
 The people report stories of corruption at all levels of government, though it does

not seem to be endemic. The stories are typically of candidates who keep government

funds for themselves and their friends and family (though these accusations are not

always based on evidence of wrongdoing). From a Western point of view, this is

corruption. However, people with resources are expected to support their extended

families who have fewer resources and so some amount of this is tolerated as part of

the culture. Only when this happens on a large scale and community development is

substantially delayed is there outrage.

53
Chapter 3: Phonology

3.0 Introduction

This chapter details the sound system and sound patterns of Mehek. It includes a

description of the consonants and vowels (§3.1 – §3.3), their allophones (§3.4), as well

as their phonemic status via a list of minimal pairs (§3.5). The following sections include

information on syllable structure (§3.6), phonotactics (§3.7), word stress (§3.8),

phonological rules (throughout), the proposed orthographic system (§3.9), and

onomatopoeia and sound symbolism (§3.10).

In general, the phonemes of Mehek are consistent with the following articulatory

description and do not require much elaboration or explanation beyond those

descriptions. The consonant inventory is fairly typical from a typological perspective and

in terms of the typical inventory for non-Austronesian languages of Papua New Guinea.

Furthermore, there is not a lot of allophonic variation at the morpheme or word level,

including stress. However, at the utterance level there is some degree of variation. The

majority of this variation has to do with the vowels, often their merger or deletion.

There are also some common variant pronunciations of words which are not related to

dialectical variation. Often, the same person will pronounce these words in both (or all)

of the variant forms within a short time period. There are a few consistent phonological

rules which must be observed, though by and large, the phonemes are pronounced as

indicated below in almost all environments. Phonetic symbols used throughout are from

the International Phonetic Alphabet.

54
3.1 Consonant Phonemes

There are 13 consonant phonemes. They are given in Table 1 below between

slashes '/ /' and the allophones of these phonemes (where appropriate) are listed

between square brackets '[ ]'.

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Labial-Velar

/b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/
Stop m n
[ b] [ d] [ŋg]
Nasal /m/ /n/
/f/ /s/
Fricative

/j/ /w/
Approximant
[v] [ʋ]
/r/
Trill
[ɾ]
Lateral Approximant /l/

Table 1: Consonant Phonemes

For symbols with no allophone listed, the sole pronunciation is that given as the

phonemic representation. There are a few other phones which are present in Mehek,

see §3.3 for these additional non-phonemic and/or uncommon phones.

3.2 Vowel Phonemes

There are six vowel phonemes, shown in Table 2.

55
 /i/ /u/ /u̦/
[ɪ] [ɨ] [ʊ]
/e/ /o/
[ɛ] [ɔ]

/a/
Table 2: Vowel Phonemes

As with the consonants (§3.1), phonemes are shown in slashes '/ /' and any

allophones are listed underneath the pertinent phoneme between square brackets '[ ]'.

The vowel system of Mehek is a typical five-vowel system, with one addition. There are

two high back vowels /u/; however, one of them has the feature of additional rounding.

This is symbolized as /u̦/, a 'u' with a hook open to the left underneath. In the

orthography, the standard high back vowel is written 'u' while the vowel with additional

rounding is written as 'uw' (see §3.9).

3.2.1 Diphthongs

Table 3 below shows the nine possible diphthongs.

+ /u/ Example + /i/ Example

/a/ /au/ /yau/ 'brother’s wife' /ai/ /gai/ 'white hair'
/e/ /eu/ /bleu/ 'lick' /ei/ /mei/ 'wait'
/i/ /iu/ /diule/ 'stinging nettle' - -
/o/ /ou/ /bou/ 'dry' /oi/ /toina/ 'long'

Table 3: Diphthongs

All of the vowels except the extra-rounded high back vowel /u̦ / participate in the

formation of diphthongs. The second element of each diphthong is always one of the

56
high vowels /i/ or /u/. Any of the four other vowels can be the first element. The

combinations /ii/ and /uu/ missing from the table are not realized as diphthongs, but

rather as sequences of two identical vowels (see §3.3.2). Combinations of these vowels

across word boundaries will not result in a diphthong, even in rapid speech, but rather

in a sequence of two discrete vowels. Example (1) shows the difference in pronunciation

between a sequence of two vowels when they are in two different syllables as opposed

to being in the same syllable.

(1) [ama.i] [maifo]

/ama i/ /maifo/
let’s go leech

3.3 Additional Phones

There are some phones which have predictable or semi-predictable occurrence.

These sounds either have predictable environments; occur in allophonic variation; or

occur only in foreign borrowings. For these reasons, the following three sounds are not

considered phonemes.

3.3.1 Voiceless Glottal Fricative [h]

There is an epenthetic consonant [h] which occurs in some contexts. It occurs word-

initially before vowels in some words, as in [haŋganambu] and [aŋganambu] 'hurry'. Its

appearance is typically dependent on the speaker, rather than the phonetic

environment or any other syntactic, semantic, or lexical features. Speakers who

pronounce the [h] will usually pronounce it in all the words in which it occurs or will only

57
pronounce it in a subset unique to them, but will do so consistently. No speaker has

ever indicated that either variety is preferable or that there is any identifiable group

associated with one variant or another (speakers from Kafle, for example). There does

not seem to be any particular conditioning environment (careful versus rapid speech,

for example).

The epenthetic [h] also appears word-medially between two identical vowels. There

are some words where it is pronounced in nearly all contexts, such as kaha 'bad', and

others where it is only irregularly pronounced, as indicated above. One common

example is the name of the language, as discussed in §1.1. Words which have an

allophonic variant with initial [h] are indicated in the dictionary.

One possible explanation for the genesis (or ongoing loss) of [h] is that the stress

tends to fall on the syllable immediately following the syllable with the [h]. In a two-

syllable word, such as kara, the stress occurs on the first syllable. However, in a word

like kaha, the stress is realized on the last syllable instead. See §3.8 for rules of stress

placement.

3.3.2 Glottal Stop [Ɂ]

The description of the phone [h] above also applies the glottal stop. Words which

contain the glottal stop vary freely with versions that contain no glottal stop. Stress

tends to follow the syllable that (optionally) contains the glottal stop, whether or not it

is pronounced. And, in fact, in some words, [h] and [Ɂ] contrast with each and with zero.

58
An example was given in §1.1 with the variant pronunciations of the name of the

language (also the word 'no'), repeated below in (2) for convenience.

(2) [mɛhɛk] [mɛɁɛk] [mɛɛk] [mɛhɛɁɛk]

Other than for purely phonetic reasons, the glottal stop does not occur word-

initially. That is, at the beginning of an utterance and upon opening the glottis to

pronounce a vowel, it is natural to pronounce a glottal stop. However, unlike with [h], it

is not consciously pronounced nor very audible. Words with two identical vowels in

sequence will often be pronounced with a glottal stop between them. Words with two

different sequential vowels are rare, but they are not pronounced with a glottal stop

between them. See §3.7.3 for more on sequences of vowels. The first three examples

below in (3) illustrate the presence of glottal stop between identical vowels, while the

final example shows there is no glottal stop between a sequence of different vowels.

(3) [ekaɁa] [tiɁi] [beɁena] [kioman]

/ekaa/ /tii/ /beena/ /kioman/
food remove maybe bird species

3.3.3 Voiceless Bilabial Stop [p]

The phone /p/ is not predictable and could reasonably be described as a phoneme.

However, it is quite uncommon and only occurs in a small number of loanwords and

plant/animal names. This fact, together with the fact that there are no minimal pairs

with /p/, indicates that it could be a recent addition to the language. The plant and

59
animal names with /p/ are either borrowings or onomatopoeic (see §3.10). The attested

words are listed in Table 4.

Name Species Variety

apapul grasshopper
palo grass
polpol mushroom
pro un grass
pukwa taro
pupu frog
sape wallaby, or the tree inhabited by the wallaby
teptep lizard
welepu sago

Table 4: Mehek Words with /p/

Not including /p/, Mehek has a three-term stop series. Typologically speaking,

languages that are missing a stop will most likely be missing the voiceless bilabial or

voiced velar (Maddieson 2013). It is probable that because Tok Pisin also has this sound

and most Mehek speakers also speak Tok Pisin, they are easily willing and able to

incorporate this sound into borrowings that include it. However, if Tok Pisin did not

have /p/ or was not a common lingua franca, it is likely that /p/ would not be

pronounced as such, but be replaced with a different Mehek phoneme in those

borrowings.

3.4 Allophones

The following two sections list the allophones of the consonants and vowels along

with their conditioning environments.

60
3.4.1 Consonants

The phonetic realization of the stop consonants is shown below in Table 5.

Example Gloss
[bau] /bau/ 'loose'
[sumbu] /subu/ 'follow'
[dana] /dana/ 'daybreak'
n
[ka da] /kada/ 'thin'
[gome] /gome/ 'axe'
[nuŋgul] /nugul/ 'cold'

Table 5: Stop Allophones

The pre-nasalized variants of the stops can occur in any environment, though they

are most audible between vowels within a word. They are also quite prominent word-

initially when following a word which ends in a vowel. In these cases, the nasal

component is pronounced as if it is the final consonant of the preceding word, as shown

in example (4).

(4) [sukna ndana] → /suknan dana/

sleep dawn.break
'sleep until the morning'

Another context which occurs somewhat less frequently is that of a word-final nasal

being followed by a pre-nasalized consonant. In these cases, the phonemic nasal

“overrides” the pre-nasal and the latter is not pronounced. Examples (5) and (6) show

this phenomenon.

61
 (5) [lam ŋgroso] → /lam groso/ (6) [ambe-m-ndun] → /ambemdun/
arrow tip finish-PAST2-1DU
'arrow tip' 'we [dual] finished'

The allophones listed in Table 6 are in free variation, with the first-listed variant for

each phoneme being the most common.

Phoneme Allophone Example Gloss

/w/ → [w] [wafu] /wafu/ 'heart'
[v] [salŋgivi] /salgiwi/ personal name
[ʋ] [jiʋi] /yiwi/ 'father’s sister'

/r/ → [r] [alr] /alr/ 'taro'

[ɾ] [ɾu] /ru/ 3SG.M

Table 6: Other Consonant Allophones

The [v] and [ʋ] allophones of /w/ only occur between identical vowels. The [ɾ]

variant of /r/ occurs most frequently at the beginning of utterances or after a

sufficiently long pause. The most heavily-trilled variant [r] is typically heard when it is

the second consonant of a final cluster, though most instances of /r/ are trilled to some

extent. The degree of trill depends on the speaker, with some speakers consistently

trilling more heavily.

3.4.2 Vowels

The phonetic realization of the vowels is shown below in Table 7. The second-listed

allophone of each vowel is realized in the following environment: The vowel is lowered

when it immediately precedes a (phonemic) nasal (/m/ and /n/), a liquid (/l/ and /r/) or

62
a velar stop (/k/) in the same or the following syllable. The [ɨ] allomorph of /i/ occurs

only before /r/, and [ɪ] never occurs in this environment.

Phoneme Allophone Example Gloss

/i/ → [i] [si] /si/ 'wash'
[ɪ] [gɪnfa] /ginfa/ 'spine'
[ɨ] [sɨr] /sir/ 'name'

/e/ → [e] [wre] /wre/ 'shine'

[ɛ] [tɛrfa] /terfa/ 'head'

/o/ → [o] [toso] /toso/ 'remove leaves'

[ɔ] [tɔri] /tori/ 'lower'

/u/ → [u] [naku] /naku/ 'sago'

[ʊ] [wʊr] /wur/ 'stone axe'

Table 7: Vowel Allophones

3.5 Minimal Pairs

The following section gives a minimal pair for each of the consonant sets which

shares at least one of the features of manner or place. For simplicity, phonemes which

do not share any phonological features in common do not have minimal pairs listed. For

example, /t/ and /w/ have different features for place, manner and voicing (though a

minimal pair does exist for those two consonants). Due to the paucity of words which

contain /p/, no minimal pairs are listed for that phoneme.

3.5.1 Consonants

Some minimal pairs showing contrasts for consonants are given in Table 8 below.

63
 /b/ vs. /t/ /bi/ 'tooth' /ti/ 'flood'
/d/ /bi/ 'tooth' /di/ 'some'
/k/ /bi/ 'tooth' /ki/ 'vagina'
/g/ /bir/ 'sago branch' /gir/ 'slither'
/m/ /bur/ 'pluck' /mur/ 'distant from now'
/f/ /bi/ 'tooth' /fi/ 'spear'
/w/ /bi/ 'tooth' /wi/ 'go up'
/t/ vs. /d/ /ta/ 'bite' /da/ 'scrub'
/k/ /ta/ 'bite' /ka/ REAL
/n/ /ta/ 'bite' /na/ 'and'
/s/ /ta/ 'bite' /sa/ 'dig'
/r/ /ta/ 'bite' /ra/ 'take'
/l/ /tako/ 'shore' /lako/ 'egg'
/k/ vs. /g/ /kusu/ 'chase' /gusu/ 'tie'
/w/ /kul/ 'bead' /wul/ 'squeeze'
/m/ vs. /n/ /mau/ 'dense jungle' /nau/ 'fight'
/f/ vs. /s/ /fi/ 'spear' /si/ 'wash'
/w/ vs. /y/ /wau/ 'stomach' /yau/ 'brother’s wife'
/r/ vs. /l/ /ru/ 3SG.M /lu/ 'mountain range'

Table 8: Consonant Minimal Pairs

Each grouping gathers phones with similar features by juxtaposing the first phone

with the other phones which share similar features. Each succeeding group is smaller as

possible juxtapositions have been given in previous groupings. For example, /b/ is

juxtaposed with /t/ in the first group, so /b/ is not listed in the second group (juxtaposed

with /t/).

64
3.5.2 Vowels

Minimal pairs showing contrasts for monophthong vowels are given in Table 9. The

organization of the groups in this section is similar to that in the previous section,

§3.5.1.

/i/ vs. /e/ /ri/ 'remain' /re/ 3SG.M.OBJ

/o/ /kwiyi/ 'cut' /kwiyo/ 'firefly'
/u/ /wi/ 'go up' /wu/ 'come up'
/u̦/ /di/ DET /du̦/ 'bird neck'
/a/ /afi/ 'fight' /afa/ 'father'
/e/ vs. /o/ /kel/ 'fresh' /kol/ 'pit'
/u/ /me/ 3PL.OBJ /mu/ 3PL
/u̦/ /ne/ 2SG.OBJ /nu̦/ 'bottom'
/a/ /eka/ 'want' /aka/ 'house'
/o/ vs. /u/ /sofo/ 'snake' /sofu/ 'blow on'
/u̦/ /oku/ 'water' /u̦ku/ 'sugar cane'
/a/ /oku/ 'water' /aku/ 'go back'
/u/ vs. /a/ /aku/ 'go back' /aka/ 'house'
/u̦/ /nu/ 2SG /nu̦/ 'bottom'
/a/ vs. /u̦/ /na/ 'become' /nu̦/ 'bottom'

Table 9: Vowel Minimal Pairs

Diphthong contrasts were not given in the above table. Table 10 below gives some

contrasts for two of the most common diphthongs. The diphthongs with /a/ as the first

element are quite a bit more common than the other five pairs. Because of this, it is

difficult to find minimal pairs for every diphthong with the monophthongs. Table 10 is

meant to give a sample of these contrasts.

65
 /ai/ /au/
/wi/ 'go up' /wi/ 'go up'
/i/
/wai/ INJ /wau/ 'stomach'
/te/ 3SG.F.OBJ /me/ 3PL.OBJ
/e/
/tai/ 'block with body' /mau/ 'jungle'
/sou/ 'armband' /lomr/ 'dance'
/o/
/sai/ 'sago basket' /laumr/ 'he spread out'
/mu/ 3PL /u/ 'cook'
/u/
/mai/ 'cassowary bone' /au/ 'pot'
/su̦/ 'coil' /su̦/ 'coil'
/u̦/
/sai/ 'basket' /sau/ 'get up'
/sa/ 'dig' /na/ 'become'
/a/
/sai/ 'basket' /nau/ 'fight'

Table 10: Some Monophthong and Diphthong Minimal Pairs

3.6 Syllabification

The first task is to decide what constitutes a syllable. As Mehek speakers do not talk

about syllables or identify them in any way, speaker intuition cannot help (though it is

likely that if taught the concept in even a rudimentary fashion, they would easily be able

to intuit syllable structure). One principle assumed here is that each peak of sonority

constitutes the nucleus of a syllable (Ladefoged 2006). In all cases for Mehek, the

nucleus is a vowel or diphthong. Other likely syllable nuclei, nasals and liquids, do not

have a high level of sonority in Mehek. In fact, they most often occur word-finally in

clusters which are minimally audible and do not prolong the length of the word (see

§3.7.2). One possibly confounding issue here is when certain higher-sonority clitics, such

as =r 3SG.M and =s 3SG.F, (see §4.2) follow lower-sonority syllable codas at the end of

66
nouns.2 However, because these clitics are often not highly audible and do not have as

high of sonority as vowels and diphthongs, they do not confuse the issue of where the

peak of sonority lies for a given syllable.

The possible word-initial clusters are used as a guide to what possible syllable

onsets are permissible. Syllable codas in Mehek are typically rather simple in the

absence of morpho-syntactic processes.

Based on the foregoing guidelines, Table 11 shows all the permissible syllable

structures in Mehek. Those listed in the leftmost column are the most commonly

encountered, with the more complex structures (on the right) being less frequent

and/or the result of morphological processes. The glosses give the morphological

structure of the word, though, for clarity of syllable structure, the Mehek words

themselves are not so divided.

Form Example Gloss Form Example Gloss

V /a/ 'eat' CCV /wre/ 'shine'
VC /er/ 'speak' CCVC /klot/ bird species
VCC /alr/ 'taro' CCVCC /wramk/ 'when he came in'
CV /sa/ 'dig' CCCV /kwla/ 'have sex'
CVC /dun/ 1DU CCCVC /gwlait/ flower species
CVCC /komr/ 'village' CCCVCC /kwremr/ 'he hung (something)'

Table 11: Possible Syllables

2
This sonority issue also applies to the person/number/gender affixes –r and –s (with similar meanings)
on verbs, see §6.1.

67
3.7 Phonotactics

This section lists all the possible consonant sequences in mono-morphemic forms.

Sequences of different vowels do not occur, i.e. two vowels will only occur together in a

mono-morphemic form if they are the same. As mentioned in §3.3.1, the two vowels

will often be separated by an epenthetic [h]. Therefore, this section deals only with the

possible combinations of consonants in syllable onsets and codas. Consonant clusters

are never separated by an epenthetic element.

3.7.1 Onset Combinations

The following Table 12 lists the possible onset consonant clusters. The horizontal

row lists the first member of the cluster, and the vertical column gives the second

member. An onset cluster can consist of two or three consonants, with the restrictions

given in the table. For onsets with only a single consonant, any phoneme can occur.

/l/ /r/ /w/

/b/ /bla bla/ 'butterfly' /bre/ 'landslide' -
/f/ /fle/ 'find' /fra/ 'spray' -
/g/ /glengu/ 'seed pod' /gra/ plant species /gwa/ 'fog'
/k/ /klei/ 'and then' /krou/ 'round' /kwesu/ 'yellow'
/w/ /wle/ 'flame' /wra/ 'come in' -
/kw/ /kwleya/ 'gallbladder' /kwre/ 'hang' -
/gw/ /gwlai/ flower species /gwrara/ lizard species -

Table 12: Onset Consonant Clusters

There is, in addition to these clusters, a single word which in some dialects of Kafle

is pronounced as /stii/. The word in most other dialects is simply tii 'remove'. This is the

68
 only known example of a word that begins with a cluster including /s/. The first person

singular possessive form /n+go/ (see §5.4.4, note 3) also has an underlying initial cluster.

In this case, the cluster is created through a morphological process of prefixing the 1SG

form n to the possessive stem go. However, this is realized phonetically simply as the

normal prenasalized (see §3.4.1) velar consonant, /ŋgo/, rather than as a sequence of

two consonants.

3.7.2 Coda Combinations

The following Table 13 gives possible consonant clusters in coda position.

/f/ /k/ /m/ /n/ /r/ /s/ /t/

(3DU) (LOC) (3PL) (2SG) (3SG.M) (3SG.F) (3SG.DIM)
/l/ /alf/ /nambulk/ /alm/ /yowuln/ /alr/ /numbuls/ /numbult/
'taros' 'sun' 'taros' 'namesake' 'taro' 'small' 'small'
/m/ /lamf/ /komk/ /amm/ /mamn/ /komr/ /fums/ /fumt/
'arrows' 'village' 'they ate' 'maternal uncle' 'village' 'hit' 'hit'
/n/ /sufunf/ /bermunk/ /sufunm/ /yenr/ /nans/ /nant/
'smoke' fern 'smoke' * 'child' 'grandchild' 'grandchild'
species'
/r/ /orf/ /awark/ /orm/ /narn/ /kurkurs/ /kurkurt/
*
'bilums' 'later' sbilums' 'brother’s child' 'black' 'black'

Table 13: Coda Consonant Clusters

Codas are limited to two consonants, and only certain consonants can occur in

either position. Only those that can be in a cluster are given in the table. The horizontal

row lists the first member of the cluster, and the vertical column gives the second

member. Coda clusters are almost exclusively the result of morphological processes, so

69
after each consonant in the first horizontal row, its morphological meaning is given in

parenthesis. The glosses listed are only the primary lexical meaning without taking the

suffix into account. Codas with only a single consonant can consist of any phoneme

except the voiced stops /b/, /d/, and /g/. In addition to the table below, there is a first-

person singular imperative verbal morpheme ('I will do X now') which itself is a

consonant cluster, /tn/ (see §6.5). This is shown in example (7).

(7) haulai ro-ko hokwa=r kute-tn

haulai 3SG.M-POSS song=M sing-1SG.IMP
I will sing Haulai’s song.

3.7.3 Vowel Coalescence

When two vowels occur in sequence, they will either create a diphthong or will

coalesce. In the case of coalescence, one vowel in a sequence of two is either reduced

or not pronounced at all. Diphthongs occur when a pair of vowels occur within a word

(see §3.2.1); a sequence of two different vowels within a word always results in a

diphthong. When two vowels occur across a word boundary, there will often be

coalescence. The general rule is that the second vowel will be realized, while the first

vowel will not be pronounced. That is, when a word that ends in a vowel is followed by a

word that begins in a vowel, the word-final vowel is not pronounced in favor of the

word-initial vowel. There are three exceptions to this generalization. These are: 1) when

two identical vowels occur across word boundaries they are both pronounced fully, in

the same manner as when they occur within a word; 2) words ending in /i/ do not

participate in coalescence – both vowels are pronounced with an intervening glottal

70
stop; 3) word-final /u/ is not eliminated, but rather reduced to /w/. (See §3.3.2 for more

information about exceptions 1 and 2.) Table 14 gives examples of each of the non-

identical two-vowel pairs in both phonemic and phonetic forms, along with a brief gloss.

/i/ /e/ /o/ /u/ /u̦/ /a/

[biki emek]
/biki [iki ofto] [iki umaka] [iki u̦ fu] [iki afi]
/i/ * emek/ /iki ofto/ /iki umaka/ /iki u̦ fu/ /iki afi/
'which 'NEG smoke' 'NEG ant' 'NEG sweat' 'NEG fight'
place'
[kufiki] [sakwofto] [kufuwar] [owu̦ ku] [watafla]
/e/ /kufe iki/ * /sakwe ofto/ /kufe uwar/ /owe u̦ku/ /wate afla/
'good think' 'plant smoke' 'good burnt' 'bug sugar' 'tree river'
[sauweku] [moku̦ ku] [tawambeka]
[tombo i] [soluwar]
/sauwo /moko /tawo
/o/ /tombo i/ * /solo uwar/
eku/ u̦ ku/ ambeka/
'end go' 'twig burnt'
'work do' 'nut sugar' 'turn finish'
[okweme] [mwomra] [okwama]
[mwir] [umbu̦ku]
/oku eme/ /mu omra/ /oku ama/
/u/ /mu ir/ * /umbu.u̦ku/
'water '3PL 'water
'tree go' 'bug sugar'
place' DIST.PL.EMP' bamboo'
[gwora]
[gu̦ iki] [gweku] [gu̦ war] [guwambe]
/gu̦ ora/
/u̦/ /gu̦ iki/ /gu̦ eku/ /gu̦ uwar/ * /gu̦ ambe/
'roof
'roof think' 'roof do' 'roof burnt' 'roof finish'
DIST.SG.EMP'
[omra ijam]
[omrokwra] [okwruwar]
/omra [rekums] [ku̦ ku]
/omra okwra/ /okwra
/a/ iyam/ /ra ekums/ /ka u̦ ku/ *
'DIST.PL.EMP uwar/
'DIST.PL.EMP 'get do' 'REAL sugar'
DIST-ADV' 'DIST roof'
go'

Table 14: Vowel Coalescence

71
3.8 Stress

Most words consist of one or two syllables, the great majority of syllables being V,

VC or CV. Some words are tri-syllabic, though this is uncommon. Words longer than

three syllables only exist as compound nouns or verbs. Stress is indicated by a higher

impressionistic intensity on the stressed vowel. Unstressed vowels are not reduced in

any way; they are just not pronounced as prominently as the stressed syllable. Stress in

single words almost always falls on the penultimate syllable; there are a few exceptions

as detailed in §3.3.1 and §3.3.2. There is also a tendency for words where the final

syllable contains a complex coda (i.e. two consonants) to have the primary stress.

Examples (8) to (10) have penultimate stress, while (11), with a complex coda, has final

stress.

(8) [ˈta.ma] (9) [ˈta.mam] (10) [rai.ˈja.ndun] (11) [ku.ˈtɛmr]

/tama/ /tamam/ /rayadun/ /kutemr/
tama tama=m ra-ya-dun kute-m-r
man man=PL get-PRES-1DU cut-PAST2-3SG.M
'man' 'men' 'we two are taking' 'he cut'

Stress placement in two-word compounds varies based on the semantics of the

compound. In some two-word compounds with a total of four or more syllables

between the two words, the primary stress can be on the antepenultimate. Otherwise,

in these compounds, the stress will fall in its natural position on each member of the

compound, with the stress on the second member of the compound being a weaker,

secondary stress. In noun-adjective compounds (see §5.6), the second element (the

72
adjective) has primary stress and the preceding noun has weaker stress. In noun-noun

compounds (see §5.11), each element has its own full stress, as it would if it were alone.

Examples (12) and (13) demonstrate these different stress patterns.

(12) [wal.ndo ˈsa.mbar] (13) [ˈwal.ndo ˈsa.rar]

/walndo sambar/ /walndo sarar/
walndo samba=r walndo sara=r
yam big=M yam basket=M
'big yam' 'yam basket'

Stress can sometimes shift from the penultimate to the ultimate syllable in lists or

when calling someone. This latter example is typically heard with kin terms, such as

nawa 'mother' ata 'grandmother', etc. Also, the presence of affixes does not affect

stress placement; the stressed syllable prior to affixation in verbs, for example (see

Chapter 6) retains the stress after tense and person/number/gender marking is added.

3.9 Orthography

Based on the foregoing information, the following orthographic conventions have

been adopted in this description and in the dictionary. Most of the conventions follow

the expected Roman alphabetic conventions, particularly given that of the people who

are literate, they are literate in Tok Pisin and/or English. Both of these languages use the

same alphabets as well as similar conventions for punctuation. Therefore, literate and

semi-literate people are already quite familiar with the Roman alphabet symbols. Table

15 lists the vowel/diphthong phonemes together with their orthographic forms.

73
 Phonemic Orthographic Sample
Representation Allophone(s) Symbol(s) Word(s)
/i/ [ɪ], [ɨ] i fi, fik, fir
/e/ [ɛ] e fle, fler
/a/ - a sa
/o/ [ɔ] o os, or
/u/ [ʊ] u fu, fur
/u̦/ - uw nuw
/iu/ - iu diule
/ei/ - ei klei
/eu/ - eu bleu
/ai/ - ai sai
/au/ - au kau
/oi/ - oi toina
/ou/ - ou bou

Table 15: Orthographic Vowels and Diphthongs

In Table 15, only the vowels with allophones have a symbol listed in the 'Allophone'

column. Because the proposed writing system is phonemic, different allophones are not

rendered with different symbols. See §3.4 for more on the different environments for

allophones. In the 'Sample Word(s)' column, when multiple words are listed, words with

each allophone are listed in the order they are shown from left to right in their row.

For the vowels, the only convention of note is for the diphthong /ai/. When

sequences of /a/-/y/ occur, there is a neutralization of /a/ and /ai/. Therefore, whenever

/a/ precedes /y/, the pronunciation is [aj]. Examples (14) and (15) show this in the

differing pronunciations of the word na 'become'. In (14), the suffix –mr is added, while

in (15), the suffix –yar is added, altering the pronunciation of the /a/ to /ai/.

74
 (14) [ru ka jamk namr]
/ru ka yamk namr/
ru ka yam=k na-m-r
3SG.M REAL banana=INS become-PAST2-3SG.M
'He turned into a banana.'

(15) [ru ka jamk najar]

/ru ka yamk nayar/
ru ka yam=k na-ya-r
3SG.M REAL banana=INS become-PRES-3SG.M
'He turns into a banana.'

Table 16 lists the consonant phonemes together with their orthographic forms.

Orthographic Sample
Phoneme Allophone(s) Symbol(s) Word(s)
/p/ [p] p pupu
/b/ [b], [mb] b, mb baye
/t/ [t] t tama
/d/ n
[d], [ d] d, nd dau, anda
/k/ [k] k klei
/g/ ŋ
[g], [ g] g, ng gan, yungu
/m/ [m] m mau
/n/ [n] n nu
/f/ [f] f fle
/s/ [s] s samba
/w/ [w], [v], [ʋ] w wuya
/y/ [j] y yau
/r/ [r], [ɾ] r re
/l/ [l] l lei

Table 16: Orthographic Consonants

75
 The conventions of note for the consonants include the voiced stops. When word-

initial, they are very often not pre-nasalized and therefore are spelled with the single

stop symbol (b, d, g). However, in any word-medial position, particularly following a

vowel, the nasalization is quite apparent. Therefore, in those cases the digraphic form is

used (mb, nd, ng). An additional reason for this is that the speakers themselves prefer

this dual convention. When literate speakers write Mehek, they do not write nasals

word-initially and do (sometimes) write them word-medially. It is thought best to

respect this native-speaker judgment. An exception to the rule about medial position is

when a stop consonant is preceded by another consonant rather than a vowel, or is

preceded by a different nasal. In these cases, the prenasalization is minimal or non-

existent. The examples in (16) and (17) show an example of each of these cases.

(16) [algan] (17) [weinbeni]

/alŋgan/ /weinmbeni/
'fly' 'limbum bark variety'

In words where /m/+/r/ occurs word-medially (i.e. with a following vowel), there is

often an epenthetic [b] pronounced between them. The most salient examples of this

include the personal pronouns with emphatic ra (see §5.4.5) and the distal

demonstrative pronouns (see §5.4.6). These are shown in examples (18) and (19). In

these cases, because the [b] is a predictable phonetic variant, it is omitted

orthographically.

76
 (18) [numbra] (19) [ombra]
/numra/ /omra/
num-ra o-m-ra
1PL-EMP DIST-PL-EMP
'our' 'that one'

3.10 Onomatopoeia and Sound Symbolism

Onomatopoeia is not a common process in the language at large; however, a

partially onomatopoeic process is commonly found in many animal names. Table 17 lists

the animal names known to have an onomatopoeic component.

Frogs Birds Other

gwel gwel gre gre bombo (fly)
kutul kombo grauwon koko (chicken)
naku tombo kri makwa kursei teptep (lizard)
pupu yitwou wro wro (worm)

Table 17: Animal Names with an Onomatopoeic Component

That is, these are the names that speakers will repeat in the tone of the call that the

animal makes. There are likely other names which have onomatopoeic components

which are no longer consciously known to speakers (particularly reduplicative names

that consist of words that are otherwise not found as independent morphemes). The

only non-name words that are known to have an onomatopoeic element are yo 'a sound

made while calling another' and kra 'cry'.

Sound symbolism is also not a productive system, though there a few words where

one of the vowels can vary in relationship to the size of the object being described. In

these cases, the smaller size is associated with a high vowel and the larger size is

77
associated with a (relatively) lower vowel. The known examples are given in examples

(20-22).

(20) glengu / glongu (21) wandi / wando (22) mili / mele

coconut fruiting body coconut shell a long time ago

78
Chapter 4: Brief Grammatical Overview

4.0 Introduction

The purpose of this short chapter is to provide a general overview of some aspects

of the grammatical system of Mehek. In §4.1, I summarize the morphology, primarily

the morphology of verbs, while in §4.2, I discuss one of the more unusual features of

Mehek, a set of noun phrase clitics that code the number and gender of noun phrases,

plus a similar set of predicate clitics which appear on nonverbal predicates.

4.1. Overview of Morphology

Most of the morphology in Mehek occurs on verbs. Possessive and demonstrative

pronouns inflect (see §5.4.4 and §5.4.6), but nouns do not, although there are noun

phrase clitics that occur in noun phrases that vary for the number and gender of the

noun phrase (see chapter 5). In this section, I give a brief summary of the verbal

morphology. Chapter 6 discusses the verbal morphology in detail.

Verbs bear suffixes for the person, number, and gender of the subject, with an

additional possibility of diminutive inflection; they do not inflect for the object. There

are a variety of suffixes which precede the subject suffixes, coding tense, aspect, and

mood. There are two past tenses and two future tenses, roughly past today versus past

before today and future today versus future after today. Examples (1) and (2) illustrate

verbs with tense suffixes followed by subject suffixes.

79
 (1) su ka re mini nuwa-wa-s ELIC
3SG.F REAL 3SG.M.OBJ betelnut give-PAST1-3SG.F
She gave him betelnut.

(2) du-ra-dun ka yirfi-ka-dun iki a-ka-dun 6092

1DU-EMP-1DU REAL fall-FUT2-1DU NEG eat-FUT2-1DU
The two of us will go down, but we [dual] will not eat.

Both of these examples also illustrate a realis mood particle ka, one of the most

frequent words in Mehek, discussed in §7.2.1.

In addition to the finite verb forms described in the preceding paragraph, there are

a variety of nonfinite verb forms, some of which involve a single suffix that codes

neither tense nor subject, like the conditional verb form suknana 'sleep-COND' in (3) and

the subordinate form ak 'eat-SUB' in (4).

(3) woro ru sukna-na wa re waki-ka-yun ELIC

tomorrow 3SG.M sleep-COND IRR 3SG.M.OBJ tie-FUT2-1SG
Tomorrow if he's sleeping, I will tie him up.

(4) num a-k klei ka i=ka al yam a-ya-num 4123

1PL eat-SUB then REAL go=REAL taro banana eat-PRES-1PL
We eat it and then go to eat taro and bananas.

The most common nonfinite forms are verb stems without any affixes, either bare

verb stems or verb stems combined with the realis particle (§7.2.1), which cliticizes to

the verb when it follows it. Example (5) contains five verbs, two of which inflect for

tense and subject (tirims 'leave' and rusums 'sit'), two of which are bare verb stems,

80
both feke 'lay on top', and one of which is a verb stem combining with the realis clitic

=ka, namely tirika 'leave=REAL'.

(5) re feke tiri-m-s

3SG.M.OBJ lay.on.top leave-PAST2-3SG.F

feke tiri=ka rusu-m-s 2162

lay.on.top leave=REAL sit-PAST2-3SG.F

[She] layed him out and left him. She left him lying there.

Sometimes, a sentence will contain no finite verb forms, as in (6), where there are three

uninflected verbs, two of which combine with the realis clitic =ka.

(6) siki=t re ni rete=ka kur nol tiri=ka 7009

hole=DIM 3SG.M.OBJ see put=REAL high hole leave=REAL
He saw [the rodent] leave a hole high up.

4.2. Nominal and Predicate Clitics

4.2.1 Noun Phrase Clitics

One of the distinctive features of Mehek is the use of clitics that attach to the end

of noun phrases, except that they precede a postnominal numeral or demonstrative if

there is one. These clitics code the number and gender of the noun phrase, with the

additional possibility of a diminutive (§5.2). The masculine, feminine and diminutive

forms are all singular; the distinction among these is neutralized in the dual and plural.

The forms of these clitics are listed in Table 18. The set also includes a

locative/instrumental clitic discussed in §5.10.1.

81
 Clitic Meaning
=r masculine singular (M)
=s feminine singular (F)
=t diminutive singular (DIM)
=f dual (DU)
=m plural (PL)
=k locative (LOC), instrumental (INS)

Table 18: Third Person Noun Phrase Clitics

Some examples illustrating the noun phrase clitics are given in (7) to (22). In (7), the

noun nekwa 'moon' bears the feminine clitic =s.

(7) nekwa=s iki tare-ka-s na-nak OVH

moon=F NEG shine-FUT2-3SG.F be.at-VNEG
The moon will not shine. [Because it is cloudy.]

In (8), both the subject noun phrase tawas 'woman' and the object noun phrase tamar

'man' occur with noun phrase clitics.

(8) tawa=s tama=r fu-m-s ELIC

woman=F person=M hit-PAST2-3SG.F
The woman hit the man.

When the noun is followed by an adjective, the noun phrase clitic appears on the

adjective, as in (9), where the masculine clitic =r appears on the adjective wenga 'many'

in the noun phrase fer wenga 'many pigs'.

(9) fer wenga=r kara iki di=r on fu ni-nak 6069

pig many=M indeed NEG DET=M 1SG hit see-VNEG
There were many kinds of pigs and I could not see to hit any.

82
In (10), the subject noun phrase tawa 'woman' bears a feminine noun phrase clitic while

the masculine clitic attaches to the adjective samba 'big' in the noun phrase tama

samba 'big man'.

(10) tawa=s tama samba=r ni-r aku-m-s ELIC

woman=F man big=M see-INF go.back-PAST2-3SG.F
The woman, going to see the big man, left.

Similarly, when the noun is followed by a possessive pronoun, the noun phrase clitic

appears on the possessive pronoun, as in (11), where the dual clitic =f appears on the

possessive pronoun roko 'his'.

(11) tawa ro-ko=f kom sukna-m-s 7053

woman 3SG.M-POSS=DU village sleep-PAST2-3SG.F
His [two] wives slept in the village.

However, when the noun is followed by a demonstrative, the clitic appears on the word

preceding the demonstrative, as in (12), where the plural clitic occurs in yefa 'bone'

rather than on the demonstrative omra, and (13), where the masculine noun phrase

clitic appears on the noun aka 'house' rather than on the demonstrative ora.

(12) yefa=m o-m-ra su noko ra=ka 6006

bone=PL DIST-PL-EMP 3SG.F gather get=REAL
She gathered those bones.

(13) aka=r o-r-a oku gan=k susu-ya-r 1623

house=M DIST-M-EMP water edge=LOC stand-PRES-3SG.M
The house is located near water.

83
 The situation with numerals is more complex. When they precede the noun, the

noun phrase clitic attaches to the last word in the noun phrase, as we would expect, as

in (14), where the dual noun phrase clitic =f attached to the ningi 'day' in the noun

phrase lisi ningi 'two days'.

(14) lisi ningi=f fu ambe-m-k nemen tiri rete=ka 4003

two day=DU 3DU finish-PAST2-SUB 1PL.OBJ leave put=REAL
After finishing two days [with us], they [dual] left us.

However, when the numeral follows the noun, we normally get a noun phrase clitic on

both the numeral and the word preceding the numeral, as in (15), where the dual clitic

appears both on the noun tawa 'woman' and on the numeral lisi 'two'.

(15) tama=r tawa=f lisi=f ra-m-r 4029

person=M woman=DU two=DU get-PAST2-3SG.M
A man took two wives.

Similarly in (16), we get two occurrences of the dual noun phrase clitic, one on the noun

tama 'man', the other on the numeral lasi 'two'.

(16) tama=f lasi=f gra=r o-r-a fu wi-kya-f 1728

man=DU two=DU gra.seed=M DIST-M-EMP 3 DU pick-FUT1-3DU
Two men will collect gra (seeds).

The pattern just described applies most clearly to lasi ~ lisi 'two'. It is less clear with

higher numerals. Example (17) seems to illustrate a plural noun phrase clitic =m on both

nekwa 'moon, month' and yokondambe lesu 'five', though it isn’t clear that this

84
expression for 'five' is actually modifying nekwa, rather than being a separate

afterthought.

(17) mu sukna-m-m lisifirndim [lisifu lisifu]

3PL sleep-PAST2-3PL three [four]

nekwa=m [yokondambe lesu]=m 6073

moon=PL [five]=PL

They slept three or four months. [Maybe even] five.

The situation is less clear with lisifirndim 'three', illustrated in (18).

(18) yen lisifirndim kuw-m-r 7044

child three give.birth-PAST2-3SG.M
He had three children.

Example (18) shows no noun phrase clitic on either the noun yen 'child' or the numeral

lisifirndim 'three'. However, I suspect that the final /m/ on lisifirndim 'three' is a

fossilized form of the plural noun phrase clitic, though note that this final /m/ occurs on

the occurrence of lisifirndim in (17) preceding the noun, where we do not normally get

noun phrase clitics, suggesting that the final /m/ in lisifirndim has become part of the

form for 'three'. The absence of a noun phrase clitic on yen 'child' in (18) reflects a

common property of this particular noun and the plural clitic =m is often lost for

phonological reasons following the final /n/ in yen, although it does show up

occasionally, as in (19).

85
 (19) ka yen=m muwku a-m-m, muwku fi=r kufe=k
REAL child=PL breast eat-PAST2-3PL breast milk=M good=INS

a-m-m yen=m 7052

eat-PAST2-3P child=PL

The children ate [at] the breast, the children ate good breast milk.

Nor is there a noun phrase clitic on lasifu lasifu 'four' in (20).

(20) tawa=m kuna di aka=k i=ka nekwa=m [lasifu lasifu] 7026

woman=PL self DET house=LOC go=REAL moon=PL [four]
Women go by themselves to a [separate] house for four months.

Nor is there a noun phrase clitic on lisi 'two' in (21). The numeral is repeated here, which

is a common discourse feature (see §7.11).

(21) wate na=f lisi lisi re nuwa-yu-m-s 4048

breadfruit seed=DU two two 3SG.M.OBJ give-REP-PAST2-3SG.F
She often gave him two breadfruit seeds.

It was difficult to get data on numerals higher than 'two' since speakers rarely use them.

Noun phrases that consist of nouns in sequence host only a single plural clitic,

rather than each noun hosting a singular clitic, as illustrated by (22). Each of the nouns

in nawa gana nanda 'mother, younger brother, older brother' denotes one person, but

the plural clitic codes the plurality of the set consisting of these three people.

(22) nawa gana nanda=m ekra re

mother younger.brother older.brother=PL in.that.way 3SG.M.OBJ
er-m-k 6106
say-PAST2-SUB
while [his] mother and brothers said this to him

86
 There is also a clitic =k which appears in the same position as noun phrase clitics but

functions to mark the noun phrase as a locative or instrumental expression (see §5.10

for further discussion). In (23), for example, it marks the noun wula 'jungle' as a locative

expression.

(23) duwngu mu=r wula=k susu=ka 5091

duwngu tree=M jungle=LOC stand=REAL
The Duwngu tree grows in the jungle.

The same clitic can also mark a noun phrase as instrumental, as in (24) and (25).

(24) mu=r oro-r wuwr=k 6097

tree=M chop-INF stone.axe=INS
[Long ago] we cut down trees with a stone axe.

There are actually two occurrences of the clitic =k in (25), one marking the noun phrase

suwa sauwa 'coconut bark', the other on the word ale 'properly'.

(25) su kiri=r suwa sauwa=k

3SG.F fire=M coconut coconut.bark=INS

ru lendo=ka ale=k 6043

3SG.M cover=REAL properly=INS

She covered the fire up the right way using coconut bark.

Note that the clitic =k cannot co-occur with other noun phrase clitics, as illustrated by
(26).
(26) *fi=m=k / *fi=k=m re fu-m-yun ELIC
spear=PL=INS / spear=INS=PL 3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-1SG
I killed him with spears.

87
 The noun phrase clitics are not obligatory. For example, the noun phrase mini

'betelnut' occurs without a noun phrase clitic in (27).

(27) ru ka te mini nuwa-wa-r ELIC

3SG.M REAL 3SG.F.OBJ betelnut give-PAST1-3SG.M
He gave her betelnut.

Similarly, the nouns oku 'water' and lando 'umbilical cord' appear without noun phrase

clitics in (28).

(28) oku wiyi lando kute=ka te rete

water wash umbilical.cord cut=REAL 3SG.F.OBJ put

tiri-m-s 7011
leave-PAST2-3SG.F

She washed her and cut her umbilical cord. Then she put it away for her.

Additional examples of sentences containing noun phrases without a noun phrase clitic

are given in (29) to (33).

(29) on i=ka nu wa mu oro-ta ELIC

1SG go=REAL 2SG IRR tree chop-IMP
I will go and you go cut the tree.

(30) on walndo sa ambe=ka 4001

1SG yam dig finish=REAL
I finished digging yams.

(31) mu re eloko-yu-m-k fi tongo ra=ka 6070

3PL 3SG.M.OBJ say-REP-PAST2-SUB spear hold get=REAL
When they would tell him, he would grab [his] spear.

88
 (32) naku dorko si-num 4115
sago scrape wash-PRES.1PL
We scrape and wash sago.

(33) iki nu kaku a-na=ka ELIC

NEG 2SG mami eat-COND=2SG.INT
Would you not eat mami?

What factors govern the presence versus absence of noun phrase clitics is not

entirely clear. However, one factor appears to be animacy: human noun phrases

generally occur with noun phrase clitics, while those lacking noun phrase clitics appear

to most often be inanimate, as in the examples above illustrating noun phrases lacking

noun phrase clitics. Another factor may be specificity; most of the examples above

without a noun phrase clitic appear to be nonspecific.

However,while inanimate noun phrases often appear without noun phrase clitics,

they do sometimes appear with noun phrase clitics, like mu 'tree' in (34).

(34) mu=r oro-r wuwr=k 6097

tree=M chop-INF stone.axe=INS
[Long ago] we cut down trees with a stone axe.

Additional examples illustrating inanimate noun phrases with noun phrase clitics are

given in (35) to (40); note that most of these are also specific noun phrases.

(35) di sauwo=r eku-m-yun ELIC

DET work=M do-PAST2-1SG
I did this job.

89
 (36) haulai ro-ko hokwa=r kute-tn OVH
haulai 3SG.M-POSS song=M sing-1SG.IMP
I will sing Haulai’s song.

(37) fi=m re fu-m-yun ELIC

spear=PL 3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-1SG
I killed him with spears.

(38) makwa=m ka okwe-ka-m kara 4116

bean=PL REAL become.ripe-FUT2-3PL indeed
The beans will definitely ripen.

(39) loko samba=r wate-m-r 3141

rain big=M rain.fall-PAST2-3SG.M
A big rain fell.

(40) or a muwku=m 6065

3SG.M.IMP eat milk=PL
Let him have milk.

Conversely, there are cases of human noun phrases appearing without a noun phrase

clitic, though these cases seem to be infrequent. For example, the noun nandasi

'brother' occurs without a noun phrase clitic in (41).

(41) nandasi erka su sauwro ka

brother want 3SG.F empty.house REAL

tukta=ka aku-m-r 4053

carry.on.head=REAL go.back-PAST2-3SG.M

[Her] brother wants her to empty the house

and carried it all and go back home.

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And the noun yen 'child' appears without a noun phrase clitic in (42).

(42) yen me ra er-m-r 4063

child 3PL.OBJ get say-PAST2-3SG.M
The child wanted to get something from them.

The noun fer 'pig' does not occur with a noun phrase clitic in (43), but this appears to be

phonological: the masculine noun phrase clitic =r is null following a noun ending in /r/.

(43) ana fer sumbu sumbu war ELIC

1SG.IMP pig follow follow go.down
Shall I follow the pig down?

When the noun phrase with the noun fer 'pig' is plural, we do get a plural noun phrase

clitic, as in (44).

(44) afa=r o-r-a fer=m mu ya-m-k i-m-r 2162

father=M DIST-M-EMP pig=PL 3PL come-PAST2-SUB go-PAST2-3SG.M
That father left when the pigs were coming.

The following illustrates a similar pattern with bir 'branch'. In (45), we get this noun in

the singular without a noun phrase clitic, while in (46), we get it with the plural noun

phrase clitic =m.

(45) nu hamba-na bir groro groro 6115

2SG be.present-COND branch scratch scratch
If you are alive, scratch the branch [so I can hear].

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 (46) dinafle nekwa ka=ben lasi nekwa=f
same moon REAL=or two moon=DU

mu bow rokor naku bir=m mu bringi bringi 6076

3PL dry CAUS sago branch=PL 3PL divide divide

For one month, or maybe two months they dry [the clay pot] out; then
they get sago branches and divide them into pieces.

4.2.2 Predicate Clitics

In addition to the noun phrase clitics, there is a set of predicate clitics which appear

on nonverbal predicates. These clitics differ from the noun phrase clitics only in that

there are first and second person forms as well. The form of the third person clitics is

the same as the corresponding noun phrase clitics, given in Table 18 above. The form of

the first and second person predicate clitics is given in Table 19.

Singular Dual Plural

1 =yun =dun =num
2 =n =fun =kum

Table 19: First and Second Person Predicate Clitics

Examples illustrating predicative clitics on noun phrases functioning as predicates are

given in (47) to (51). In (47), we get a masculine predicate clitic on the nominal predicate

kom fenda yifkir 'village mosong'.

(47) ru okwe-ya-r wi=ka a-ya-num kom fenda

3SG.M ripen-PRES-3SG.M go.up=REAL eat-PRES-1PL village from

yifki=r 5039
mosong=3SG.M

It ripens and grows, and we eat it. It is village mosong [type of fruit].

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In (48), we get a first person singular predicate clitic on the noun yen 'child', head of

another noun phrase functioning as predicate.

(48) ka tawa mus so-ko yen=yun 4034

REAL wife first.wife F-POSS child=1SG
I am the first wife's child.

Similarly, in (49), we get the same first person singular predicate clitic on nanda 'older

brother'.

(49) on-da nanda=yun ka indi=k i-n 2170

1SG-EMP older.brother=1SG REAL again=LOC go-PRES.1SG
I am the older brother and I will go back.

In (50), we get a first person plural predicate clitic.

(50) a biki nawa=num=ka 7022

INJ which mother=1PL=INT
Hey! What kind of mothers are we?

In (51), we get the second person singular predicate clitic on the predicate noun gana

'younger brother'.

(51) nu-ra gana=n ke-kwra rusu 2170

2SG-EMP younger.brother=2SG PROX-ADV sit
You are the younger brother. Rest here.

In the examples above, the clitic attaches to a noun. But as with nominal predicates, the

predicate clitic will appear on an adjective if the predicate is a noun phrase consisting of

a noun followed by an adjective, as in (52) to (54).

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 (52) di=m bungu kasa=m 5007
DET=PL leaf.spine red=3PL
Some [leaf spines] are red leaf spines.

(53) iki num a-r na-nak, baye kaha=r 3120

NEG 1PL eat-INF be.at-VNEG grass bad=3SG.M
It is not food for us, it is bad grass.

(54) mu kufe=r num owe a mu=r 5074

tree good=3SG.M 1PL caterpillar eat tree=M
It is a good tree, the tree where we eat caterpillars.

Similarly, it will occur on a possessive pronoun modifying a noun in a predicate noun

phrase, as in (55), where the second person singular predicate clitic appears on the

possessive pronoun go 'my'.

(55) nanda go=n iki ne tiri-kun 6051

older.sister 1SG.POSS=2SG NEG 2SG.OBJ leave-FUT1.1SG
You are my older sister and I will not leave you.

In (56), the predicate clitic occurs on the postnominal word nawe 'only', marking the

noun phrase wou nawe 'only a spirit' as predicate.

(56) mu ka ene fu-m-m wou nawe=yun 1622

3PL REAL 1SG.OBJ hit-PAST2-3PL spirit only=1SG
They killed me and I am just a spirit now.

Example (57) is similar.

(57) waitalo=r ro-ko yen=m [tama towra] nawe=m 6066

waitalo=M 3SG.M-POSS child=PL [son] only=PL
Waitalo’s children were all boys.

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 It is not only nominal predicates which occur with predicate clitics, but also

adjectival predicates. In (58), both kufem 'good' and kaham 'bad' are adjectives

functioning as predicates, occurring with the plural predicate clitic =m.

(58) wula=k wuya-ya yifki=m

jungle=LOC come.up-PRES mosong=PL

di=m kufe=m di=m kaha=m 5039

DET=PL good=PL DET=PL bad=3PL

As for mosongs from the jungle, some are good and some are bad.

Example (59) contains three adjectival predicates, the first two occurring with the

masculine predicate clitic =r, the third with the diminutive clitic =t. The first occurrence

of the masculine clitic occurs on the adjective gamur 'white', while the second attaches

to the degree word mende 'very', which, along with a second degree word ata, modifies

the sequence of adjectives fringi 'long' and samba 'big'.

(59) duwngu mu=r wula=k susu=ka liki ro-ko=r gamu=r

duwngu tree=M jungle=LOC stand=REAL skin 3SG.M-POSS=M white=3SG.M

fringi samba ata mende=r kulka ro-ko=t kaiembo=t 5091

long big very very=M leaf 3SG.M-POSS=DIM small=DIM

The Duwngu tree grows in the jungle. Its skin is white. It is the very tallest
tree. Its leaves are small.

In (60), the dual predicate clitic =f attaches to the relational noun fenda, where the

predicate is the phrase iroko fendaf 'from where'.

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 (60) rusu=ka ni=ka er-m-r ke-f iroko fenda=f=ka 4035
sit=REAL see=REAL say-PAST2-3SG.M PROX-DU where from=3DU=INT
He sat watching and asked where the two were from.

Because the predicate clitics and the subject suffixes on verbs are identical in form

and because the subject suffixes on verbs appear last on the verb, one might be

tempted to analyze the subject suffixes on verbs as instances of the predicate clitics. The

reason I do not do so is that there are some places in the verb morphology where the

tense suffix and the subject suffix fuse together into a single portmanteau morpheme.

Namely, as discussed in §6.2.3, the future suffix -ka and the first person singular suffix -

yun fuse together to form a single morpheme -kun, which refers specifically to future

today, as in (61).

(61) on wa kuna eku-kun ELIC

1SG IRR self do-FUT1.1SG
I will do it.

This not a simple phonological process since the full form -kayun can be used to refer to

future later than today. Second, as discussed in §6.1.1, expression of present tense with

a first person singular subject can be expressed by the suffix -n without a tense suffix

and this form codes both present tense and a first person singular subject and is distinct

from the first person singular predicate clitic =yun. However, apart from these cases, the

subject suffixes on verbs could be analyzed as instances of the predicate clitics.

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Chapter 5: Nouns and Noun Phrases

5.0 Introduction

The primary defining feature of nouns in Mehek is that they possess inherent

gender (§see 5.1). Although nouns frequently occur with noun phrase clitics (§4.2), this

is a feature of noun phrases, not nouns. There is no inflectional morphology on nouns.

Because nouns are not obligatory in noun phrases (see §5.14), the occurrence with noun

phrase clitics is not a defining characteristic for nouns. The words that are most like

nouns are adjectives. There are a couple of ways in which nouns are different from

adjectives. One is that nouns are associated with gender, while adjectives are not.

Adjectives can take noun phrase clitics, but only if they happen to be the last word in

the noun phrase. A second difference between nouns and adjectives is that if they co-

occur in the noun phrase, the noun will always precede the adjective. This chapter does

not discuss noun phrase clitics; these are discussed in §4.2.

This chapter considers properties of nouns and the possible constituents of noun

phrases. Sections §5.1 to §5.3 discuss three variables associated with nouns and noun

phrases: §5.1 discusses gender, §5.2 discusses the diminutive, and §5.3 discusses

number. Most of the remaining sections discuss the various possible constituents of

noun phrases: §5.4 discusses the various types of pronouns; §5.5 discusses the

indefinite determiner di; §5.6 discusses adjectives and adjective phrases; §5.7 discusses

numerals; §5.8 discusses nominal possession (both pronominal and nominal

possessors); §5.9 discusses relative clauses; §5.10 discusses relational nouns and the

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locative/instrumental clitic; §5.11 discusses compound nouns; §5.12 discusses place

names; §5.13 discusses conjoined noun phrases; and §5.14 discusses the structure of

noun phrases, how the various types of constituents discussed in the preceding sections

combine with each other.

5.1 Gender

There are two genders in Mehek, masculine and feminine. For inanimate nouns and

nouns denoting many lower animals, the gender is determined lexically, although most

inanimate nouns are masculine and most nouns denoting lower animals are feminine.

For nouns denoting humans and larger animals, the gender is determined by the sex of

the referent.

Table 20 lists the five noun phrase clitics which appear on noun phrases, the first

two of which code gender. Gender distinctions are not coded in the dual or plural.

Clitic Meaning
=r masculine singular (M)
=s feminine singular (F)
=t diminutive singular (DIM)
=f dual (DU)
=m plural (PL)

Table 20: Third Person Noun Phrase Clitics

Gender is also coded in the subject agreement on verbs, as in (1), and by predicate

clitics on nonverbal predicates, as in (2). In (1), feminine gender is coded both by the

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noun phrase clitic =s on the subject noun phrase nekwas 'the moon' and by the suffix -s

on the verb tarekas 'shine'.

(1) nekwa=s iki tare-ka-s na-nak OVH

moon=F NEG shine-FUT2-3SG.F be.at-VNEG
The moon will not shine. [Because it is cloudy.]

In (123), masculine gender is coded both by the noun phrase clitic on the subject noun

phrase Wanikwesur and by the predicate clitic at the end of the sentence, attaching to

mende 'very', the last word in the adjective phrase laka ata mende 'very old'.

(2) wanikwesu=r laka ata mende=r 7044

wanikwesu=M old very very=3SG.M
Wanikwesu is the oldest.

Because subject pronouns are optional, gender is occasionally coded only on the verb,

as in (3).

(3) re eloko-m-s ka kaha=m ke-m 4045

3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-3SG.F REAL bad=PL PROX-PL
She asked him if these were the bad ones.

In (4), masculine gender is coded on the verb, although because this verb appears to be

“zero-intransitive”, with a valency of zero, the masculine gender is not really agreeing

with anything. It is probably masculine here because masculine is the default gender for

inanimates.

(4) ekra dana-m-r 4091

in.that.way sunrise-PAST2-3SG.M
So the morning broke.

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 Gender is syntactically important in verbal agreement in the third person singular

only. In cases where the gender is overtly marked, the verb will agree with the noun

phrase. However, there are many instances where the gender is not overtly marked or

changes to the diminutive in the course of the utterance. In these cases, the agreement

on the verb will be with the most recently used gender marking. However, the

overwhelming majority of cases of gender-marking in the third person singular are

masculine. Only in cases where there is a clear feminine actor will the feminine marker

be used.

Most animate nouns with exclusively feminine gender are those which are not easy

to identify the sex of, particularly insects and other small creatures. There are some kin

terms that are exclusively feminine (though many kin terms can be applied to men and

women, see §10.1). There are only six inanimate nouns which have feminine gender.

Table 21 lists all the attested nouns that only appear with feminine gender.

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 Noun Meaning Class
a wiyi 'bee' animal
bombo 'loud fly', 'buzzing noise' animal
fame 'large river' environment
fi 'mosquito' animal
gasiwa 'sister (spoken by brother)' kin
li 'sore' body
mangi fofo 'snail' animal
mangur kon 'millipede' animal
manu manu 'tadpole' animal
mu gun 'termite' animal
mu oku fi 'mosquito' animal
nambul 'sun' environment
nawa 'mother', 'maternal aunt' kin
nekwa 'moon', 'month' environment
nun 'louse' animal
oku sofo 'eel' animal
samdo 'spider' animal
sangu 'white ant' animal
sangu tama 'white ant with wings' animal
sifi 'ant' animal
tawa yen 'daughter' kin
wal 'tall ginger' plant
walingi 'crab', 'turtle' animal
wiyi 'bee' animal
yaku 'paternal grandmother' kin
yau 'brother's wife', 'husband's sister' kin
yinawe 'earthquake' environment

Table 21: Exclusively Feminine Nouns

Three of the words in Table 21 have a masculine counterpart with a different

meaning but phonologically identical. The three words which have a masculine

counterpart are given in Table 22.

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 Meaning as Meaning as
Noun feminine noun masculine noun
fi 'mosquito' 'spear' or 'milk'
li 'sore' 'feathers'
nekwa 'moon', 'month' 'tree wallaby'

Table 22: Homophonous Feminine and Masculine Nouns

There are also some nouns denoting environmental features that pattern like

animals in that they can take either masculine or feminine gender, though not all

speakers will agree with this. Speakers who accept this distinction will allow the

feminine gender for weaker or milder versions of these phenomena, as follows: nambul

'sun', gwa 'fog' and loko 'rain'. However, masculine gender is considered the default for

these nouns.

5.2 Diminutive

There is also a diminutive category which is in paradigmatic opposition to gender

and number. It might be treated as a gender, since it occurs in paradigmatic opposition

to masculine and feminine and like masculine and feminine, it is inherently singular.

However there are no nouns that are lexically diminutive; any noun can be associated

with diminutive, although in practice it is more often nouns denoting humans or animals

that are associated with diminutive. The diminutive is used if the speaker wishes to

emphasize that an entity is either small, as in (5), or young, as in (6).

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 (5) gulma wate lako=t di=t kulfo kulfo=t
grasshopper wate lako=DIM DET=DIM green green=DIM

di=t kasa kasa=t 5082

DET=DIM red red=DIM

The Wate Lako Grasshopper. One [kind] is green and one is red.

(6) re eloko-m-s yen go=t

3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-3SG.F child 1SG.POSS=DIM

tambo ra=ka aku 7069

follow get=REAL go.back

She said to him, take my [small] child with you and go.

Example (7) illustrates the use of diminutive with an inanimate noun, mini 'betelnut'.

(7) ru-ra mini=t ka te nuwa-wa-r ELIC

3SG.M-EMP betelnut=DIM REAL 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST1-3SG.M
He gave her one betelnut.

Example (8) illustrates the use of the diminutive with a body part, suwa 'foot'.

(8) nu suwa kufe no-ko=t on-da suwa kaha=t 4041

2SG foot good 2SG-POSS=DIM 1SG-EMP foot bad=DIM
You [have] your good foot and I [have] the bad foot.

The diminutive can be used with mass nouns which denote a singular instance, as in (9).

(9) baye-t o-t-a semra aku 4074

grass-DIM DIST-DIM-EMP pull.out go.back
Pull out that (blade) of grass.

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The diminutive can also be a way for the speaker to express affection towards the

referent of the noun phrase.

Like gender and number, diminutive is also marked on verbs, as in (10), and on

nonverbal predicates, like kaiembo 'small' in (11).

(10) grambi di=t on ni-m-t 7028

mango DET=DIM 1SG see-PAST2-DIM
A small mango was seen by me.

(11) ke-t-a sauwo=t kaiembo=t on wa kuna eku-kun ELIC

PROX-DIM-EMP work=DIM small=DIM 1SG IRR self do-FUT1.1SG
This job is small, I will do it.

Compare the use of a masculine clitic with the noun kiri 'fire' in (12) with the use of the

diminutive clitic in (13) where the speaker wants to emphasize that it is a small fire.

(12) ru kiri=r u u u kiri samba=r 6043

3SG.M fire=M burn burn burn fire big=3SG.M
He started the fire. [It was] a large fire.

(13) sukna dana=ka rete=ka kiri kufe=t dun-m-r 7073

sleep dawn.break=REAL put=REAL fire good=DIM start.fire-PAST2-3SG.M
He slept until dawn and then started a good little fire.

In (14), the first instance of kaku 'mami' occurs with a diminutive clitic since it refers to a

single mami that is small, while the second occurs with a masculine clitic since it is

referring to mami without referring to a specific one.

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 (14) kaku=t ru lisi=ka tongo=ka ru ya=ka
mami=DIM 3SG.M pull=REAL hold=REAL 3SG.M come=REAL

re nuwa-m-r kaku=r ru a ambe rete=ka 6115

3SG.M.OBJ give-PAST2-3SG.M mami=M 3SG.M eat finish put=REAL

He cooked the little mami and held it. A [man] came and he gave
him some mami. He finished eating it up.

This alternation between diminutive and masculine or feminine can reflect a shifting

focus on the properties of the referent of the noun phrase as perceived by the speaker,

vis. the size or affection towards the object.

There are a few places in Mehek grammar where there is either no possibility of a

diminutive value or the diminutive form is rarely used, although coding of

person/number/gender is possible. One situation where there is no possibility of a

diminutive value is in the possessive pronouns (§5.4.4), where one must code the

possessor as masculine or feminine. A similar situation arises with the object form of

personal pronouns (§5.4.2). There is again no diminutive form, though curiously the

form of the feminine object pronoun is te, the form we would expect if there were a

diminutive object pronoun, rather than what would be the expected form se (which

does not exist). With the subject form of personal pronouns, there is a diminutive form

tu, but it is rarely used.

Within a text, it is possible for a given referent to be treated as masculine or

feminine part of the time but as diminutive part of the time. For example, the text in

Appendix 1 (Text A.1), there are two women, both wives of the male character in the

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text. The first wife is treated as feminine in sentence (4) and continues as such until

sentence (28), where she is treated as diminutive, though this occurs in a direct

quotation by the husband. And in sentence (30), she is treated as feminine, though this

too occurs in a direct quotation, but by the second wife. In sentence (33), she is treated

as diminutive but although this is not a direct quotation, the sentence is saying that the

husband feels bad for her, so the choice of diminutive may reflect the husband’s

feelings. In sentences (36) and (37) and subsequent sentences, she is again treated as

feminine. The second wife is initially treated as diminutive in sentence (5). However, in

subsequent sentences she is treated as feminine.

It is possible to have alternations between diminutive and feminine or masculine

gender or plural number for the same referent within the same sentence. In (15), the

subject aye barmbar has a coreferential feminine pronoun su following it, but the two

predicates of this clause, kandat 'thin' and kaiembot 'small' both bear diminutive

predicate clitics (and the verbs of the next two clauses, both suknat 'sleep', also bear

diminutive inflection). However, this could be attributed to the fact that the diminutive

subject pronoun tu is rarely used.

(15) aye barmba=r su kanda=t kaiembo=t mu bongo=k

aye barba=M 3SG.F thin=3SG.DIM small=3SG.DIM tree tree.crotch

sukna-t mu liki=k o-t-a mu kumba=k sukna-t 3809

sleep=3SG.DIM tree skin=LOC DIST-DIM-EMP tree leaf=LOC sleep-3SG.DIM

Aye Barbar is thin and small, she lives in the crotch of a branch or
tree bark or in leaves.

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 A similar example is given in (16), where the mosquito is treated as diminutive in

the first clause, both by the noun phrase clitic on fit 'mosquito' and the predicate clitic

on ata 'very', while in the next clause the possessive form is sokom, which now treats

the mosquito as feminine. However, this can be explained by the lack of a possessive

pronoun indicating a diminutive possessor.

(16) felnde afu fi=t samba ata=t

felnde afu mosquito=DIM big very=DIM

suwa lesu so-ko=m fringi=m 5030

leg hand 3SG.F-POSS=PL long=3PL

The felnde afu mosquito is very big; she has long legs.

Another example of this is given in (17). The noun phrase naku walo 'walo sago' is the

possessor of kulka 'leaf' and the possessive pronoun sokot bears feminine inflection for

the possessor, while in the clause at the end, it is treated as diminutive, as illustrated by

the diminutive predicate clitic on kufet 'good'.

(17) naku walo kulka so-ko=t kaiembo=t na naku kufe=t 3809

sago walo leaf 3F-POSS=DIM small=3SG.DIM and sago good=DIM
The leaves of the walo sago are short and it’s a good sago.

A case that is more difficult to explain is given in (18), where the subject is an implicitly

conjoined noun phrase, conjoining liki sokor 'its skin' with kulka sokom 'its feathers'. We

might expect the resulting noun phrase to be plural, but instead we get diminutive

predicate clitics on the three predicate adjectives.

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 (18) liki so-ko=r kulka so-ko=m okwe okwe=t
skin 3SG.F-POSS=M feather 3SG.F-POSS=PL yellow yellow=3SG.DIM

kulfo kulfo=t gamu gamu=t 3810

green green=3SG.DIM white white=DIM

Its skin and feathers are yellow, green, and white.

An alternative way to express feelings of affection is by means of the word kaha,

which otherwise means 'bad'. When used this way, it conveys a sense of closeness and

intimacy. It is often accompanied by a kin term plus a first person singular possessive

pronoun in the order possessed noun plus kaha plus possessive pronoun, as in examples

(19) to (21).

(19) yau nandasi kaha go=f

brother’s.wife brother bad 1SG.POSS=DU

kiri di=t wa ene nuwa-ka-fun 6047

fire DET=DIM IRR 1SG.OBJ give-FUT2-3DU

My brother and wife, [please] give me some fire.

(20) re er-m-r e nan kaha go=r

3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M INJ grandson bad 1SG.POSS=M

biki biki kulu=k ya-wa=ø 6062

how how road=LOC come-PAST1=2SG.INT

He said to him, “Hey, my grandson! How did you come here?”

(21) re er-m-r gana kaha go=n

3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M younger.brother bad 1SG.POSS=2SG
fer ka fu-wa-n 6070
pig REAL hit-PAST1-2SG
He said to him, “My younger brother, you killed a pig.”

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When not used in conjunction with the possessive word, kaha can be used as a term of

reverence, as in (22).

(22) ka kaha=r ya-ya-r=a maure kum kuna i 2177

REAL bad=M go-PRES-3SG.M=INT ancestor 2PL self go
Is that an evil spirit coming? [Said to a friend upon his return.]

5.3 Number

There is no marking of number on nouns in Mehek, though the noun phrase clitics

serve as an indication of number within the noun phrase. Number is also coded on the

verb. The language distinguishes three numbers, singular, dual, and plural. However,

though not common, dual number, whether it involves a dual pronoun, a dual noun

phrase clitic, or dual agreement on the verb, can be used to indicate a small number of

people or items rather than exactly two. While the dual typically literally indicates two

of something, in contexts where it is clear that exactly two is not strictly implied, the use

of the dual takes on a paucal meaning. In example (23), a group of children was

exhorted to each go gather a small amount of edible leaves and then to pool their

findings to give away. It was clear that they would not each gather only two leaves each,

as a typical collection of leaves would involve more than two leaves. In this case, the

dual was meant to indicate a smaller than usual number of leaves.

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 (23) kum ka kita luwku=f ra [nu di=t ra] (repeated 5 times)
2PL REAL tulip greens=DU get [2SG DET=DIM get]

wa re nuwa-ka-kum ELIC
IRR 3SG.M.OBJ give-FUT2-2PL

You [plural] get some tulip leaves. You get some, (repeated 5 times)
and you will give [them all] to him.

In (24), the person was asking a group of three if they were still present. The speaker

knew there were three people, but the point was being made that it was a small group.

(24) dun rusu-ya-dun kara OVH

1DU sit-PRES-1DU indeed
We are still staying [here]? [Referring to a group of three people.]

Example (25) is an instance of the dual being addressed to a small group.

(25) ru ka wra tawul bleu a-m-r

3SG.M REAL come.out tongue lick eat-PAST2-3SG.M

mei kefen 7004

leave.alone 2DU.OBJ

He came out and stuck his tongue out [at them]. You people leave me alone!

In this case, the object form of the second person dual pronoun is being used as a

vocative phrase or address pronoun; the object forms of second person object pronouns

can also be used as address pronouns.

5.4 Pronouns

There are five sets of personal pronouns, one for subjects, one for objects, one for

possessors and two more specialized sets, one that is used in imperative constructions

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and one that is used for emphasis. Pronouns show the same gender and number

distinctions as nouns (see §5.1 to §5.3): they distinguish singular, dual, and plural

number along with a distinction in the third-person singular only between masculine

and feminine gender and diminutive. Except for the possessive pronouns, the personal

pronouns have unique mono-morphemic forms for each of these distinctions in each

set. The possessive pronouns inflect for the person, gender and number of the

possessor.

Pronouns are used quite frequently and, after something has been introduced in

discourse by a proper or common noun, the noun will often not be repeated again in

the discourse. Even if there are two participants both of the same gender in stories, the

two participants will not be distinguished with nouns and only pronouns will be used. As

most stories are well known to all listeners, it is assumed the listener already

understands who is doing which action and therefore disambiguation is unnecessary.

5.4.1 Subject Pronouns

There is a distinct set of pronouns used for subjects. Table 23 lists all of the subject

pronoun forms.

111
 Singular Dual Plural
1 on dun num
2 nu fun kum
3M ru
3F su fu mu
3D tu

Table 23: Subject Pronouns

The examples in (26) to (28) exemplify the use of the subject pronouns. Subject

pronouns are usually the first word in a clause, and object pronouns immediately

precede the verb. Examples (26) and (28) also contain object pronouns.

(26) on ka me eloko-wa-yun ELIC

1SG REAL 3PL.OBJ tell-PAST1-1SG
I told them.

(27) kum o-kwra rusu-ya-kum 3133

2PL DIST-ADV sit-PRES-2PL
You [all] are sitting there.

(28) mu ka tama nemen [numba noko]-m-m 1126

3PL REAL person 1PL.OBJ [poison]-PAST2-3PL
They poisoned us men.

Many of the examples throughout this grammar include a subject pronoun.

Example (29) has no subject pronoun or subject agreement due to the conditional

suffix (see §6.3.2), but the subject is understood from context.

(29) ekra ende mesu-na 6094

thus 1DU.OBJ hear-COND
So if they hear us two [then something will happen].

112
 The great majority of animate referents in a discourse will be referred to by

pronouns, and the great majority of pronouns are in subject form; third person forms

make up the majority of those forms in my texts (particularly given that only a very few

recordings were conversations). In addition to the masculine/feminine distinction in the

third person singular, there is a largely (possibly) obsolete form for the third singular

diminutive, which is tu. Though almost never used, it is used occasionally, as in (30).

(30) tu u-na gwini=t ni ni i-num 5099

3SG.DIM glow-COND mushroom=DIM see see go-PRES.1PL
As for the mushroom [which is said to] glow, we come look for it.

The subject form of personal pronouns are used for pronouns serving as “object” of

relational nouns (see §5.10), as in (31), where the “object” of kana 'with' is the subject

form su.

(31) su kana su kom sukna-m-s 7054

3SG.F with 3SG.F village sleep-PAST2-3SG.F
She slept in the village with her.

Example (32) is similar, where the emphatic subject form (see §5.4.5) of the third person

plural pronoun, namely mura, is used before kana.

(32) mu-ra kana yam a-r erka na-r ru ka kra kra 2723
3PL-EMP with banana eat-INF want but-M3SG.M real cry cry
He wanted to go with them to eat bananas, but he was crying

5.4.2 Object Pronouns

Table 24 lists all of the object pronouns forms.

113
 Singular Dual Plural
1 ene ende nemen
2 ne kefen kemen
3M re
fe (e)me
3F te

Table 24: Object Pronouns

There are two oddities in the forms in Table 24. First the feminine third singular object

form is te, rather than the expected se. The second is the absence of a diminutive form.

These two oddities seem to be related, since if there were a diminutive form, the

expected form would be te, the form we actually find for the feminine. This suggests

that te was originally a diminutive form.

The object forms of the personal pronouns are used for both direct and indirect

object, though with the latter only if the referent is animate. Examples (33) to (35) plus

example (29) above show some object pronouns in short utterances.

(33) nawa=s ene rusu kuna-ya-s ELIC

mother=F 1SG.OBJ sit wait-PRES-3SG.F
[My] mother is waiting for me.

(34) fu ya=ka re kuna-m-k 7037

3DU come=REAL 3SG.M.OBJ wait-PAST2-SUB
They came while they were waiting for him.

(35) bu=r ende eku-ka=ø 6088

what=M 1DU.OBJ do-FUT2=2SG.INT
What will you do to us [dual]?

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 (36) ene a ambe-ø 6107
1SG.OBJ eat finish-2SG.IMP
Finish it for me.

If there is both a direct and indirect object, as in the case of verbs of communication

and the verb nuwa 'give', the direct object is always a common noun in my data, as in

(37) and (38).

(37) ru-ra mini=t ka te nuwa-wa-r ELIC

3SG.M-EMP betelnut=DIM REAL 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST1-3SG.M
He gave her one betelnut.

(38) marsofo ru war naka re sungamba

marsofo 3SG.M come.down and 3SG.M.OBJ story

tolo-ya-num 7042
tell-PRES-1PL

Marsofo is coming down and we are telling him the story.

Utterances with only a direct object and not an indirect object often do express the

direct object with an object pronoun, as in (39). (This example also illustrates the less

common alternate form eme of the third person plural pronoun me.)

(39) mu eme ni-wa-m OVH

3PL 3PL.OBJ see-PAST1-3PL
They saw them.

This is true even if the direct object is inanimate, as in (40).

(40) num re tanngu=ka 5008

1PL 3SG.M.OBJ cover=REAL
We covered it.

115
 An object pronoun can be used impersonally in cases of accidental events, as

illustrated in (41).

(41) oku=k ene war-wa-r 6067

water=LOC 1SG.OBJ go.down-PAST1-3SG.M
It fell down into the water. [It fell in the water on me.]

5.4.3 Imperative Pronouns

There is a separate set of pronouns used in imperative sentences; these are the

imperative pronouns. The forms are shown in Table 25.

Singular Dual Plural

1 ana anda ama
2 (nu) fun kum
3M or
3F os of om
3D ot

Table 25: Imperative Pronouns

The only unique imperative forms are those for first person. The third person forms

are identical to the third person demonstrative pronouns (see §5.4.6) while the forms

for second person are identical with the second person subject pronouns. Verbal

marking for imperative mood is accomplished by use of a bare verb stem, and the use of

an imperative pronoun together with the verb stem is otherwise the only way to

indicate a command. For second person commands, the dual and plural pronouns are

116
obligatory with the bare verb, while the second person singular pronoun is optional.

Examples (42) and (43) illustrate this.

(42) (nu) wra=ø ELIC

(2SG.IMP) come.in=2SG.IMP
Come in!

(43) fun wra=ø ELIC

2DU.IMP come.in=2SG.IMP
Come in [you two]!

Examples (44) and (45) illustrate first person imperatives, where a pronoun is

required.

(44) anda kom yoko i 1622

1DU.IMP village towards go
Let’s [the two of us] go to the village.

(45) ana fer sumbu sumbu war ELIC

1SG.IMP pig follow follow go.down
Shall I follow the pig down?

Third person imperatives have the meaning of 'let him/her/them do x', as in (46).

(46) of ne waki=ka 4046

3DU.IMP 2SG.OBJ tie=REAL
Let the two of them tie it for you.

It is the lack of any verbal morphology and the lack of the obligatory mood particle

which distinguishes a command from a statement (see §7.2). Examples (47) and (48)

express a similar meaning, the former being a command and the latter being a

statement.

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 (47) or mau=k i ELIC
3SG.M.IMP jungle=LOC go
Let him go to the jungle.

(48) ru ka mau=k i-wa-r ELIC

3SG.M REAL jungle=LOC go-PAST1-3SG.M
He went to the jungle.

Examples (49) and (50) illustrate the possibility of variant word order in third person

imperatives. In (50), the object of the imperative is expressed after the verb.

(49) or muwku a 6065

3SG.M.IMP milk eat
Let him have milk.

(50) or a muwku=m 6065

3SG.M.IMP eat milk=PL
Let him have milk.

In (51), the word tirika 'let' can be optionally used in third person imperative

constructions, but must come first.

(51) tiri=ka or i 6105

let=REAL 3SG.M.IMP go
Let him go.

There is also a negative imperative (or prohibitive) word mana which can accompany

any of the imperative pronouns, as in (52); this is discussed further in §7.8.3.

(52) nanglu ene er-m-s mana ana 7050

greens 1SG.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F PROH 1SG.IMP
[About] greens, she said to me, “I will not [eat any].”

118
There are also two imperative suffixes on verbs, -tn and -ta, discussed in §6.5.

5.4.4 Possessive Pronouns

The possessive pronouns are formed by combining a possessive prefix with the

stem -ko ~ go. This is the only morpheme in Mehek that occurs with prefixes. The forms

of the possessive pronouns are given in Table 26.

Singular Dual Plural

1 ongo ~ go dungo numgo
2 noko fungo kumgo
3M roko3
foko moko
3F soko

Table 26: Possessive Pronouns

Example (53) illustrates the 3SG.M possessive pronoun roko.

(53) sir ro-ko=r wasuwarme=r 2094

name 3SG.M-POSS=M wasuwarme=3SG.M
His name is Wasuwarme. [It is his name. It is Wasuwarme.]

Examples (54) and (55) illustrate the first and second person dual possessive pronouns,

where the form of the possessive stem is -go rather than -ko, since the prefix in both

cases ends in a nasal consonant.

(54) fun tolo ekaa rusu yungu di fun-go kom=k 6093

2DU tell food sit like DET 2DU-POSS village=LOC
You [dual] talk, eat and sit in your [dual] village.

3
A possible confusion can occur with the form rokor, the form that results from combining the 3M.SG
possessive pronoun roko occurs with the 3M.SG noun phrase clitic =r. This form resembles a mono-
morphemic word rokor which is a causal marker and frequently occurs at the end of clauses (see §8.2.3).

119
 (55) walingi dun-go=t rete=ka sukna-ya-dun 4079
crab 1DU-POSS=DIM put=REAL sleep-PRES-1DU
Put our [dual] crab [away while] we are sleeping.

The two forms ongo and go of the first person singular possessive pronoun are in

free variation, with some speakers preferring the former and some the latter. The form

ongo is regular in that it combines the first person singular subject pronoun on with the

stem -go, the form of the stem that occurs following a consonant. The first person

singular form go is more irregular, since it consists only of the stem.4 Examples (56) and

(57) illustrate the two forms.

(56) re fu-m-r ongo yen=r 4100

3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-3SG.M 1SG.POSS child=M
He killed my child.

(57) embleo go=r wur-m-r ke-m-ra kara 3804

mountain 1SG.POSS=M go.up-PAST2-3SG.M DIST-3PL-EMP indeed
He came up onto my mountain, those very [mountains].

When possessive pronouns follow the noun, they normally occur with the noun

phrase clitic that codes the number and gender of the possessee, illustrated by the clitic

=r in both (56) and (57) above. Although in one sense the possessive pronoun is coding

the number and gender of the possessee, this is only because it is coding the number

4
However, one explanation for the form go is that it is formed by using a reduced form of on that is just
/n/. This produces a consonant cluster /ng/, which is realized simply as prenasalized [ŋg], which is the way
/g/ is pronounced prenasalized at the beginning of words, so that the full form is simply go. In other
words, according to this hypothesis, the prenasalization started out as a morpheme /n/ but was
reinterpreted as the prenasalization of the /g/.

120
and gender of the entire noun phrase, which is equivalent to coding the number and

gender of the possessee. However, when the possessive pronoun precedes the noun, it

does not occur with a noun phrase clitic, since that clitic always occurs at the end of the

noun phrase (though before a postnominal numeral or demonstrative). This is

illustrated in (56) above and (58), where the noun phrase clitic occurs on the noun.

(58) yen kum-go=r ka kemen tiri-ka-yun 2110

child 2PL-POSS=M REAL 2PL.OBJ leave-FUT2-1SG
I will leave your child with all of you.

Example (59) is similar, except that the noun phrase clitic occurs on a postnominal

modifier, yelnda 'all'.

(59) ro-ko tama yelnda=r ru eloko=ka 2110

3SG.M-POSS person all=M 3SG.M tell=REAL
He told all his men.

Example (60) shows that one can get a predicate clitic on a possessive pronoun if

the pronoun follows the noun in a predicate noun phrase.

(60) nanda go=n iki ne tiri-kun 6051

older.sister 1SG.POSS=2SG NEG 2SG.OBJ leave-FUT1.1SG
You are my older sister and I will not leave you.

The possessive form of the interrogative pronoun em is emoko, formed by

combining em with the possessive stem -ko, except that an additional /o/ occurs

between em and -ko. Examples (61) and (62) show the interrogative form of the

possessive.

121
 (61) nu emo-ko yen=ka 7062
2SG who-POSS child=INT
Whose child are you?

(62) ke-f-ra emo-ko tawa=f=ka ELIC

DIST-DU-EMP who-POSS woman=3DU=INT
Whose wives are these two?

There is also a specialized use of the possessive form yo that is only possible in the

first person singular, and is only used with kin terms, illustrated in (63) and (64).

(63) afa yo=r ene fu-ya-r 6025

father POSS=M 1SG.OBJ hit-PRES-3SG.M
My father hit me.

(64) tete yo=r ka fu-wa-m 6050

older.sibling POSS=M REAL hit-PAST1-3PL
They hit my older sibling.

5.4.5 Emphatic Pronouns

There are also special set of emphatic pronouns. These are formed by adding the

emphatic suffix -ra (see also §5.4.6). The emphatic personal pronouns are listed in

Tables 27 and 28.

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

1 onda dunra numra 1 enera endera nemenra
2 nura funra kumra 2 nera kefenra kemenra
3M rura 3M rera
fura mura fera mera
3F sura 3F tera

Table 27: Table 28:

Emphatic Subject Pronouns Emphatic Object Pronouns

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All of the emphatic pronouns are formed transparently by adding -ra except for the first

person singular form, which is onda (rather than onra).

For emphatic possessive forms, the emphatic suffix -ra attaches to the possessive

morpheme and the noun phrase clitic (if present) attaches to it. Example (65) illustrates

the emphatic possessive pronoun rokora (shown in boldface).

(65) fu rusu rusu i i i ekaa=m ru er-m yungu

3DU sit sit go go go food=PL 3SG.M say-GER DEP

hamba-yu-m-n naku elowo=m iki wula=k

be.present-REP-PAST2-2SG sago animal=PL NEG jungle=LOC

ra-yu-m-f i=ka ro-ko-ra gasiwa=s

get-REP-PAST2-3DU go=REAL 3SG.M-POSS-EMP sister=F

maure wulmba ro-ko gasiwa=s 6094

spirit wulmba 3SG.M-POSS sister=F

They [dual] sat for a while and then went away. He said,
“you stayed here for the food.” They did not get sago or meat
from the jungle. They went to his sister [to get food].
That is, Maure Wulmba’s sister.

Example (66) contains two occurrences of the emphatic possessive pronoun mokora (as

well as two emphatic object pronouns).

(66) num ernumba=ka ambe=ka tongo=ka

1PL greet=REAL finish=REAL hold=REAL

aku-m-m ka na nuwa=ka mu mo-ko-ra ekaa=m

go.back-PAST2-3PL REAL and give=REAL 3PL 3PL-POSS-EMP food=PL

123
 me-ra nuwa-m-m mu mo-ko-ra ekaa=m
3PL.OBJ-EMP give-PAST2-3PL 3PL 3PL-POSS-EMP food=P

re-ra nuwa-m-m naka ekaa=ka ka

3SG.M.OBJ-EMP give-PAST2-3PL and eat=REAL REAL

kufe hiki=ka rusu=ka i-m-m 6024

good think=REAL sit=REAL go-PAST2-3PL

We greeted [each other]. We finished [preparing food],

got it and then they went back. And their food, they gave them their food.
And they [gave] them their food. They gave him [his] food and [they] ate.
They sat and thought good [thoughts] and then left.

There is also a set of emphatic demonstrative pronouns described in §5.4.6 below.

The factors governing the use of the emphatic pronouns are not clear, though they

are not used for focus (e.g. for 'her' in 'I saw her'). Example (67) contains four emphatic

pronouns, shown in boldface.

(67) o-f-ra ya auna ra-m-f ekra

DIST-DU-EMP come claim.land get-PAST2-3DU thus

aku-m-f kaha kaha=m o-m-ra i ra-m-m

go.back-PAST2-3DU bad bad=PL DIST-PL-EMP go get-PAST2-3PL

kufe=m ka ifingwa wasaali=f fu-ra ra-m-f

good=PL REAL ifingwa wasaali=DU 3DU-EMP get-PAST2-3DU

ra tongo ra=ka o-f-ra ka aku-m-f 4058

get hold get=REAL DIST-DU-EMP REAL go.back-PAST2-3DU

Those two came and took land. They [dual] did bad things.
Those [others] went and did good things. Ifingwa and Wasaali,
those two took land. They took it and went back.

Example (68) illustrates the emphatic pronoun sura.

124
 (68) ka [tawa mu]=s su-ra ka war-m-s su=yu
REAL [first wife]=F 3SG.F-EMP REAL go.down-PAST2-3SG.F 3SG.F=DISC

kana ka wuya-m-s su wuya-m-k

with REAL come.up-PAST2-3SG.F 3SG.F come.up-PAST2-SUB

ka te er-m-s i tama i musun di=t

REAL 3SG.F.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F INJ man INJ dirt.speck DET=DIM

o-t-a lako=k ana ne ni-k 4066

DIST-DIM-EMP eye=LOC 1SG.IMP 2SG.OBJ see-SUB

The first wife, she went down [to the garden].

It was with her she [second wife] went down.
While she [first wife] was coming [back] up, she [second wife] said,
“Hey! You have a speck of dirt in this eye. Let me see you [to get it out].”

There is also a distinct set of emphatic predicate pronouns for first person. These

are given in Table 29.

Singular Dual Plural

ondayun durandun / dundura numranum
on-da=yun du-ra=dun / dundu-ra num-ra=num

Table 29: Emphatic Predicate Pronouns for First Person

The full range of functions of these emphatic predicate pronouns is not well

understood, but one use is for meanings like 'It’s me', where the pronoun stands as a

complete utterance. These emphatic predicate pronouns can also be paired with a verb,

as in example (69).

(69) ke-r-a du-ra-dun rusu-ya-dun 6077

PROX-M-EMP 1DU-EMP-1DU sit-PRES-1DU
Here we two are, we are staying here.

125
These emphatic predicate pronouns can also serve as the predicate of a clause, as in

(70).

(70) yen kin=yun on-da=yun 4010

child last.born=1SG 1SG-EMP=1SG
I am the last-born child.

Finally, emphatic predicate pronouns can be used for a subject that is in focus, as in (71).

(71) lamne akatangu=f num-ra=num mansuku gaien=num

lamne akatangu=DU 1PL-EMP=1PL mansuku gaien=1PL

o-kwra mu wuta 1126

DIST-ADV tree cut

[With] Lamne and Akatangu, it is we who are

[of the clan] Mansuku Gaien. We chopped down trees there.

In contexts where emphatic predicate pronouns for first person would be used, but

where the pronoun is second or third person, the subject forms of the emphatic

pronouns are used.

5.4.6 Demonstrative Pronouns

The words I am calling demonstrative pronouns can actually be used either as

pronouns (i.e. standing as a complete noun phrase) or as adnominal words. In that

sense, they differ from the pronouns discussed above, which are not generally used

adnominally (except of course possessive pronouns). Example (72) illustrates the

feminine form of the proximal demonstrative pronoun, kes.

126
 (72) ke-s bu=m eku-ya-s=ka 6021
PROX-F what=PL do-PRES-3SG.F=INT
What is this one [she] doing?

Demonstratives make a three-way distance distinction, though it is one that is

roughly based on person rather than distance per se, since they corresond to first,

second, and third person. The three types are proximal (close to the speaker), distal

(close to addressee, but away from speaker) and remote (far from both speaker and

addressee). The proximal and distal demonstratives are formed by combining a

demonstrative stem, ke- in the case of the proximal, o- in the case of the distal, with a

suffix coding number/gender/diminutiveness. These suffixes are identical in form to the

corresponding noun phrase clitics. The remote demonstrative is really a combination of

the distal demonstrative with the word yal (examples (102) and (103) below illustrate

this word). The proximal and distal demonstratives are listed in Table 30.

Proximal Distal
PROX DIST
Masc. ke-r o-r
Singular Fem. ke-s o-s
Dim. ke-t o-t
Dual ke-f o-f
Plural ke-m o-m

Table 30: Demonstrative Pronouns

Example (73) illustrates the masculine form of the proximal demonstative ker.

127
 (73) ke-r iki u-ya-r na-nak mehek 5058
PROX-M NEG burn-PRES-3SG.M be.at-VNEG NEG
This one did not cook.

Example (74) illustates the corresponding distal demonstrative or functioning as object

of the verb nir 'see'.

(74) on o-r ni-r erka re er-n ELIC

1SG DIST-M see-INF want 3SG.M.OBJ say-PRES.1SG
I told him I wanted to see it.

There is also a set of emphatic demonstrative pronouns, listed in Table 31.

Proximal Distal
PROX DIST
Masc. ke-ra o-ra
Singular Fem. ke-sa o-sa
Dim. ke-ta o-ta
Dual ke-f-ra o-f-ra
Plural ke-m-ra o-m-ra

Table 31: Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns

These are formed in the singular by adding /a/ to the ordinary demonstrative pronouns

and in the dual and plural by adding /ra/ to the ordinary demonstrative pronouns. The

emphatic demonstrative pronouns are actually more common in my texts than the

ordinary ones. Example (75) illustrates the the masculine form of the emphatic distal

demonstrative, ora, used adnominally.

128
 (75) afa=r o-r-a fer=m mu ya-m-k i-m-r 2162
father=M DIST-M-EMP pig=PL 3PL come-PAST2-SUB go-PAST2-3SG.M
That father left when the pigs were coming.

Example (76) illustrates the masculine form of the emphatic proximal demonstrative

kera used pronominally.

(76) ke-r-a emo-ko yirkwe=r=ka ELIC

PROX-M-EMP who-POSS knife=M=INT
Whose knife is this?

Example (77) illustrates the feminine form of the emphatic demonstrative kesa used

pronominally.

(77) ke-s-a ke-kwra susu-ya-s 4097

PROX-F-EMP PROX-ADV stand-PRES-3SG.F
This one is standing here.

Example (78) illustrates the dual form of the emphatic proximal demonstrative kefra.

(78) ke-f-ra emo-ko tawa=f=ka ELIC

PROX-DU-EMP who-POSS woman=3DU=INT
Whose wives are these two?

Example (79) illustrates the plural form of the emphatic distal demonstrative omra.

(79) o-m-ra aka=k rii-kya-s 5055

DIST-PL-EMP house=LOC remain-FUT1-3SG.F
Those ones stay in the house.

As discussed in §5.14, when modifying a noun, the demonstratives either precede

or follow the noun, though in my text data they more often follow the noun, as in (38)

129
above. Example (80) illustrates the emphatic demonstrative keta preceding the noun

sauwo 'work'.

(80) ke-t-a sauwo=t kaiembo=t on wa kuna eku-kun ELIC

PROX-DIM-EMP work=DIM small=DIM 1SG IRR self do-FUT1.1SG
This job is small, I will do it.

As noted above, the number/gender suffixes on demonstratives are identical in

form to the corresponding noun phrase clitics. This might lead one to analyze these

suffixes as instances of noun phrase clitics. However, there is evidence that they are not

instances of noun phrase clitics in that when the demonstrative precedes the noun, the

number/gender suffix still occurs on the demonstrative, as in (80) above, where we get

both the diminutive suffix on the demonstrative keta and a diminuitive noun phrase

clitic on the noun sauwo 'work' at the end of the noun phrase. Similarly, in (81), where

we get both a masculine suffix on the demonstrative ker and a masculine noun phrase

clitic on the noun, at the end of the noun phrase.

(81) ke-r aka=r ka owle-wa-r 7041

PROX-M house=M REAL be.full-PAST1-3SG.M
This house was full.

And in (82), we get the masculine form of the emphatic demonstrative kera preceding

the noun, as well as a masculine noun phrase clitic on the postnominal possessive word

rokor.

130
 (82) ke-r-a di sauwo samba ro-ko=r
PROX-M-EMP DET work big 3SG.M-POSS=M

iki on eku-nak ELIC

NEG 1SG do-VNEG

I didn't do this big job of his.

In (83), we get a demonstrative preceding an adjective in a noun phrase lacking a noun,

and we get both the masculine inflection on the demonstrative and the masculine clitic

on the adjective.

(83) klei ke-r afko=r ende ya ni-ya-r 6093

then PROX-M old=M 1DU.OBJ come see-PRES-3SG.M
And then this old man came and saw us. [He was the same person.]

Furthermore, when the demonstrative follows the noun, there is both a noun

phrase clitic on the word preceding the demonstrative and inflection on the

demonstrative itself, as in (84) to (88). In (84) to (86), the noun phrase clitic appears on

the noun, preceding the demonstrative.

(84) yefa=m o-m-ra su me noko noko noko 6006

bone=PL DIST-PL-EMP 3SG.F 3PL.OBJ gather gather gather
They kept on gathering up all those bones.

(85) yefa=f o-f-ra fu-yu-m-r 4031

bone=DU DIST-DU-EMP hit-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
He kept hitting these two bones.

(86) okwa=t o-t-a kete rusu-yu-m-r 4034

song=DIM DIST-DIM-EMP sing sit-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
He would sit and sing that [same] song.

131
In (87) and (88), the noun phrase clitic appears on a postnominal adjective, but the

demonstrative that follows is also inflected for number/gender. In (87), the

demonstrative ora follows the adjective welmbe 'true', which bears the noun phrase

clitic.

(87) ekra indi=k siri-m-r

thus back=LOC die-PAST2-3SG.M

tama welmbe=r o-r-a kara 6028

man true=M DIST-M-EMP indeed

So he died again, that honest man.

In (88), the demonstrative ofra follows the adjective solka 'dry', which bears the noun

phrase clitic.

(88) dina-kla-ya-s muwku solka=f o-f-ra a-ya-s 6056

be.quiet-CONT-PRES-3SG.F breast dry=DU DIST-DU-EMP eat-PRES-3SG.F
She keeps on being quiet and drinking from those dry breasts.

As discussed in §5.10.1, the locative clitic =k does not co-occur with a noun phrase

clitic. However, (89) to (91) show that in a noun phrase bearing the locative clitic, a

prenominal demonstrative will still inflect for number/gender. For example, in (89), the

locative clitic appears on aka 'house' so there is no noun phrase clitic coding gender and

number, but the demonstrative omra does code the plural number of the noun phrase.

(89) o-m-ra aka=k aka kiri sufun wi-k 6006

DIST-PL-EMP house=LOC house fire smoke go.up-SUB
From that house smoke from a fire was rising.

132
 (90) gasiwa kanda ro-ko=s
sister small 3SG.M-POSS=F

o-s-a kewa tenge=k ka wi-m-s 4022

DIST-F-EMP kewa branch=LOC REAL go.up-PAST2-3SG.F

His small [young] sister climbed up onto that Kewa branch.

(91) i tama i musun di=t o-t-a lako=k 4066

INJ man INJ dirt.speck DET=DIM DIST-DIM-EMP eye=LOC
'Hey! You have a speck of dirt in this eye.'

The distal demonstrative, when used as pronouns, often serves as a third person

pronoun, without exophoric demonstrative meaning, though it can be interpreted

anaphorically. The occurrences of the masculine demonstrative ora in (92) and (93) are

examples of this, as is the feminine demonstrative os in (94) and the dual demonstrative

ofra in (95).

(92) fer o-r-a ekra ru eku-wa-r 4113

pig DIST-M-EMP in.that.way 3SG.M do-PAST1-3SG.M
He did it that way [prepared for cooking] to that pig.

(93) ke-kwra aku-wa-r kamben o-r-a

PROX-ADV go.back-PAST1-3SG.M or DIST-M-EMP

sukna-ya-r kamben 6084

sleep-PRES-3SG.M or

He went away or he is sleeping.

(94) o-s iroko=k na-ya-s=ka ELIC

DIST-F where=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.F=INT
Where is she?

133
 (95) o-f-ra iroko=ka 4051
DIST-DU-EMP where.DU=INT
Where are the two of them?

Demonstratives also sometimes combine with third person personal pronouns, as in

(96) and (97). In (96), the feminine pronoun su combines with the feminine

demonstrative osa.

(96) su o-s-a ni di tori-m-s 6055

3SG.F DIST-F-EMP see DET look.down-PAST2-3SG.F
She saw something and looked down.

Similarly, in (97), the masculine pronoun ru combines with the masculine demonstrative

or.

(97) woro dun aku-na ru o-r wa ya ELIC

tomorrow 2DU go.back-COND 3SG.M DIST-M IRR come
If you [dual] go tomorrow, he will go.

Analogous to the use of the distal demonstrative as a third person pronoun is the

use of the distal demonstrative like a definite article when used adnominally. For

example, in (98) from Text A1 in Appendix A, osa yasumbus 'the second wife' is simply

referring back to a woman who was referred to previously in the story.

(98) yefa=f fu fu o-sa yasumbu=s ka ya-m-s 4033

bone=DU hit hit DIST-F.EMP second.wife=F REAL come-PAST2-3SG.F
He hits the two bones and the second wife comes.

Similarly, ora makwa 'the beans' in (99) from Text A3 is simply referring back to beans

referred to in the previous discourse.

134
 (99) nambu nambu=ka o-ra makwa kana 4117
smash smash=REAL DIST-M.EMP bean with
[They] smash them into pieces [and mix them] with the beans.

The use of the distal demonstrative like a definite article is not restricted to

anaphoric contexts. For example, both (100) and (101) employ a distal demonstrative

although in neither case is the reference anaphoric.

(100) nekwa=s o-s tare-k naka wa i-ka-num 7077

moon=F DIST-F shine-SUB and IRR go-FUT2-1PL
When the moon shines, we will go.

(101) o-s-a nambul=s su fu-ya-s ru ke-r-a

DIST-F-EMP sun=F 3SG.F hit-PRES-3SG.F 3SG.M PROX-M-EMP

tama liki yungu ni-ya-r 2727

man skin like see-PRES-3SG.M

The sun shines and his skin looks like a man’s, it looks that way.

The remote demonstrative either takes the form yal or is formed by combining the

distal demonstrative with the word yal. The word yal does not, however, take any

agreement of its own. Examples (102) and (103) show the remote demonstrative with

and without an accompanying distal form.

(102) o-r-a yal yen lili tenge=k ni-m-s 6055

DIST-M-EMP REM child hang branch=LOC see
She saw that child hanging on the branch.

(103) yal susu=ka mesu-m-r 4029

REM stand=REAL hear-PAST2-3SG.M
The one standing over there heard.

135
While one might not analyze the demonstrative system as a three-way contrast, since

the remote form combines with the distal and does not itself inflect, one reason for

analyzing it this way is that demonstrative adverbs more clearly illustrate the same

three-way contrast, as discussed in §7.3.2.2.

5.4.7 Interrogative/Indefinite Pronouns

There are two words that function either as interrogative pronouns or as indefinite

pronouns, namely em 'who, someone' and bu 'what, something', shown in Table 32.

Interrogative words will be described as a group in §7.7.4. I treat the final consonants

that occur in the singular, dual and plural forms as instances of noun phrase clitics.

Gloss No Marking Singular Dual Plural

'who' em emr/ems/emt emf emm
'what' bu bur/bus/but buf bum

Table 32: Interrogative/Indefinite Pronouns

Examples illustrating the interrogative use of these pronouns are given in (104) to

(106), em 'who' in (104) and (105), bu 'what' in (106).

(104) em=f ne eloko-wa-f=ka ELIC

who=DU 2SG.OBJ tell-PAST1-3DU=INT
Who [dual] told you?

(105) tama=r em ni-ya-r=a ELIC

man=M who see-PRES-3SG.M=INT
Who does the man see?

136
 (106) ke-s bu=r eku-ya-s=ka 6021
PROX-F what=M do-PRES-3SG.F=INT
What is she doing?

These pronouns sometimes occur with a noun phrase clitic reflecting the

number/gender of the assumed referent, when the speaker has an assumption as to

what the gender and/or number of the answer will be, as in (107) and (108), as well as

(104) and (106) above.

(107) tama=r bu=r te nuwa-ya-r=a ELIC

man=M what=M 3SG.F.OBJ give-PRES-3SG.M=INT
The man, what does he give her?

(108) em=r te ni-wa-r=ka ELIC

who=M 3SG.F.OBJ see-PAST1-3SG.M=INT
Who saw her?

However, they sometimes occur without a noun phrase clitic, if the speaker does not

make any assumption as to what the gender or number of the answer will be, when the

gender or number is unknown, as in (109) and (110).

(109) ka er-m-m em wi=ka kur=k

REAL say-PAST2-3PL who go.up=REAL high=LOC

on-da=yun wi-kun 7072

1SG-EMP=1SG go.up-FUT1.1SG

They asked, “Who will go up high [onto the mountain]?” I myself will go up.

(110) ka fe er-m-r bu kufu eku-ya-fun=ka 6093

REAL 3DU.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M what vine do-PRES-2DU=INT
He said to them [dual], “What is it, do you make it with vines?”

137
 Examples illustrating the indefinite use of these pronouns are given in (111) to

(114). Note that as with the interrogative use, these pronouns sometimes occur without

a noun phrase clitic, as in (111), and sometimes with one, as in (112) to (114).

(111) sauwo=m em kana eku-ya-r=ka 7036

work=PL someone with do-PRES-3SG.M=INT
Is he doing work with someone?

(112) em=m or te nuwa-ya-m 1614

someone=PL bilum 3SG.F give-PRES-3PL
Some people are giving her a bilum (string bag).

(113) na samba=r o-r-a iki bu=r eku-r

and big=M DIST-M-EMP NEG something=M do-INF

na-nak nawe nu nate eku=ka 3810

be.at-VNEG only 2SG cut do=REAL

The big one doesn’t have a use, so you must cut it.
(i.e. The big one doesn’t do anything, so you must cut it.)

(114) bu=m ra=ka ka i-m-f 3805

some=PL get=REAL REAL go-PAST2-3SG.M
They get some things and go.

The pronoun bu can also be used adnominally, both in an interrogative sense and in

an indefinite sense. In (115), bu is used adnominally in an interrogative sense, where it

modifies the noun tombo 'end point'.

(115) ka ermesu-m-m bu tombo=k siri-wa=ø 6038

REAL ask-PAST2-3PL what end.point=LOC die-PAST1-2SG.INT
They asked, “What part did you die in?”

138
In (116) and (117), bu is used adnominally in an indefinite sense.

(116) su-ra mulu bu=m kana fu-m-s 7063

3SG.F-EMP rodent some=PL with hit-PAST2-3SG.F
She killed them with some rodents.

(117) minga gaien bu=r kamben minga gwasi kamben 6074

party gaien some=M or party daka or
[at] some clan party or [at] a daka party

Note that when used adnominally, the position of bu relative to the noun varies

according to whether it is being used in an interrogative sense or an indefinite sense:

when used in an interrogative sense, it precedes the noun, as in (115) above, but when

used in an indefinite sense it follows the noun, as in (116) and (117) above.

As far as I am aware, em is not used adnominally. But there is another word biki

'which' which fills this function in an interrogative sense, illustrated in (118) and (119).

(118) biki tama=r ene eloko-wa-r=ka ELIC

which man=M 1SG.OBJ tell-PAST1-3SG.M=INT
Which man did you tell me about?

(119) biki yen nu=ka 4033

which child 2SG=INT
Which child are you?

Biki is also used with nonhuman nouns, like bu, as in in (120).

(120) biki kulu=k i-kwa-yun 6025

which road=LOC go-DESD-1SG
Which road should I go along?

139
With pronouns, em is used with humans and bu with nonhumans while with adnominal

uses, biki is used with humans or nonhumans and bu with nonhumans. The word biki is

also used with the meaning 'how' and combines with other words to form a number of

other interrogative expressions (§7.7.4). The indefinite adnominal use with humans is

covered by the determiner di (§5.5).

The interrogative bu is often reduplicated with a plural noun phrase clitic, bu bum.

In these circumstances, however, it has the meaning 'everything'. This is illustrated in

(121) to (123).

(121) nemen [feta kata]-m-m bu bu=m 4115

1PL.OBJ [show look.around]-PAST2-3PL some some=PL
They are showing us everything.

(122) bu bu=m num-go-ra=m kahakana me nuwa-m-num ELIC

som some=PL 1PL-POSS-EMP=PL many 3PL.OBJ give-PAST2-1PL
We gave them a lot of things.

(123) [aye bla bla]=m gulma samdo

[butterfly]=PL mantis spider

[bu bu]-m a=ka rii-ya-r 5013

[what what]-PL eat=REAL remain-PRES-3SG.M

Everything that it eats includes butterflies, mantises and spiders.

5.4.8 Reflexive kuna

The reflexive word kuna has two uses. The first use is the one most commonly

associated with the label “reflexive”, to indicate coreference between two participants

140
in a clause. In (124), for example, kuna indicates coreference between the subject and

object.

(124) on kuna oku wiyi-kun ELIC

1SG self water wash-FUT1.1SG
I will wash myself.

In (125) to (127), kuna indicates that the possessor of the object is the same as the

subject.5

(125) on kuna lesu=r fu-wa-yun ELIC

1SG self hand=M hit-PAST1-1SG
I cut my own hand.

(126) su kuna oku wou ni-ya-s ELIC

3SG.F self water spirit see-PRES-3SG.F
She sees her own reflection.

(127) ru kuna ro-ko nausu=r wulmbo-m-r 7034

3SG.M self 3SG.M-POSS glue=M remove.liquid-PAST2-3SG.M
He removed his own glue.

The second use of kuna is one that is sometimes another use of reflexive pronouns

in other languages, specifically as a type of focus. Examples (128) to (132) are examples

of this use.

(128) ru kuna i-wa-r 6114

3SG.M self go-PAST1-3SG.M
He himself went.

5
In the case of (125) and perhaps (124), it is actually not clear whether kuna is indicating coreference
between the subject and possessor rather than the subject and object. In other words, the correct
analysis of (125) might be something like 'I cut myself on the hand'. However, this is not a possible
analysis for (127).

141
 (129) ke-t-a sauwo=t kaiembo=t on wa kuna eku-kun ELIC
PROX-DIM-EMP work=DIM small=DIM 1SG IRR self do-FUT1.1SG
This job is small, I will do it myself.

(130) yelnda re nuwa-m-m

all 3SG.M.OBJ give-PAST2-3SG.M

on kuna re nuwa-m-yun ELIC

1SG self 3SG.M.OBJ give-PAST2-1SG

They gave [things] to him and I gave [things] to him.

(131) na rusu-wa-f kuna fe i ni-wa-yun 4099

and sit-PAST1-3DU self 3DU.OBJ go see-PAST1-1SG
And they [dual] themselves rested and I went to see them [dual].

(132) ra war-m-m rokor ka kuna yakuw kuna yakuw 6006

get go.down-PAST2-3PL CAUS REAL self distribute self distribute
They went down so they themselves could distribute [the bones].

Note that there need not be a noun phrase antecedent for the reflexive. In (133), the

antecedent for the reflexive is expressed only by the subject suffix on the verb.

(133) kuna ekaa-yu-m-m mu au=k kisi kisi a-yu-m-m 6046

self food-REP-PAST2-3PL 3PL pot=LOC boil boil eat-REP-PAST2-3PL
They themselves would eat food; they boiled it in a pot and ate it.

The antecedent for the reflexive need not be the subject. In (134), the antecedent is the

object pronoun te.

(134) su kuna yen=s te ni-m-s ELIC

3SG.F self child=F 3SG.F.OBJ see-PAST2-3SG.F
Her own child saw her.

142
The reflexive word kuna is not required to have reflexive meaning, as illustrated by

(135).

(135) lesu go=r fu-wa-yun ELIC

hand 1SG.POSS=M hit-PAST1-1SG
I cut my hand.

The reflexive word is often reduplicated for additional effect, as in (136).

(136) kuna kuna ale=k ru sau fi=r tilse ra-m-r 2803

self self careful=INS 3SG.M stand.up spear=M get.out get-PAST2-3SG.M
He stood up carefully and got the spear.

5.4.9 Use of Pronouns

The personal pronouns are used quite frequently in discourse. In a typical discourse,

a full noun phrase will be used only once when a primary character is introduced.

Occasionally, a full noun phrase will be used a second time if the story is quite long or

new characters come into play which might confuse the situation. Because of this,

pronouns do the lion’s share of reference in most traditional narratives. Even if there

are five characters interacting and they are all male, typically only pronouns will be used

to refer to them. Despite this potential for confusion (at least from the perspective of an

outsider), full noun phrases are often not used. The same holds true for spontaneous

speech as well. Names or kin terms are not frequently used unless the context does not

indicate who the referent might be. Often it will be known where an interlocutor has

just been, so stating the name of the person being discussed is not necessary to either

party. This makes the use of pronouns very important and common.

143
 Occasionally, both a personal pronoun and a demonstrative pronoun will be used to

refer to a character, as in (137).

(137) su o-s-a ni di tori-m-s 6055

3SG.F DIST-F-EMP see DET look.down-PAST2-3SG.F
She saw something and looked down.

Occasionally both a pronoun and a full noun phrase will be used to refer to a character.

For example, in (138), the pronoun ru preceding the realis particle ka and the noun

phrase afar 'the father' following ka are coreferential.

(138) ru ka afa=r yen=t er-m-r 7053

3SG.M REAL father=M child=DIM say-PAST2-3SG.M
The father said to the child.

5.5 The Determiner di

There is a frequent word di that I will refer to as a determiner. With one well-

defined exception described below, it marks indefinite noun phrases, as in (139) to

(144).

(139) wa mu di=r i oro-ka-yun ekra eloko-yun 6022

IRR tree DET=M go chop-FUT2-1SG in.that.way tell-PRES.1SG
He ought to go chop trees down. So I [always] tell [him].

(140) mulu di=t fu=ka raya=ka o-t-a lisi-m-m 7018

rodent DET=DIM hit=REAL bring=REAL DIST-DIM-EMP burn-PAST2-3PL
[He] killed and brought some rodents and cooked them.

(141) yengla di=f eme war sere=ka i-k 6093

branch DET=DU place go.down break=REALx go-SUB
Go down to that place and break some branches.

144
 (142) yau nandasi kaha go=f
brother’s.wife brother bad 1SG.POSS=DU

kiri di=t wa ene nuwa-ka-fun 6047

fire DET=DIM IRR 1SG.OBJ give-FUT2-3DU

My brother and wife, [please] give me some fire.

(143) walingi num-go=t=u ka tama di=r

crab 1PL-POSS=DIM=DISC REAL person DET=M

ka nemen ra towi-wa-r 4081

REAL 1PL.OBJ take stack-PAST1-3SG.M

Some man took our crab and stacked [them] up for us.

(144) no-ko-ra sul=k wa mu di=r i oro-ka-yun 6022

2SG-POSS-EMP ground=LOC IRR tree DET=M go chop-FUT2-1SG
I will go a chop a single tree from your land.

It often denotes a member or subset of some previously mentioned set, as in (145) to

(147).

(145) di=r ka siri-m-r 6005

DET=M REAL die-PAST2-3SG.M
One of them died.

(146) di=m bungu kasa=m 5007

DET=PL leaf.spine red=3PL
Some [leaf spines] are red leaf spines.

(147) wula=k wuya-ya yifki=m

jungle=LOC come.up-PRES mosong=PL
di=m kufe=m di=m kaha=m 5039
DET=PL good=3PL DET=PL bad=3PL
As for mosongs from the jungle, some are good and some are bad.

145
The preceding examples also illustrate the fact that di can be the sole word in a noun

phrase. It is occasionally used in pairs, such as “one X and then another X”, as in (147)

and (148).

(148) ru di=r di duwan=k ru di=r di duwan=k 6006

3SG.M DET=M DET limbum=LOC 3SG.M DET=M DET limbum=LOC
He put some on one limbum and some on another limbum.

It can even occur with predicative noun phrases, as in (149).

(149) on di tawa=yun 7021

1SG DET woman=1SG
I myself am a woman.

The determiner takes all the same noun phrase clitics that nouns take (see Table 18

in §4.2.1 and Table 19 in §4.2.2). It is sometimes pronounced with an epenthetic vowel

when it is the first word in an utterance, as [ɪndi].

The determiner can precede or follow the noun, as illustrated in (150) and (151),

though it more often precedes. In (150), it precedes the noun, while in (151) it follows.

(150) di susumbu ro-ko=m gamu=m

DET tail.feathers 3SG.M-POSS=PL white=PL

difi ro-ko=m kur=m 5063

wing 3SG.M-POSS=PL black=3PL

Some of their tail feathers are white and their wings are black.

146
 (151) grambi di=t on ni-m-t 7028
mango DET=DIM 1SG see-PAST2-DIM
A small mango was seen by me.

The regular rules of clitic placement apply: when the determiner precedes the noun, as

in (152), it will not occur with a noun phrase clitic, but when it follows, at the end of the

noun phrase, it takes the noun phrase clitics, as in (153).

(152) di sauwo samba=r ELIC

DET work big=M
A big job.

(153) sauwo samba di=r ELIC

work big DET=M
A big job.

In other words, unlike the demonstratives, the determiner does not have its own,

separate agreement. Thus (154), with marking for number/gender on a determiner

preceding the noun, is ungrammatical, as is (155), where there is number/gender

marking on both the adjective and the determiner following the noun.

(154) *di=r sauwo samba=r ELIC

DET=M work big=M
a big job

(155) *sauwo samba=r di=r ELIC

work big=M DET=M
a big job

147
 While the determiner di normally occurs in indefinite noun phrases, there is one

type of definite noun phrase that it does occur in. Namely, it is very common in noun

phrases containing a possessive pronoun, as in (156) to (160).

(156) fun tolo ekaa rusu yungu di fun-go kom=k 6093

2DU tell food sit like DET 2DU-POSS village=LOC
You [dual] talk, eat and sit in your [dual] village.

(157) di ro-ko yen indo=r fu-m-s kara 2723

DET 3SG.M-POSS child true=M hit-PAST2-3SG.F indeed
She really killed his true son.

(158) ru di ro-ko=m gana nanda=m 4112

3SG.M DET 3SG.M-POSS=PL younger.brother older.brother=3PL
They are his brothers.

(159) fu mesu reteka di dun-go kom mende kara 7033

3DU hear put=REAL DET 1DU-POSS village very indeed
They [dual] heard too much [noise] coming from our [dual] village.

(160) di fo-ko sara=k ra tu wi-m-f 4057

DET 3DU-POSS basket=LOC get drop go.down-PAST2-3DU
The two of them dropped it into their very own basket.

That the determiner goes with the possessed noun rather than the possessor is

reflected by the fact that if the possessive word follows the possessed noun, the

determiner precedes the possessed noun rather than the possessive pronoun, as in

(161).

(161) ru o-r-a kuna di afa ro-ko=r 7062

3SG.M DIST-M-EMP self DET father 3SG.M-POSS=M
he himself, his very own father

148
5.6 Adjectives and Adjective Phrases

Adjectives do not occur with any morphology, although they host noun phrase

clitics when they occur at the end of noun phrases. They differ from nouns in that they

lack inherent gender and when they co-occur with a noun in the same noun phrase they

always follow the noun. They can also be used either attributively or predicatively.

When used attributively, the follow the noun, as in (162) and (163). In (162), the

adjective kulfo 'cold' follows the noun oku 'water' while in (163) the adjective kufe

'good' follows the noun bali 'aibika (a type of greens)'.

(162) ka oku kulfo=k su te wiyi=ka 7081

REAL water cold=LOC 3SG.F 3SG.F.OBJ wash=REAL
She washed her [daughter] in the cold water.

(163) bali kufe=r iki yikwa kisi=ka a-num mehek 6121

aibika good=M NEG salt boil=REAL eat-PRES.1PL NEG
We do not boil good aibika in salt.

When used predicatively, they take predicate clitics, like nouns or noun phrases used

predicatively, as in (164) to (166).

(164) on re nuwa-wa walndo=m kufe=m ELIC

1SG 3SG.M.OBJ give-PAST1 yam=PL good=3PL
The yams I gave him are good.

(165) liki ro-ko=r gamu=r 5091

skin 3SG.M-POSS=M white=3SG.M
Its skin is white.

149
 (166) on-da ser=yun 2727
1SG-EMP be.first=1SG
I am the first.

It is possible to form adjective phrases by modifying adjectives with either of two

degree words that both mean 'very' or 'most', namely mende, illustrated in (167), and

ata, illustrated in (168).

(167) al kufe mende=r 5111

taro good very=3SG.M
It is the best kind of taro.

(168) mu=r mu samba ata=r lako kana=r 4006

tree=M tree big very=M seed with=3SG.M
The tree is the biggest tree. It has seeds.

Both follow the adjective they modify.

The word ata is reserved for comparative or superlative meaning, while mende has

a slightly wider range of meanings in addition to comparatives. Mende has a range of

meanings including 'all', 'very', 'more' and 'too'. Some further examples are given in

(169) to (178). Example (169) illustrates the fact that when it is modifying an adjective

which is itself modifying a noun, mende will bear the noun phrase clitic if it is the last

word in the noun phrase. Comparative constructions are discussed in more detail in

§8.5.1.

(169) fer nari mende=r on fu-m-r 6069

pig first very=M 1SG hit-PAST2-3SG.M
[His] very first pig was killed.

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Similarly, if it is modifying an adjective that is modifying a noun that is predicate, the

predicate clitic will appear on mende, as in (170).

(170) wa ene raya ni-kwa-m on-da=yun ser=yun

IRR 1SG.OBJ bring see-DESD-3PL 1SG-EMP=1SG first=1SG

tama samba mende=r 2727

man big very=3SG.M

They want to come see me. I am the first. I am an important man in the clan.

And when it is modifying an adjective which is predicate, the predicate clitic appears on

mende, as in (171) and (172).

(171) di=r kasa yungu ni-r iki kasa mende=r na-nak 5026
DET=M red like see-INF NEG red very=M be.at-VNEG
One looks red. It is not that red, though.

(172) yumu=s ende fanuku yoko war-m-s

yumu=F ende fanuku towards go.down-PAST2-3SG.F
numba mende=r 7039
last very=3SG.M
Yumu came down to Ende Fanuku. [It is] the last place.

Mende can also modify adverbs or relational nouns, as in (173) and (174)

respectively and in this context can bear the locative clitic.

(173) ke-r ke-kwra mende=k kete-ya 4029

PROX-M PROX-ADV very=LOC sing-PRES
This one [child] is singing right here.

(174) ekra ili mende=k ause-num 6086

thus top very=LOC build.roof-PRES.1P
So we build the roof to the very top.

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 The second word meaning 'very', namely ata, has a much more restricted

distribution than mende, being associated primarily with size or age or importance. It is

probably an extension from the homophonous kin term ata which means 'paternal

grandparent' (the father’s father in particular would be the head of the family and clan)

or sometimes to any older relative on the father’s side (see §10.1). Example (175)

illustrates its use as a word meaning 'very'.

(175) mu samba ata=r lako kana=r rusu-m-s 4006

tree big very=M seed with=M sit-PAST2-3SG.F
It lives in a very large tree that has seeds.

Examples (176) and (177) have both ata and mende together modifying the same

adjective.

(176) wanikwesu=r laka ata mende=r 7044

wanikwesu=M oldest very very=3SG.M
Wanikwesu is the oldest.

(177) fringi samba ata mende=r 5091

long big very very=3SG.M
It is the very tallest tree.

The combination of mende and ata strengthen the meaning of 'very' and can have

superlative meaning, as in these two examples.

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When describing superlative diminutive qualities, it is not possible to use mende, or ata.

A sequence of two words meaning 'small' are used, kaiembo and kanda. Example (178)

illustrates this. Note the use of the diminutive clitic =t on the verb as well.

(178) aye gil=s kaiembo kanda=s iki samba na-ya-t 4016

bat gil=F small small=F NEG big be.at-PRES-3D
The Gil bat is very small. It does not become big.

5.7 Numerals

The numerals from one to four are shown below in Table 33.

Form Numeral
dirambu 'one'
lasi, lisi 'two'
lasifirndim, lisifirndim 'three'
lasifu lasifu, lisifu lisifu 'four'

Table 33: Numerals 1-4

Though the numeral forms are invariant, there are some obvious similarities to each

other and some other morphemes. The numeral 'one' seems to include the determiner

di (see §5.5) and often hosts the masculine singular clitic =r. The numeral for 'two' is the

morpheme lasi or its variant lisi, and often hosts the dual clitic =f. The morpheme lasi

'two' is also found in the forms of the numbers three and four. The numeral for three

also seems to have the determiner di along with lasi and the plural clitic =m (see §4.2 for

the different clitics). The numeral 'four' is lasif repeated, with each instance possibly

ending in the discourse clitic =u (see §9.4).

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 The numeral system is a base-five system in that expressions of meanings like 'six'

take the form 'five plus one' and meanings like 'eleven' take the form 'five plus five plus

one'. The counting system of Mehek can be extended up to 20, though in practice it is

typically limited to counting objects ten and below. The pattern for numerals five and

above is shown in Table 34.

Form Numeral Composition

yoko lesu butu, yoko dambe lesu 5 'put hand together'
yoko lesu butu dirambur 6 5+1
yoko lesu butu yoko lesu butu 10 5+5
yoko lesu butu yoko lesu butu dirambur 11 5+5+1
yoko lesu butu yoko lesu butu 15 10 + 'foot'
yoko suwa butu
yoko lesu butu yoko lesu butu 20 10 + 'foot' + 'foot'
yoko suwa butu yoko suwa butu

Table 34: Numerals for 'five' and Above

Following the pattern of morphological combinations does yield numerals above

ten, though they become quite unwieldy and difficult to produce on the fly. In practice,

Tok Pisin numerals are used for numbers above about five. To create numbers five and

above, the forms become structurally complex and are partially based on body part

terms. These kinds of restricted counting systems are quite common throughout Papua

New Guinea. The numeral for 'five' has two variant forms that are composites of lesu

'hand', dambe 'fruit species', butu 'put hands together' and the relational noun yoko

(see §5.10.2). Both include the morpheme for 'hand', lesu. To generate the numerals

fifteen and above, a new form is introduced modeled on the word for 'five', but

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replacing lesu with the word for 'foot', suwa. This gives it a meaning something like 'foot

fist'. The form for 'twenty' already includes two instances each of words which refer to

hands and feet and so this is the limit of the system. Example (179) gives an example of

a numeral for 'five' in use.

(179) tawa=t ru ra=ka yen

woman=DIM 3SG.M take=REAL child

[yoko dambe lesu]=m kuw-m-r 6066

[five]=PL give.birth-PAST2-3SG.M

He took a wife and [she] had five children.

Numerals either precede the noun, as in (180), or follow, as in (181).

(180) ka nambul wre-m-k [lisifu lisifu] ningi=k 2162

REAL sun shine-PAST2-SUB [four] day=LOC
While the sun was shining for four days.

(181) or kasa samba=f lasi nawe=f ni-m-yun ELIC

bilum red big=DU two only=DU see-PAST2-1SG
I saw two big red bilums (string bags).

But numerals do not normally host noun phrase clitics; the noun phrase clitic will be

attached to the word preceding the numeral, as in (181), where the dual clitic =f occurs

on the adjective samba 'big' preceding the numeral lasi 'two'. However, a numeral can

also be a complete noun phrase and when this happens, the numeral will host the noun

phrase clitic; because of its meaning lasi 'two' will always host the dual clitic =f, as in

(182) and (183).

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 (182) lasi=f ama golo tenge=k wi-m-f 2129
two=DU bamboo bamboo.species branch=LOC go.up-PAST2-3DU
The two of them climbed up that golo bamboo.

(183) fe ni-m-f bi=f kondu yoko=f lasi=f

3DU.OBJ see-PAST2-3DU tooth=DU high towards=DU two=DU

ari yoko=f lasi=f 4093

edge towards=DU two=DU

They [dual] saw two teeth, two on the top and two on the bottom.

However, there are some instances in my data of lisi ~ lasi 'two' hosting the dual clitic,

even when it is not the sole word in the noun phrase, in which case, we get two

occurrences of the dual clitic, one preceding the numeral and one on the numeral, as in

(184) and (185).

(184) tama=r tawa=f lisi=f ra-m-r 4029

person=M woman=DU two=DU get-PAST2-3SG.M
A man took two wives.

(185) tama=f lasi=f gra=r o-r-a fu wi-kya-f 1728

man=DU two=DU gra.seed=M DIST-M-EMP 3DU pick-FUT1-3DU
Two men will collect gra (seeds).

Similarly, in (186), we get the dual clitic on the word nawe 'only', which is modifying the

numeral lasi 'two', so that we get two occurrences of a noun phrase clitic, one on the

adjective samba 'big', the other on nawe 'only'.

(186) or kasa samba=f lasi nawe=f ni-m-yun ELIC

bilum red big=DU two only=DU see-PAST2-1SG
I saw two big red bilums (string bags).

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 Examples (187) and (188) illustrates numerals acting adverbially, separated from

the nouns they are associated with semantically.

(187) naku sirka=m fu ta=ka [lisifirndim] nawe=m 7078

sago leaf=PL 3DU dam.river=REAL [three] only=PL
They [dual] dammed the river with only three sago leaves.

(188) felnde aka ki-r lisi lisi na-ya-f 4124

bird house build-INF two two be.at-PRES-3DU
There are two kinds of bird blind.

5.8 Possession

Nominal possession is expressed with possessive pronouns whose forms are

described in §5.4.4. The possessive pronouns can either precede or follow the possessed

noun. When they follow the noun, they always host the noun phrase clitic, as in (189) to

(190).

(189) inin ro-ko=r mengu ki-num 5078

sap 3SG.M-POSS=M drum build-PRES.1PL
We use its sap to make drums.

(190) nawa tawa fo-ko=s kom sukna-m-s 7053

mother wife 3DU-POSS=F village sleep-PAST2-3SG.F
Their [dual, respective] mother and wife sleeps in the village.

However, as we would expect, when they precede the noun they do not occur with the

noun phrase clitic, as in (191) and (192).

(191) na ro-ko mu=r toko-m-m 4110

and 3SG.M-POSS garamut=PL play-PAST2-3PL
They played his garamut [drum].

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 (192) nu kuna no-ko suwa lesu=m ni-wa-n 6041
2SG self 2SG-POSS leg arm=PL see-PAST1-2SG
You saw your arms and legs.

Examples (193) and (194) show that noun phrase clitic cannot occur on a possessive

pronoun preceding the possessed noun, whether or not a noun phrase clitic occurs on

the possessed noun. This shows that when we get coding of the possessed on the

possessive pronoun, this is simply the noun phrase clitic and not an affix on the

possessive pronoun.

(193) *no-ko=f tawa ELIC

2SG-POSS=DU woman
your two wives

(194) *no-ko-f tawa=f ELIC

2SG-POSS-DU woman=DU
your two wives

Possessive pronouns will also host predicate clitics when they follow the noun in a noun

phrase functioning as predicate, as in (195).

(195) ningre nawa afa mo-ko=kum ya susu=ka ni=ka 6008

today mother father 3PL-POSS=2PL come stand=REAL see=REAL
Today, you [plural] are their fathers and mothers, they came to look.

The examples above illustrate pronominal possessors. When the possessor is

nominal (i.e. involves a noun plus possible modifiers), the possessor noun phrase

precedes the possessed noun, but a possessive pronoun occurs as well, either between

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the possessor noun phrase and the possessed noun, as in (196) to (200), or following the

possessed noun, as in (201), though the former seems more common.

(196) wanirkwesu ro-ko yen=r o-kwra rusu-m-r 7045

wanirkwesu 3SG.M-POSS child=M DIST-ADV sit-PAST2-3SG.M
Wanirkwesu’s son stayed there.

(197) haulai ro-ko hokwa=r kute-tn OVH

haulai 3SG.M-POSS song=M sing-1SG.IMP
I will sing Haulai’s song.

(198) maure marfe so-ko sungamba=r eloko-tn 7010

ancestor marfe 3SG.F-POSS story=M tell-1SG.IMP
I will tell Ancestor Marfe’s story.

(199) om merka r-oko tembe=k i rusu-m-r ka

fish fish.species 3SG.M-POSS bed=LOC go sit-PAST2-3SG.M REAL

rusu ale-m-r 6067

sit properly-PAST2-3SG.M

He went to sit on the Merka fish’s bed and sat carefully.

(200) on-da=yun maure fer ro-ko yen=yun 6064

1SG-EMP=1SG ancestor pig 3SG.M-POSS child=1SG
I am Ancestor Pig’s child.

(201) felnde gamu=s bi mo-ko=m bi samba=m 5039

bird gamu=F tooth 3PL-POSS=PL tooth big=3PL
The Gamu bird’s beak are big beaks.

An alternative construction for nominal possession involves simply placing the

possessor noun phrase before the possessee noun, without use of a possessive

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pronoun, as in (202) to (207); the noun phrases containing a nominal possessor are

shown in boldface.

(202) yen kin sere-ka-yun 4029

child tail.bone break-FUT2-1SG
I will break the child’s tailbone.

(203) nango=r fer sir o-r-a ka ambasu-n 2175

INJ=M pig name DIST-M-EMP REAL forget-PRES.1SG
Uh, the pig's name. I forgot that.

(204) mundu bi siki=k 5062

centipede tooth hole=LOC
In the hole [made by] the centipede’s tooth.

(205) fer kute tama=r wa fer lesu=r re rete-ka-m 6085

pig cut man=M IRR pig hand=M 3SG.M.OBJ put-FUT2-3PL
They will put the pig’s legs out for the man who cut the pig.

(206) di no-ko nanda fi=r=ka ELIC

DET 2SG-POSS older.brother spear=3SG.M=INT
Is that your older brother's spear?

(207) isi-m-m yen sir=t 7012

call-PAST2-3PL child name=DIM
They called the child’s name.

Nominal possession can involve embedded possession, when the possessor is itself

possessed. The resultant noun phrases involve two possessive pronouns, one within the

possessor noun phrase, the other accompanying the higher possessed noun. For

example, in (208), the possessive pronoun numgo modifies the noun maure 'ancestor'

and bears the noun phrase clitic =s for the noun phrase maure numgo 'our ancestor',

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but this noun phrase is itself the possessor of hokwa 'song' and the possessive pronoun

sokora (the emphatic form of soko) follows the common pattern of a possessive

pronoun occurring between a possessor noun phrase and a possessed noun.

(208) maure num-go=s so-ko-ra hokwa=r 7033

ancestor 1PL-POSS=F 3SG.F-POSS-EMP song=M
our ancestor’s song

Example (209) is a second example, although here the possessive pronoun soko within

the possessor noun phrase di soko yen 'her child' precedes the possessed noun (yen

'child').

(209) di so-ko yen fo-ko wusu mu sambo=m 4096

DET 3SG.F-POSS child 3DU-POSS play garamut beat=PL
her child’s flute [tune] and garamut [drum] beat

It is also possible to have triple-embedded possession, as in (210) and (211).

(210) nanda num-go=r ro-ko yen so-ko fi=r ELIC

older.brother 1PL-POSS=M 3SG.M-POSS child 3SG.F-POSS spear=M
our older brother's [female] child's spear

(211) num-go-ra gasiwa=s so-ko yen ro-ko fi=r ELIC

1PL-POSS-EMP sister=F 3SG.F-POSS child 3SG.M-POSS spear=M
our sister's [male] child's spear

Possessive pronouns can take the emphatic morpheme -ra following the possessive

stem (see §5.4.5 for details of how these forms are realized), as in (212) to (215).

(212) nu-ra ongo-ra mu=r oro-wa-n 6022

2SG-EMP 1SG.POSS-EMP=M tree=M chop-PAST1-2SG
You chopped down my tree!

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 (213) kum-go-ra liki=r kel nawe-ya-r 6048
2PL-POSS-EMP skin=M fresh only-PRES-3SG.M
Your [plural] very skin is just so fresh looking.

(214) dun-go-ra yaku=s mu te kwla tongo=ka 6077

1DU-POSS-EMP grandmother=F 3PL 3SG.F.OBJ have.sex take=REAL
They raped our [dual] grandmother.

(215) ru ro-ko-ra gasiwa=t ru-ra ra-m-r 4095

3SG.M 3SG.M-POSS-EMP sister=DIM 3SG.M-EMP take-PAST2-3SG.M
He married his [a different man’s] sister.

Examples (216) to (218) show that it is possible for possessive pronouns to function

as predicates, in which case they occur with predicate clitics.

(216) yen kum-ko=r 2803

child 2PL-POSS=3SG.M
The child is yours.

(217) nura ongo-ra=n ELIC

2SG.EMP 1SG.POSS-EMP=2SG
You are mine.

(218) on ekra ro-ko-ra=yun ELIC

1SG in.that.way 3M-POSS-EMP=1SG
I am his.

5.9 Relative Clauses

Relative clauses in Mehek precede the head noun, as in (219) to (221). There is no

marking the clause as a relative clause, either with some word or with some verb

morphology.

162
 (219) sofo girmi tama ta sofo=r 5013
snake snake.species person bite snake=3SG.M
The girmi snake is a snake that bites men.

(220) elowo tongo tama=f afko=f 6028

animal hold person=DU old=3DU
The two men holding the animal are old.

(221) fer kute tama=r wa fer lesu=r re rete-ka-m 6085

pig cut man=M IRR pig hand=M 3SG.M.OBJ put-FUT2-3PL
They will put the pig’s legs out for the man who cut the pig.

The verb in the relative clause is often a bare verb stem, as in the three preceding

examples. However, the verb is sometimes inflected, as in (222) to (224), though only

for tense or mood, not for subject.

(222) ser ser ra-m tama=r indi=k i ni-m-r 6063

first first get-PAST2 person=M again=LOC go see-PAST2-3SG.M
The man to get [jungle resources] first came back to see it.

(223) ru susu-wa eme=r war-m-dun mehek 6070

3SG.M stand-PAST1 place=M go.down-PAST2-1DU NEG
We [dual] did not go down to the place where he was standing.

(224) tu u-na gwini=t ni ni i-num 5099

3SG.DIM glow-COND mushroom=DIM see see go-PRES.1PL
As for the mushroom [which is said to] glow, we come look for it.

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 In most of the examples cited so far, the head of the relative clause is functioning as

the subject in the relative clause. In (223) above, it is functioning as a locative, as it is in

(225) to (227).

(225) num ki=ka felnde num fu mu=r 5069

1PL build=REAL bird 1PL hit tree=M
We built [on] the tree where we kill birds.

(226) mombu fu kete eme=r o-kwra i war-m-r 4031

tree.species 3DU cut place=M DIST-ADV go go.down-PAST2-3SG.M
He went down there to the place where they [dual] cut Mombu trees.

(227) naku oro eme=r naku nawa=r 6082

sago chop place=M sago trunk=3SG.M
The place for chopping sago is [at] the sago trunk.

In (228), the head is functioning as a direct object in a clause that contains an

indirect object.

(228) on re nuwa-wa walndo=m kufe=m ELIC

1SG 3SG.M.OBJ give-PAST1 yam=PL good=3PL
The yams I gave him are good.

In (229), the head is functioning as the object of the first verb in a serial verb

construction, though it bears no relation to the second verb yam 'come'. See §7.4 for

more on serial verbs.

(229) num tirete=ka ya-m tama=r 6077

1PL leave=REAL come-PAST2 person=M
The man we left and came (back).

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5.10 Relational Nouns and the Locative/Instrumental Clitic

There are two types of morphemes that serve to mark a noun for roles other than

subject or object, signalling a semantic relationship between a noun phrase and a verb.

These are the locative/instrumental clitic =k, discussed in §5.10.1, and relational nouns,

discussed in §5.10.2.

5.10.1 Locative and Instrumental =k

The clitic =k counts as a noun phrase clitic in the sense that it cannot co-occur in a

noun phrase with a noun phrase clitic coding number and gender and occurs in the

same position in the noun phrase as the other noun phrase clitics, following the noun

and following an adjective or possessive pronoun but preceding a demonstrative or

numeral. Semantically, however, it functions differently from the other noun phrase

clitics in that it does not code number or gender and functions as a case marker covering

a variety of meanings, the most common being locative (LOC) or instrumental (INS).

Examples (230) to (233) illustrate the locative use.

(230) yen=f o-f-ra kom=k sukna-m-f 4078

child=DU DIST-DU-EMP village=LOC sleep-PAST2-3DU
Those two children slept in the village.

(231) mu solka yengla=k o-kwra kur=ka sukna-ya-s 5038

tree dry branch=LOC DIST-ADV go.high=REAL sleep-PRES-3SG.F
She [a grasshopper] sleeps up high in a dried tree branch.

(232) kiri talma-m-s au=k tenge=ka 6046

fire start-PAST2-3SG.F pot=LOC boil=REAL
She started a fire; she boiled [the water] in a pot.

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 (233) masi anele o-m-ra rusu-ya-m kom=k 4011
masi anele DIST-PL-EMP stay-PRES-3PL village=LOC
Masi, Anele [and the rest] are staying there in the village.

It sometimes occurs on locative expressions where the meaning in context is 'from', as

in (234).

(234) ki=k te wra i-m-m 6063

vagina=LOC 3SG.DIM.OBJ go.out go-PAST2-3PL
They [insects] came out of her vagina.

The instrumental use is illustrated in (235) to (237).

(235) re fu lam arma=k re fu-wa-n

3SG.M.OBJ 3DU arrow bow=INS 3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST1-2SG

fi=k re fu-wa-n 5103

spear=INS 3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST1-2SG

You hit him with a bow and arrow, you hit him with a spear.

(236) yikwa nato=ka o-r-a yikwa=k 4117

salt make.salt=REAL DIST-M-EMP salt=INS
They make salt with that salt.

(237) fi=k re fu-m-yun ELIC

spear=INS 3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-1SG
I killed him with a spear.

The instrumental usage sometimes has a meaning more like 'in the manner of', as in

examples (238) and (239).

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 (238) maure=s ka wi-m-s wala=k 7030
spirit=F REAL go.up-PAST2-3SG.F dog=INS
The spirit went up [the mountain] like a dog.

(239) ekra ale=ka worna=k ekra rusu=ka ra

in.that.way careful=REAL straight.line=INS in.that.way sit=REAL take

ya-m-m kara 4117

come-PAST2-3PL indeed

They come and sit in a straight line.

The locative/instrumental clitic can also mark temporal adjuncts, as in (240), where

it occurs on mande 'Monday', in (241), where it occurs on di ningi 'sometimes', and in

(242), where it occurs on nurku 'night'.

(240) mande=k ene rii tiri-ka-f kamben ELIC

monday=LOC 1SG.OBJ remain leave-FUT2-3DU or
Will you take me on Monday?

(241) klei ka di ningi=k i ni-wa-n ka samba=k

then REAL some day=LOC go see-PAST-2SG REAL big=INS

na-ya-m 5095
become-PRES-3PL

Then sometimes you went to see and they are big.

(242) er-m-f nurku=k siri-r-kya-dun ka ambe

say-PAST2-3DU night=LOC die-R-FUT1-1DU REAL finish

ekra er-m-f 1726

so say-PAST2-3DU

They asked each other if they will die in the night, so they discussed this.

This includes durative temporal adjuncts, like lisifu lisifu ningik 'for four days' in (243).

167
 (243) ka nambul wre-m-k [lisifu lisifu] ningi=k 2162
REAL sun shine-PAST2-SUB [four] day=LOC
The sun was shining for four days.

The locative/instrumental clitic also marks the complement of verbs meaning

'become'. In (244), for example, it occurs on the noun tama 'man', complement of the

verb na, which here means 'become' (though elsewhere it can mean 'be at' or 'exist').

(244) ka tama=k na-m-r 6098

REAL man=INS become-PAST2-3SG.M
He turned (back) into a man.

(245) klei ka gulmombu=k na-ka-m 5095

then REAL gulmombu=INS become-FUT2-3PL
Then they will become Gulmombu [mushrooms].

The two preceding examples illustrate the use of the locative/instrumental clitic on

nominal complements of verbs meaning 'become'. It also occurs on adjectival

complements of such verbs, like sambak 'big' in (246) to (248).

(246) fer ata o-r-a su nuwa-m-r

pig very DIST-M-EMP 3SG.F give-PAST2-3SG.M

samba=k na-m-t 4049

big=INS be.at-PAST2-3SG.DIM

That big pig that was taken care of by her grew large.

(247) nu i ni-k klei ka samba=k na-ya-m 5095

2SG go see-SUB then REAL big=INS become-PRES-3PL
When you go see, then they have [already] grown big.

168
 (248) yen ra=ka samba=k ka samba=k na-m-r 4067
child get=REAL big=INS REAL big=INS become-PAST2-3SG.M
He got the child and he grew up.

Example (249) is similar, except that here it occurs on the adjective laka 'big' and the

verb is wi 'grow'.

(249) naku gamu=r ekra naku kufe=r wa laka=k wi-kya-r 5016

sago white=M thus sago good=M IRR big=INS grow-FUT1-3SG.M
White sago is good sago. It will grow up tall.

In (250), we get the adjective samba 'big' occurring as a nonverbal predicate with the

instrumental clitic.

(250) [mele mele] nawa=m yen=m mu samba=k 7084

[long.ago] wife=PL child=PL 3PL big=INS
A long time ago [when] wives and children were big.

The use of the locative clitic in (251) is more difficult to categorize, though it appears to

be a secondary predicate and this use is probably related to its use on complements of

verbs meaning 'become'.

(251) kiri ru fe sunngo-m-k kulfo=k a-m-f 6001

fire 3SG.M 3D start.fire-PAST2-SUB uncooked=INS eat-PAST2-3DU
When he started a fire for them [dual], they just ate it uncooked.

As discussed on §5.10.1, the locative/instrumental clitic often occurs on adverbs, as

in (252) and (253).

169
 (252) ekra re er-m-k oku=r
in.that.way 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-SUB water=M

indi=k yiri-m-r 6106

back=LOC fall-PAST2-3SG.M

As he was telling him [something], he fell back down into the water.

(253) awar=k ka ya-kya-r ELIC

later=LOC REAL come-FUT1-3SG.M
He is on his way. [In a little bit, later today.]

It also occurs on relational nouns, as in (254).

(254) ka re tolo eloko-m-r ekra nu i=ka loko=s

REAL 3SG.M.OBJ tell say-PAST2-3SG.M in.that.way 2SG go=REAL rain=F

wate-na o-r-a i ner ari=k susu-ø 6062

rain.fall-COND DIST-M-EMP go ner.tree below=LOC stand-2SG.IMP

He told him, “As you go, if it rains, go stand underneath that Ner tree.”

And, like nominal clitics, it can occur on postnominal modifiers, as in (255) to (259). In

the first four examples, it attaches to the postnominal modifier nawe 'only'.

(255) tawa=s ke-t-a biki eku=ka

woman=F PROX-F-EMP how do=INT

kom nawe=k sukna-ya-s=ka 7053

village only=LOC sleep-PRES-3SG.F=INT

What is this woman doing? Does she only sleep in the village?

(256) kulu nawe=k aku-m-r aku=ka wuya-m-r 4053

road only=INS go.back-PAST2-3SG.M go.back=REAL come.up-PAST2-3SG.M
He just went back along the road. He went back and came up.

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 (257) wa awar nawe=k i-kun ELIC
IRR later only=INS go-FUT1.1SG
I will just go later.

(258) kulu nawe=k aku-m-r aku=ka wuya-m-r 4053

road only=LOC go.back-PAST2-3SG.M go.back=REAL come.up-PAST2-3SG.M
He just went back along the road. He went back and came up.

In (259), it attaches to the postnominal adjective angur 'new'.

(259) iki nu angur=k bunandi=t ka wuwr tongo-ka-n 4118

NEG garden new=LOC maybe=DIM REAL pitpit hold-FUT2-2SG
If there is none [aibika] in the new garden, you will get some pitpit.

The locative/instrumental clitic is not in general obligatory, though some of its uses,

such as instrumental, it is generally used. In (260), however, it does not appear on the

instrumental expression fim 'spears'.

(260) fi=m re fu-m-yun ELIC

spear=PL 3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-1SG
I killed him with spears.

Nor does it appear on tawul kin nawel 'only the tip of the tongue' in (261).

(261) re so-m-m tawul kin nawe=t 7075

3SG.M.OBJ lick-PAST2-3PL tongue tail only=DIM
They licked him with just the tip of the tongue.

It is also possible to express a location without using the locative clitic =k. In (262), there

is no marking on aka 'house'.

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 (262) aka rusu-m-s tama=r ya-m-r 4030
house sit-PAST2-3SG.F person=M come-PAST2-3SG.M
She sits in the house and the husband comes.

In (263), there is no marking on afla 'medium river'.

(263) afla lisi safungrou ni-ya-m biarna-ya-n ka 4102

medium.river cook safungrou see-PRES-3PL surprise-PRES-2SG REAL
They cook at the river and see Safungrou and are thrilled.

In (264), there is no marking on kom meyu terwo, the name of a place.

(264) kom meyu terwo a-m-r kisi naku tawo 4102

kom meyu terwo eat-PAST2-3SG.M boil sago turn.sago
At Kom Meyu Terwo he eats. He boils [water] and turns sago.

And in (265), there is no marking on aka gur 'roof'.

(265) em aka gur ene ya tasu=ka eku-ya=ø 4033

who house apex 1SG.OBJ come step.on=REAL do-PRES=2SG.INT
Who is stepping on my roof?

It is also common for noun phrases headed by a relational noun to lack the locative

clitic, presumably because the relational noun is itself inherently locative. Examples

illustrating this are given in (266) and (267).

(266) aka fenda fi=r ru ra=ka 6119

house from spear=M 3SG.M get=REAL
He got a spear from the house.

(267) fu oku wiyi-m-f oku nuw i-m-f 6113

3DU water wash-PAST2-3DU water under go-PAST2-3DU
They [dual] washed. They went to the bottom of the water [river].

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See the next section for discussion of relational nouns.

5.10.2 Relational Nouns

There is a group of words which I analyze as relational nouns, listed in Table 35.

Noun Meaning
ambe 'end/last point'
ari 'edge area'
bor (kirkir) 'middle (center)'
fenda 'from'
gan 'edge point'
grow 'center'
ili 'on top'
inba ~ minba 'near'
kana 'together with'
kondu 'highest/farthest point'
maha 'opposite side'
mena 'inherently possessed'
nuw 'under/within'
siki 'hole', 'inside'
tol 'starting point', 'north'
tombo 'endpoint', 'south'
werko 'far edge'
yoko 'towards'
yungu6 'like'

Table 35: Relational Nouns

Some of these words function like postpositions, illustrated by yoko 'towards' in (268).

6
The word yungu also occurs as a clausal connection; see §8.2.2.

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 (268) o-m-ra tongo ra-m-r
DIST-PL-EMP hold get-PAST2-3SG.M

di ro-ko kom yoko aku-m-r 6095

DET 3SG.M-POSS village towards go.back-PAST2-3SG.M

He took them and went back to his own village.

The majority of these relational nouns denote locations and can occur either with a

preceding noun phrase or by themselves, though some of them usually have a preceding

noun phrase. Some of them, on at least some uses, translate into English as

prepositions. Some of them might in fact be analyzed as postpositions and some of

them might be analyzed as postpositions in some uses but as relational nouns in others;

however, I find no good reasons for distinguishing postpositions from relational nouns.

One reason that I analyze these words as nouns is that many of them, at least those

that have locative meaning, can can occur with the locative clitic =k, as in (269) to (274).

Example (269) illustrates the relational noun maha 'the opposite side of'.

(269) oku maha=k te wiyi-m-s 7081

water opposite.side=LOC 3SG.F.OBJ wash-PAST2-3SG.F
She washed her on the opposite side of the water.

Example (270) illustrates the relational noun gan 'edge'.

(270) aka=r o-r-a oku gan=k susu-ya-r 1626

house=M DIST-M-EMP water edge=LOC stand-PRES-3SG.M
The house is located near water.

Example (271) illustrates minba 'near'.

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 (271) samdo=s au=r minba=k na-ya-s ELIC
spider=F pot=M near=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.F
The spider crawls near the pot.

Example (272) illustrates the relational noun siki 'inside'; it also functions as an ordinary

noun meaning 'hole'.

(272) samdo=s ke-s-a au siki=k na-ya-s ELIC

spider=F PROX-F-EMP pot inside=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.F
The spider is in the pot.

Example (273) illustrates the relational noun tombo 'edge of'.

(273) ru nawa=s kana sunngu tombo=k rusu-kla-m-r 6068

3SG.M wife=F with stove end=LOC sit-CONT-PAST2-3SG.M
He kept on sitting at the end of the stove with his wife.

Example (274) illustrates the relational noun ari 'below'.

(274) ka re tolo eloko-m-r ekra nu i=ka loko=s

REAL 3SG.M.OBJ tell say-PAST2-3SG.M in.that.way 2SG go=REAL rain=F

wate-na o-r-a i ner ari=k susu-ø 6062

rain.fall-COND DIST-M-EMP go ner below=LOC stand-2SG.IMP

He told him, “As you go, if it rains, go stand underneath that Ner tree.”

Example (275) illustrates the relational noun werko 'on the far side of', though without a

preceding noun phrase.

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 (275) yefa=m o-m-ra tongo=ka eku rusu-ya-r
bone=PL DIST-PL-EMP hold=REAL do sit-PRES-3SG.M

tongo ra=ka kasi=k i rusu=ka eku werko=k 4052

hold get=REAL REM=LOC go sit=REAL do side=LOC

He took those bones and sat. He took them and went far away.
He sat and [carved it] on the side.

However, relational nouns sometimes occur without a locative clitic, as illustrated

by the relational noun nuw 'under, bottom' in (276) and fenda 'from' in (277).

(276) fu oku wiyi-m-f oku nuw i-m-f 6113

3DU water wash-PAST2-3DU water under go-PAST2-3DU
They [dual] washed. They went to the bottom of the water [river].

(277) aka fenda kaku=m ra wra-yun ELIC

house from mami=PL get come.out-PRES.1SG
I took mami from the house.

Some relational nouns appear never to occur with the locative clitic, such as yoko

'toward', as in (278) to (281).

(278) kom yoko aku-ya-num 5003

village towards go.back-PRES-1PL
We are going back to the village.

(279) aka guw mu=r kute=ka ama=r yoko 6086

house roof.apex wood=M cut=REAL bamboo=M towards
[He went] on to the roof to cut wood, near the bamboo.

(280) woro nuku yoko i=ka marasin di=m ene ra ELIC

tomorrow nuku towards go=REAL medicine DET=PL 1SG.OBJ get
Will you go to Nuku tomorrow to get me some medicine?

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 (281) aka kulu yoko ru wi aku=ka rusu=ka 7053
house road towards 3SG.M go.up go.back=REAL sit=REAL
He went home on the road. He went up and went back and rested.

Example (282) might appear to be an exception to this, but this is a use of yoko as a

noun meaning 'side' rather 'towards'.

(282) klei yoko=r tasu-ya-num 6086

then side=M step.on-PRES-1PL
And then we step on the sides.

The relational noun kana 'with' also does not occur with the locative clitic, as

illustrated in (283) and (284), though this is probably because it is a non-locative

meaning.

(283) su kana su kom sukna-m-s 7054

3SG.F with 3SG.F village sleep-PAST2-3SG.F
She slept in the village with her.

(284) yen kanda=s kana i-wa-dun 7053

child small=F with go-PAST1-1DU
I went with the small girl.

The same applies to yungu 'like', illustrated in (285) to (287).

(285) takre kufu=r kiri yungu tikwa yungu u-ka-r 5082

takre vine=M fire like coconut.husk like burn-FUT2-3SG.M
The Takre vine will burn like fire, like a coconut husk [will burn].

(286) tama liki yungu ni-r 5047

person skin like see- INF
Its skin looks like a person’s.

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 (287) yam waa=r a yungu a-r 5021
banana waa=M eat like eat-INF
Eating it is like eating a Waa banana.

As noted above, some of the relational nouns and some uses of other relational

nouns might be analyzed as postpositions. For one thing, they often signal a semantic

relationship between a noun phrase and a verb (or noun), like adpositions in other

languages, rather than denoting something the way noun phrases normally do. This is

especially true for some relational nouns, like kana 'with' and yungu 'like'.

Although relational nouns do not occur with noun phrase clitics when they are

functioning as adjuncts of the verb, they do occur with noun phrase clitics when they

function as part of a noun phrase. In (288), for example, the masculine noun phrase

clitic =r occurs on kana, but in this case lam kana 'with spines' is modifying the noun

kufu 'vine' and the noun phrase clitic occurs on kana only because kana is the last word

in the entire noun phrase kufu lam kana. That is, it is not marking the relational noun

phrase lam kana but rather the entire noun phrase kufu lam kana 'a vine with spines'.

(288) kufu lam kana=r ELIC

vine spine with=M
a vine with spines

A second example of this is given (289), where we have a noun phrase that lacks a noun,

but contains three constituents, the determiner di, the demonstrative ora and the

relational noun phrase lam fringi kana 'with long spines'.

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 (289) di o-r-a lam fringi kana=r ELIC
DET DIST-M-EMP spine long with=M
the one with long spines

Again, the noun phrase clitic in (289) is not marking the relational noun phrase lam fringi

kana 'with long spines', but the entire noun phrase. A third example is given in (290). It

is less obvious that the diminutive noun phrase clitic is not marking the relational noun

phrase kom fenda 'from the village' since this phrase is not modifying anything.

(290) kom fenda=t iki a-num ELIC

village from=DIM NEG eat-PRES.1PL
The one[s] from the village we do not eat.

However, kom fenda 'from the village' in (290) is not modifying the verb. Rather it is the

subject. More to the point, kom fenda denotes people who are from the village, not just

some location. In other words, (290) should be viewed as analogous to (289) in that it is

a noun phrase that does not contain a noun but only a phrase that functions like a

modifier of a noun. To put it another way, kom fenda in (290) is a noun phrase lacking a

noun that consists of a relational noun phrase, and the noun phrase clitic is marking this

higher noun phrase, not the relational noun phrase per se.

Although relational nouns do not normally occur with noun phrase clitics coding

gender and number (except in the special circumstance just mentioned), they do occur

with predicate clitics (§4.2.2), as in (291) to (294). In (291), we get the masculine clitic =r

on the relational noun fenda 'from', where the predicate is aitape fenda 'from Aitape'.

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 (291) di ongo=r tamalako=r aitape fenda=r ELIC
DET 1SG.POSS=M tamalako=M Aitape from=3SG.M
He is mine, he is Tamalako, he is from Aitape.

Example (292) is similar, except in this case we get the plural clitic =m on fenda.

(292) same arko=m eme=m oku owlei fenda=m 7025

same arko=PL place=PL oku owlei from=3SG.PL
The Same and Arko clans are from many places, like Oku Owlei.

In (293), we get the masculine clitic on the relational noun kana 'with', where the

predicate is lako kana 'with seeds', one way to express the meaning of 'have' in Mehek.

(293) mu=r mu samba ata=r lako kana=r 4006

tree=M tree big very=M seed with=3SG.M
The tree is the biggest tree. It has seeds.

And in (294), we get a dual clitic on kana.

(294) naka fu tawa=f engle kana=f 6097

and 3DU woman=DU spell with=3DU
And the two women had a spell.

However, the relational noun yungu 'like' does not occur with a predicate clitic in (295).

(295) tete iki on ne ni-nak iki maure yungu 6050

honorable NEG 1SG 2SG.OBJ see-VNEG NEG spirit like
Older [brother] I did not see you; you did not look like a spirit.

On the other hand, yungu does occur with a predicate clitic in (296).

(296) ke-t-a kuna suwa nawa yungu=t 2803

PROX-DIM-EMP self coconut nawa like=3DIM
She is the size of a nawa coconut.

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 Relational nouns also occur with first or second person predicate clitics, as in (297)

to (299). In (297), the relational noun fenda 'from' occurs with a first person plural

predicate clitic.

(297) fer kana tama=num kana ke-r-a

pig with man=1PL with PROX-M-EMP

war sul nuw fenda=num 6071

go.down ground under from=1PL

We men, along with the pig came from down there under the ground.

In (298), we get a first person plural predicate clitic on the relational noun kana 'with'.

(298) ke-r-a sofo gamu kana=num ELIC

PROX-M-EMP snake white with=1PL
We have this white snake.

In (299), kana 'with' occurs with a second person singular predicate clitic.

(299) mowlen kana=n ELIC

anger with=2SG
[You are a] piece of garbage. (literally 'You are with anger')

One way relational nouns are unlike other nouns is that the noun phrases that

precede the relational noun lack noun phrase clitics, as in the above examples (see also

§4.2). In addition, the fact that relational nouns and a preceding noun phrase can

modify a noun, following the noun, as in (288) above, is another way in which they are

different from other nouns, since it is otherwise not possible for a noun phrase to follow

a noun modifying it. It is possible for noun phrases to modify nouns as possessors, but

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these precede the noun and their semantics are different, since relational noun phrases

following a noun are not functioning as possessors.

Another way in which relational nouns are different from other nouns is that they

do not occur with possessive pronouns before them. For example, in (300), we get an

emphatic subject form of a the third person plural personal pronoun rather than a

possessive form.

(300) mu-ra kana yam a-r erka na-r ru ka kra kra 2723
3PL-EMP with banana eat-INF want but-M 3SG.M real cry cry
He wanted to go with them to eat bananas, but he was crying.

Two of the relational nouns, yoko and fenda (pronounced henda in Kafle), are unlike

the other relational nouns, in that they can follow one of the other relational nouns,

while other pairs of relational nouns are not allowed.7

The word yoko 'towards' indicates movement towards a location. Examples (301)

and (302) show fenda and yoko, respectively, following another relational noun.

(301) fer kana tama=num kana ke-r-a

pig with man=1PL with PROX-M-EMP

war sul nuw fenda=num 6071

go.down ground under from=1PL

We men, along with the pig came from down there under the ground.

7
This is likely because these words indicate motion while the others indicate static position.

182
 (302) fe ni-m-f bi=f kondu yoko=f lasi=f
3DU.OBJ see-PAST2-3DU tooth=DU high towards=DU two=DU

ari yoko=f lasi=f 4093

edge towards=DU two=DU

They [dual] saw two teeth. Two on the top and two on the bottom.

In (303), yoko is being used as a noun in its own right, without following another noun.

(303) klei yoko=r tasu-ya-num 6086

then side=M step.on-PRES-1PL
And then we step on the sides.

The word fenda 'from' indicates movement away from a location or a person’s

village of origin. Examples (304) and (305) show the canonical usage of fenda, in the

sense of place of origin.

(304) fu wur=ka yamrasi fenda=f 6079

3DU go.out=REAL yamrasi from=3DU
The two of them come from Yamrasi.

(305) iki ke-kwra

fenda=m na-nak
NEG PROX-ADV from=PL be.at-VNEG

o-r-a ekra ya-m-num 2176

DIST-M-EMP thus come-PAST2-1PL

Those men were not from here so we came.

In example (306), fenda is used in a temporal sense.

(306) maure yiwara [mele kusa] fenda=r 6077

ancestor ancestor [long.ago] from=M
[our] ancestors from long ago

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 There are two words which can be translated as 'with', namely kana and mena.

They are both relational nouns. They have a distinction similar to that of

alienable/inalienable possession, though that is not the exact distinction. The word kana

describes a situation where two or more people or objects are associated with each

other, but do not have any inherent or necessary connection. In (307), the seeds grow

on the tree, so the tree is seen as possessing the seeds. In (308), the spell (which is a

physical substance) is brought along – the people have the spells.

(307) mu=r mu samba ata=r lako kana=r 4006

tree=M tree big very=3SG.M seed with=3SG.M
The tree is the biggest tree. It has seeds.

(308) o-f-ra indi=k ya-m-f naka fu tawa=f

DIST-DU-EMP again=INS come-PAST2-3DU and 3DU woman=DU

engle kana=f ru-ra tama=r engle kana=r 6097

spell with=DU 3SG.M=REAL man=M spell with=3SG.M

Those two came again. The two women had a spell.

He, the man, [also] had a spell.

The word mena, on the other hand, describes a more inherent connection. While it

is used to describe objects that are attached, in a part/whole relation, or some other

type of necessary association, it can also describe containment relations. Example (309)

includes an example of mena. In this case, a longer variety of sago which is described as

having a tail, is described. The tail is an inherent part of this sago leaf.

184
 (309) mu [blosu blosu] ka kumba=m mu rete=ka naku=m
3PL [pound flat] REAL leaf=PL 3PL put=REAL sago=PL

o-m-ra kin mena=m tawo-m-m 4112

DIST-PL-EMP tail with=PL turn.sago-PAST2-3PL

They pounded [them] flat. They got leaves.

They turned that long [kind of] sago [the kind “with a tail”].

Examples (310) and (311) contrast mena and kana with respect to a bag. In the former,

mena refers to all the contents of the bag, while in the latter, kana must be used to

include the other items which are coming along with the bag.

(310) o-r mena ene raya -ø ELIC

DIST-M with 1SG.OBJ bring-2SG.IMP
Bring me the bilum (string bag) with all its contents.

(311) o-r kana uwku kana ene raya-ø ELIC

DIST-M with sugarcane with 1SG.OBJ bring-2SG.IMP
Bring me the bilum (string bag) with the sugarcane.

The contrast between (312) and (313) show that kana but not mena is not possible

when there is no inherent connection.

(312) sufali=r anele=s kana i-wa-r kaku sa-r ELIC

sufali=M anele=F with go-PAST1-3SG.M mami dig-INF
Sufali went with Anele to dig mami.

(313) *sufali=r anele=s mena i-wa-r kaku sa-r ELIC

sufali=M anele=F with go-PAST1-3SG.M mami dig-INF
Sufali went with Anele to dig mami.

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5.11 Compounds

There are four types of noun compounds that I will discuss here. These are

asymmetrical compounds (§5.11.1), symmetrical compounds (§5.11.2), and names for

plants and animals (§5.11.3). I will also discuss series compounds, symmetrical

compounds consisting of more than two nouns (§5.11.4) and hierarchical compounds,

compounds consisting of more than two nouns with an internal constituent structure

(§5.11.5).

5.11.1 Asymmetrical Compounds

Asymmetrical noun compounds are ones where one noun is the head and the other

noun modifies it. In Mehek, it is usually the second noun that is the head and first that is

modifier. Normally, the second noun describes the general kind of an entity while the

first noun specifies the specific subtype; this is a reason to say that the second noun is

the head and the first noun modifies it. Examples are given in (314) and (315). In the

compound walndo sara 'a walndo basket' (a type of basket) in (314), the second noun

sara is the general noun for basket, while the first noun walndo specifies a particular

type of basket.

(314) sara ru tokmbo=ka walndo sara=r 4002

basket 3SG.M carry.on.shoulder=REAL yam (type of basket) basket=3SG.M
He carried a basket. [It was] a yam basket.

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In the compound manbo gwasi 'the pepper that grows by the Manbo tree' in (315), the

second noun gwasi 'pepper' is the head, while the first noun manbo 'a tree species' is

modifier.

(315) afa=r manbo gwasi kute-wa-r 6116

father=M tree.species pepper pick.seeds-PAST1-3SG.M
Father cut the pepper that grows by the Manbo tree.

The fact that gwasi 'pepper' is the head is also clear in this case because manbo gwasi is

a type of pepper, not a type of tree.

There are exceptions to the normal compound order. In duwan nawa 'a large type

of basket' in (316), the head of the compound is the first noun duwan 'basket' while the

second word nawa 'mother' specifies a sub-type, the larger basket used by adults.

(316) au sul=r mu sa sa=ka duwan nawa mu tukta=ka 6075

pot dirt=M 3PL dig dig=REAL basket mother 3PL carry.on.head=REAL
They dug dirt for a pot and carried it in a mother [large-sized] basket.

The second element of the compound can also metonymically stand in for action

accomplished with that noun. The most common usage in this respect is with lesu

'hand'. Here, the hand is meant to signify the action done by hand, specifically, planting,

as illustrated in (317). In these cases, the second noun is indeed a noun and not a verb,

in that it is ungrammatical to use verbal morphology with the noun of the implied

action, as illustrated in (318).

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 (317) gwini lesu=r ELIC
mushroom hand=M
hand-planted mushroom

(318) *gwini lesu-m-r ELIC

mushroom hand-PAST2-3SG.M
mushroom planted by hand

In asymmetrical compounds, both nouns have the same primary stress typically

associated with that noun, but the stress on the first noun will be somewhat reduced

and the stress on the second noun will be somewhat enhanced. That is, differences in

stress can help determine whether two nouns are in a compound relationship, or

whether they are separate noun phrases. In the case of separate noun phrases, both

nouns will have the same relative stress level. Furthermore, in a compound, only one

clitic will be present.

5.11.2 Symmetrical Compounds

In the compounds discussed in the last section, there is an asymmetric relationship

between the two nouns in that one noun is more head-like while the other is more like a

modifier. But there are also symmetrical compounds, where the two nouns play the

same role in the compound, where the meaning is similar to conjunction. There is a

difference in stress between these compounds and the asymmetric compounds .

Namely, in these symmetric compounds, both nouns carry an equal primary stress.

These symmetric compounds behave like single nouns, rather than conjoined noun

phrases, in that they occur with a single noun phrase clitic. In (319) and (320), the two

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nouns are both kin terms and the compound denotes the pair of individuals, treating

them as a group.

(319) nanda tawa=f fu tawo=ka rete-m-f 7037

older.sister wife=DU 3DU turn.sago=REAL put-PAST2-3DU
[My] sister and wife turned sago and put it [away].

(320) tawa nanda=fun=ka 7037

wife older.sister-3DU=INT
You two are a wife and a sister, now? [You are all grown up.]

Note that the number of the clitic is only appropriate for the totality of the nouns

taken in conjunction: in both (319) and (320), the clitic is dual, although in (319) it is a

noun phrase clitic, while in (320) it is a predicate clitic.

5.11.3 Animals and Plant Names

Animal and plant names are a type of asymmetrical compound, but they are worth

separting them out since unlike most asymmetical compounds the head of the

compound is the first noun rather than the second one. That is, the type of animal or

plant is the first noun and the second noun is the sub-type of the first. This system of

naming is not unlike the Linnaean classification system in Western biology, where the

more generic genus name precedes the specific species name. There is a limited set of

classificatory categories which are all common nouns and can also be used as generic

terms for the entire class of individual species within a class. Table 36 lists all these

category names for plants and animals.

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 Category (Animal) Gloss Category (Plant) Gloss
algan 'fly' al 'taro'
aye 'bat' ama 'bamboo'
felnde 'bird' awa 'flower'
fi 'mosquito' bali 'aibika' (edible green)
girsi 'frog' barka 'opa' (edible green)
gulma 'mantid' baye 'grass'
gwiyo 'firefly' duwle 'stinging nettle'
mangur kon 'millipede' gwini 'mushroom'
mulu 'rodent' kaku 'mami' (yam variety)
mundu 'centipede' kufu 'vine'
nekwa 'tree wallaby' mini 'betelnut'
nembe 'lizard' mondo 'fruit'
nun 'louse' mu 'tree'
om 'fish' naku 'sago'
owe 'caterpillar' suwa 'coconut'
samdo 'spider' tikwiyi 'ginger'
sifi 'ant' walndo 'yam'
sofo 'snake' yam 'banana'
tekwle 'worm'
umaka 'edible ant'
umbu 'beetle'
walingi 'crab'
walma 'round beetle'
wiyi 'bee'

Table 36: Animal and Plant Category Terms

Examples (321) to (324) illustrate some of these animal and plant names in use.

(321) mulu gra=r kom=r mehek 6121

rodent rodent.species=M village=M NEG
Mulu Gra does not live in villages.

(322) uwku blala=t iki uwku samba=t na-nak 6121

sugarcane cane.species=DIM NEG sugarcane big=DIM be.at-VNEG
Blala sugarcane is not a big kind of sugarcane.

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 (323) gulma kitakwesu=t kufe=t 5082
grasshopper grasshopper.species=DIM good=DIM
The Kitakwesu grasshopper is good.

Other examples include samdo airewan 'airewan spider' and gulma worsute 'worsute

grasshopper'.

With a minority of animal and plant names, the head comes second. For example,

the compound won gulma 'Won mantis', illustrated in (324) is an exception to the

general pattern whereby the head is first; in this case the second noun gulma 'mantis,

grasshopper' is the head.

(324) won gulma=t gulma samba=t 5082

mantis.species mantis=DIM mantis big=DIM
The Won mantis is a big mantis.

While I have no explanation for the order in won gulma, many instances of animal or

plant names in which the head comes second are ones where the modifer is a

description of where the animal or plant can be found rather than simply a word for the

particular species. Example of this include aka samdo 'house spider' and wuwr gulma

'cane grass grasshopper'. In aka samdo 'house spider', the modifier is the noun for

'house' while in wuwr gulma 'cane grass grasshopper', the modifier is the name for a

type of cane grass.

In addition to these compounds, there are some species which do not have a

compound name and can only be referred to by a single noun. Due to language loss, the

less common species names are being lost by younger speakers, though older speakers

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still know them. The generic category terms are also widely used when specificity is not

called for or when the specific type was not known. For example, if a bird called out,

most speakers would know the specific name by the bird’s call and would refer to it by

its species-specific name. However, if someone was going hunting for birds, the

category name would be used, unless only one species of bird was sought.

5.11.4 Series Compounds

In addition to noun-noun compounds, groups of nouns consisting of more than two

nouns listed in series can also be a compound, as in (325) and (326).

(325) samdo lam lam=s sumalangi suwa lesu so-ko=m kur kur=s 5047
spider lam lam=F mouth leg arm 3SG.F-POSS=PL black black=3SG.F
[As for] the Lamlam spider, her mouth, legs and arms are black.

(326) yen yinsawa gana nanda bu so-ko=m 4026

child cousin’s.wife younger.brother older.brother clan 3SG.F-POSS=PL
her children, cousin’s wife, brothers, and her [whole] clan

These compounds are simply more general instances of the symmetric compounds

discussed above in that they have semantics that is more like conjunction. These series

compounds are still treated syntactically as a unit and can only host one noun phrase

clitic.

5.11.5 Hierarchical Compounds

In series compounds (mentioned in the preceding section), several nouns will be

juxtaposed and treated as a single syntactic entity. The series of nouns is a simple list (as

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above)and will take dual or plural agreement as appropriate. There are also complex

compounds consisting of more than two nouns, which have a hierarchical structure in

that they can be broken down into parts, some of these parts being themselves

compounds, similar to English Boston baked beans, which consists of the noun Boston

plus the compound baked beans. With compounds consisting of three words, there are

in fact two possible constituent structures. One possibility is that the first two nouns

form a compound which together modify the final noun in the structure (NN)N. This is

illustrated in (327). In this case, mundu 'centipede' and bi 'tooth' combine in a

asymmetrical compound with bi 'tooth' as head (since mundu bi is a type of tooth), and

this compound in turn combines with siki 'hole' to form a second asymmetrical

compound with siki 'hole' as head (since the whole compound denotes a kind of hole).

(327) mundu bi siki=k 5062

centipede tooth hole=LOC
in the hole [made by] the centipede’s tooth.

It is also possible for the final two nouns to form a compound which together combine

with the first noun in the structure N(NN). This is illustrated by fer ama yirkwe 'pig

bamboo knife' in (328).

(328) fer kefu=r ra-wa-m fer ama yirkwe mu ra=ka 6040

pig blood=M get-PAST1-3PL pig bamboo knife 3PL get=REAL
They got the pig blood and the bamboo knife for killing pigs.

Note that regardless of the constituent structure, the compound conforms to the

general principle that the modifier occurs first and the head second. In (328), fer ama

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yirkwe 'pig bamboo knife' denotes a type of bamboo knife and the compound ama

yirkwe 'bamboo knife' denotes a kind of knife.

It is also possible for the embedded compound to be a symmetrical compound. For

example, in (329), the compound afa nanda wur, literally 'father older-brother stone-

axe' but meaning 'ancestor stone-axes', the first two words afa nanda, literally 'father

older-brother' is a symmetrical compound meaning 'ancestor' that in turn modifies wur

'stone axe' in an asymmetrical compound.

(329) afa nanda wur [mele kusa] fenda=r 6097

father older.brother stone.axe [long.ago] from=M
ancestors stone axes from long ago

The opposite situation is also possible: one can have a complex compound where the

component parts combine together in a symmetric compound. Example (330) illustrates

this possibility, where the the component parts are suwa fringi 'leg long' and lesu fringi

'arm long' and they combine together symmetrically to denote someone with long legs

and long arms. Again, note the single noun phrase clitic at the end of the entire

sequence, showing how the entire sequence behaves like a noun.

(330) suwa fringi lesu fringi=r 5084

leg long arm long=M
long-leg and long-arm person

With all types of compounds, the whole compound behaves like a noun in that one

gets a single noun phrase clitic at the end of the entire sequence, as in (330). Note that

the number of the noun phrase clitic can be singular or dual or plural depending on the

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semantics of the compound. For example in (330) above, the compound is followed by a

singular clitic since although the set of long arms and long legs is plural, the compound

denotes (or can denote) a single person with long arms and long legs. Contrast this with

(331), where the compounds ari yoko 'bottom side' and kondu yoku 'top side' occur with

dual clitics because they each denote pairs of teeth.

(331) bi=f lasi=f ari yoko=f kondu yoko=f 4092

tooth=DU two=DU bottom side=DU top side=DU
There were two teeth [each]: the bottom [had] two and the top [had] two.

5.12 Place Names

Place names are similar compounds in that they are usually composed of two (and

sometimes more) morphemes that have independent status. Villages, mountains, rivers,

and jungle locations (those that can be cultivated) are given names. The names often

describe a physical feature of that area (oku numbul 'small water'), something that lives

or grows there (al kom 'taro village'), or an event that happened there at some time in

the past (siki wi 'climb up a hole'). A commonly repeated name throughout the villages

is au siki 'pot hole'. These are areas that have clay that is suitable for making clay pots.

The following Table 37 gives a brief sample of place names from throughout the Mehek

speaking area. See Appendix I for a complete list of place names.

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Place Name Gloss Meaning
Al Kom taro village 'Taro Village'
Arko Kaha Kaha Ekaa stone bad bad food 'Bad Bad Stone Food'
Au Siki pot hole 'Pot Hole'
Fawi Oku fawi water 'Fawi (bird species) Water'
Fer Naku pig sago 'Pig Sago'
Kita Lako tulip seed 'Tulip (tree species) Seed'
Koko Kroro chicken cry 'Chicken Cry'
Kom Arko village stone 'Stone Village'
Kom Wule village wule 'Wule (yam species) Village'
Manbi Oku Oule manbi water full 'Manbi (tree species) Full Water'
Mangi Fle mangi hunt 'Mangi (rat species) Hunt'
Maure Felnde spirit bird 'Spirit Bird'
Mu Yen Siri tree child die 'Sapling Death'
Nawa Muwku mother breast 'Mother's Breast'
Nuwngu Sa lime boil 'Lime Boil'
Oku Bor water middle 'Middle Water'
Oku Falfalti water twisting 'Twisting Water'
Oku Numbul water small 'Small Water'
Sara Lili basket hang 'Hang a Basket'
Siki Wi hole go.up 'Climb Up a Hole'
Sofo Wambisi snake wambisi 'Sofo Wambisi (snake species)'
Sul Kasa earth red 'Red Earth'
Sul Kwesu earth orange 'Orange Earth'
Tombo tree.trunk 'Tree Trunk'
Wafu heart 'Heart'
Wal Kasa wal red 'Red Wal (tree species)'
Wala Mu dog tree 'Dog Tree'
Walko hibiscus 'Hibiscus'
Wate Mulu Kwar breadfruit rat kwar 'Kwar (caterpillar species) that Lives on
Mulu Breadfruit (plant species)'

Table 37: Sample Place Names

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5.13 Conjoined Noun Phrases

To conjoin noun phrases, it is necessary to use the relational noun kana 'with' (see

§5.10.2) twice, following each noun phrase, as in (332), where both the pronoun

ondayun '1SG-EMP=1SG' and the noun phrase aneles are followed by kana.

(332) on-da=yun kana anele=s kana sauwo=m eku-ya-dun 4005

1SG-EMP=1SG with anele=s with work=PL do-PRES-1DU
Anele and I are doing [our] work.

Addtional examples are given in (333) to (336).

(333) fer kana tama=num kana ke-r-a

pig with man=1PL with PROX-M-EMP

war sul nuw fenda=num 6071

go.down ground under from=1PL

We men, along with the pig came from down there under the ground.

(334) or kana uwku kana ene raya-ø ELIC

bilum with sugarcane with 1SG.OBJ bring-2SG.IMP
Bring me the bilum (string bag) with the sugarcane.

(335) or kana sul kana tisi-yu-m-r 4091

bilum with earth with carry.on.shoulder-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
He often carried it on the shoulder with a bilum (string bag) and soil.

(336) tawa=s kana maure=s kana tama=s kahakana fu-m-s 7063

woman=F with spirit=F with person=F many hit-PAST2-3SG.F
A woman and a spirit [were going together]; the woman killed many [things].

The relational noun kana is also used with noun phrases to indicate that someone is

included in a group denoted by another pronoun or a subject suffix on the verb. For

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example in (337), instead of saying something that would translate literally as 'you and

I', we have what is literally 'Let’s go stand over there with me'; i.e. the first person

singular reference is not added to the referent of the imperative pronoun anda, but is

included in it.

(337) on-da kana anda i susu=ka 7058

1SG-EMP with 1DU.IMP go stand=REAL
Let’s you and I go stand over there.

Example (338) is similar, though in this case the referent of the noun phrase that

combines with kana is included in the referent of the subject suffix, again 3DU.

(338) yen kanda=s kana i-wa-dun 7053

child small=F with go-PAST1-1DU
I went with the small girl.

It is also possible to conjoin noun phrases with disjunctive meaning using the same

word kamben 'or' that is used to express this meaning with clauses (§8.1.3), as in (339).

(339) dinafle nekwa kamben lasi nekwa=f mu bow 6076

same moon or two moon=DU 3PL dry
For one month, or maybe two months they dry [the clay pot] out.

There are also instances of what might be analyzed as conjoined noun phrases

where the two noun phrases are simply juxtaposed, illustrated by al yam 'taro and

bananas' in (340).

(340) num a-k klei ka i=ka al yam a-ya-num 4123

1PL eat-SUB then REAL go=REAL taro banana eat-PRES-1PL
We eat it and then go to eat taro and bananas.

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However, I analyze these as symmetrical compounds (§5.11.2). They differ from the

conjoined noun phrases discussed above in that they occur with a single noun phrase

clitic governing the entire noun phrase, like nawa gana nanda 'mother younger.brother

older.brother', which is followed by the plural noun phrase clitic =m, governing the set

of all three people.

(341) nawa gana nanda=m ekra re er-m-k 6106

mother younger.brother older.brother=PL thus 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-SUB
while [his] mother and brothers told it to him

Similarly, yau nandasi kaha 'brother’s.wife and brother' in (342) is followed by a

possessive pronoun go 'my' and the dual noun phrase clitic =f, both of which appear to

modify the compound noun yau nandasi kaha.

(342) yau nandasi kaha go=f

brother’s.wife brother bad 1SG.POSS=DU

kiri di=t wa ene nuwa-ka-fun 6047

fire DET=DIM IRR 1SG.OBJ give-FUT2-3DU

My brother and wife, [please] give me some fire.

However, the example in (343) cannot be analyzed as a compound noun since it involves

the conjunction of two noun phrases liki sokor 'its skin' and kulka sokom 'its feathers'.

(343) liki so-ko=r kulka so-ko=m okwe okwe=t

skin 3SG.F-POSS=M feather 3SG.F-POSS=PL yellow yellow=3SG.DIM
kulfo kulfo=t gamu gamu=t 3810
green green-3SG.DIM white white=3SG.DIM
Its skin and feathers are yellow, green, and white.

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Similarly, nawam yenm 'wives and children' in (344) cannot be analyzed as a compound

noun, since both nouns occur with the plural noun phrase clitic =m.

(344) [mele mele] nawa=m yen=m mu samba=k 7084

[long.ago] wife=PL child=PL 3PL big=INS
A long time ago [when] wives and children were big.

5.14 Noun Phrase Structure

The most frequent order of constituents within simple noun phrases is schematized

in (345).8

(345) Noun Phrase = (Det/Dem/Poss/Num/PossNP) + (noun) + (AdjP) + (Poss/Det)

+ (noun phrase clitic) + (Dem/[Num + noun phrase clitic])

The formula in (345) does not include relative clauses (see §5.9), which always precede

the noun, or relational noun phrase modifiers of nouns, which either precede or follow

the noun (see below) or adnominal interrogative words; it is not clear how these are

ordered with respect to other modifiers of nouns. All of the constituents in (345) are

optional since one can have noun phrases consisting only of nouns and noun phrases

lacking nouns. Where possibilities are indicated as alternatives, namely with

8
The formula in (345) and the labels on examples below use the following abbreviation:
Det determiner
Dem demonstrative
Poss possessive pronoun
PossNP nominal possessor plus optional possessive pronoun
Num numeral
Adjp adjective phrase

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'(Det/Dem/Poss/Num/PossNP)', '(Dem/Num)' and '(Poss/Det)', it is not clear whether

there is a preferred order.

An example containing many of the constituents in a noun phrase is given in (346).

(346) Dem + Det + N + AdjP + Poss + noun phrase clitic

ke-r-a di sauwo samba ro-ko=r

PROX-M-EMP DET work big 3SG.M-POSS=M

iki on eku-nak ELIC

NEG 1SG do-VNEG

I didn't do this big job of his. I did this job.

Example (347) shows how postnominal demonstratives are different from

postnominal possessive pronouns, the latter illustrated above in (346): in (346), the

noun phrase clitic attaches to the possessive pronoun, while in (347), it attaches to the

adjective rather than the demonstrative.

(347) N + A + noun phrase clitic + Dem

ekra indi=k siri-m-r

thus back=LOC die-PAST2-3SG.M

tama welmbe=r ora kara 6028

man true=M DIST-M-EMP indeed

So he died again, that honest man.

Example (348) shows how numerals are like demonstratives and unlike possessive

pronouns in that the noun phrase clitic attaches to the word preceding the numeral.

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 (348) N + clitic + Num

wate na=f lisi lisi re nuwa-yu-m-s 4048

breadfruit seed=DU two two 3SG.M.OBJ give-REP-PAST2-3SG.F
She often gave him two breadfruit seeds.

However, the more common pattern for numerals is for there to be two noun phrase

clitics, one on the numeral (or numeral phrase) and one on the word preceding the

numeral. Example (349) illustrates the less common pattern, with two noun phrase

clitics, one on the adjective samba 'big' and one on the numeral, or more accurately the

numeral phrase, since the clitic appears on the word nawe 'only' modifying the numeral.

Example (350) shows a demonstrative followed by a numeral, which is reduplicated (see

§7.11)

(349) N + A + A + noun phrase clitic + Num + 'only' + noun phrase clitic

or kasa samba=f lasi nawe=f ni-m-yun ELIC

bilum red big=DU two only=DU see-PAST2-1SG
I saw two big red bilums (string bags).

(350) N + Dem + Num

naka tama o-m-ra lisifirndim lisifirndim numbanoko-m-m 1728

and man DIST-PL-EMPH three three poison- PAST2-3PL
And these three men poisoned others.

Whether this is the normal order if there is both a demonstrative and a numeral is not

clear. It is also possible that the numeral is a separate noun phrase, since it often bears

its own noun phrase clitic in addition to the one preceding it.

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 Example (351) shows two occurrences of the determiner di in its less frequent

position following the noun. In both cases, it follows an adjective, but the two

occurrences differ in that in the first instance, there are two noun phrase clitics in the

noun phrase, one on the adjective samba 'big', the other on the determiner, while in the

second instance, there is only one occurrence, on the determiner.

(351) N + A + noun phrase clitic + Det + noun phrase clitic & N + A + Det
+ noun phrase clitic

nu felnde samba=m di=m ene nuwa-na

2SG bird big=PL DET=PL 1SG.OBJ give-COND

on felnde kaiembo di=m ne nuwa-kun 6112

1SG bird small DET=PL 2SG.OBJ give-FUT1.1SG

If you give me some big birds, I will give you some small birds.

Example (352) illustrates a postnominal relational noun phrase modifying a noun.

The fact that the relational noun phrase is followed by a noun phrase clitic shows that

such relational noun phrases behave like adjectives and possessive pronouns and unlike

demonstratives and numerals in preceding the noun phrase clitic.

(352) N + Relational Noun Phrase + noun phrase clitic

kufu lam kana=r ELIC

vine spine with=M
a vine with spines

Example (353) illustrates a relational noun phrase preceding a noun that it modifies.

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 (353) Relational Noun Phrase + N + Adj + noun phrase clitic

ke-kwra fenda tama tawa yelnda=m

PROX-ADV from man woman all=PL

moni rete-m-m [yelnda oku]=t mehek ELIC

money put-PAST2-3PL [all]=DIM NEG

The people from here paid the bride price, but not everyone [else] did.

The next set of examples illustrate multiple modifiers preceding a noun. The part of

the formula in (345) that describes the prenominal modifiers as

'(Det/Dem/Poss/Num/PossNP)' is so formulated because I do not have much data on

which prenominal modifiers can co-coccur if they can, what their relative order is. The

only thing that is clear is that the determiner and possessive pronoun can co-occur and

when they do, the determiner precedes the possessive pronoun. Both (354) and (355)

illustrate this, differing only in that (348) also includes a postnominal adjective.

(354) Det + Poss + N + noun phrase clitic

di fo-ko sara=k ra tu wi-m-f 4057

DET 3DU-POSS basket=LOC get drop go.down-PAST2-3DU
The two of them dropped it into their very own basket.

(355) Det + Poss + N + A + noun phrase clitic

di ro-ko yen indo=r fu-m-s kara 2723

DET 3SG.M-POSS child true=M hit-PAST2-3SG.F indeed
She really killed his true son.

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 My data contains very few examples of the determiner co-occurring with a

demonstrative when both precede the noun; one is given in (346) above, and in this

example, the demonstrative precedes the determiner.

While my data contains very few examples of relative clauses co-occurring with

other adnominal expression, (356) contains a demonstrative preceding a relative clause

preceding a noun.

(356) Dem + Rel + N + noun phrase clitic

ke-t-a suwa sere-k nawa=t 4040

PROX-DIM-EMP foot break-SUB mother=DIM
this little broken-footed mother

As noted above, nouns are not obligatory in Mehek and it is in fact common to have

noun phrases lacking a noun. A noun phrase can contain just an adjective, illustrated by

kandat 'the little one' in (357).

(357) wula=k na-ya-t kanda=t 5083

jungle=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.DIM small=DIM
He stays in the jungle, the little one.

Or it can contain just a demonstrative pronoun, illustrated by in (358); these could be

treated simply as pronouns or as noun phrases containing a demonstrative word but

lacking a noun.

(358) o-f-ra indi=k ya-m-f 6097

DIST-DU-EMP again=INS come-PAST2-3DU
Those two came again.

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Or it can contain just a determiner as in (359) and (360).

(359) di=r ka siri-m-r 6005

DET=M REAL die-PAST2-3SG.M
One of them died.

(360) di=m bungu kasa=m 5007

DET=PL leaf.spine red=3PL
Some [leaf spines] are red leaf spines.

Or it can contain just a numeral, as in (361).

(361) lasi=f ama golo tenge=k wi-m-f 2129

two=DU bamboo bamboo.species branch=LOC go.up-PAST2-3DU
The two of them climbed up that golo bamboo.

Or it can contain just a relational noun phrase, where the meaning is something with the

property denoted by the relational noun phrase rather than something denoted by the

relational noun. I.e. the noun phrase yambutu sengaula walkufu fendam in (362)

denotes people with the property of being from Yambutu, Sengaula or Walkufu.

(362) yambutu sengaula walkufu fenda=m wa nambo ya-ka-m 4117

yambutu sengaula walkufu come.from=PL IRR with come-FUT2-3PL
They will come with people from Yambutu, Sengaula and Walkufu.

Similarly, kom fendat in (363) is another example.

(363) kom fenda=t iki a-num ELIC

village from=DIM NEG eat-PRES.1PL
The one[s] from the village we do not eat.

Similarly yen wauk kanas in (364) means 'the one with a child in her stomach'.

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 (364) fu ka i=ka tawa mus=u yen wau=k kana=s 4029
3DU REAL go=REAL woman first.wife=FOC child stomach=LOC with=F
They [dual] go and the first wife, the pregnant one.

It is possible for a noun phrase to consist of just a possessive pronoun, as long as the

context supports the utterance. An example of this would be in an answer to a question

about who is the owner of a particular item.

Similarly, it is possible for noun phrases to contain two or more words or

constituents that normally serve as modifiers of nouns, without there being a noun in

the noun phrase. Some examples are givenin (365) to (369).

(365) Dem + A + noun phrase clitic

ke-r afko=r ende ya ni-ya-r 6093

PROX-M old=M 1DU.OBJ come see-PRES-3SG.M
This old man came and saw us.

(366) Dem + A + noun phrase clitic

o-r-a kanda=r hokwa kete rusu-yu-m-r kara 4034

DIST-M-EMP small=M song sing sit-REP-PAST2-3SG.M indeed
The little one who was sitting and singing there.

(367) Det + Poss + noun phrase clitic

klei woro ka di ro-ko=m 4106

then tomorrow REAL DET 3SG.M-POSS=PL
So tomorrow [he will go to] his [gardens].

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 (368) Det + Poss + Adj + noun phrase clitic

di ongo tama=r ya-ya-r ELIC

DET 1SG.POSS big=M come-PRES-3SG.M
My big guy is coming.

(369) Det + Dem + Relational NP + noun phrase clitic

di o-r-a lam fringi kana=r ELIC

DET DIST-M-EMP spine long with=M
the one with long spines

Example (370) contains a noun phrase consisting of a personal pronoun plus an

adjective plus noun phrase clitic.

(370) ru kanda=r war yefa=f tongo-m rokor 4032

3SG.M small=M go.down bone=DU hold-GER CAUS
The small one is down there holding two bones [so he can sing].

My data also contains a few examples of what looks like a noun phrase lacking a

noun but with two noun phrase clitics, as in (371).

(371) Det + Poss + noun phrase clitic + Adj + noun phrase clitic

di ongo=r samba=r ya-ya-r ELIC

DET 1SG.POSS=M big=M come-PRES-3SG.M
My big [guy] is coming. [Mine, the big one, is coming.]

A possible analysis of this would be two noun phrases, the second in apposition to the

first, so that a literal translation would be something like 'My big [guy], the big one, is

coming'.

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Chapter 6: Verbs

6.0 Introduction

This section describes the verbs of Mehek. Verbs are the heads of their clauses and

can occur with a variety of marking, in groups, or singly. The various verb forms can be

divided into two general types, what I will call finite verbs and nonfinite verbs. The

defining feature of finite verbs is that they bear inflection for the person, number, and

gender of the subject. A finite verb has tense or mood, aspect, and person/number/

gender marking (though in this group, aspectual marking is infrequent and cannot co-

occur with a mood suffix, though it can co-occur with tense). Nonfinite verbs come in a

variety of forms. Broadly speaking, these nonfinite forms include (1) bare verb stems,

without any inflection (though possibly with the realis clitic); (2) verb stems plus tense

or mood affixes that occur in finite verb forms, but without subject inflection; and (3)

verbs bearing suffixes that do not co-occur with other suffixes. Sub-sections §6.1 - §6.6

exemplify each of the different suffixes that can occupy the verbal slots.

The general schema of the verb morphology for finite verb forms is given in (1). 9

(1) Verb = stem + (aspect) + tense/mood + subject agreement

While (1) shows both tense/mood and subject agreement as obligatory, they are in fact

not. Since I define finite forms as those bearing subject suffixes, such suffixes are by

9
The formula in (1) does not capture the fact that one does not get aspect suffixes with mood suffixes,
only with tense suffixes.

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definition obligatory for finite forms. However, one occasionally gets forms with tense

or mood suffixes without subject suffixes, so in this sense they are optional. However,

the use of finite verbs lacking tense/mood or subject suffixes is somewhat exceptional. I

discuss the range of possible forms of verbs, including nonfinite forms, in more detail in

§6.7.

§6.1 describes the subject suffixes, §6.2 the tense suffixes, §6.3 the mood suffixes

and §6.4 the aspect suffixes. §6.5 and §6.6 describe the imperative and negative forms

of the verb, respectively, though the latter is discussed more fully in Chapter 7. §6.7

briefly mentions three suffixes associated with subordinate verbs that are described in

more detail in Chapter 8 (in §8.3). Finally, dialectal variants that affect the verbal

paradigm are discussed in §6.9.

6.1 Subject Suffixes

The final suffix on finite verbs is the subject suffix, which codes the person, number,

and gender of the subject, with the additional possibility of diminutive. The subject

suffixes distinguishes three numbers (singular, dual and plural), three persons, and two

genders, but this latter only in the third-person singular. The diminutive is also restricted

to third person singular. In total, there are only 11 different possible person-suffixes

that attach to the verb, five in the singular and three each in the dual and plural. These

inflections are shown in Table 38.

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 Singular (SG) Dual (DU) Plural (PL)
1 -yun, -n -dun -num
2 -n -fun -kum
3M -r
3F -s -f -m
3D -t

Table 38: Subject Suffixes

Subject suffixes attach directly to the verb stem in negative constructions (see

§7.8). Typically, however, person marking follows tense/mood (and if present, aspect)

marking. There is one irregularity in the subject suffixes, and this occurs in the first

person singular. Namely, there are two different morphemes that indicate first-person

singular: −yun, and −n. These involve a tense distinction and will be discussed more fully

below in §6.1.1. In addition, a confounding factor in this paradigm is the 2SG suffix −n,

which is identical with one of the 1SG suffixes. However, these two subject suffixes can

be distinguished in that the first person singular suffix -n does not occur with tense

suffixes. The first person subject suffix -n is illustrated in (2) while the second person

subject suffix -n is illustrated in (3).

(2) wa ekra nemen wuya ni-n 2727

IRR thus 1PL.OBJ go.up see-PRES.1SG
So I come up and see you.

(3) ka kom=r ke-r-a susu=ka ni-ya-n 3804

REAL village=M PROX-M-EMP stand=REAL see-PRES-2SG
You stand and look at the village.

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 The other subject suffixes are straightforwardly applied in all tenses/moods/aspects

and do not vary with tense/mood/aspect. Examples illustrating the subject suffixes are

given in (4) to (12).

(4) nawa=s ka fe ambasu-m-s 4083

mother=F REAL 3DU.OBJ forget-PAST2-3SG.F
Mother forgot about them [dual].

(5) mu siki=k sukna-yu-m-r 4062

tree hole=LOC sleep-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
He often slept in a hole in a tree.

(6) iki [hokwek na]-ka-t wa hanganambu

NEG [waste time]-FUT2-3SG.DIM IRR fast

eku aku-ka-t 5103

do go.back-FUT2-3SG.DIM

She will not waste time. She will go back in a hurry.

(7) war-m-dun mehek ru ka war-m-r 6070

go.down-PAST2-1DU NEG 3SG.M REAL go.down-PAST2-3SG.M
The two of us did not go down. He [alone] went down.

(8) iki hingre na-r-ka-fun kehek mehek 7030

NEG joke be.at-R-FUT2-2DU VNEG NEG
You [dual] don't play around.

(9) o-r ni-m-f mehek 6095

DIST-M see-PAST2-3DU NEG
The two of them did not see it.

(10) o-t-a wula fenda=t ekra fu-ka-num 5047

DIST-DIM-EMP jungle from=3DIM thus hit-FUT2-1PL
She [a lizard] comes from the jungle, so we will kill her.

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 (11) kum o-kwra rusu-ya-kum 3133
2PL DIST-ADV sit-PRES-2PL
You [all] are sitting there.

(12) tama=m ke-kwra rusu-m-m 2176

person=PL PROX-ADV sit-PAST2-3PL
The men stayed here.

6.1.1 First Person Marking without Present Tense

As noted above, there are two first person singular forms, −yun and −n. The former

is the only form which can be used in any tense and it has the same form as the 1SG

predicate clitic (§4.2.2). There are in fact three possible ways to express the first person

in the present tense: (1) using the suffix -n without a tense suffix preceding it; (2) using

the suffix -yun by itself, without a tense suffix preceding it; and (3) using the suffix -yun,

but in combination with the present tense suffix -ya. In other words, the suffix −yun can

occur with or without the present tense suffix −ya, while the suffix −n must occur

without the present tense suffix. It is not possible to have more than one method of

expressing any of the other tenses, as tense and person suffix are obligatory for all other

persons and tenses. In the two cases where the present tense suffix −ya is not present,

the first person suffixes code both tense and person, PRES.1SG.

The factors governing the choice between these three ways of expressing present

tense with a first person singular subject are not entirely clear, though I have identified

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some factors that seem to correlate with particular methods. First, the use of -yun by

itself correlates with habitual meaning, as in (13) and (14).

(13) wa mu di=r i oro-ka-yun ekra eloko-yun 6022

IRR tree DET=M go chop-FUT2-1SG in.that.way tell-PRES.1SG
He ought to go chop trees down. So I [always] tell [him].

(14) wosu=k o-m-ra i fu-yun 6071

animal.house=LOC DIST-M-EMP go kill-1SG
I kill them in the pig house.

Second, the suffix -n often seems to correlate with telic meaning. (In (16), the context of

the story provides the future interpretation for the present tense verb.)

(15) on o-r ni-r erka re er-n ELIC

1SG DIST-M see-INF want 3SG.M.OBJ say-PRES.1SG
I told him I wanted to see it.

(16) on-da nanda=yun ka indi=k i-n 2170

1SG-EMP older.brother=1SG REAL again=LOC go-PRES.1SG
I am the older brother and I will go back.

Examples (17) and (18) employ the suffix -n and show that −yun would be

ungrammatical in the same context.

(17) ni=ka er-m-r ka yiri-ya=ø ka

see=REAL say-PAST2-3SG.M REAL fall-PRES=2SG.INT REAL

yiri-n / *yiri-yun 6018

fall-PRES.1SG / fall-PRES.1SG

He saw it and said, “Do you fall? I fall [when I see it].”

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 (18) ka aka=r on kuwsu-n / *kuwsu-yun
REAL house=M 1SG close-PRES.1SG / close-PRES.1SG

mana kuwsu-na nawe [kwruru suwru] tiri 6058

PROH close-COND only [pretend] leave

She told her, “I [really] close the house [when I leave]. Do not just pretend.”

And third -yayun seems always to refer to an ongoing situation in (19) and (20).

(19) on ka nungul ya-ya-yun 6093

1SG REAL cold come-PRES-1SG
I am [have gotten] cold.

(20) on ka rusu=ka a-ya-yun 6092

1SG REAL sit=REAL eat-PRES-1SG
I am sitting and eating.

However, these correlations have exceptions. For example (21) uses -n, but is

interpreted habitually.

(21) on ka kaku sa-n ELIC

1SG REAL mami dig-PRES.1SG
I dig mami [habitually].

Example (22) employs -n, but seems to be atelic.

(22) aka siki=k rusu-n ELIC

house hole=LOC sit-PRES.1SG
I am in the house.

The dual and plural first person suffixes −dun 1DU and −num 1PL can also attach

directly to the verb stem in the present tense without the present tense suffix −ya. In

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these cases, the verbs have a habitual meaning, as in “we typically do this.” This is

illustrated in examples (23) to (25).

(23) [wirki wirki] ka wuwr-dun ELIC

[always] REAL go.inside-PRES.1DU
We [dual] always go inside.

(24) naku dorko si-num 4115

sago scrape wash-PRES.1PL
We scrape and wash sago.

When these suffixes appear with the present tense suffix, the meaning is that the action

is currently ongoing, as in (25) to (28).

(25) naku eku ambe=ka makwa=m ni-num 4115

sago do finish=REAL bean=PL see-PRES.1PL
When the sago is finished, we see the beans.

(26) naku dorko si-ya-num ELIC

sago scrape wash-PRES-1PL
We are [currently] scraping and washing sago.

(27) on ka rusu=ka a-ya-yun 6092

1SG REAL sit=REAL eat-PRES-1SG
I am sitting and eating.

(28) [ika aka] dulu-ya-num 5008

[poorly] build.wall-PRES-1P
We are making the wall poorly.

6.2 Tense Marking

There are five tenses in Mehek. These are shown in Table 39.

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 Tense Meaning Gloss
-ka remote future FUT2
-kya future today FUT1
-ya present PRES
-wa past today PAST1
-m remote past PAST2

Table 39: Tense Suffixes

Tense marking, when employed, always attaches directly to the verb stem. Any

subject suffixes will then follow it. As mentioned above in §6.1.1 (and also see §7.8),

there are some instances where the verb does take agreement, but no tense marking.

6.2.1 Present Tense −ya

The present tense is indicated with the tense suffix −ya and roughly indicates the

period of time immediately occurring as the speaker speaks or in the very near future.

That is, it can indicate an action concurrent with the time of utterance, as well as an

action that will be occurring in the very near future or an intended future action.

Examples (29) to (38) illustrate the present tense with different subject affixes.

(29) on-da=yun kana anele=s kana sauwo=m eku-ya-dun 4005

1SG-EMP=1SG with anele=F with work=PL do-PRES-1DU
Anele and I are doing [our] work.

(30) nawa su rusu-ya-s 4011

mother 3SG.F sit-PRES-3SG.F
Mother is resting.

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 (31) yekle=m ka mesu-ya-m naka ermesu-ya-m 6085
young=PL REAL hear-PRES-3PL and ask-PRES-3PL
The young [men] hear and are asking.

(32) naka fe er-m-r ka nali-ya-fun 6094

and 3DU.OBJ say-PAST-3SG.M REAL laugh-PRES-2PL
And he said [it] to you [dual] and you [dual] are laughing.

(33) on ka felnde afu=t ni-n ELIC

1SG REAL bird cassowary=DIM see-PRES.1SG
I see a cassowary.

(34) fer ka sukna-ya-r ke-r-a ke-kwra 6084

pig REAL sleep-PRES-3SG.M PROX-M-EMP PROX-ADV
The pig is sleeping right here.

(35) ka num ke-r-a o-kwra rusu-ya-num 2175

REAL 1PL PROX-M-EMP DIST-ADV sit-PRES-1PL
We are staying in this place there.

(36) ka kaha=r ya-ya-r=a maure kum kuna i 2177

REAL bad=M go-PRES-3SG.M=INT ancestor 2PL self go
Is that an evil spirit coming? [Said to a friend upon his return.]

(37) masi anele o-m-ra rusu-ya-m kom=k 4011

masi anele DIST-PL-EMP stay-PRES-3PL village=LOC
Masi, Anele [and the rest] are staying there in the village.

(38) walingi dun-go=t rete=ka sukna-ya-dun 4079

crab 1DU-POSS=DIM put=REAL sleep-PRES-1DU
Put our [dual] crab [away while] we are sleeping.

The use of present tense for intended future action must be one of nearly

immediate execution. For times the same day but not immediately in the future, -kya,

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the future of today tense, must be used. What constitutes immediately is somewhat

inexact. The amount of time in the future that the present tense may be used to

describe varies, but in practice does not exceed an hour or so. That being said, there are

some complicating factors depending on the mood particle being used. For more on the

tense-aspect interaction, see §6.8. For more on the different markings of present tense

in the first person singular, see §6.1.1.

6.2.2 Past Tenses −wa and −m

Past time is divided into two time periods: the past of today, and the past prior to

today. If an event has occurred in the time period from roughly dawn until just recently,

then the past of today -wa is used. It is for events conceived as happening fairly recently

or just completed. While the guideline about dawn is perhaps the closest technical

boundary that could be drawn, there is some variation with respect to the recency of

the event that determines the use of past of today -wa. Upon returning to the village

from working in the garden for example, one would describe it by using the past of

today. On the other hand, if one returned from a whole-day’s walk and had completed

some action early in the morning before departing, and it was now evening, it would be

possible to use the remoter past. But it is possible to use the past of today to describe

an event that happened in the morning even when it is late in the evening the same

day.The past prior to today, or the remote past, -m, is used for all events which have

taken place longer ago, roughly before dawn of the current day. It is in a way the

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“default” past tense since speakers will often use it without necessarily considering

when the events described took place. Example (39) illustrates the use of both past

tenses within the same sentence.

(39) ru ra=ka ya-m-r su ra=ka ya-wa-r 4072

3SG.M get=REAL come-PAST2-3SG.M 3SG.F get=REAL come-PAST1-3SG.M
He got [the fire] and came [yesterday], [The fire] was brought by her [today].

6.2.3 Future Tenses −kya and −ka

Like the past, the future is divided into two time periods: the future of today and

the future beyond today. Examples (40) to (42) illustrate the future of today tense.

(40) awar=k ka ya-kya-r ELIC

later=INS REAL come-FUT1-3SG.M
He is on his way. [In a little bit, later today.]

(41) suwa=r wa kufe rii-kya-r ELIC

coconut=M IRR good remain-FUT1-3SG.M
Will this coconut [water] be good [to drink] later?

(42) wa elowo i-kya-m om=t mulu=t

IRR animal go-FUT1-3PL fish=DIM rodent=DIM

felnde=t mu fu ka raya=ka 4123

bird=DIM 3PL hit REAL bring=REAL

The animals will come: fish, rodents and birds. They will kill and bring them.

There are some similarities between the choice between the two future tenses and

the choice between the two past tenses.10 The speaker’s intention is what is important

10
In the Kafle dialect, −na is often used in place of either −ka or −kya. See §6.9 for examples of this.

220
in the use of the future of today, as its use does not constitute a promise. A speaker

intending to do something later in the day who, for whatever reason, cannot or does

not follow through, would not be bound by the use of that tense or incur the wrath of

his/her fellows. The use of the remote future −ka is the default future: a speaker

wishing to remain agnostic about whether or not he/she will do something or about

whether something will happen, will use the remote future. This does not mean that the

speaker will not perform the act the same day. However, when a speaker does use the

remote future with a first person singular subject, it is often because he/she does not

wish to commit at that moment and is also likely not to do it soon. Examples (43) and

(44) illustrate the remote future −ka.

(43) wa ne tiri-ka-yun ekra re eloko-m-r 6119

IRR 2SG.OBJ leave-FUT2-1SG in.that.way 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M
“I will leave you alone”, he told him.

(44) ne totori yen kin sere-ka-yun 4029

2SG.OBJ drop child tail break-FUT2-1SG
I will drop them [branches] down to you, and will break your child’s back.

In the first person singular, there is a an irregular form for future today. Namely

instead of -kya plus -yun, we get a single morpheme -kun that codes both future today

and first person singular. Formally, this means that there is a contrast in the first person

between -kun and -kayun, which resembles the contrast in the present between -yun

and -yayun. However, this distinction in the present is a distinction that does not arise in

second and third person, while the distinction in the future between -kun and -kayun is

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simply a formal difference between the two future tenses in the first person singular. In

other words, semantically, there is the same two-way distinction in the first person

singular for future that there is for second and third person. Examples (45) and (46)

illustrate this first person singular future today suffix −kun.

(45) felnde aka ki-r i-kun 7072

bird house build-INF go-FUT1.1SG
I will go build a bird blind.

(46) [wirki wirki] wa wuwr-kun ELIC

[always] IRR go.inside-FUT1.1SG
I will always go inside [at this same time].

It is also possible to reference future time without using one of the future tenses at

all, though this is only possible in passive constructions (see §7.6). In these clauses, the

use of a temporal adverb referring to the future is, in fact, the only way to refer to the

future, as the verb can only have person/number/gender marking. This is illustrated in

example (47).

(47) woro mulu a-t OVH

tomorrow rodent eat-3DIM
Tomorrow we will eat [Mangi] rat.

6.3 Mood Suffixes

There are two mood suffixes which occupy the tense/mood slot of the verb. Verbs

bearing one of these suffixes do not occur with a tense suffix. These are listed below in

Table 40.

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 Suffix Meaning Gloss
-kwa desiderative DESD
-na conditional COND

Table 40: Mood Suffixes

When a mood suffix is present, there not only can be no tense suffix, but no aspect

suffix can co-occur either. Both of the mood suffixes normally expresses a future

temporal setting. Desiderative −kwa is typically (though not necessarily) a wish about a

future happening and conditional −na is about a future action that is dependent on

another action. Because of this future temporality, it explains why aspect suffixes do not

co-occur with any future tenses (see §6.4). Each of the mood suffixes is described in a

section below along with further discussion in §6.8.

6.3.1 Desiderative −kwa

To describe actions which one should have done, ought to do, or would like to do,

the desiderative suffix −kwa is used, as in (48).

(48) ekra eku-kwa-num 6096

thus do-DESD-1PL
That is what we would like to do.

This suffix represents the desire of the subject of the verb, rather than the speaker, as

illustrated by (49) and (50).

(49) o-r-a ni nu rusu-r ka ne a-kwa-r 7065

DIST-M-EMP see garden sit-INF REAL 2SG.OBJ eat-DESD-3SG.M
That one sees you sitting in the garden and wants to eat you.

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 (50) wa ene raya ni-kwa-m on-da=yun ser=yun
IRR 1SG.OBJ bring see-DESD-3PL 1SG-EMP=1SG first=1SG

tama samba mende=r 2727

man big very=3SG.M

They want to come see me. I am the first. I am an important man in the clan.

Because this suffix deals with situations which have not been or will not be realized,

no tense suffix can accompany it. The appropriate time period is only inferred from

context. When the desiderative is used, either in the assertive or in the negative, it

implies that the action under consideration was not, or will not be done. But it is not

necessarily future. In (51), for example, the meaning is not 'I want to see it' but 'I wish I

had seen it' or 'I wish I could have seen it'. In other words, the desiderative can express

a wish that something happened but didn’t happen.

(51) on ni-kwa-yun na-r anele=r ni ka ra-wa-r ELIC

1SG see-DESD-1SG but-M anele=M see REAL get-PAST1-3SG.M
I wish I could have seen it, but Anele got it.

(52) nu nate=ka i-kwa-dun mehek 6093

garden cut=REAL go-DESD-1DU NEG
We [dual] would have liked to go clear the garden but we didn’t.

The desiderative is often used in the first person in a sense of 'should', as in (53).

(53) welmbe=t kara ekra eku-kwa-num kara ELIC

true=3DIM indeed in.that.way do-DESD-1PL indeed
That's right. We should definitely do it that way.

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Similarly, (54) is better glossed as 'Which road should I go along' rather than 'Which road

do I want to go along'.

(54) biki kulu=k i-kwa-yun 6025

which road=LOC go-DESD-1SG
Which road should I go along?

Sometimes, it is better glossed with 'able' rather than 'should', as is the case with (55).

(55) ama fasu=ka a-ta

1PL.IMP cook.in.leaf=REAL eat-IMP

kulfo=k a-kwa-num 6048

uncooked.food=INS eat-DESD-1PL

Let's cook it in a leaf and eat it. We can eat it uncooked.

The only mood particle that is compatible with the desiderative is the irrealis mood

particle wa (see §7.2.2), as in (50) above. Example (56) shows that the desiderative

cannot be used with the realis mood particle ka.

(56) *nu ene ka ni-kwa-yun ELIC

2SG 1SG.OBJ REAL see-DESD-1SG
You should have [been able to] see me.

6.3.2 Conditional −na

I label the suffix -na as conditional because it is commonly used in conditional

sentences, either in the protasis clause, as in (57) to (61), or the apodosis clause, as in

(62), or in both clauses, as in (63) and (64). It most often occurs without person marking.

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(57) wa i-na-dun woro elowo fle-r 6049
IRR go-COND-1DU tomorrow animal search-INF
If we two were to come tomorrow, we will hunt.

(58) nu hamba-na bir groro groro 6115

2SG be.present-COND branch scratch scratch
If you are alive, scratch the branch [so I can hear].

(59) iki ne manda-ka-t su ne ta-na 5101

NEG 2SG.OBJ hurt-FUT2-3D 3SG.F 2SG.OBJ bite-COND
It will not hurt if it (she) does not bite you.

(60) nu ene danasu nime-na aku ELIC

2SG 1SG.OBJ wait.for be.unable-COND go.back
If you wait and I do not come, go back.

(61) woro ru sukna-na wa re waki-ka-yun ELIC

tomorrow 3SG.M sleep-COND IRR 3SG.M.OBJ tie-FUT2-1SG
Tomorrow if he's sleeping, I will tie him up.

(62) nu rii=ka nu ekaa-na 6047

2SG remain=REAL 2SG food-COND
If you get it all and carry it, you will eat it.

(63) ekra kum eku-na iki wa bunandi

thus 2PL do-COND NEG IRR something

di=m ni-na-kum mehek 7084

DET=PL see-COND-2PL NEG

So if you all were to do this [bad behavior],

you would not see anything [positive].

(64) on ya-na ya-na-yun 6037

1SG come-COND come-COND-1SG
If I come, I will come.

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It is also used in future when-clauses, as in (65) to (68).

(65) gwa=r ru namble aku-na wa tare-ka-s ELIC

fog=M 3SG.M dissipate go.back-COND IRR shine-FUT2-3SG.F
When the fog clears, [the moon] will shine.

(66) on ka sukna-na ru i-kya-r ELIC

1SG REAL sleep-COND 3SG.M go-FUT1-3SG.M
When I sleep, he will go [today].

(67) felnde gamu=s bi mo-ko=m bi samba=m mu yengla=k

bird gamu=F tooth 3PL-POSS=PL tooth big=PL tree branch=LOC

mu rusu-na mu yengla=r wa take sere-ka-m 5032

3PL sit-COND tree branch=M IRR bite break-FUT2-3PL

The Gamu bird’s beak is a big beak. When they sit in tree branches,
they will bite them and break them.

(68) on wula i-na yombo-k nu wa ene sumbu ELIC

1SG jungle go-COND SIM-SUB 2SG IRR 1SG.OBJ follow
While I go to the jungle, you will come follow me.

However, this suffix is also used in sentences which are non-conditional, where it

expresses a meaning like 'maybe, perhaps', as in (69) and (70).

(69) woro wate kute lisi a-r i-na-dun 7077

tomorrow breadfruit cut burn eat-INF go-COND-1DU
Tomorrow maybe we two will go and get and cook and eat breadfruit.

(70) on-da=yun ana ya dorko-na nu yam lisi 7057

1SG-EMP=1SG 1SG.IMP come scrape.sago-COND 2SG banana cook
Shall I scrape sago? You cook bananas.

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Examples (71) to (73) are similar, although the effect seems to be to form what

functions like a question, but with a second person subject.

(71) iki nu re eloko-na=ka ELIC

NEG 2SG 3SG.M.OBJ tell-COND=INT
You did not talk to him?

(72) iki kom yoko nu i-na=ka ELIC

NEG village towards 2SG go-COND=INT
You did not go?

(73) [aka tenge]=k sukna-n kamben rusu aka=k sukna-na 4033

[boys’ house]=LOC sleep-2SG or sit house=LOC sleep-COND
Will you sleep in the boys' house or stay in [this] house?

In (74), it occurs in a request.

(74) woro ene mu ta oro-r i-na ELIC

tomorrow 1SG.OBJ tree cut chop-INF go-COND
Will you go cut the tree for me tomorrow?

Somewhat similarly, it is sometimes used in negative imperative sentences, as in (75) to

(78).

(75) mana a-na nanglu kaha=m OVH

PROH eat-COND greens bad=3PL
Better not eat the greens; they are bad.

(76) waitalo naku ana a mana a-na ongo-ra=r ELIC

waitalo sago 1SG.IMP eat PROH eat-COND 1SG.POSS-EMP=3SG.M
Waitalo, can I eat some sago? You should not eat it; it is mine.

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 (77) mana sukna-na mana i-na ELIC
PROH sleep-COND PROH go-COND
You cannot sleep or go.

(78) fun mana biki iki-na 6091

2DU PROH how think-COND
Don't worry so much. [You shouldn’t think in that way.]

Because it hypothesizes about future potentialities, the conditional suffix cannot be

used with a past meaning or in a past context. For more on conditional sentences, see

§8.4.

6.4 Aspect Suffixes

In addition to the obligatory tense suffixes described above, there are two optional

aspectual suffixes available to describe various durative aspects of events, whether they

be past, present, or future. The aspectual suffixes are given below in Table 41. Each

aspectual suffix is described in turn below.

Suffix Meaning Gloss Tense Pairing

-yu repetitive REP PAST2 (-m)
-kla continual CONT non-future

Table 41: Aspectual Suffixes

However, not all aspectual suffixes are compatible with all tense suffixes.

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6.4.1 Repetitive −yu

To indicate an action that is done repetitively or frequently, the repetitive −yu is

used. This suffix is only possible with the remote past tense −m. An action can be carried

out multiple times in rapid succession, can be an action that has a longer duration than

is typical, or can be similar actions carried out at intervals. The repetitive will often focus

on the duration of telic events, or those that have clear end points. Examples (79) to

(85) show the repetitive in use.

(79) ekra kete kete yefa=f o-f-ra fu-yu-m-r 4031

thus sing sing bone=DU DIST-DU-EMP hit-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
So he was singing and singing, and he kept playing on those two bones.

(80) okwa=t o-t-a kete rusu-yu-m-r 4034

song DIST-DIM-EMP sing sit-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
He would sit and sing that [same] song.

(81) or kana sul kana tisi-yu-m-r 4091

bilum with earth with carry.on.shoulder-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
He often carried it on the shoulder with a bilum (string bag) and soil.

(82) o-m-ra a-yu-m-f ya-yu-m-s 4092

DIST-M-EMP eat-REP-PAST2-3DU come-REP-PAST2-3SG.F
They [dual] often ate those [when] she would come.

(83) wate na=f lisi lisi re nuwa-yu-m-s 4048

breadfruit seed=DU two two 3SG.M.OBJ give-REP-PAST2-3SG.F
She often gave him two breadfruit seeds.

(84) mu siki=k sukna-yu-m-r 4062

tree hole=LOC sleep-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
He often slept in a hole in a tree.

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 (85) kuna ekaa-yu-m-m mu au=k kisi kisi a-yu-m-m 6046
self food-REP-PAST2-3PL 3PL pot=LOC boil boil eat-REP-PAST2-3PL
They themselves would eat food. They boiled it in a pot and ate it.

Examples (86) to (88) show that −yu is ungrammatical with other tenses.

(86) *ru ka mu toko-yu-ka-r ELIC

3SG.M REAL 3PL play-REP-FUT2-3SG.M
He will keep on playing the garamut.

(87) *ru ka mu toko-yu-ya-r ELIC

3SG.M REAL 3PL play-REP-PRES-3SG.M
He keeps on playing the garamut.

(88) *ru ka toko-yu-wa-r ELIC

3SG.M REAL play-REP-PAST1-3SG.M
He kept on playing the garamut [today].

6.4.2 Continual −kla

For actions in which the duration or ongoing nature is under focus, then continual

−kla is used. This suffix may be used with any non-future tense. While repetitive −yu can

also refer to actions of duration,the event itself must be happening repeatedly. With the

continual, it is the duration itself that is under focus. Specifically, it focuses on the fact

that an event is of longer duration than is typically encountered. The continual is most

frequently used for atelic events, that is, those which do not have clearly defined

endpoints or goals; the continual cannot be used with verbs that have a punctual

meaning. Examples (89) to (94) show the continual with various non-future tenses.

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 (89) ru elen=k sukna-kla-wa-r 4062
3SG.M secret=LOC sleep-CONT-PAST1-3SG.M
He goes on sleeping in secret.

(90) elen=k sukna-kla-ya-r ka nemen ni-ka-t 5083

secret=LOC sleep-CONT-PRES-3SG.M REAL 1PL.OBJ see-FUT2-3SG.DIM
As [the pig] is sleeping [he] will see us.

(91) ru rusu-kla-m yungu loko=r re wate-m-r ELIC

3SG.M sit-CONT-PAST2 like rain=M 3SG.M.OBJ rain.fall-PAST2-3SG.M
As he was sitting, a big rain fell.

(92) fi=r ru ra=ka kafta=k rete tiri=ka

spear=M 3SG.M get=REAL outside=LOC put leave=REAL

rusu-kla-m-r 4081
sit-CONT-PAST2-3SG.M

He got the spear, put it outside, and kept on sleeping.

(93) dina-kla-ya-s muwku solka=f o-f-ra a-ya-s 6056

be.quiet-CONT-PRES-3SG.F breast dry=DU DIST-DU-EMP eat-PRES-3SG.F
She keeps on being quiet and drinking from those dry breasts.

(94) aka=k rusu-kla-m-yun ELIC

house=LOC sit-CONT-PAST2-1SG
I kept on staying at home.

Examples (95) and (96) illustrate the continual in an imperative context.

(95) dina-kla-ø ka sukna 6047

be.quiet-CONT-2SG.IMP REAL sleep
Keep on being quiet and then sleep.

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 (96) dina-kla-ø ka ama i tama=m nemen ni-ka-m ELIC
be.quiet-CONT-2SG.IMP REAL 3PL.IMP go man=PL 1PL.OBJ see-FUT2-3PL
Keep quiet and we'll go, people will see us.

6.5 Imperative −ta and −tn

For actions which are to be immediately or nearly immediately completed, one of

the imperative suffixes −ta or −tn is used. The suffix -ta is used with second person or

first person plural subjects, while -tn is used with first person singular subjects.

Examples of are given in (97) to (103).

(97) kum mesu-ta OVH

2PL hear-IMP
You [plural] listen up.

(98) o-r-a mesu-ta 4051

DIST-M-EMP hear-IMP
Listen to that!

(99) ke-r-a ene ni-ta hele ene kwiyi yomo=r 4088

PROX-M-EMP 1SG.OBJ see-IMP INJ 1SG.OBJ cut testicles=M
Look at this. Ah! I cut my testicles!

(100) o-f nawe waki=ka ra nuwa-ta 4046

DIST-DU just tie=REAL get give-IMP
Take a few, tie them up, and give them away.

(101) ka te er-m-r nalikwarsa=r kiri fornuwa-ta 2803

REAL 3SG.F.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M nalikwarsa=M fire give-IMP
Nalikwarsa said to her, “Get [me] the fire.”

(102) anganambu ene nuwa-ta ELIC

fast 1SG.OBJ give-IMP
Give it to me quickly!

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 (103) o-f nawe waki=ka ra nuwa-ta 4046
DIST-DU just tie=REAL get give-IMP
Take a few, tie them up, and give them away.

Ta-imperatives can also be used as hortatives, with first person plural subjects, as in

(104).

(104) ama mesu-ta OVH

1PL.IMP hear-IMP
Let's listen up.

It is also possible to achieve this effect with a desiderative suffix, as in (105).

(105) kulfo=k a-kwa-num 6048

uncooked.food=INS eat-DESD-1PL
Let's cook it in a leaf and then we'll eat.

There are other ways to express commands other than by using the imperative

suffix. These are by using an imperative pronoun with a bare verb stem, or simply a bare

verb stem with no pronoun, as in example (106).

(106) (fun) wra ELIC

(2DU.IMP) come.in
Come in (you two)!

Third person imperative constructions of the form 'he ought to x' typically follow

the format given in (107), , where the -r is the infinitival suffix.

(107) Subject pronoun + i 'go' + verb-r.

This is illustrated in example (108).

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 (108) ru i ra-r ELIC
3SG.M go get-INF
He should get it himself!

I refer to the forms with the suffix -tn as first person singular imperatives, even

though the semantics of these forms is rather different from the semantics of first

person singular imperative pronouns (and what have been labeled first person singular

imperatives in other languages). I do so partly because the suffix -tn is in paradigmatic

opposition to the suffix -ta, both suffixes occur on verbs without any other suffix, and

because both begin with a /t/. In addition, although different from the first person

singular imperative pronoun, the use of the suffix -tn does place the speaker under an

obligation to perform the action in question, just as some uses of second-person

imperatives place the hearer under an obligation to perform the action in question.

Examples illustrating the tn-imperative are given in (109) and (110).

(109) te eloko-m-r rusu ka i-tn on-da=yun 4100

3SG.DIM.OBJ tell-PAST2-3SG.M sit REAL go-1SG.IMP 1SG-EMP=1SG
He told her to sit, and that “I myself will go.”

(110) fer yen fu-tn ekra erka 6069

pig child kill-1SG.IMP in.that.way want
So I will kill the baby pig!

The use of the tn-imperative means that the speaker is declaring that they intend to

or will do something imminently.It does not, however, obligate a person to do

something immediately. That is, it is not infelicitous for a person to use this form and

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then to fail to immediately do the thing they have mentioned. This is analogous to the

use of the future of today (see §6.2.3).

On the other hand, a person who uses this form and then fails to do what they have

said at all will incur some social displeasure. The use of this form is in some ways a

promise to do the thing spoken of. The implication is that the speaker will perform the

act in the near future, though it is possible that events will prevent the person from

doing so and they will then complete the action later on.

6.6 Negative -nak

One of the ways of expressing negation is by adding a suffix -nak to the verb, as in

(111) and (112). This suffix cannot have a person/number/gender suffix following it.

(111) on i rete-wa-m iki mu rii-nak 4093

1SG go put-PAST1-3PL NEG 3PL remain-VNEG
[The things] I put are not there anymore.

(112) on re eloko-wa suma=m

1SG 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST1 voice=PL

iki o-r ene eloko-nak 7070

NEG DIST-M 1SG.OBJ tell-VNEG

These things I told him, he did not tell me.

It most commonly occurs on the verb na 'be at', which functions like an auxiliary verb, as

in (113) and (114).

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 (113) iki a-ka-num na-nak wa awar=k a-ka-num 5048
NEG eat-FUT2-1PL be.at-VNEG IRR later=INS eat-FUT2-1PL
We will not eat [it is not customary], we will eat later.

(114) iki yirkwe tongo-num na-nak 6097

NEG knife hold−PRES.1PL be.at-VNEG
We did not have knives.

This suffix is discussed further in §7.8.

6.7 Subordinating Suffixes

There are three suffixes all of which mark a verb as subordinate but for which it is

difficult to find a single way to characterize each of them. There are the subordinate

suffix -k, the gerundial suffix -m, and the infinitival suffix -r. Each of these is illustrated in

(115) to (117) respectively.

(115) lisi ningi=f fu ambe-m-k nemen tiri rete=ka 4003

two day=DU 3DU finish-PAST2-SUB 1PL.OBJ leave put=REAL
After finishing two days [with us], they [dual] left us.

(116) su ka hiki-m-s ka su eku-m yombo-r

3SG.F REAL think-PAST2-3SG.F REAL 3SG.F do-DEP SIM-INF

naka i re eloko-m-s ka ke-m nu-ra

and go 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F REAL PROX-M 2SG-EMP

ke-r-a a on ke-r-a a-tn 4102

PROX-M-EMP eat 1SG PROX-M-EMP eat-1SG.IMP

She thought that while she [went to the garden], she would go and say to
him, “You eat this [one] and I will eat this [one].”

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 (117) su oku wiyi-r i-wa-s ELIC
3SG.F water wash-INF go-PAST1-3SG.F
She went to go bathe.

Because these suffixes normally occur on verbs in subordinate clauses and hence occur

in complex sentences, I postpone discussion of them until §8.3.

6.8 Combinations of Verbal Suffixes

In §6.0, I gave the following formula for finite verb forms:

(118) Verb = stem + (aspect) + tense/mood + subject agreement

Examples illustrating verb forms containing a tense/mood suffix and a subject suffix are

very frequent throughout this dissertation. Examples illustrating the additional

possibility of an aspect suffix following the verb stem are given in (119) and (120).

(119) mu siki=k sukna-yu-m-r 4062

tree hole=LOC sleep-REP-PAST2-3SG.M
He often slept in a hole in a tree.

(120) aka=k rusu-kla-m-yun ELIC

house=LOC sit-CONT-PAST2-1SG
I kept on staying at home.

While the formula in (118) treats both tense/mood and subject agreement as

obligatory, this is not really accurate. Forms with subject suffixes but no tense/mood

occur only infrequently, though sere-num 'break-1PL' in (121) and aka-kum 'go.back-2PL'

in (122) are instances.

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 (121) selen=r mu nere=r iki anganambu oro sere-num na-nak 5074
selen=M 3PL strong=M NEG fast chop break-1PL be.at-VNEG
The Selen tree is strong. We cannot chop it quickly.

(122) wa a-ka-kum ELIC

IRR eat-FUT2-2PL
Will you eat it?

Forms with tense but no subject agreement are also not common in my data, but

they do exist. All instances in my data are in relative clauses, where the presence of

tense suffixes without subject suffixes is very common. For example, (123) contains the

form ram 'get-PAST2', which contains the PAST2 suffix but no subject agreement.

(123) ser ser ra-m tama=r indi=k i ni-m-r 6063

first first get-PAST2 person=M again=LOC go see-PAST2-3SG.M
The first man to get [jungle resources], came back to see it.

Example (124) is a second example illustrating the verb in a relative clause bearing tense

but not subject agreement.

(124) ru susu-wa eme=r war-m-dun mehek 6070

3SG.M stand-PAST1 place=M go.down-PAST2-1DU NEG
We [dual] did not go down to the place where he was standing.

The absence of subject agreement on verbs in relative clauses is a general property of

such verbs, though they frequently occur with no suffix at all, as in (125) and (126).

(125) mangi sukna nembe=r 5047

mangi sleep lizard=3SG.M
It is a lizard that sleeps in mangi grass.

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 (126) fer fu tama=r ekra indi=k siri-m-r 6034
pig hit person=M thus again=INS die-PAST2-3SG.M
The man who kills pigs thus died again.

When we turn to mood suffixes, the situation is somewhat different. With the

desiderative suffix -kwa, I have no examples of verb forms bearing this suffix without a

subject suffix following. On the other hand, the conditional suffix -na often occurs

without a subject suffix following it, as in (127) to (129).

(127) mana sukna-na mana i-na ELIC

PROH sleep-COND PROH go-COND
You cannot sleep or go.

(128) woro dun aku-na ru o-r wa ya ELIC

tomorrow 2DU go.back-COND 3SG.M DIST-M IRR come
If you [dual] go tomorrow, he will go.

(129) on ka sukna-na ru i-ka-r ELIC

1SG REAL sleep-COND 3SG.M go-FUT2-3SG.M
When I sleep, he will go [in the future].

But whether a verb bearing the conditional suffix occurs with a subject suffix

correlates with the use of the conditional suffix. This suffix is also used as a weak future

suffix with the meaning 'maybe' and in this usage it typically occurs with a subject suffix,

as in (130). See also §8.4.

(130) woro wate kute lisi a-r i-na-dun 7077

tomorrow breadfruit cut burn eat-INF go-COND-1DU
Tomorrow maybe we two will go and cook and eat breadfruit.

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It is also tends to occur with a subject suffix when it occurs in the apodosis clause of a

conditional sentence, as in the second clause in (131).

(131) on ya-na ya-na-yun 6037

1SG come-COND come-COND-1SG
If I come, I will come.

However, when it occurs in the protasis clause in a conditional sentence, it typically

lacks subject agreement in my data, as in the first clause in (131) or (132) or in a future

when-clause, as in (133).

(132) [ifi afa] nu re fu-na ka aku-ya-r 4126

[improperly] 2SG 3SG.M.OBJ hit-COND REAL go.back-PRES-3SG.M
If you hit it improperly, it will run away.

(133) gwa=r ru namble aku-na wa tare-ka-s ELIC

fog=M 3SG.M dissipate go.back-COND IRR shine-FUT2-3SG.F
When the fog clears, [the moon] will shine.

The subordinate suffix (§8.3.1) -k occurs in the subject agreement slot, which means

that it often occurs with a preceding tense suffix, as in (134) and (135).

(134) nu eku-wa-k aku=ka i=ka na rusu-wa-f 4099

2SG do-PAST1-SUB go.back=REAL go=REAL and sit-PAST1-3DU
While you did that, you went back and rested.

(135) lisi ningi=f fu ambe-m-k nemen tiri rete=ka 4003

two day=DU 3DU finish-PAST2-SUB 1PL.OBJ leave put=REAL
After finishing two days [with us], they [dual] left us.

But this suffix also occurs frequently by itself, as in (136) and (137).

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 (136) num a-k klei ka i=ka al yam a-ya-num 4123
1PL eat-SUB then REAL go=REAL taro banana eat-PRES-1PL
We eat it and then go to eat taro and bananas.

(137) siki=r sa-k suwa=r ana fiti ELIC

hole=M dig-SUB coconut=M 1SG.IMP plant
I will dig a hole before I plant the coconut.

The remaining verbal suffixes always occur by themselves without another suffix.

This includes the two imperative suffixes (§6.5), -tn and -ta, the negative suffix -nak

(§6.6 and §7.8), the infinitival suffix -r (§8.3.2), and the gerundial suffix -m (§8.3.3).

6.9 Dialect Variation in the Verbal Paradigm

There are a few dialect variants which affect the verbal paradigm. For the most

part, dialect variants are lexical (see §10.5 for other primary differences between the

dialects of Mehek). However, in the Kafle villages, most speakers pronounce an /r/ at

the end of the verb stem and before agreement suffixes. Some speakers do not

pronounce this /r/, but it is a fairly consistent variant throughout the Kafle region,

although there is some variation among particular verbs. Examples (138) to (143)

illustrate verb stems with /r/. I treat the /r/ as a thematic consonant and gloss it 'R'.

(138) ne ta a-r-kya-m 4043

2SG.OBJ bite eat-R-FUT1-3PL
They are biting you heavily.

(139) ke-r-a wi aku-r-ka-kun 4044

PROX-M-EMP go.up go.back-R-FUT2-FUT1.1SG
I will go back up there.

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 (140) [ifi afa] waki-r-kya-f=ka 4046
[poorly] tie-R-FUT1-3DU-INT
Will the two of them tie it up badly?

(141) eku erka me [feta kata] eloko-r-kya-s 7008

do want 3PL.OBJ [show and tell] tell-R-FUT1-3SG.F
She wants to show and tell them.

(142) iki hingre na-r-ka-fun kehek mehek 7030

NEG joke be.at-R-FUT2-2DU VNEG NEG
You [dual] don't play around.

(143) fun ya a=ka naka

2DU come eat=REAL and

wa ene ra=ka aku-r-ke-num 4056

IRR 1SG.OBJ get=REAL go.back-R-FUT-1PL

You [dual] come to eat, and then we will go back.

There are also some differences in the Kafle dialect in the pronunciation of the

verbal suffixes. Namely, the future suffix −ka is pronounced −ke and the conditional

suffix −na is pronounced −ne by many Kafle speakers. Examples (144) and (145) have

−ke instead of −ka.

(144) ru sere eku-m-m ka

3SG.M break do-PAST2-3PL REAL

fe eloko-m-m ka sere-ke-r 4058

3DU.OBJ tell-PAST2-3PL REAL break-FUT2-3SG.M

He broke it so they told them [dual] he would break it [also].

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 (145) su ya=ka kiri ta-ke-s 2710
3SG.F come=REAL fire bite-FUT2-3SG.F
She will come and pick the fire up in her mouth.

A final difference in the Kafle dialect is that speakers often replace the two future

suffixes with the conditional suffix -na (pronounced -ne by many Kafle speakers). Some

speakers replace only the future of today , while others replace both future suffixes with

the conditional suffix. The conditional suffix, therefore, has a much wider distribution in

the Kafle villages, as it is also used as the conditional suffix (see §6.3.2). Examples (146)

and (147) illustrate the use of the conditional suffix (in the form −ne) for future

reference.

(146) okwa=r ekra fu re kete-ne-f 4061

song=M in.that.way 3DU 3SG.M.OBJ cut-FUT-3PL
So they [dual] will sing him a song.

(147) ekra ambe-m-r dinamble ambe-ne-m 4062

thus finish-PAST2-3SG.M same finish-FUT-3PL
So he finished. [Next time] they will finish at the same time.

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Chapter 7: Clause Structure

7.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the fundamentals of clause structure. It begins with

discussion of subjects and objects (§7.1), and then discusses the mood particles (§7.2),

adjuncts and adverbs (§7.3), serial-verb constructions (§7.4), clauses with nonverbal

predicates (§7.5), passive clauses (§7.6), interrogative sentences (§7.7), negation (§7.8),

clauses with the word erka 'want' (§7.9), light verbs (§7.10), and repetition (§7.11). For

information on additional clause types which only occur in complex sentences, see

Chapter 8. The general structure of clauses is given in (1).

(1) Clause = subject + (mood particle) + (direct object) + (indirect object) + verb

An example sentence illustrating the formula in (1) is given in (2).

(2) afa=r ka mini=r te nuwa-m-r ELIC

father=M REAL betelnut=M 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST2-3SG.M
[Her] father gave her betelnut.

Before discussing subjects and objects, it is necessary to briefly discuss the

terminology. Subjects are those constituents with which the main, finite verb shows

agreement (see §6.1 - §6.4). Objecst are those constituents which are (or could be)

represented by an object pronominal form (see §5.4.2). The terms direct object and

indirect object are used primarily as semantic labels; there are no clear grammatical

differences between the two types of object. I refer to the recipient-like constituents in

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a ditransitive clause as indirect objects and I refer to objects that are not indirect objects

as direct objects.

7.1 Subjects and Objects

Subjects and objects are not marked for their role in the clause, except for personal

pronouns §5.4.1 and §5.4.2; compare the subject form on of the first singular pronoun

in (3) with the object form ene in (4).

(3) on ka rusu=ka a-ya-yun 6092

1SG REAL sit=REAL eat-PRES-1SG
I am sitting and eating.

(4) wa ene raya ni-kwa-m 2727

IRR 1SG.OBJ bring see-DESD-3PL
They should come see me.

Nominal subjects and objects are distinguished when both occur before the verb, in

that the subject normally comes first. While the default order is for the verb to occur at

the end of clauses, it is possible for various elements to follow the verb. Subjects

occasionally follow the verb as in (5) to (8), though this may be a type of afterthought

construction.

(5) yen=t ka rete=ka sukna-m-s maure=s 6058

child=DIM REAL put=REAL sleep-PAST2-3SG.F ancestor=F
She put the child to sleep, the spirit did.

(6) ru aku-m-r afa=r 6072

3SG.M go.back-PAST2-3SG.M father=M
He went back, father did.

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 (7) mu war susu-m-m ro-ko=r tama=m 6103
3PL go.down sit-PAST2-3PL 3SG.M-POSS=M person=PL
They went down and sat, the men.

(8) wula=k na-ya-t kanda=t 5083

jungle=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.DIM small=DIM
He stays in the jungle, the little one.

It is even possible for a subject pronoun to follow the verb, as in (9), though this seems

to be quite unusual.

(9) ka afa=r ni-ya-r ru ELIC

REAL father=M see-PRES-3SG.M 3SG.M
He sees [his] father.

It is also possible for object noun phrases to follow the verb, as in (10) and (11), though

this order also seems to be very uncommon.

(10) ru ka ni-ya-r afa=r ELIC

3SG.M REAL see-PRES-3SG.M father=M
He sees [his] father.

(11) re fu-m-r ongo yen=r 4100

3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-3SG.M 1SG.POSS child=M
He killed my child.

It is not possible for both a subject pronoun and an object to follow the verb, as shown

in (12) and (13).

(12) *ka ni-ya-r ru afa=r ELIC

REAL see-PRES-3SG.M 3SG.M father=M
He sees [his] father.

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 (13) *ka ni-ya-r afa=r ru ELIC
REAL see-PRES-3SG.M father=M 3SG.M
He sees [his] father.

As noted above, both subject and object normally precede the verb and only rarely

does the object precede the subject. Sentences where both subject and object are

nominal (as opposed to pronominal) and where they are the same in number and

gender are considered unambiguous. For example, (14), where both subject and object

are masculine singular, is judged to allow only one interpretation, one where the first

noun phrase is subject and the second one object.

(14) nanda=r gana=r re eloko-m-r 1622

older.brother=M younger.brother=M 3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-3SG.M
The big brother told the little brother.
not The little brother told the big brother.

On the other hand, if there is little risk of ambiguity, the object will occasionally precede

the subject. For example, (15) is a text example employing OSV word order, where there

is little chance of ambiguity since it is not likely that the crab took the men.

(15) walingi num-go=t=u ka tama di=r

crab 1PL-POSS=DIM=DISC REAL person DET=M

ka nemen ra towi-wa-r 4081

REAL 1PL.OBJ take stack-PAST1-3SG.M

Some man took our crab and stacked [them] up for us.

Subject pronouns are optional, but are in fact often present. In the first thirty

sentences in the text given in story A.1 in Appendix A, there are twelve clauses with

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personal pronouns as subject, one clause with a demonstrative pronoun as subject and

twelve clauses where there is no overt noun phrase functioning as subject. However,

whether a pronoun occurs or not in these thirty sentences is almost entirely predictable

from whether the next verb is finite or not: in most of the examples where the verb is

finite (where the verb codes the person, number and gender of the subject), a subject

pronoun is not used, while in most of the sentences where the verb is nonfinite (the

verb does not bear a subject suffix), the pronoun is used. The examples in (16) and (17)

illustrate the two possibilities. In (16), the verb bears a 3DU subject suffix and there is no

subject pronoun, while in (17), the verb occurs with only the realis clitic and there is a

3DU subject pronoun fu.

(16) ka mombu kete-r i-m-f 4029

REAL mombu cut-INF go-PAST2-3DU
They [dual] go to cut the mombu tree.

(17) fu ka i=ka tawa mus=u yen

3DU REAL go=REAL woman first.wife=DISC child

wau=k kana=s ... 4029

stomach=LOC with=F

They [dual] go and the first wife, the pregnant one ...

The only exception to this pattern in these thirty sentences is given in (18), where both

clauses contain both subject pronouns and subject suffixes on the verb.

(18) su kuna i-wa-s on kuna i-wa-yun 4030

3SG.F self go-PAST1-3SG.F 1SG self go-PAST1-1SG
She went her own way and I went my own.

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Note, however, that the two clauses are contrastive, which might be a reason for the

use of pronouns here, despite the subject suffix on the verb.

7.2 Mood Particles

With certain exceptions discussed below, clauses in Mehek frequently contain one

of two mood particles, a realis mood particle ka or an irrealis mood particle wa. These

are illustrated in (19) and (20) respectively.

(19) ru ka afa=r ni-ya-r ELIC

3SG.M REAL father=M see-PRES-3SG.M
He sees [his] father.

(20) wa awar=k a-ka-num 5048

IRR later=LOC eat-FUT2-1PL
We will eat later.

Most present and past utterances will be marked with the realis particle, while

most future and some past utterances will be marked with the irrealis particle. Despite

this generalization, it is possible to have any combination of tense/mood and

realis/irrealis. Examples illustrating the possibility of combining the realis mood particle

with a verb inflected as future and the possibility of combining the irrealis mood particle

with a verb inflected as past are given below in (26) and (41).

Single-word clauses or short clauses without any subject suffixes will have the realis

particle following the verb and phonologically part of the verb, hence the reason that it

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is represented as a clitic. When ka follows the verb, it does not receive main stress and

is pronounced as part of the verb it follows; hence I represent it as a clitic, as in (21).

(21) o-f nawe waki=ka ra nuwa-ta 4046

DIST-DU just tie=REAL get give-IMP
Take a few, tie them up, and give them away.

When it precedes a verb, it will have its own stress and be a separate phonological

word, as in (22).

(22) mu ka ene fu-m-m wou nawe=yun 1622

3PL REAL 1SG.OBJ hit-PAST2-3PL spirit only=1SG
They killed me and I am just a spirit now.

7.2.1 Realis ka

The more common, by far, of the two mood particles is ka.11 It occurs very

frequently and many utterances would be ungrammatical without it. This particle is

'realis' because it only occurs in clauses which are considered by the speaker to involve

situations that have really occurred, to be occurring, or to be reasonably certain to

occur. Commonly occurring events, expected or inferred events, or events the speaker

feels well in control of require the realis. Almost all present and past events fall under

this umbrella. Examples (23) and (24) illustrate basic clauses with a realis particle.

(23) on ka suma=m re eloko-wa-yun ELIC

1SG REAL voice=PL 3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST1-1SG
I told him [some] things.

11
Speakers often jokingly refer to it as the only word in Mehek. “If you just say ka, then you can speak
Mehek.”

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 (24) ke-r ka di
tama=r ya-wa-r ELIC
PROX-M REAL DET man=M come-PAST1-3SG.M
Some man probably came [the one I expected].

Example (25) contains two realis particles. The first occurs as a separate word before the

finite verb. The second clause contains its own realis particle suffixed onto a nonfinite

verb (see below at (27)), followed by a serial verb construction (see §7.4).

(25) maure=s ka sau-m-s sau=ka tongo ni-m-s 6058

ancestor=F REAL stand-PAST2-3SG.F stand=REAL hold see-PAST2-3SG.F
The ancestor stood up. [After she] stood up, she took [it] and looked at [it].

As noted above, it is possible for the realis particle to occur in a clause with a verb

inflected as future. This possibility is illustrated by (26); the apparent meaning is that the

event denoted by the verb will take place in the near future and the speaker is fairly

certain that it will take place.

(26) on ka nu nate-kun ELIC

1SG REAL garden cut-FUT1.1SG
I will cut the garden [I am preparing to go now].

The realis mood particle ka can either precede the verb, as in (26) above (and many

of the examples throughout this grammar), but can follow the verb, in which case it

immediately follows the verb and cliticizes onto it, as in (27), where the first two

occurrences of ka follow the verb and are cliticized onto it.

(27) fu re rete=ka re tisi=ka ka wi-m-f 4060

3DU 3SG.M.OBJ put=REAL 3SG.M.OBJ carry=REAL REAL go.up-PAST2-3DU
The two of them got him, carried him and went up the tree.

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Examples (28) to (31) illustrate the flexibility of the positioning of the mood particle

when it precedes the verb. In (28) it occurs in its default position between the subject

and the two objects.

(28) ru-ra ka mini=t te nuwa-wa-r ELIC

3SG.M-EMP REAL betelnut=DIM 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST1-3SG.M
He gave her one betelnut.

In (29), it follows the direct object, though it precedes the indirect object pronoun.

(29) ru-ra mini=t ka te nuwa-wa-r ELIC

3SG.M-EMP betelnut=DIM REAL 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST1-3SG.M
He gave her one betelnut.

And in (30), it precedes the subject.

(30) ka ru te mini nuwa-wa-r ELIC

REAL 3SG.M 3SG.F.OBJ betelnut give-PAST1-3SG.M
He gave her betelnut.

But the ungrammaticality of (31) shows that it cannot occur between the two objects

and the verb.

(31) *ru te mini ka nuwa-wa-r ELIC

3SG.M 3SG.F.OBJ betelnut REAL give-PAST1-3SG.M
He gave her betelnut.

7.2.2 Irrealis wa

The irrealis particle is reserved for clauses in which the speaker expresses an

opinion about a possible future action, wonders about a possible course of events, or

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suggests a course of action for someone to follow. Examples (32) to (34) illustrate the

irrealis particle in its most common usage, with the future tense.

(32) on wa nu nate-kun ELIC

1SG IRR garden cut-FUT1.1SG
I will cut the garden [I intend to].

(33) iki [hokwek na]-ka-t wa hanganambu eku

NEG [waste time]-FUT2-3SG.DIM IRR fast do

aku-ka-t 5103
go.back-FUT2-3SG.DIM

She will not waste time, she will go back in a hurry.

(34) no-ko-ra sul=k wa mu di=r i oro-ka-yun 6022

2SG-POSS-EMP ground=LOC IRR tree DET=M go chop-FUT2-1SG
I will go a chop a single tree from your land.

It is also used occasionally with imperatives, as in (35), though, as discussed below, it is

usually absent from imperative clauses.

(35) ekaa wa kefen lisi-tn 7062

food IRR 2DU.OBJ cook-1.IMP
I will cook you two some food.

It can also be used with a verb marked with the conditional suffix -na, whether the

clause is truly conditional, as in (36), or when the conditional suffix is used as a type of

future, as in (37), though it does not usually occur in clauses where the verb is marked

with the conditional suffix.

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 (36) wa i-na-dun woro elowo fle-r 6049
IRR go-COND-1DU tomorrow animal search-INF
If we two were to come tomorrow, we will hunt.

(37) na nu klei wa biki na-na wa selefe-na ELIC

and 2SG then IRR how be.at-COND IRR get.off.track-COND
What will you do? What will become of you? [Said with concern.]

It can also occur in clauses marked with the desiderative suffix (§6.3.1), as in (38).

(38) wa ene raya ni-kwa-m on-da ser=yun 2727

IRR 1SG.OBJ bring see-DESD-3PL 1SG-EMP be.first=1SG
They should come see me. I am the first [man].

And it can occur with a bare verb if the meaning is future, as in (39).

(39) wa [biki rokok] ya kara ELIC

IRR [when] come indeed
When will he come?

Despite its focus on future events, it is not restricted to future time. It can be used

with a past tense verb, if the speaker is speculating about what must have happened, as

in (40).

(40) ke-r wa di
tama=r ya-wa-r 4043
PROX-M IRR DET person=M come-PAST1-3SG.M
Some man probably came [a different one than I expected].

The irrealis particle can also combine with a past tense verb when the meaning is

'should have', as in (41).

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 (41) ekra mu siri ambe-m-k su wa me danasu-m-s 6006
thus 3PL die finish-PAST2-SUB 3SG.F IRR 3PL.OBJ set.a.time-PAST2-3SG.F
While they were dying, she should have set a time for them [others].

When used in a clause with a verb inflected as present tense, the irrealis particle

has a meaning of “should”, as in (42), or “probably”, as in (43).

(42) beena wa aku-ya-dun 4076

enough IRR go.back-PRES-1DU
The two of us should be going back by now [instead of staying here].

(43) ekra ru re eloko-m-k

in.that.way 3SG.M 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-SUB

o-f-ra wa rusu-ya-f 4046

DIST-DU-EMP IRR sit-PRES-3DU

While he was speaking, they [dual] are likely staying [but it is not certain].

There are some instances in my data where the irrealis particle combines with a present

tense verb, where the reason for the use of the irrealis particle is less clear, as in (44).

(44) kuna kuna kulu=k wa i-wa-n 4045

self self road=LOC IRR go-PRES-2SG
You are walking around causing trouble.

Unlike the realis particle, the irrealis particle wa always precedes the verb, most

commonly following the subject and preceding other clausal constituents (like the realis

mood particle ka), as in (45) and (46).

(45) suwa=r wa kufe rii-kya-r ELIC

coconut=M IRR good remain-FUT1-3SG.M
Will this coconut [water] be good [to drink] later?

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 (46) on wula i-na yombo-k nu wa ene sumbu ELIC
1SG jungle go-COND SIM-SUB 2SG IRR 1SG.OBJ follow
While I go to the jungle, you will come follow me.

Wa occasionally will follow object noun phrases, as in (47) and (48), or adjunct noun

phrases, as in (49).

(47) fer kute tama=r wa fer lesu=r re rete-ka-m 6085

pig cut man=M IRR pig hand=M 3SG.M.OBJ put-FUT2-3PL
They will put the pig’s legs out for the man who cut the pig.

(48) ekaa wa kefen lisi-tn 7062

food IRR 2DU.OBJ cook-1.IMP
I will cook you two some food.

(49) no-ko-ra sul=k wa mu di=r i oro-ka-yun 6022

2SG-POSS-EMP ground=LOC IRR tree DET=M go chop-FUT2-1SG
I will go a chop a single tree from your land.

7.2.3 Omission of the Mood Particle

There are a number of circumstances where a mood particle is often omitted. I

discuss four of these here.

The first circumstance in which the mood marker may be omitted is in commands.

In fact, it is generally absent. Short commands are illustrated in examples (50) to (53).

(50) ama mesu-ta OVH

1PL.IMP hear-IMP
Let's listen up.

(51) yen=r tirika or aku 6105

child=M let 3SG.M.IMP go.back
Let the child go back.

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 (52) or muwku a 6065
3SG.M.IMP milk eat
Let him have milk.

(53) kum mesu-ta OVH

2PL hear-IMP
You [plural] listen up.

As noted above, while it is common to find the irrealis mood particle wa in longer,

imperative sentences, it is common for such sentences to lack a mood particle, as in (54)

to (59).

(54) ene a ambe-ø 6107

1SG.OBJ eat finish-2SG.IMP
Finish it for me.

(55) ke-kwra mende=k susu=n 4029

PROX-ADV very=LOC stand=PRES.1SGIMP
... while I stand right here

(56) nu i=ka loko=s wate-na o-r-a i ner

2SG go=REAL rain=F rain.fall-COND DIST-M-EMP go ner.tree

ari=k susu-ø 6062

below=LOC stand-2SG.IMP

As you go, if it rains, go stand underneath that Ner tree.

(57) haulai ro-ko hokwa=r kute-tn OVH

haulai 3SG.M-POSS song=M sing-1SG.IMP
I will sing Haulai’s song.

(58) anda kom yoko i 1622

1DU.IMP village towards go
Let’s [the two of us] go to the village.

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 (59) or a muwku=m 6065
3SG.M.IMP eat milk=PL
Let him have milk.

A second type of clause which generally lacks a mood particle is negative clauses, as

in (60) and (61); see §7.8 for more on negation.

(60) selen=r mu nere=r iki anganambu oro sere-num na-nak 5074

selen=M 3PL strong=M NEG fast chop break-1PL be.at-VNEG
The Selen tree is strong. We cannot chop it quickly.

(61) su kuna iki i-ya-s

3SG.F self NEG go-PRES-3SG.F

nawe su [akwando kwando] eku-wa-k 5029

only 3SG.F [spider web] do-PAST-SUB

She does not just go herself. She made a spider web [first].

Because negative clauses denote something that did not happen, we might expect an

irrealis particle, though except for one circumstance described below, this does not

happen. The absence of an irrealis mood particle applies not only to negated past and

present clauses but also to negated future clauses, as in (62) and (63).

(62) nanda go=n iki ne tiri-kun 6051

older.sister 1SG.POSS=2SG NEG 2SG.OBJ leave-FUT1.1SG
You are my older sister; I will not leave you.

(63) du-ra-dun ka yirfi-ka-dun iki a-ka-dun 6092

1DU-EMP-1DU REAL fall-FUT2-1DU NEG eat-FUT2-1DU
The two of us will go down, but we [dual] will not eat.

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Nor does an irrealis particle occur in negative imperative sentences, as illustrated in

(64).

(64) mana kuwsu-na nawe [kwruru suwru] tiri 6058

PROH close-COND only [pretend] leave
I [really] close the house [when I leave]. Do not just pretend.

An exception to the generalization that the irrealis particle does not occur in

negative clauses is apodosis clauses in conditional sentences, as shown in (65) to (67).

(65) ekra kum eku-na iki wa bunandi

thus 2PL do-COND NEG IRR something

di=m ni-na-kum mehek 7084

DET=PL see-COND-2PL NEG

So if you all were to do this [bad behavior],

you would not see anything [positive].

(66) loko wate-na iki on wa ya-r na-nak ELIC

rain rain.fall-COND NEG 1SG IRR come-INF be.at-VNEG
If it had rained, I would not have come.

(67) on i-na iki wa selefe na-ka-r ELIC

1SG go-COND NEG IRR get.off.track be.at-FUT2-3SG.M
If I go [to the jungle], I will not be unsuccessful in hunting.

A third type of clause that frequently lacks a mood particle is clauses in which the

verb bears the conditional suffix (§6.3.2 and §8.4), illustrated in (68) and (69).

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 (68) ka on kete tori-na kin ne
REAL 1SG cut drop-COND tail 2SG.OBJ

totori yen kin sere-ka-yun 4029

drop child tail break-FUT2-1SG

I'm cutting [leaves] and if I drop them down to you,

your child’s back will break.

(69) woro wate kute lisi a-r i-na-dun 7077

tomorrow breadfruit cut burn eat-INF go-COND-1DU
Tomorrow maybe we two will go and cook and eat breadfruit.

Although clauses with verbs bearing the conditional suffix generally lack a mood

particle, they occasionally do contain an irrealis particle, as in (36) and (37) above.

The fourth type of clause lacking a mood particle is questions, both polar questions,

as in (70) and (71), and content questions, as in (72) and (73).

(70) tawa nanda=fun=ka 7037

wife older.sister=3DU=INT
Are you two are a wife and a sister now?

(71) di no-ko nanda fi=r=ka ELIC

DET 2SG-POSS older.brother spear=3SG.M=INT
Is that your older brother's spear?

(72) oriko=k rusu-ya=ø 4029

where=LOC stand-PRES=2SG.INT
“Where are you standing?”

(73) ermesu-m-r em siri-wa-r=ka 7079

ask-PAST2-3SG.M who die-PAST1-3SG.M=INT
He asked, “Who died?”

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My data does contain a few examples of polar questions containing the realis mood

particle ka, as in (74) and (75).

(74) ka yiri-ya=ø 6018

REAL fall-PRES=2SG.INT
Do you fall?

(75) ka kaha=r ya-ya-r=a maure kum kuna i 2177

REAL bad=M go-PRES-3SG.M=INT ancestor 2PL self go
Is that an evil spirit coming? [Said to a friend upon his return.]

There are many instances of clauses lacking a mood particle that do not fall into one

of the above categories, where it is not clear what is governing the lack of a mood

particle. Some examples are given in (76) to (80).

(76) di=m te nuwa-m-r di=m su re kware

DET=PL 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST2-3SG.M DET=PL 3SG.F 3SG.M.OBJ dry

rete-m-s 4038
put-PAST2-3SG.F

He gave her some [meat]; she dried some for him and set it out.

(77) maure marfe so-ko sungamba=r eloko-tn 7010

ancestor marfe 3SG.F-POSS story=M tell-1SG.IMP
I will tell Ancestor Marfe’s story.

(78) aka rusu-m-s tama=r ya-m-r 4030

house sit-PAST2-3SG.F person=M come-PAST2-3SG.M
She sits in the house and the husband comes.

(79) o-kwra te tuwar-m-s 4030

DIST-ADV 3SG.F.OBJ put.down.in-PAST2-3SG.F
She puts her in there.

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 (80) tama=s yofu rete maure=s yofu rete 7021
person=F barrier put ancestor=F barrier put
A woman placed a barrier, an ancestor placed a barrier. [“Once upon a time.”]

7.3 Adjuncts and Adverbs

7.3.1 Adjuncts

Adjuncts can be noun phrases marked by the locative/instrumental clitic, noun

phrases without marking or noun phrases headed by relational nouns. The first of these

is illustrated by fik 'spear=INS' in (81) and the second and third are both illustrated in

(82) (kom 'village' as a bare NP adjunct and su kana 'with her' as a noun phrase headed

by a relational noun).

(81) o-t-a fi=k ru te fu=ka 4053

DIST-DIM-EMP spear=INS 3SG.M 3SG.F.OBJ hit=REAL
So divorced her [literally: he hit her with a spear].

(82) su kana su kom sukna-m-s 7054

3SG.F with 3SG.F village sleep-PAST2-3SG.F
She slept in the village with her.

Like subjects and objects, adjuncts normally precede the verb, though they occasionally

follow. See §7.3.3 below for more discussion about the position of adjuncts.

7.3.2 Adverbs

Adverbs often host the locative/instrumental clitic =k (see §5.10.1), illustrated by

indi 'again, back' in (83) and awar 'later' in (84), though it is not clear what semantic

difference exists between an adverb with the clitic and one without.

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 (83) on-da nanda=yun ka indi=k i-n 2170
1SG-EMP older.brother=1SG REAL again=LOC go-PRES.1SG
I am the older brother and I will go back.

(84) awar=k ka ya-kya-r ELIC

later=INS REAL come-FUT1-3SG.M
He is on his way. [In a little bit, later today.]

Examples (85) and (86) illustrate the same two adverbs, but without the clitic.

(85) ru ka aku ru o-r-a ka indi Welfu siki 2723

3SG.M REAL go.back 3SG.M DIST-M-EMP REAL back welfu hole
So he went back to the Welfu hole.

(86) wa awar nawe=k i-kun ELIC

IRR later only=INS go-FUT1.1SG
I will just go later.

If the adverb is modified by a word following it, like nawe 'only', the clitic will occur on

the modifier, as in (87).

(87) wa awar nawe=k i-kun ELIC

IRR later only=INS go-FUT1.1SG
I will just go later.

Some adverbs, however, cannot occur with this clitic. This includes anganambu ~

anganambe ~ hanganambu ~ hanganambe 'quickly', ekra 'in that way', and kahakana

'many in number'.

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7.3.2.1 Manner Adverbs

Manner adverbs include anganambu ~ hanganambu ~ anganambe ~ hanganambe

'quickly', awar 'slowly', ekra 'in that way', ale 'properly, carefully' and kufe 'well'. The

last of these also functions as an adjective meaning 'good'. Some examples are given in

(88) to (90).

(88) iki anganambu oro sere-num na-nak 5074

NEG fast chop break-1PL be.at-VNEG
We cannot chop it quickly.

(89) ekra eku-kwa-num kara ELIC

in.that.way do-DESD-1PL indeed
We should definitely do it that way.

(90) kufe fle-wa-yun ELIC

good search-PAST1-1SG
I hunted well.

Example (91) also involves kufe 'good' functioning as an adverb; a literal translation of

the second clause would be 'the child ate breast milk well'.

(91) ka yen=m muwku a-m-m muwku fi=r kufe=k

REAL child=PL breast eat-PAST2-3PL breast milk=M good=INS

a-m-m yen=m 7052

eat-PAST2-3P child=PL

The children ate [at] the breast, the children ate good breast milk.

In addition to its use as an adverb meaning 'in that way', the word ekra 'in that way'

also functions as a clausal connector meaning 'therefore, so', as in (92).

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 (92) o-t-a wula fenda=t ekra fu-ka-num 5047
DIST-DIM-EMP jungle from=3DIM so hit-FUT2-1PL
She [a lizard] comes from the jungle, so we will kill her.

The word ale 'carefully, properly' is somewhat unusual. When used as an adverb, it

always occurs with the locative/instrumental clitic =k, as in (93).

(93) kuna kuna ale=k ru sau

self self careful=INS 3SG.M stand.up
fi=r tilse ra-m-r 2803
spear=M get.out get-PAST2-3SG.M
He stood up carefully and got the spear.

However, it also occurs as a verb, with verb morphology, with apparently the same

meaning, as in (94) and (95), though in this usage it normally follows the verb that

denotes what was done properly or carefully.

(94) ekra wi tongo ale-m-t 4080

thus go.up hold properly-PAST2-3SG.DIM
She went up and held them carefully.

(95) num sa ale=ka eku tiri=ka 6086

1PL dig properly=REAL do leave=REAL
We were digging carefully, [finished] and left it.

7.3.2.2 Locative Adverbs

The most common locative adverbs are demonstratives. In §5.4.6, I discussed the

fact that demonstrative pronouns exhibit a three-way contrast of proximal vs. distal vs.

remote. The same distinctions are made by the demonstrative adverbs. The three

demonstrative adverbs are proximal kekwra, distal okwra, and remote kasi. Note that

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the first two of these combine the same stems found with the corresponding

demonstrative pronouns, namely ke- for proximal and o- for distal, followed by -kwra.

The remote form kasi, however, does not resemble any pronoun. Examples illustrating

these demonstrative adverbs are given in (96) to (102). Examples (96) to (98) illustrate

the proximal demonstrative adverb while (99) to (101) illustrate the distal adverb and

(102) illustrates the remote adverb.

(96) tama=m ke-kwra rusu-m-m 2176

person=PL PROX-ADV sit-PAST2-3PL
The men stayed here.

(97) ke-kwra susu=ka fu-kwa-n ekra fu-kwa-yun kara ELIC

PROX-ADV stand=REAL hit-DESD-2SG in.that.way hit-DESD-1SG indeed
Stand here and do it this way. I ought to do it that way.

(98) naka ya=ka ke-kwra tolo-n ka ekra er-m-r 4053

and come=REAL PROX-ADV say-2SG REAL in.that.way say-PAST2-3SG.M
And you come here and say such things, so said [father].

(99) naka maure al=r o-kwra ru wuya=ka 1125

and ancestor taro=M DIST-ADV 3SG.M come.up=REAL
And as for our ancestors’ taro, it grew there.

(100) romo wosu o-kwra rusu=ka 7044

romo wosu DIST.ADV sit=REAL
Romo Wosu was there.

(101) weke ru lisi=ka o-kwra 4091

clay 3SG.M cook=REAL DIST-ADV
He cooked the clay there.

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 (102) naka mu ke-r-a kasi kasi=k aku-m-m susu-m-m 1726
and 3PL PROX-M-EMP REM REM=LOC go.back-PAST2-3PL stand- PAST2-3PL
And they all went far far away and stayed.

The remote locative form, kasi, actually has a status more similar to that of nouns,

as it can host the locative clitic =k while the proximal and distal forms cannot. (See

§5.10.1 for more on the locative clitic.) In example (103), kasi appears without a clitic,

while in example (104) it hosts the locative clitic.

(103) o-r-a ka kasi yungu na-m-r 4032

DIST-M-EMP REAL REM like become-PAST2-3SG.M
The same sound comes up from over there again.

(104) tongo ra=ka kasi=k i rusu=ka 4052

hold get=REAL REM=LOC go sit=REAL
[He] got them and went far away to sit.

Example (102) above contains two occurrences of kasi, the first without =k, the second

with =ka. It is not clear what difference in meaning there might be between kasi with

the locative clitic and kasi without the locative clitic.

The two demonstrative adverbs other than kasi cannot host a locative clitic.

However, in (105), the proximal adverb kekwra is modified by the degree word mende

'very' and the locative clitic does attach to mende.

(105) ke-r ke-kwra mende=k kete-ya 4029

PROX-M PROX-ADV very=LOC sing-PRES
This one [child] is singing right here.

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 The demonstrative adverbs often co-occur with the corresponding demonstrative

pronoun, with the demonstrative pronoun preceding the demonstrative adverb;

together they function adverbially, like the demonstrative adverbs when they occur

alone. The most frequent pairing is where the pronouns agree in distance. The most

common pairings are kera kekwra and ora okwra. These are illustrated in (106) and

(107). In these examples, kera and ora are the emphatic forms of ker and or (see §5.4.6).

(106) fer ka sukna-ya-r ke-r-a ke-kwra 6084

pig REAL sleep-PRES-3SG.M PROX-M-EMP PROX-ADV
The pig is sleeping right here.

(107) klei maure wate=r o-r-a o-kwra wuya-m-r 1726

then ancestor wate=M DIST-M-EMP DIST.ADV go.up-PAST2-3SG.M
And then Maure Wate grow there, Maure Wate does.

Each of these pairs agrees in remoteness. In (106), there is a distal demonstrative with a

distal pronoun and in (107), both are proximal.

Less common is the pairing kera okwra. This pairs a proximal demonstrative with a

distal pronoun, as in (108) and (109).

(108) ka num ke-r-a o-kwra rusu-ya-num 2175

REAL 1PL PROX-M-EMP DIST-ADV sit-PRES-1PL
We are staying in this place there.

(109) ke-r-a o-kwra gana=r ra wi fu-m-r 7015

PROX-M-EMP DIST-ADV younger.brother=M take go.up hit-PAST2-3SG.M
He took the younger brother up and hit him right there.

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In these cases, a more distant location is being made to seem nearer, either in distance,

or in emotional quality, to the listeners. A similar function can be accomplished by

pairing two demonstratives, a proximal and a distal.

7.3.2.3 Temporal Adverbs

There are six adverbs which refer to specific time periods, mostly specific days.

Table 42 summarizes this system; the interrogative form will be described in §7.7.4.

-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
mur yaki yale ningre woro yim tukur mur
'distant 'two days 'yesterday' 'today' 'tomorrow' 'two days 'three days 'distant
past' ago' from now' from now' future'

Table 42: Temporal Adverbs

These temporal adverbs denoting specific days extend two days into the past and

three days into the future from ningre 'today'. Note that the term mur can refer to

either past or future time beyond the time periods specified by the rest of the system.

Examples illustrating these words are given in (110) to (113).

(110) woro o-m-ra eku-ka-num 4107

tomorrow DIST-PL-EMP do-FUT2-1PL
Tomorrow we will do those [things].

(111) yale yekle ni-m-dun 6093

yesterday young see-PAST2-1DU
Yesterday we [dual] saw a young man.

(112) ningre mehek woro mehek yim=r

today NEG tomorrow NEG in.two.days=M
[ekra rokok] kisi-ka-num ELIC
[at that time] boil-FUT2-1PL
Not today or tomorrow, but in two days we will cook.

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 (113) klei woro ka di ro-ko=m yim=r
then tomorrow REAL DET 3SG.M-POSS=PL in.two.days=M

ka di ro-ko nu=r ekra i 4106

REAL DET 3SG.M-POSS garden=M in.that.way go

So tomorrow [he will go to] his [gardens]. In two days [he will] go to his
[other] garden.

Another temporal adverb is awar 'later', illustrated in (114).

(114) wa awar nawe=k i-kun ELIC

IRR later only=INS go-FUT1.1SG
I will just go later.

Note that there are also temporal adjuncts, noun phrases denoting times, sometimes

with the locative clitic =k, like nurku=k 'at night' in (115).12

(115) er-m-f nurku=k siri-r-kya-dun ka ambe

say-PAST2-3DU night=LOC die-R-FUT1-1DU REAL finish

ekra er-m-f 1726

so say- PAST2-3DU

They asked each other if they will die in the night, so they discussed this.

7.3.2.4 Interrogative Adverbs

Interrogative adverbs are discussed in §7.7.4.

12
See §6.9 for an explanation of the epenthetic /r/ glossed 'R' in (115).

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7.3.2.5 Ideophonic Adverbs

There is a special class of adverbs which express a variety of meanings, but which

are identified by the connection between their phonological form and semantics. They

are all partially reduplicative and/or have an onomatopoeic component. There are

regular rules governing the phonetic connections between each member of the pair.

They are ideophonic in nature because they are used to evoke sensory perceptions and

have distinctive phonological shapes. An initial example, with tindu tandu 'blind' is given

in (116).

(116) num kiri timba=ka [tindu tandu] rusu-ya-num 3811

1PL fire not.have=REAL [blind] sit-PRES-1PL
we don’t have fire so we are sitting in the dark

Each ideophonic adverb is a pair of words which are reduplicated in some way.

However, while the two parts will be phonologically similar, they are frequently not

identical. There are a fixed set of ways in which the two parts differ phonologically.

Table 43 lists these ways and explains the abbreviations listed in the column labelled

'Type' in Table 44, below.

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 Symbol Meaning
C consonant change
R complete reduplication
V vowel change (lowering)
V* vowel change (back but not lower)
() type change of variant form (when extant)
multiples multiple changes, order of symbols shows order

Table 43: Key to Ideophonic Adverb Types

Except in cases of complete reduplication (R), there can be a change of consonant

from the first word to the second (C) or of vowel (V and V*). In the case of a vowel

change, in most cases, the second word has a lower vowel than in the first word (V). In a

few instances, the second vowel has the same height, but is further back (V*). The

commonality between these is that the vowel which changes is always a high or mid-

front vowel in the first word and is either lowered or backed in the second. There are

also a few forms which have a common variant form which may have a different type of

change. These are listed in parenthesis.

Most of the parts of the following ideophonic adverbs do not occur outside these

combinations as independent morphemes; these only occur in the combinations listed

in Table 44. However, those marked with an asterisk have parts that can appear as

independent morphemes. When they do, they are nouns or verbs, but not adverbs.

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Form Meaning Type
bango bango 'mixed up', 'crooked' R
bangol bangol 'coil around' R
ber bar 'do in the wrong way', 'messed up' V
beu beu 'shimmy', 'expand' R
bil bol 'for skin to come off in hot water' V
bingil bangol 'wound up', 'curvy' VV
biya saia 'pleasant noise' CV
blili blala 'light up [esp. from embers]' V
bliwi blauwo 'part way' VV
blosu bloso 'pounded flat', 'smack' V
brau brau 'stamp feet', 'fan flame', 'up and down' R
bri bre 'spin around' V
burnga yarnga 'magical skills or power' CV
dal dal 'flicker on and off' R
di wirki di warko 'flail' VV
diwir diwir 'earthquake' R
dur dan 'difficult to eat [of leaves]' VC
engle mangle* 'spell' CV
fal fal 'come and go' R
feta kata 'show around [many things]' CV
filni falna 'change back and forth' V
fir fir for for 'splotchy with colors [like camoflauge]' RR
flili flolo 'snore', 'sound of a flute' V
fro fro 'rinse off' R
geu geu 'shiver from cold', 'crackle' R
glir glor 'noise' V
glor glor 'jingle', 'make noise' R
grisi groso 'try to grab something that runs away', 'feel weak' VV
groro groro 'scratch' R
gwru gwru 'shake from nerves' R
hako hako 'okay' R
hewe kawe 'trick' CV
hiki haka 'be confused', 'wrong understanding' V
hili hala 'check out' V

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hingre hangre 'joke' V
hoi hai 'take care of' V
horke harke 'mixture of food' V
ifa afa 'walk cautiously' V
kindi kundu 'in a zigzag fashion' V*
kio kio 'hang down limply' R
kitil kotol 'jump', 'hop [like a frog]' V
kiyi kiyi 'right now', 'as soon as possible' R
korfi korfi 'writhe [of detached tail]' R
kri kri 'lean against or lay across' R
kutol kutol 'up and down [path]', 'hop', 'limp' R
kwi kwai 'pull feet up with difficulty [as from mud]' V
kruru suru 'pretend by making noise' CC
lei lei* 'hanging', 'dangling' R
lermu sermu 'have sex in an aggressive manner' C
liwi luwau 'twist or stir up [for planting]' V*V
lorkwle sorkwle 'have sex with' C
mili mele (mele mele*) 'a long time ago' V (R)
miri marau 'turbulent water' VV
nakir nakir 'at the same time' R
nambo nambo* 'everyone' R
nambutu naruku 'begin to fight' CC
na sau waki a sau waki 'tangled together as a knot' C
natal atal 'echo' C
ongo ongo 'show the way' R
ringi rongo 'rub eye to remove dirt' V
riwi rewe 'walk with legs spread apart [esp. in pain]' V
sa sa gul gul 'rolling boil' RR
singlili senglele 'make a ruckus [birds and bats]' V
siri sere* 'broken into pieces' V
siwri sauwro 'pack up in preparation to leave' VV
soko sako 'check out [look up and down]' V
songo sango 'itchy', 'scratchy' V
sowur sowur 'move along' R
sungutu yangutu 'to saw', (also the name of a beetle species) CV

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 tikwete takwete 'bright, colorful' V
tikwlo takwlo 'uncooked food' V
timran tamran 'split [fabric, limbum, etc.]' R
timringi tamringi 'ruined', 'about to collapse' V
tindu tandu 'dark', 'blind' V
tingir tangir 'rush', 'sled down' V
tingre tangre 'erupt with light [as in embers]' V
tinol tanol 'make holes [spear, burn, etc.]' V
tuku towi* 'hold up a falling object' VV*
tulei tulei 'tip toe' R
tumu muna 'kissing noise', 'hissing noise' CCV
turon tauron 'collapse' V
uklu maklu 'bruise' CV
(wafu) boi boi 'full of love' R
wai wai 'not yet', 'wait' R
wilti wulte 'wrinkle' V*
wirki wirki 'always', 'long time' R
wirngin wurngun 'twisted' V*
wru wru 'pull' R
wul wul 'drizzle' R
yema kufa 'good time [for something]' CV*C
yiflou yiflou 'earthquake' R
yindi kundu 'stubborn' CV

Table 44: Ideophonic Adverbs

The meanings conveyed by these adverbs do not fall into one particular semantic

domain, but do have broad similarities. They usually describe a very specific, and often

uncommon, posture, sound, appearance, or movement. They are not common in

speech, but people do tend to enjoy the opportunity to use these words when they are

appropriate to a given situation. Many of them are included as necessary details in

particular stories. For instance, there is a story about one maure 'ancestor spirit' (see

276
§2.3.6) who has brightly colored skin and the adverb tikwete takwete is used. There is

no other way to describe 'brightly colored', and so this term is associated particularly

with this story.

Unlike other adverbs, though, the ideophonic adverbs can take verbal morphology

directly, as in (117) and (118).

(117) lesu fringi=r suwa ro-ko=m wa [kwi kwai]-ka-r 5082

hand long=M foot 3SG.M-POSS=PL IRR [up.and.down]-FUT2-3SG.M
It has long legs, its legs will move up and down.

(118) su maure=s o-kwra war rusu=ka [bri bre]-yu-m-s 7039

3SG.F spirit=F DIST-ADV go.down sit=REAL [spin]-REP-PAST2-3SG.F
The spirit came down there to stay. She was spinning around.

7.3.3 Word Order Position of Adjuncts and Adverbs

As mentioned above, adjuncts and adverbs normally precede the verb, as illustrated

by most of the examples in the preceding sections (and throughout this grammar). The

majority of examples in my data of adjuncts or adverbs following the verb are locative

ones. Examples of locative demonstrative adverbs following the verb are given in (119)

to (121).

(119) weke ru lisi=ka o-kwra 4091

clay 3SG.M cook=REAL DIST-ADV
He cooked the clay there.

(120) naka su siri=ka ke-kwra 4033

and 3SG.F die=REAL PROX-ADV
And she died here.

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 (121) fer ka sukna-ya-r ke-r-a ke-kwra 6084
pig REAL sleep-PRES-3SG.M PROX-M-EMP PROX-ADV
The pig is sleeping right here.

One of the more common types of adjuncts following the verb are locative expressions

bearing the locative clitic =k. Some examples are given in (122) to (127).

(122) masi anele o-m-ra rusu-ya-m kom=k 4011

masi anele DIST-PL-EMP stay-PRES-3PL village=LOC
Masi, Anele [and the rest] are staying there in the village.

(123) baye namrafuai su ro-ko=r loko wate-na

grass namrafuai bottom 3SG.M-POSS=M rain rain.fall-COND

nu i-na wa ne tongo-ka-m suwa=k 5042

2SG go-COND IRR 2SG.OBJ hold-FUT2-3PL leg=LOC

[As for] Namrafuai grass’s base, if it rains, [and] if you go [near it],
it will stick to your legs.

(124) fun tolo ekaa rusu yungu di fun-go kom=k 6093

2DU tell food sit like DET 2DU-POSS village=LOC
You [dual] talk, eat and sit in your [dual] village.

(125) nu te tambo ra=ka aku=ka kulu=k 7069

2SG 3SG.DIM.OBJ bring get=REAL go.back=REAL path=LOC
You get her and bring her back home along the road.

(126) ka er-m-m em wi=ka kur=k

REAL say-PAST2-3PL who go.up=REAL high=LOC

on-da=yun wi-kun 7072

1SG-EMP=1SG go.up-FUT1.1SG

I myself will go up.

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 (127) [o-ra yal] yen lili tenge=k ni-m-s 6055
[REM] child hang branch=LOC see
She saw the child hanging over there on the branch.

Example (128) is similar, though here the expression marked with the locative clitic is a

durational temporal expression.

(128) ka nambul wre-m-k [lisifu lisifu] ningi=k 2162

REAL sun shine-PAST2-SUB [four] day=LOC
while the sun was shining for four days

However, temporal expressions identifying time as opposed to duration seem always to

precede the verb, sometimes preceding the subject. For example, in (129), yale

'yesterday' occurs in initial position, preceding the negative word iki, the subject

pronoun nu, and the object kaku 'mami'.

(129) yale iki nu kaku a-na=ka ELIC

yesterday NEG 2SG mami eat-COND=2SG.INT
Would you not eat mami?

Examples (130) and (131) illustrate instrumental phrases following the verb.

(130) on ifi eku=ka rusu=ka ni-m rokor

1SG trap do=REAL sit=REAL see-GER CAUS

wa woro koko mo-ko=r fu-ka-r ifi=k ELIC

IRR tomorrow chicken 3PL-POSS=M hit-FUT2-3SG.M trap=INS

I set a trap [intending] to kill their chicken (with the trap).

(131) yikwa nato=ka o-r-a yikwa=k 4116

salt make.salt=REAL DIST-M-EMP salt=INS
They make salt with that salt.

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Some adverbs, like ideophonic adverbs, seem to always precede the verb, illustrated by

tindu tindu 'blind' in (132).

(132) num kiri timba=ka [tindu tandu] rusu-ya-num 3811

1PL fire not.have=REAL [blind] sit-PRES-1PL
we don’t have fire so we are sitting in the dark

When adverbs precede the verb, their most common position is following the

subject. Examples (133) to (135) illustrate locative adverbs occurring in this position. If

an object is also present, the adverb occurs between subject and object, as in (136).

(133) kum o-kwra rusu-ya-kum 3133

2PL DIST-ADV sit-PRES-2PL
You [all] are sitting there.

(134) yen=f o-f-ra kom=k sukna-m-f 4078

child=DU DIST-DU-EMP village=LOC sleep-PAST2-3DU
Those two children slept in the village.

(135) aka=r o-r-a oku gan=k susu-ya-r 1626

house=M DIST-M-EMP water edge=LOC stand-PRES-3SG.M
The house is located near water.

(136) on-da o-kwra me tirite=ka nuwku ni-m-yun 2727

1SG.EMP DIST-ADV 3PL.OBJ leave=REAL survey see-PAST2-1SG
I left them there to look around [the area].

When locative adjuncts precede the verb, they often precede both subject and object,

as in (137). They can also occur between subject and object, though, as in (138).

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 (137) kom=k num suwa kur=ka kisi=ka a-ya-num 5044
village=LOC 1PL coconut scrape=REAL boil=REAL eat-PRES-1PL
It is in the village that we scrape, boil, and eat coconuts.

(138) on yale o-r-a fangi=k ne ni-m-yun 1608

1SG yesterday DIST-M-EMP river=LOC 2SG.OBJ see-PAST2-1SG
I saw you yesterday at the river.

In (139), the temporal expression di ningi 'sometimes' occurs after a subject pronoun

and before the realis particle ka.

(139) on [di ningi]=k ka re ni-m-yun ELIC

1SG [some day]=LOC REAL 3SG.M.OBJ see-PAST2-1SG
I sometimes [used to] see him.

In (140), the ideophonic adverb glir glor occurs following the subject.

(140) on [glir glor] ka eku-wa-yun ELIC

1SG [make noise] REAL do-PAST1-1SG
I made some noise.

However, the ideophonic adverb in (140) can occur in any preverbal position. In (141),

glir glor 'some noise' occurs in sentence-initial position, before the subject.

(141) [glir glor] on ka eku-wa-yun ELIC

[make noise] 1SG REAL do-PAST1-1SG
I made some noise.

And in (142), glir glor occurs between the realis particle ka and the verb, in contrast to

(140) above, where it precedes the realis particle.

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 (142) on ka [glir glor] eku-wa-yun ELIC
1SG REAL [make noise] do-PAST1-1SG
I made some noise.

Examples of adjuncts or adverbs preceding the object are given in (143) to (146).

(143) oku=k ene war-wa-r 6067

water=LOC 1SG.OBJ go.down-PAST1-3SG.M
It fell down into the water. [It fell in the water on me.]

(144) no-ko-ra sul=k wa mu di=r i oro-ka-yun 6022

2SG-POSS-EMP ground=LOC IRR tree DET=M go chop-FUT2-1SG
I will go a chop a single tree on your land.

(145) bir tombo=k re ka ta-m-r 6113

tooth end=INS 3SG.M.OBJ REAL bite-PAST2-3SG.M
He bit him with the tip of his tooth.

(146) woro wate kute lisi a-r i-na-dun 7077

tomorrow breadfruit cut burn eat-INF go-COND-1DU
Tomorrow maybe we two will go and cook and eat breadfruit.

Adjuncts occasionally precede the subject, as in (147) and (148). In (147), the locative

phrase mu yenglak 'on tree branches' precedes the subject pronoun.

(147) mu yengla=k su [bangol bangol] ka sukna-ya-s 3097

tree branch=LOC 3SG.F [wound.up] REAL sleep-PRES-3SG.F
She sleeps wound up on tree branches.

In (148), the locative phrase oku kulfok 'in cold water' follows the realis mood particle ka

but precedes the subject and object pronouns.

282
 (148) ka oku kulfo=k su te wiyi=ka 7081
REAL water cold=LOC 3SG.F 3SG.F.OBJ wash=REAL
She washed her [daughter] in the cold water.

In general, adjuncts and adverbs tend to follow the mood particles or the negative

word iki. Examples (149) and (150) both illustrate awar 'later' following the irrealis

particle wa.

(149) iki a-ka-num wa awar=k a-ka-num ELIC

NEG eat-FUT2-1PL IRR later=INS eat-FUT2-1PL
We will not eat; we will eat later.

(150) nekwa=s iki tare-ya-s wa awar=k tare-ka-s ELIC

moon=F NEG shine-PRES-3SG.F IRR later=INS shine-FUT2-3SG.F
The moon is not shining [now]. It will shine later.

Example (151) illustrates the adverb anganambu 'fast' following the negative word iki.

(151) selen=r mu nere=r iki anganambu oro sere-num na-nak 5074

selen=M 3PL strong=M NEG fast chop break-1PL be.at-VNEG
The Selen tree is strong. We cannot chop it quickly.

Example (152) illustrates a locative phrase wulak 'in the jungle' following the object

noun phrase naku elowom 'sago or meat', though since objects also generally follow the

negative word iki, this example is probably more reflecting an atypical position for the

object noun phrase rather than an atypical position for the locative phrase.

(152) naku elowo=m iki wula=k ra-yu-m-f 6094

sago animal=PL NEG jungle=LOC get-REP-PAST2-3DU
They did not get sago or meat in the jungle.

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7.4 Serial-Verb Constructions

Mehek frequently uses serial verb constructions, with two or more verbs in what

appears to be a single clause. A complete serial-verb utterance itself stands as a single

macro-event while certain groups of verbs within the macro-event constitute sub-

events. They can be quite complex and often have far more than two verbs. Example

(153) contains nine verbs out of thirteen words, though serial constructions are not

usually nearly so complex.

(153) fu wi=ka nate o-kwra wi=ka nu=m wuya

3DU go.up=REAL cut DIST-ADV go.up=REAL garden=PL come.down

nate kiri talma tiri=ka war aku-m-f 2162

cut fire start leave=REAL go.down go.back-PAST2-3DU

We two went up there to clear the garden, came down to cut

grass, started a fire, then went back down to go home.

All but the last verb in serial verb constructions is uninflected, though they can host

the realis clitic, as in wi=ka 'go.up=REAL' in (99). The tense/mood/aspect suffixes on the

last verb in the serial verb construction are interpreted as applying to all verbs in the

construction. What this means is that they will all share the same subject. They may,

however, each combine with other clausal constituents, like object noun phrases and

adverbs. For example, the verb talma 'start' in (153) is preceded by an object noun

phrase kiri 'fire', which is object of just this verb, no other verb in the serial verb

construction. When there is a sequence of events that have different subjects, however,

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it is not possible to use a serial construction. Separate finite verbs must be used, as in

(154).

(154) lako gaima=k re ni-m-r

eye left=INS 3SG.M.OBJ see-PAST2-3SG.M

fi=r mu re fu-m-m 6050

spear=M 3PL 3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-3PL

He looked him in the eye and then they hit him with a spear.

It is possible to distinguish different sorts of serial verb constructions in terms of

the tightness of the combination. As noted above, it is possible for the realis mood

particle ka to occur multiple times within a serial verb construction. However, when ka

occurs more than once, the connection between the units marked by ka seems looser,

as in (155), where the occurrence of =ka on rusu 'sit' seems to signal a looser connection

between the two verbs, due to the fact that both action are possible independent of

each other. That is, 'sitting' and 'talking' do not have to co-occur.

(155) re rusu=ka er-m-r 6069

3SG.M.OBJ sit=REAL say-PAST2-3SG.M
[He] sat talking to him.

Contrast this with (156), where we have a sequence of three bare verbs before the last

verb ekaamm.

(156) ekra mu sa ra tongo ekaa-m-m 6074

thus 3PL dig get hold food-PAST2-3PL
So they dug it up, got a hold of it, and ate.

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 A third type of serial verb construction involves a very tight connection between the

two verbs and does not allow individual verbs to combine with their own object or

adverb. In fact, these might be considered compound verbs. Examples are given in (157)

and (158).

(157) ru ka afa=r [rusu kuna]-ya-r ELIC

3SG.M REAL father=M [sit wait]-PRES-3SG.M
He waits for [his] father.

(158) num tawa=s ka [susu kuna]-ya-num ELIC

1PL woman=F REAL [stand wait]-PRES-1PL
We are waiting for the woman.

With these compound verb serial verb constructions, it is less clear that the two verbs

denote separate subevents of a single event. Rather than denote different aspects of a

single event. For example, in (158), the standing and waiting are not really different

subevents, but rather two aspects of a single event.

Note that the order of the two verbs in these compound verb constructions is not

always fixed. Example (159) has the same meaning as (157) above, but with the verbs in

reverse order But again, the verbal inflections still occur only on the second verb.

(159) ru ka afa=r [kuna rusu]-ya-r ELIC

3SG.M REAL father=M [wait sit]-PRES-3SG.M
He waits for [his] father.

Other possible instances of compound verbs are given in (160) to (163).

286
 (160) on-da o-kwra [nuku ni]-m-yun 2176
1SG.EMP DIST-ADV [survey see]-PAST2-1SG
I was looking around there.

(161) aku rusu=ka i [afi nau]=ka 6023

go.home sit=REAL go [hit yell]=REAL
They went and stayed at home and fought.

(162) su re [tolo erfa]-m-s 6057

3SG.F 3SG.M.OBJ [tell inform]-PAST2-3SG.F
She let him know.

(163) nemen [feta kata]-m-m [bu bu]=m 4115

1PL.OBJ [show look.around]-PAST2-3PL [everything]=PL
They are showing us everything.

The example in (164) contains different degrees of tightness in the same serial verb

construction. The connection between afi 'hit' and nau 'yell' is tightest. Conversely, aku

rusu=ka and i afi nau=ka are least tightly bound since each has its own mood particle.

(164) aku rusu=ka i [afi nau]=ka 6023

go.home sit=REAL go [hit yell]=REAL
They went and stayed at home and fought.

Further examples of sentences containing serial verb constructions are given in

(165) to (176).

(165) su gasiwa=s susu=ka ni-m-s kufu=r ka

3SG.F sister=F sit=REAL see-PAST2-3SG.F vine=M REAL

ya-m-r 4089
come-PAST2-3SG.M

The cousin stood and watched as he brought the vine.

287
(166) re susu=ka ni-m-r ka re fu-m-m 6050
3SG.M.OBJ sit=REAL see-PAST2-3SG.M REAL 3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-3PL
He saw him sitting, and they hit him.

(167) aka sa tu=ka aka re wuta ki-num 5068

house dig put.down=REAL house 3SG.M.OBJ cut build-PRES.1PL
We dig and put in [posts]. We cut and place [the other beams] for him.

(168) ra=ka rii=ka lisi kware=ka a-ya-num 6082

get=REAL remain=REAL cook smoke.fish=REAL eat-PRES-1PL
We get [the fish], leave it in place to cook and smoke, then we eat.

(169) te wi wakre=ka sukna-m-r 6016

3SG.F.OBJ go.up carry.on.neck=REAL sleep-PAST2-3SG.M
He carried her up on his back and slept.

(170) afa=r ekra siri=ka sukna-m-r 6116

father=M thus die=REAL sleep-PAST2-3SG.M
Thus father layed down and slept.

(171) tama=r wala tambo=ka fer fle=ka i-m-r 6042

person=M dog follow=REAL pig search=REAL go-PAST2-3SG.M
The man went [to the jungle] with his dog to find a pig.

(172) ki=k te wra i-m-m 6063

vagina=LOC 3SG.DIM.OBJ go.out go-PAST2-3PL
They [insects] came out of her vagina.

(173) nu=m ka sa ra tongo ambe-wa-k

garden=PL REAL dig get hold finish-PAST1-SUB

baye wuya-ya-r 5044

grass come.up-PRES-3SG.M

When the gardens are dug and [debris] is removed, the grass comes up.

288
 (174) nu te sa=ka raya=ka kisi=ka wa kufe a-ka-r 5108
2SG 3SG.F.OBJ dig=REAL bring=REAL boil=REAL IRR good eat-FUT2-3SG.M
You dig it up, bring it [home] and then boil it. It will be good to eat.

(175) nu eku=ka aku=ka i=ka rusu-wa-f 4099

garden do=REAL go.back=REAL go=REAL sit-PAST1-3DU
They [dual] did garden [work] and went back. They [dual] went and rested.

(176) nu te tambo ra=ka aku=ka kulu=k 7069

2SG 3SG.DIM.OBJ bring get=REAL go.back=REAL path=LOC
You get her and bring her back home along the road.

7.5 Clauses with Nonverbal Predicates

There are two types of clauses with nonverbal predicates. In one type, there is a

copula verb. In the other, the clause itself is nonverbal, with only the nonverbal

predicate. These two types are discussed in the next two sections, §7.5.1 describing

clauses with a copula verb, §7.5.2 describing clauses without a verb.

7.5.1 Clauses with the Verb na

Although locative predicates can appear without a verb (as illustrated in the next

section), they can also occur with the verb na 'be at', as in (177) and (180).

(177) wula=k na-ya-t kanda=t 5083

jungle=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.DIM small=DIM
He stays in the jungle, the little one.

289
 (178) iki ke-kwra
fenda=m na-nak
NEG PROX-ADV from=PL be.at-VNEG

o-r-a ekra ya-m-num 2176

DIST-M-EMP thus come-PAST2-1PL

Those men were not from here so we came.

(179) o-s iroko=k na-ya-s=ka ELIC

DIST-F where=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.F=INT
Where is she? [Where did she get herself off to?]

(180) samdo=s au=r minba=k na-ya-s ELIC

spider=F pot=M near=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.F
The spider is near the pot

This verb can also mean 'exist', as in (181).

(181) felnde aka ki-r lisi lisi na-ya-f 4124

bird house build-INF two two be.at-PRES-3DU
There are two kinds of bird blind.

This verb is also used occasionally with adjectival or nominal predicates with the sense

'become', as in (182) to (184).

(182) klei ka gulmombu=k na-ka-m 5095

then REAL gulmombu become-FUT2-3PL
Then they will become Gulmombu [mushrooms].

(183) aye gil=s kaiembo kanda=s iki samba na-ya-t 4016

bat gil=F small small=F NEG big become-PRES-3D
The Gil bat is very small; it does not become big.

290
 (184) fer ata o-r-a su nuwa-m-r
pig very DIST-M-EMP 3SG.F give-PAST2-3SG.M

samba=k na-m-t 4049

big=INS become-PAST2-3SG.DIM

That big pig that was taken care of by her grew large.

It is also used occasionally with predicates headed by kana 'with', as in (185).

(185) mu liti tuwar=ka ka te nuwa-m-m

3PL fill pour=REAL REAL 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST2-3PL

naka su a=ka muwku fi kana na-m-s 7052

and 3SG.F eat=REAL breast milk with be.at-PAST2-3SG.F

They fill it up and give it to her. And she eats; she is full up with
breast milk.

The negative of this verb is also used in negating both clauses with verbal

predicates (§7.8), as in (186) and (187).

(186) iki on rusu-r na-nak nawe susu-kun 4088

NEG 1SG sit-INF be.at-VNEG only stand-FUT.1SG
I do not sit, I will only stand.

(187) iki a-ka-num na-nak wa awar=k a-ka-num 5048

NEG eat-FUT2-1PL be.at-VNEG IRR later=INS eat-FUT2-1PL
We will not eat [it is not customary], we will eat later.

It is also used to negate clauses with nonverbal predicates, including nominal

predicates, as in (188) and (189), adjectival predicates, as in (190) and (191), and

relational noun phrase predicates, as in (192).

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 (188) iki naku kaha=t na-nak 3115
NEG sago bad=3DIM be.at-VNEG
It is not a bad [kind of] sago.

(189) uwku blala=t iki uwku samba=t na-nak 6121

sugarcane cane.species=DIM NEG sugarcane big=3DIM be.at-VNEG
Blala sugarcane is not a big kind of sugarcane.

(190) ke-r-a mu=r iki nere=r na-nak 5045

PROX-M-EMP tree=M NEG strong=M be.at-VNEG
This tree is not strong. [This particular tree, this type usually is.]

(191) di=r kasa yungu ni-r iki kasa mende=r na-nak 5026
DET=M red like see-INF NEG red very=M be.at-VNEG
One looks red. It is not that red, though.

(192) iki ke-kwrafenda=m na-nak

NEG PROX-ADV from=PL be.at-VNEG

o-r-a ekra ya-m-num 2176

DIST-M-EMP thus come-PAST2-1PL

Those men were not from here so we came.

Locative predicates also occur frequently with one of the posture verbs, including

rusu 'sit', as in (193) to (195), and susu 'stand', as in (196) and (197).

(193) aka siki=k rusu-n ELIC

house hole=LOC sit-PRES.1SG
I am in the house.

(194) mulu ata wula=k rusu-m-s 4006

rodent ata jungle=LOC sit-PAST2-3SG.F
The Ata rodent lives in the jungle.

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 (195) romo wosu o-kwra rusu=ka 7044
romo wosu DIST-ADV sit=REAL
Romo Wosu was there.

(196) duwngu mu=r wula=k susu=ka 5091

duwngu tree=M jungle=LOC stand=REAL
The duwngu tree grows in the jungle.

(197) num i-m-m kulu=r oku sumbu-m-num 1626

1PL go-PAST2-3PL road=M water follow-PAST2-1PL
The house is located near water.

7.5.2 Nonverbal Clauses

Nonverbal predicates often occur without a verb, with only a predicate clitic on the

predicate. This is illustrated in (198) to (201) for nominal predicates. See §4.2 for more

examples.

(198) naka ya=ka ke-r-a num-ra naka

and come=REAL PROX-M-EMP 1PL-EMP and

Yinawe Lakwiyi=num 2725

Yinawe Lakwiyi=1PL

And we came and we are Yinawe Lakwiyi.

(199) on-da=yun maure fer ro-ko yen=yun yen nan=yun 6064

1SG-EMP=1SG ancestor pig 3SG.M-POSS child=1SG child grandchild=1SG
I am Ancestor Pig’s child. I am his grandchild.

(200) gana yen yinsawa=kum 7012

younger.brother child wife.of.son=2PL
You are the younger brother, child and son’s wife.

293
 (201) emo-ko nandasi=r=a ELIC
who-POSS brother=3SG.M=INT
Whose brother is he?

In the preceding examples, the predicate is a noun phrase ending in a noun. In (202) and

(203), the predicate is a noun phrase ending in an adjective, so the predicate clitic

attaches to the adjective.

(202) nembe mekte=s nembe samba=s 5014

lizard lizard.species=F lizard big=3SG.F
The Mekte lizard is a big lizard.

(203) yam kufun=r yam kufe=r 5020

banana banana.species=M banana good=3SG.M
The Kufun banana is a good banana.

Examples of adjectival predicates are given in (204) to (206).

(204) num-ra kaha=num ... 2727

1PL-EMP bad=1PL
We were bad ...

(205) liki so-ko=r kulka so-ko=m okwe okwe=t

skin 3SG.F-POSS=M feather 3SG.F-POSS=PL yellow yellow=3SG.DIM
kulfo kulfo=t gamu gamu=t 3810
green green-3SG.DIM white white=DIM
Its skin and feathers are yellow, green, and white.

(206) aye barbar su kanda=t kaiembo=t mu bongo=k

aye barbar 3SG.F thin=3SG.DIM small=3SG.DIM tree tree.crotch
sukna-t mu liki=k o-t-a mu kumba=k sukna-t 3810
sleep-3SG.DIM tree skin=LOC DIST-DIM-EMP tree leaf=LOC sleep-3SG.DIM
Aye Barbar is small. She lives in the crotch of a branch or tree bark
or in leaves.

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Examples of adjective phrases functioning as predicates, where the adjective is followed

by a modifier, are given in (207) to (210).

(207) sofo mar ningli=r samba ata=r fringi ata=r 3809

snake mar ningli=M big very=M long very=M
Mar ningli snake is very big and very long.

(208) samba ata mende=r kulka ro-ko=t kaiembo=t 5093

big very very=M leaf 3SG.M-POSS=DIM small=3DIM
Its very biggest leaf is small.

(209) naku kufe mende=t iki samba=k wi-t na-nak 3809

sago good very=DIM NEG big=INS grow-3SG.DIM be.at-VNEG
The sago is very good, it doesn’t grow big.

(210) kaku on sa-wa-r samba nawe=m ELIC

mami 1SG dig-PAST1-3SG.M big only=3PL
The mami I dug were all large.

Example (211) includes both an adjectival predicate, kaiembot 'small' and a nominal

predicate naku kufet 'good sago'.

(211) naku walo kulka so-ko=t kaiembo=t na naku kufe=t 3809

sago walo leaf 3SG.F-POSS=DIM small=DIM and sago good=DIM
The leaves of walo sago are small and it’s a good sago.

Example (212) also includes both a nominal predicate and an adjectival predicate.

(212) mulu ara rengau=r mulu kufe=r samba=r 4126

rodent rodent.species rengau=M rodent good=M big=3SG.M
The Ara Rengau rodent is a good rodent and is big.

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 Examples of relational noun phrases functioning as predicates in nonverbal clauses

are given in (213) and (214)

(213) ke-t-a kumul yenda=t 2723

PROX-DIM-EMP kumul from=DIM
She is from the Kumul (clan).

(214) ke-r-a sofo gamu kana=num ELIC

PROX-M-EMP snake white with=1PL
We have this white snake. (Literally 'we are with this white snake')

Examples of noun phrases bearing the locative/instrumental clitic functioning as

predicates in nonverbal clauses are given in (215) and (216).

(215) mu lom=k 4043

3PL dance=LOC
They were in the dance.

(216) yinawe kom amangolo o-r-a ka lu nawe=k 2723

yinawe village amangolo DIST-M-EMP REAL mountain.range only=LOC
Yinawe, Amangolo village, is just near the mountain range.

7.6 Passive Clauses

The structure of what I analyze as passive clauses seems, initially, to violate the

rules of verbal agreement in the area of person/number/gender agreement (see §6.1).

In all other clauses, the verb agrees with the subject noun phrase. In the passive,

however, it appears either that it is the object which triggers agreement marking on the

verb. However, we can account for this if we analyze such clauses as passive clauses. To

describe the structure of passive clauses and how they differ from corresponding active

296
clauses, it is useful to use the labels 'A' and 'P' for the arguments that are subject and

object respectively in an active clause. A passive clause is constructed from the

corresponding active clause by three changes: (1) placing the P before the A; (2) using

the subject form for the A, which will always be a pronoun (See §5.4); and (3) changing

the agreement on the verb so that it agrees with the P. The difference between passive

and active clauses is schematized in Table 45.

Active Passive
A P V P A V
su fer fu-m-s fer su fu-m-r
3SG.F pig(M) hit-PAST2-3SG.F pig(M) 3SG.F hit-PAST2-3SG.M
She killed the pig. The pig was killed by her.
*The pig was killed by her. *The pig killed her.

Table 45: Passive Derivation from the Active Clause

There a number of peculiarities of the Mehek passive. One is that the P (the subject

of the passive) cannot be a pronoun. Another is that the A (which is not subject as far as

verb agreement is concerned) not only has to be a pronoun but occurs in subject form,

despite the fact that it does not control subject agreement on the verb. However, the

fact that the pronoun A occurs in what I have been calling subject form might be

because this form is actually the default form, occurring in all contexts where the

pronoun is not an object of the verb or a possessor. For example, as noted in §5.10.2,

the subject form is also used for “objects” of relational nouns.

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 The examples in (164) and (165) further illustrate the passive. Example (217) is an

active sentence while (165) is the corresponding passive. We see that in (218), the P

precedes the A and controls verb agreement and the A occurs in subject form.

(217) on ka fer fu-m-yun ELIC

1SG REAL pig hit-PAST2-1SG
I hit the pig.

(218) fer on ka fu-m-r ELIC

pig 1SG REAL hit-PAST2-3SG.M
The pig was hit by me.

It is possible to leave out the subject (the P) if it is recoverable from contexts, as is

generally the case with subjects, as in (219) and (220), where the P is coded only by the

3SG.M suffix on the verb.

(219) sentani bulmu ekra mu isi-ya-r 4060

sentani lake in.that.way 3PL call-PRES-3SG.M
So it is called [they call it] Lake Sentani.

(220) ekra num isi-ya-r 4024

in.that.way 1PL call-PRES-3SG.M
That’s why it is called that by us.

Some further examples of passive sentences from texts are given in (221) to (224).

(221) ekaa nu=m num eku-ya-m 4118

food garden=PL 1PL do-PRES-3PL
Food gardens are made by us.

(222) [mar wate]=r ekra num a-ya-r okwe wi a-r 5004

[papaya]=M in.that.way 1PL eat-PRES-3SG.M ripe go.up eat-INF
So papaya is eaten by us [when] it comes up and is ripe.

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 (223) ningli=m on rete-ya-m mulu=m ekra ene a ambe 6107
cold.food=PL 1SG put-PRES-3PL rodent=PL thus 1SG.OBJ eat finish
[When] the cold food is left out by me, the house rats eat it all up.

(224) wuya-m-s fer nari on fu-m-r 6069

come.up-PAST2-3SG.F pig first 1SG hit-PAST2-3SG.M
The first pig was killed by me.

7.7 Interrogative Sentences

7.7.1 Interrogative Clitic =ka

The primary means of asking a polar question is via the interrogative clitic =ka.13

The clitic =ka attaches to the final element in the clause, most often a verb, as in (225)

to (227).14

(225) ru kom=k rusu-ya-r=ka ELIC

3SG.M village=LOC sit-PRES-3SG.M=INT
Is he staying in the village?

(226) [ifi afa] waki-r-kya-f=ka 4046

[poorly] tie-R-FUT1-3DU-INT
Will the two of them tie it up badly?

(227) iki nu kaku a-na=ka ELIC

NEG 2SG mami eat-COND=INT
Would you not eat mami?

13
This clitic should not be confused with the remote future verbal marker (see §6.2.3) or the realis mood
marker (see §7.2.1), both of which take the form /ka/ and also attach to verbs.
14
It is not clear to me whether ka should be treated as a clitic or a separate word.

299
The clitic =ka is also used in content questions, as in (228) to (232). The interrogative

words used in content questions are discussed below in §7.7.4.

(228) ermesu-m-r em siri-wa-r=ka 7079

ask-PAST2-3SG.M who die-PAST1-3SG.M=INT
He asked, “Who died?”

(229) tawa=s ke-t-a biki eku=ka 7053

woman=F PROX-F-EMP how do=INT
What is this woman doing?

(230) ka fe er-m-m [biki naka] susu-ya-fun=ka 2710

REAL 3DU.OBJ say-PAST2-3PL [why] stand-PRES-2DU=INT
They asked them [dual], “Why are you standing [there]?”

(231) o-s iroko=k na-ya-s=ka ELIC

DIST-F where=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.F=INT
Where is she?

(232) te ermesu-m-r [biki naka] kra-ya-r=ka 6065

3SG.F.OBJ ask-PAST2-3SG.M [why] cry-PRES-3SG.M=INT
He asked her, “Why is he crying?”

Examples (233) and (234) both include two occurrences of =ka, one on a content

question, the other on a polar question.

(233) ke-s bu=r eku-ya-s=ka [hokwek na]-ya-s=ka 6021

PROX-F what=M do-PRES-3SG.F=INT [waste time]-PRES-3SG.F=INT
What is she doing? Is she wasting time?

300
 (234) tawa=s ke-t-a biki eku=ka
woman=F PROX-F-EMP how do=INT

kom nawe=k sukna-ya-s=ka 7053

village only=INS sleep-PRES-3SG.F=INT

What is this woman doing? Does she only sleep in the village?

The interrogative clitic also appears on nonverbal predicates. In (235) it appears on

the noun phrase emoko tawaf 'whose wives'.

(235) ke-f-ra emo-ko tawa=f=ka ELIC

DIST-DU-EMP who-POSS woman=3DU=INT
Whose wives are these two?

In (236), the entire sentence is apparently a noun phrase functioning as predicate.

(236) di no-ko nanda fi=r=ka ELIC

DET 2SG-POSS older.brother spear=3SG.M=INT
Is that your older brother's spear?

In (237), it appears on an interrogative pronoun in predicate position.

(237) nu em=ka 7021

2SG who=INT
Who are you?

In (238), it appears on a personal pronoun in predicate position.

(238) biki yen nu=ka 4033

which child 2SG=INT
Which child are you?

In (239), it appears on the relational noun yungu, again with it appearing in predicate

position.

301
 (239) biki yungu-t=ka 3097
how like-3DIM=INT
What size is it?

In (240), it also appears on a relational noun fenda 'from'.

(240) rusu=ka ni=ka er-m-r ke-f iroko fenda=f=ka 4035

sit=REAL see=REAL say-PAST2-3SG.M PROX-DU where from=3DU=INT
He sat watching and asked where the two were from.

In (241), it appears on the word iroko 'where' appearing in predicate position.

(241) o-f-ra iroko=ka 4051

DIST-DU-EMP where.DU=INT
Where are the two of them?

And in (242), it appears on the nonverbal word beena 'enough'.

(242) ru er-m-r beena=yun=ka 6106

3SG.M say-PAST2-3SG.M enough=1SG=INT
He asked, “Am I finished [with it]?”

It does not appear, however, on noun phrases following the verb, as illustrated by the

ungrammaticality of (243) and (244).

(243) *ru i-wa-r kom=k=ka ELIC

3SG.M go-PAST1-3SG.M village=LOC=INT
Did he go to the village?

(244) *rusu-ya-r kom=k=ka ELIC

sit-PRES-3SG.M village=LOC=INT
Is he sleeping in the village?

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In other words, it only appears on predicates. It seems that the predicate is always or

almost always last in questions; i.e. no other constituents of the sentence will follow the

predicate.

When the subject is second person singular, there is generally no overt marking of

the sentence as a question; I represent this in the examples by '=ø', glossed '2SG.INT'.

This is illustrated in (245) to (250). Note that when this happens, the form of the verb is

still distinct from that in a corresponding declarative sentence in that there will be a

tense suffix but no subject suffix on the verb;. This contrasts with clauses with a subject

that it not second person singular, where we get both subject suffix and the clitic =ka.

For this reason, one might posit a zero interrogative clitic in these sentences with

second person singular subjects.

(245) ka sukna-ya=ø sukna-r ELIC

REAL sleep-PRES=2SG.INT sleep-INF
Are you sleeping?.

(246) woro biki yoko wula=k i-ka=ø ELIC

tomorrow how towards jungle=LOC go-FUT2=2SG.INT
Will you go to the jungle tomorrow?

(247) ka ermesu-m-m bu tombo=k siri-wa=ø 6038

REAL ask-PAST2-3PL what end.point=LOC die-PAST1-2SG.INT
They asked, “What part did you die in?”

(248) [biki biki] kulu=k ya-wa=ø 6062

[how] road=LOC come-PAST1=2SG.INT
How did you come here?

303
 (249) bu=r ende eku-ka=ø 6088
what=M 1DU.OBJ do-FUT2=2SG.INT
What will you do to us [dual]?

(250) te eloko-m-s nu ene ra er-ya=ø

3SG.F.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F 2SG 1SG.OBJ get say-PRES=2SG.INT

wa ne ta a-ka-s 6057
IRR 2SG.OBJ bite eat-FUT2-3SG.F

She said to her, “What did you say to me? She will bite you.”

When the subject is second person dual or plural, =ka is used, as in (251) to (254).

(251) ka fe er-m-r bu kufu eku-ya-fun=ka 6093

REAL 3DU.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M what vine do-PRES-2DU=INT
He said to them [dual], “What is it, do you make it with vines?”

(252) tawa nanda=fun=ka 7037

wife older.sister=2DU=INT
You two are a wife and a sister, now? [You are all grown up.]

(253) fe ermesu-m-s biki yen=fun=ka 4078

3DU.OBJ ask-PAST2-3SG.F which child=2DU=INT
She asked them [dual], “Whose children are you [dual]?”

(254) mele iki yirkwe tongo-kum=ka ELIC

often NEG knife hold-2PL=INT
Do you [plural] often not carry knives? [Are you often not knife-holders?]

While it is apparently more common not to use =ka with second person singular

subjects, examples (255) to (257), as well as (227) and (237) above, show that it is

possible to use =ka with second person singular subjects. In all of these examples,

however, except for (227), we have either a nonverbal predicate or a verb bearing the

304
conditional suffix rather than a tense suffix. Hence the absence of =ka with second

person singular subjects generally arises if and only if there is a tense suffix on the verb.

(255) nu emo-ko yen=ka 7062

2SG who-POSS child=INT
Whose child are you?

(256) iki nu re eloko-na=ka ELIC

NEG 2SG 3SG.M.OBJ tell-COND=INT
You did not talk to him?

(257) iki kom yoko nu i-na=ka ELIC

NEG village towards 2SG go-COND=INT
You did not go?

Content questions occasionally lack =ka, as in (258) and (259). In these examples,

the question is similar to those with zero marking with a second person singular subject

in that the verb occurs with a tense suffix but no subject suffix.

(258) or em te nuwa-ya ELIC

bilum who 3F.OBJ give-PRESENT
Who is giving her a bilum (string bag)?

(259) iki bu=m ru eku-nak ELIC

NEG what=PL 3SG.M do-VNEG
What did he not do?

7.7.2 Interrogative Clitic =a

In addition to the interrogative clitic =ka, there is a second interrogative clitic =a.

Like =ka, it attaches to the final word of the sentence, typically the verb. It has its own

stress in addition to the stress appropriate to the word it attaches to. When it occurs in

305
a polar question, it signals that there is an expected answer 'yes' to the question, as in

(260) and (261).

(260) ka kaha=r ya-ya-r=a 2177

REAL bad=M go-PRES-3SG.M=INT
That an evil spirit coming, isn’t it?

(261) fu o-f-ra engle tukta-m-f

3DU DIST-DU-EMP spell carry-PAST2-3DU

ru ofto-wa-r mehek=a 6089

3SG.M blow-PRES-3SG.M NEG=INT

They [dual] carried the spell [a powder]. Did he not blow it [cast the spell]?

When used in a content question, the clitic =a indicates that the speaker is

surprised by what is going on. It may be a rhetorical question where the speaker knows

the answer, but is surprised by it. Examples of the clitic =a with content questions are

given in (262) to (264).

(262) tama=r bu=r te nuwa-ya-r=a ELIC

man=M what=M 3SG.F.OBJ give-PRES-3SG.M=INT
The man gives her what? [I am surprised by what he gave her.]

(263) yirkwe=r [o-r i-r]=a ELIC

knife=M [DIST-M go-M]=INT
Where is the knife?

(264) ka lom-ka-r=a mu lom=k

REAL dance-FUT2-3SG.M=INT 3PL dance=LOC
ermesu-m-r oriko=k lom-ya-m=a 4043
ask-PAST2-3SG.M where=LOC dance-PRES-3PL=INT
“There will be a dance?” [He asked. Later, ] they were at the dance site,
and he asked, “Where are they [really] dancing?”

306
7.7.3 Use of kamben or =ben in Polar Questions

§8.1.3 discusses the use of the the word kamben or the clitic -ben to conjoin clauses

with the meaning 'or'. But these words are also used in another way to form polar

questions as in (265) and (266).

(265) suwa glengu=r ser ser ana ra=ben 6098

coconut pod=M first first 1SG.IMP get=or
[Perhaps] I will take the coconut pod first?

(266) ke-kwra aku-wa-r kamben o-r-a 6084

PROX-ADV go.back-PAST1-3SG.M or DIST-M-EMP
Did he go back [as opposed to something else]?

7.7.4 Interrogative Words in Content Questions

Interrogative phrases in content questions appear in situ, in the same position as

corresponding noninterrogative phrases. Table 46 lists the question words and their

word class. Following that, each word is described and exemplified below in the order

that it appears in the table. Those words with hyphens can occur with clitics or suffixes.

Question Word Form Word Class(es)

who em- Adjective, Pronoun
whose emoko- Possessive
what bu- Adjective, Pronoun
where (motive) iroko Pronoun
where (locative) o- i- Pronoun
which biki Adjective
how biki (biki) Manner Adverb
when biki rokok Temporal Adverb
why biki naka Manner Adverb
how much/many biki saima Adjective

Table 46: Question Words

307
7.7.4.1 em 'who'

The interrogative pronoun for 'who' is em, illustrated in (267) and (268).

(267) em wi=ka kur=k 7072

who go.up=REAL high=LOC
Who will go up high [onto the mountain]?

(268) em ne eloko-wa-k 3140

who 2SG.OBJ tell-PAST1-SUB
Who told you?

In the two preceding examples, em is functioning as subject. In (269), em is functioning

as object.

(269) ke-r-a ke-kwra i em eku-wa-ø iroko=k ELIC

PROX-M-EMP PROX-ADV go who do-PAST1-2SG.INT where=LOC
Who did you do this to here? And where?

In (270), em is functioning as predicate, bearing the interrogative clitic =ka.

(270) nu em=ka 7021

2SG who=INT
Who are you?

The interrogative pronoun em sometimes occurs with a noun phrase clitic, as in (271). In

(271), it occurs with the masculine clitic, while in (272) it occurs with the dual clitic.

(271) em=r te ni-wa-r=ka ELIC

who=M 3SG.F.OBJ see-PAST1-3SG.M=INT
Who saw her?

(272) em=f ne eloko-wa-f=ka anele nurkuminga=f ELIC

who=DU 2SG.OBJ tell-PAST1-3DU=INT anele nurkuminga=DU
Who [dual] told you? Anele and Nurkuminga.

308
The use of a noun phrase clitic appears to be conditioned by the assumptions the

speaker makes about the answer to the question. In (271), the use of the masculine

clitic indicates that the speaker is assuming that the answer involves a male. In (272),

the use of the dual clitic indicates that the speaker expects a dual answer. If the speaker

has no such assumptions, em will be used without a noun phrase clitics, as in (272) to

(270) above.

The interrogative pronoun em has a slightly irregular possessive form emoko. The

form has the same properties as non-interrogative possessive pronouns. It can host

person/number/gender clitics as appropriate. In (273) to (276), it precedes the noun and

thus appears without a noun phrase clitic.

(273) ke-r-a emo-ko yirkwe=r=ka ELIC

PROX-M-EMP who-POSS knife=3SG.M=INT
Whose knife is this?

(274) emo-ko eme=r=ka ELIC

who-POSS place=3SG.M=INT
Whose place [is that]?

(275) nu emo-ko yen=ka 7062

2SG who-POSS child=INT
Whose child are you?

(276) ke-f-ra emo-ko tawa=f=ka ELIC

DIST-DU-EMP who-POSS woman=3DU=INT
Whose wives are these two?

309
In (277), it bears a noun phrase clitic since in this example it is not modifying a noun and

is occurring by itself as the predicate.

(277) ke-r-a emo-ko=r ELIC

PROX-M-EMP who-POSS=3SG.M
Whose is that?

7.7.4.2 bu 'what'

The interrogative pronoun for 'what' is bu, illustrated in (278) and (279).

(278) bu kufu eku-ya-fun=ka 6093

what vine do-PRES-2DU=INT
What do you make with vines?

(279) bu yefa=m o-m-ra tongo=ka eku rusu-ya-r 4052

what bone=PL DIST-PL-EMP hold=REAL do sit-PRES-3SG.M
What are those bones that you are sitting there holding?

Like the interrogative pronoun em 'who', bu sometimes occurs without a noun phrase

clitic, as in the two preceding examples, but can also occur with a noun phrase clitic if

the speaker makes assumptions about the number and gender of the answer, as in (280)

to (285).

(280) bu=r ende eku-ka=ø 6088

what=M 1DU.OBJ do-FUT2=2SG.INT
What will you do to us [dual]?

(281) ke-s bu=m eku-ya-s=ka 6021

PROX-F what=PL do-PRES-3SG.F=INT
What is this one [she] doing?

310
 (282) tama=r bu=r te nuwa-ya-r=a ELIC
man=M what=M 3SG.F.OBJ give-PRES-3SG.M=INT
What is the man giving her?

(283) bu=m ra-wa-r=ka nango=f mulu felnde=f ELIC

what=PL get-PAST1-3SG.M=INT INJ=DU rat bird=DU
What did he get? Maybe a rat and a bird.

(284) ai ke-r-a bu=r ka 2095

INJ PROX-M-EMP what=M REAL
Ai, what is this?

(285) bu=m ana ne nuwa-r hiki-ya=ø ELIC

what=PL 1SG.IMP 2SG.OBJ give-INF think-PRES=2SG.INT
Which one do you think I [will] give you?

Bu can also be used adnominally, as in (286), where it precedes the noun tombo 'end

point'.

(286) bu tombo=k siri-wa=ø 6038

what end.point=LOC die-PAST1-2SG.INT
What part did you die in?

As discussed in §5.4.7, the interrogative pronouns are also used as indefinite

pronouns. In addition, bu is reduplicated to mean 'everything'. However, even when

reduplicated, it can have interrogative meaning, as in (287).

(287) bu bu=m eku-wa=ø ELIC

what what=PL do-PAST1=2SG.INT
What things did you do?

311
7.7.4.3 o- i- and iroko ~ oriko 'where'

There are two expressions for 'where' in Mehek. One is the word iroko ~ oriko,

illustrated in (288); it typically occurs with the locative clitic =k.

(288) mengu=r ke-r-a iroko=k ra-wa= ø 6068

drum=M PROX-M-EMP where=LOC take-PAST1=2SG.INT
Where was that drum put? (OR: Where did you put that drum?)

The other expression for 'where' consists of a form of the distal demonstrative pronoun

o- combined with a word i, that may be a form of the verb i 'go', both bearing a

number/gender suffix, as in (289).

(289) yirkwe=r [o-r i-r]=a ELIC

knife=M [DIST-M go-M]=INT
Where is the knife?

Whether or not the word i in this construction is a form of the verb for 'go', it always

occurs with the same number/gender suffix as the demonstrative o-. For example, in

(289), both occur with the masculine suffix -r, while in (290), both occur with the

feminine suffix -s.

(290) [o-s i-s]=ka 4097

[DIST-F go-F]=INT
Where is she? This one is standing here.

The factors governing the choice between these two constructions for 'where' are

not fully understood. However all instances of o- i- in my data involve cases where the

312
expression is functioning as predicate and the question is asking 'Where is X?' for some

X, as in (291), as well as (289) and (290) above.

(291) tawa=s [o-s i-s]=ka ka maprik i-m-s ELIC

woman=F [DIST-F go-F]=INT REAL maprik go-PAST2-3SG.F
Where is the woman? She went to Maprik.

Conversely, a number of instances of iroko involve asking for the goal of some

movement, as in (292) to (294).

(292) iroko=k nemen rete-wa-r=ka ELIC

where=LOC 1PL.OBJ put-PAST1-3SG.M=INT
Where did he put us?

(293) nu yen iroko=k rete tiri-wa=ø 6054

2SG child where=LOC put leave-PAST1=2SG.INT
Where did you put your child?

(294) fle-m-m klei kul=m iroko=k eme kwre-wa-r=ka 6017

search-PAST2-3PL then bead=PL where=LOC place hang-PAST1-3SG.M=INT
They were searching, then [asked], “Where did he hang the beads?”

However, for some instances, iroko is used as the predicate, much like the examples

with o- i- and motion is not obviously involved, as in (295).

(295) o-f-ra iroko=ka 4051

DIST-DU-EMP where.DU=INT
Where are the two of them?

Examples (296) and (297) are similar, though here iroko ~ oriko occurs with the verb na

'be' and semantically this is similar to being used as a predicate.

313
 (296) o-s iroko=k na-ya-s=ka ELIC
DIST-F where=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.F=INT
Where is she?

(297) te ermesu-m-s oriko=k na-ya=ø 4029

3SG.F.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F where=LOC be.at-PRES=2SG.INT
She says [to the first wife], "Where are you?”

Similarly, it occurs in (298) with a posture verb and does not involve motion.

(298) oriko=k rusu-ya=ø 4029

where=LOC stand-PRES=2SG.INT
“Where are you standing?”

And while the verb lom 'dance' in (299) is a verb that denotes something that involves

motion, the meaning is not where they are dancing to, but just where they are dancing.

(299) oriko=k lom-ya-m=a 4043

where=LOC dance-PRES-3PL=INT
Where are they dancing?

7.7.4.4 biki 'which'

The word biki can occur alone or in combination with several other words to form

more complex interrogative expressions (see the next four subsections, §7.7.4.5 through

§7.7.4.8). When occurring alone, it is an adnominal word that precedes the noun it

modifies, with the meaning 'which', as in (300) to (303).

(300) biki tama=r fu-wa-s=ka ELIC

which man=M hit-PAST1-3SG.F=INT
Which woman hit the man?

314
 (301) biki tama=r ene eloko-wa-r=ka ELIC
which man=M 1SG.OBJ tell-PAST1-3SG.M=INT
Which man did you tell me about?

(302) biki yen nu=ka 4033

which child 2SG=INT
Which child are you?

(303) biki kulu=k i-kwa-yun 6025

which road=LOC go-DESD-1SG
Which road do I want to go along?

7.7.4.5 biki ~ biki biki 'how'

The word biki can also function as an adverb meaning 'how', as in (304).

(304) tawa=s biki i-wa-s=ka ELIC

woman=F how go-PAST1-3SG.F=INT
How did the woman go?

With the meaning 'how', it is often reduplicated, as in (305) and (306).

(305) [biki biki] ana dorko ELIC

[how] 1SG.IMP scrape.sago
How shall I scrape the sago?

(306) [biki biki] eku-wa=ø tasu blena

[how] do-PAST1=2SG.INT step.on slip

naka ene fu-wa-r ELIC

and 1SG.OBJ hit-PAST1-3SG.M

How did you do that? I slipped and cut myself.

Biki meaning 'how' also arises with the verb eku 'do', to express what English would

express by 'what did X do?', as in (307) and (308).

315
 (307) tawa=s ke-t-a biki eku=ka 7053
woman=F PROX-F-EMP how do=INT
What is this woman doing?

(308) biki ana eku 6020

how 1SG.IMP do
What shall I do?

Biki is also occasionally used noninterrogatively to mean 'in that way', as in (309).

(309) fun mana biki iki-na 6091

2DU PROH how think-COND
Don't worry so much. [You shouldn’t think in that way.]

Biki is also used occasionally to mean 'where', as in (310) and (311).

(310) biki biki i-m-f ka meke=f 4031

where where go-PAST2-3DU REAL body=DU
[He thinks,] "Where could these two have gotten themselves off to?"

(311) biki i-ya=ø ELIC

where go-PRES=2SG.INT
Where are you going?

7.7.4.6 biki rokok 'when'

The meaning 'when' is expressed by the combination biki rokok, illustrated in

examples (312) and (313).

(312) [biki rokok] aku-m-n ELIC

[when] go.back-PAST2-2SG
When did you go back?

(313) wa [biki rokok] ya kara ELIC

IRR [when] come indeed
When will he come?

316
 I am not aware of rokok occurring outside this combination.This is illustrated in

examples (312) and (313). It is also possible to replace biki with ekra to refer to the time

period at the moment of utterance, 'now' or to a time period understood from context

'at that time'. The form rokok also occurs in the noninterrogative expression ekra rokok

'that that time', as in examples (314) and (315).

(314) [ekra rokok] aku-m-yun 4115

[at that time] go.back-PAST2-1SG
So now I came back.

(315) ningre mehek woro mehek yim=r

today NEG tomorrow NEG in.two.days=M

[ekra rokok] kisi-ka-num ELIC

[at that time] boil-FUT2-1PL

Not today or tomorrow, but in two days we will cook.

The final /k/ in rokok may be the locative =k, since the locative =k does occur very

occasionally on temporal expressions; however, it never appears without the /k/ and

the form may be frozen.

7.7.4.7 biki naka 'why'

The meaning 'why' is expressed by the combination biki naka, as in (316) to (318).

(316) er=ka [biki naka] yirfi-ya=ø ELIC

say=REAL [why] fall-PRES=2SG.INT
Hey, why did you fall?

317
 (317) [biki naka] aka=r eku-ya=ø ELIC
[why] house=M do-PRES=2SG.INT
Why are you building a house?

(318) [biki naka] ke-r-a aka=r eku-ya=ø ELIC

[why] PROX-M-EMP house=M do-PAST1=2SG.INT
Why are you building this house?

I am not aware of the form naka occurring outside this expression, except as a word

meaning 'and' (§8.1).

7.7.4.8 biki saima 'how much/many'

The meaning 'how much' or 'how many' is expressed by the expression biki saima. It

can express either a count noun sense of 'how many', as in (319), or a mass noun sense

of 'how much', as in (320).

(319) [biki saima] sa-wa-n=a ELIC

[how.many] dig-PAST1-2SG=INT
How many [yams] did you plant?

(320) [biki saima] a-m-r=a ELIC

[how.much] eat-PAST2-3SG.M=INT
How much [coconut water] did you drink?

I am not aware of the form saima occurring outside this expression.

318
7.8 Negation

Negation is expressed in a number of different ways. The primary negative

morpheme is an invariant word iki.15 Most negative non-imperative clauses contain this

word, though it occasionally co-occurs with a suffix -nak on the verb or a clause-final

negative word mehek. There is a prohibitive word mana that is used in negative

imperative sentences (§7.8.3).

7.8.1 iki 'not' and the negative verbal suffix -nak

The default non-imperative negative clause involves just the negative word iki. It

always precedes the final (finite) verb, though not necessarily immediately before the

verb. It typically precedes material other than a subject that is not a pronoun. Example

(321) illustrates iki preceding the adverbial word anganambu 'fast'.

(321) iki anganambu wi ambe-ka-num 4120

NEG fast go.up finish−FUT2-1PL
We will not [be able to] go up quickly.

Example (322) illustrates iki preceding an object pronoun.

(322) nanda go=n iki ne tiri-kun 6051

older.sister 1SG.POSS=2SG NEG 2SG.OBJ leave-FUT1.1SG
You are my older sister and I will not leave you.

Example (323) illustrates iki preceding both an object pronoun, re, and an object noun

phrase aka 'house'.

15
This is not to be confused with the verb hiki (often pronounced iki) 'think, feel'.

319
 (323) iki re aka eku-s ELIC
NEG 3SG.M.OBJ house do-F
She does not know how to make a house for him.

Example (324) illustrates iki preceding a subject pronoun.

(324) iki fu mesu-nak 7078

NEG 3DU hear-VNEG
They [dual] did not hear [about it].

Example (325) and (326) both illustrates iki preceding both a subject pronoun and an

object pronoun.

(325) tete iki on ne ni-nak 6050

honorable NEG 1SG 2SG.OBJ see-VNEG
Older [brother], I did not see you.

(326) iki nu re eloko-na=ka ELIC

NEG 2SG 3SG.M.OBJ tell-COND=INT
You did not talk to him?

Example (327) illustrates iki preceding both a subject pronoun and a nominal object.

(327) iki nu kaku a-na=ka ELIC

NEG 2SG mami eat-COND=2SG.INT
Would you not eat mami?

On the other hand, both (328) and (329) illustrate iki following a nominal subject.

(328) nekwa=s iki tare-ya-s wa awar=k tare-ka-s ELIC

moon=F NEG shine-PRES-3SG.F IRR later=INS shine-FUT2-3SG.F
The moon is not shining [now]. It will shine later.

320
 (329) uwku blala=t iki uwku samba=t na-nak 6121
sugarcane cane.species=DIM NEG sugarcane big=3DIM be.at-VNEG
Blala sugarcane is not a big kind of sugarcane.

Example (330) illustrates a nominal subject preceding iki, but it also illustrates a locative

preceding iki as well.

(330) sofo kur sul iki sukna-r 2727

snake snake.species ground NEG sleep-M
The Kur snake doesn’t sleep on the ground.

While nominal objects seem to follow iki more often, there are cases like those in (331)

and (332) where the nominal object precedes iki.

(331) bali kufe=r iki yikwa kisi=ka a-num mehek 6121

aibika good=M NEG salt boil=REAL eat-PRES.1PL NEG
We do not boil good aibika in salt.

(332) kom fenda=t iki a-num ELIC

village from=DIM NEG eat−PRES.1PL
The one[s] from the village we do not eat.

The most frequent negative clause employs the word iki and is otherwise like an

affirmative clause. However, in one variation on this, tense suffixes are absent from the

verb, although the subject agreement suffixes are still used. An example is given in

(333), where the verb sukna 'sleep' occurs with a masculine agreement suffix but no

tense suffix.

(333) sofo kur sul iki sukna-r 2727

snake snake.species ground NEG sleep-M
The kur snake doesn’t sleep on the ground ...

321
Two additional examples are given in (334) and (335).

(334) iki elowo a-s fer mulu iki a-s 7081

NEG animal eat-F pig rodent NEG eat-F
She does not eat meat, she does not eat pig or rodent.

(335) iki re aka eku-s ELIC

NEG 3SG.M.OBJ house do-F
She does not know how to make a house for him.

Another example is given above in (332). It may be relevant that all four of these

examples are apparently timeless generic statements, though (335) is an example of this

type of negative construction that does not conform to this.

(336) iki re aka eku-num mehek 7085

NEG 3SG.M.OBJ house do−PRES.1PL NEG
We will not build him a house.

The second negative construction is one in which there is both the negative word iki

and a negative suffix -nak on the verb, as in (337).

(337) na-r su iki su duwan lau=ka rusu-nak 6101

but-M 3SG.F NEG 3SG.F limbum spread.flat=REAL stand-VNEG
But she did not put the limbum bed out to sit on.

The suffix -nak attaches directly to the verb stem. There is no person/number/gender

or tense/mood/aspect marking permitted on a verb bearing the negative suffix.

(338) iki hanganambu tisi ra=ka i-nak 7072

NEG quickly carry.on.shoulder get=REAL go-VNEG
He did not not carry it too quickly.

322
 (339) iki ru ra=ka tongo-nak 7060
NEG 3SG.M get=REAL hold-VNEG
He did not take it.

Some instances of negative clauses that employ the suffix -nak, such as (339), seem to

involve refusal of the subject to perform the action of the verb. On the other hand,

there are examples like (340), where this is not the case.

(340) on i rete-wa-m iki mu rii-nak 4093

1SG go put-PAST1-3PL NEG 3PL remain-VNEG
[The things] I put are not there anymore.

The third negative construction also involves the suffix -nak, but instead of

appearing directly on the verb, it appears on the verb na 'be at', which functions as a

kind of auxiliary verb that immediately follows the main verb, which appears in

infinitival form, as in (341) to (345).

(341) iki kur=k bruru=ka i-r na-nak 5008

NEG sky=LOC fly=REAL go-INF be.at-VNEG
It [cassowary] does not fly in the sky.

(342) ende iki nu=k wuya-r na-nak 5197

wild.sago NEG garden=LOC come.up-INF be.at-VNEG
Wild sago does not grow in the garden.

(343) iki on rusu-r na-nak nawe susu-kun 4088

NEG 1SG sit-INF be.at-VNEG only stand-FUT.1SG
I do not sit, I will only stand.

323
 (344) iki num a-r na-nak, kufu kaha=r 5099
NEG 1PL eat-INF be.at-VNEG vine bad=3SG.M
We do not eat it; it is a bad vine.

(345) iki on susu-r na-nak suwa=r ene sere-m-r ELIC

NEG 1SG stand-INF be.at-VNEG leg=M 1SG.OBJ break-PAST2-3SG.M
I cannot stand. My leg is broken.

A variant of the last construction also employs na-nak, but rather than a infinitival

form of the verb, it is preceded by a fully inflected verb, as in (346) to (350).

(346) iki anganambu oro sere-num na-nak 5074

NEG fast chop break-PRES.1PL be.at-VNEG
We cannot chop it quickly.

(347) iki a-ka-num na-nak wa awar=k a-ka-num 5048

NEG eat-FUT2-1PL be.at-VNEG IRR later=INS eat-FUT2-1PL
We will not eat [it is not customary], we will eat later.

(348) nekwa=s iki tare-ka-s na-nak OVH

moon=F NEG shine-FUT2-3SG.F be.at-VNEG
The moon will not shine. [Because it is cloudy.]

(349) ke-r iki u-ya-r na-nak mehek

PROX-M NEG burn-PRES-3SG.M be.at-VNEG NEG

ekra u-r iki wa ne blengu-ka-r na-nak 5058

thus burn-INF NEG IRR 2SG.OBJ bruise-FUT2-3SG.M be.at-VNEG

That one did not cook. I [tried to] cook it. It will not bruise you[r mouth].

(350) mu=r oro-r wuwr=k iki yirkwe tongo-num na-nak 6097

tree=M chop-INF stone.axe=INS NEG knife hold-PRES.1PL be.at-VNEG
[Long ago] we cut down trees with a stone axe. We did not have knives.

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 The word nanak is replaced by kehek in the Kafle dialect area and its distribution is

exactly the same. Example (351) illustrates this.

(351) iki hingre na-r-ka-fun kehek mehek 7030

NEG joke be.at-R-FUT2-2DU VNEG NEG
You [dual] don't play around.

Examples (352) and (353) are similar, though in these examples, kehek is the main verb,

rather than a type of auxiliary verb.

(352) isi-m-m yen sir=t mehek iki sir kana kehek 7012
call-PAST2-3PL child name=DIM NEG NEG name with VNEG
They called the child’s name. [But] no, he did not have a name.

(353) yen tawasangu=r iki wanaku=r kehek 7048

child tawasangu=M NEG wanaku=M VNEG
The child is Tawasangu, not Wanaku.

It is possible for negative clauses to be interrogative, by attaching one of the

interrogative clitics to the final word of the negative sentence, as in (354) to (358).

(354) iki kom yoko nu i-na=ka ELIC

NEG village towards 2SG go-COND=INT
You did not go?

(355) iki nu re eloko-na=ka ELIC

NEG 2SG 3SG.M.OBJ tell-COND=INT
You did not talk to him?

(356) mele iki yirkwe tongo-kum=ka ELIC

often NEG knife hold-2PL=INT
Do you [plural] often not carry knives? [Are you often not knife-holders?]

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 (357) iki bu=m ru eku-nak nawe sukna-ya-r ELIC
NEG what=PL 3SG.M do-VNEG only sleep-PRES-3SG.M
What did he not do? He just slept. [Question implies that nothing was done.]

(358) iki nu kaku a-na=ka ELIC

NEG 2SG mami eat-COND=2SG.INT
Would you not eat mami?

7.8.2 mehek 'no'

The name of the language comes from the word mehek 'no', as described in §1.1.

This word can be used as a response to a question as the sole answer with the meaning

'no'. But it can also be used to negate a clause, as in (359) and (362). In this use it always

occurs at the end of the clause.

(359) iki re aka eku-num mehek 7085

NEG 3SG.M.OBJ house do−PRES.1PL NEG
We will not build him a house.

(360) tama=m iki ne fu-ka-m mehek 5003

person=PL NEG 2SG hit-FUT2-3PL NEG
The men will not kill you, no.

When it occurs, it often co-occurs with the preverbal negative word iki, as in the two

preceding examples. In this case, it is for emphasis and is always optional. It also occurs

occasionally as the sole indication of negation, as in (361).

(361) o-r ni-m-f mehek 6095

DIST-M see-PAST2-3DU NEG
The two of them did not see it.

It is also used to negate “clausal fragments”, clauses lacking a predicate, as in (362).

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 (362) fasu=ka a-r kisi-r mehek 6121
cook.in.leaf=REAL eat-INF boil-INF NEG
You have to cook it to eat, not boil it.

7.8.3 Negative Imperative mana

To directly command someone to not do something it is necessary to use the

negative imperative mana, illustrated in (363) to (365).

(363) mana a-na nanglu kaha=m OVH

PROH eat-COND greens bad=3PL
Better not eat the greens; they are bad.

(364) on mana rete=ka yiminum aku-m-yun 7051

1SG PROH put=REAL yiminum go.back-PAST2-1SG
I did not feel like [casting a spell]. I went back to Yiminum.

(365) waitalo naku ana a mana a-na ongo-ra=r ELIC

waitalo sago 1SG.IMP eat PROH eat-COND 1SG.POSS-EMP=3SG.M
Waitalo, can I eat some sago? You should not eat it; it is mine.

Thie word mana also functions a verb with the meaning 'not want' or 'not feel like',

taking verbal inflections, as in (366).

(366) on rusu-r mana-wa-yun ELIC

1SG sit-M not.want-PAST1-1SG
I do not feel like sitting down. [I do not like to sit down.]

7.8.4 Other Words with Negative Meaning

There are a few words that incorporate a negative meaning or are used in a

negative context. This includes the verbs nime 'not be able' and mana 'not want'. The

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former is illustrated in examples (367) and (368), while the latter is illustrated in (369) to

(371).

(367) oro-wa-n wa eku nime-ka-n 5065

cut-PAST1-2SG IRR do be.unable-FUT2-2SG
You went to cut it, but you will not be able to do it.

(368) nu ene danasu nime-r 6116

2SG 1SG.OBJ set.a.time be.unable-INF
You cannot wait for me.

(369) on rusu-r mana-wa-yun ELIC

1SG sit-M not.want-PAST1-1SG
I do not feel like sitting down. [I do not like to sit down.]

(370) yifkindu i-r mana-wa-yun ELIC

yifkindu go-INF not.want-PAST1-1SG
I do not feel like going to Yifkindu.

(371) on mana-wa-yun 2128

1SG not.want-PAST1-1SG
I did not feel like it.

The word timba is a negative word that expresses the meaning 'not have'. It occurs

in a construction with the possessor as subject and thing possessed a noun phrase

before the verb, possibly an object, as in (372) and (373). It behaves like an adjective in

that it occurs with person/number/gender clitics in predicate position, but apparently

does not occur with verb morphology.

(372) dun yen timba=dun 1614

1DU child not.have=1DU
We have no children.

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 (373) num kiri timba=ka [tindu tandu] rusu-ya-num 3811
1PL fire not.have=REAL [blind] sit-PRES-1PL
We don’t have fire, so we are sitting in the dark.

The noun phrase denoting the thing not possessed does not occur with a noun phrase

clitic, unless it is definite, as in (374).

(374) yirkwe=r timba=yun ELIC

knife=M not.have=1SG
I do not have my knife.

There is another word, selefe 'get off track', that is only licensed by the negative

words iki and mehek. In examples (375), it is shown negated.

(375) elowo di=r ene feta-ta

animal DET=M 1SG.OBJ show-IMP

on i-na iki wa selefe na-ka-r ELIC

1SG go-COND NEG IRR get.off.track be.at-FUT2-3SG.M

If I go [to the jungle], I will be successful in hunting.

The only context in which it is permissible to use it in a positive context in a fixed

expression which literally implies that the person will indeed meet with ill fate.

Examples (376) and (377) show its use in context.

(376) naka engle=r mu eku-r ka afa=r isi=ka

and spell=M 3PL do-INF REAL father=M call=REAL

eku-m iki selefe=m mehek 6075

do-GER NEG get.off.track=PL NEG

And they cast a spell. They called the father. They did not fail.

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 (377) na nu klei wa biki na-na wa selefe-na ELIC
and 2SG then IRR how be.at-COND IRR get.off.track-COND
What will you do? What will become of you? [Said with concern.]

7.9 erka 'want'

The meaning of 'want' is expressed by the noninflecting word erka. Erka combines

with a verb expressing what is wanted, but does so in two different ways. One common

construction is for it to follow the verb, which occurs in infinitival form, as in (378) to

(381). See also §6.3.1 for the desiderative suffix -kwa in expressions of wanting.

(378) mu o-r i-r erka re er-m-m ELIC

3PL DIST-M go-INF want 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3PL
They wanted to go so they told him.

(379) on o-r ni-r erka re er-n ELIC

1SG DIST-M see-INF want 3SG.M.OBJ say-PRES.1SG
I told him I wanted to see [it].

(380) mu-ra kana yam a-r erka na-r ru ka kra kra 2723
3PL-EMP with banana eat-INF want but-M 3SG.M REAL cry cry
He wanted to go with them to eat bananas, but he was crying

(381) sanglu kau-r erka eku-wa-yun ka [timba kamba]=yun 3811

letter write-INF want do-PAST1-1SG REAL [blind]=1SG
I want to write, but I did it not knowing what to say.

The second way erka combines with a verb is to precede the verb, which in this case

occurs with normal verbal inflection, as in (382) and (383).

(382) ru ra ra raya-m-k erka a-yu-m-f 7061

3SG.M get get bring-PAST2-SUB want eat-REP-PAST2-3SG.F
They [dual] gathered it all together because they [dual] wanted to eat.

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 (383) ru ka mu ta oro-r erka i-wa-r 2162
3SG.M REAL tree cut chop-INF want go-PAST1-3SG.M
He wanted to go chop down a tree.

Erka can be used in clauses where the one who is wanting is the same as the one

who will perform the act they are wanting to so, as in the preceding five examples, or it

can be used where it is someone else who will perform the desired act, what English

expresses with 'X wanted Y to Verb', as in (384) and (385).

(384) num re eloko-m-num o-r i-r erka ELIC

1PL 3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-1PL DET.DT-M go-INF want
We told him we wanted him to go.

(385) num te eloko-m-num o-s i-r erka ELIC

1PL 3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-1PL DET.DT-F go-INF want
We told her we wanted her to go.

As in many languages, erka can only combine with verbs. Hence (386) is

ungrammatical.

(386) *on suwa=r erka ELIC

1SG coconut=M want
I want a coconut.

To express the intended meaning of (386), one must employ a verb, as in (387).

(387) on suwa=r a-r erka OVH

1SG coconut=M eat-INF want
I want to eat a coconut.

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7.10 Light Verbs

There are two verbs in Mehek which serve in a role of “light verbs”. They are full

verbs capable of serving as the main verb in a clause and taking the full range of verbal

markings, including tense, aspect, and person. They also occur as tenseless verbs in

clauses which require them. What sets them apart from other verbs is the following:

they are most frequently employed in combination with another verb; they have

relatively general meanings which can cover a broad range of cases; and they occur

quite frequently. Because of their frequency, these verbs are the most common verbs in

Mehek. The two verbs are eku 'do' and rete 'put', discussed in §7.10.1 and §7.10.2

respectively.

7.10.1 eku 'do'

The verb eku can be used as a main verb meaning 'do, make', as in (388) and (389).

(388) ekaa nu=m num eku-ya-m 4118

food garden=PL 1PL do-PRES-3PL
Food gardens are made by us.

(389) tawa=s ke-t-a biki eku=ka 7053

woman=F PROX-F-EMP how do=INT
What is this woman doing?

However, eku is often used as a light verb, combining with another verb, as in (390) to

(393), where it occurs uninflected and immediately precedes the other verb.

(390) yefa=m o-m-ra tongo=ka eku rusu-ya-r 4052

bone=PL DIST-PL-EMP hold=REAL do sit-PRES-3SG.M
He took those bones and sat.

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 (391) ka eku fle-m-f 4085
REAL do search-PAST2-3DU
The two of them were searching.

(392) naku eku ambe=ka makwa=m ni-num 4115

sago do finish=REAL bean=PL see-PRES.1PL
When the sago is finished, we see the beans.

(393) iki [hokwek na]-ka-t wa hanganambu eku aku-ka-t 5103

NEG [waste time]-FUT2-3SG.DIM IRR fast do go.back-FUT2-3SG.DIM
She will not waste time. She will go back in a hurry.

There is a second way in which eku combines with another verb, where it follows the

other verb, and this time it is eku that inflects while the other verb does not, as in (394)

and (395).

(394) re kwete=ka eku-wa-n

3SG.M.OBJ cut=REAL do-PAST1-2SG

iki hanganambu siri=ka mehek 3810

NEG quickly die=REAL NEG

When you cut [the grass], it won’t die quickly.

(395) afi nau barna-m-r [mele mele] fi afi eku-m-r 6066

hit yell wander-PAST2-3SG.M [long ago] spear hit do-PAST2-3SG.M
He went around fighting. He fought with a spear long ago.

It is not clear exactly what eku adds to these sentences, but sometimes it seems to carry

a sense of 'make an effort to do X' or 'go about doing X'.

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7.10.2 rete 'put'

The verb rete occurs as a main verb meaning 'put', as in (396), although it often

occurs without an explicit identification of the place that something is put, as in (397) to

(399).

(396) fi=r ru ra=ka kafta=k rete tiri=ka

spear=M 3SG.M get=REAL outside=LOC put leave=REAL

rusu-kla-m-r 4081
sit-CONT-PAST2-3SG.M

He got the spear, put it outside, and kept on sleeping.

(397) tama=s yofu rete maure=s yofu rete 7021

person=F barrier put ancestor=F barrier put
A woman placed a barrier, an ancestor placed a barrier.

(398) di=m te nuwa-m-r di=m su re

DET=PL 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST2-3SG.M DET=PL 3SG.F 3SG.M.OBJ

kware rete-m-s 4038

dry put-PAST2-3SG.F

He gave her some [meat]. She dryed some for him and set it out.

(399) fer kute tama=r wa fer lesu=r re rete-ka-m 6085

pig cut man=M IRR pig hand=M 3SG.M.OBJ put-FUT2-3PL
They will put the pig’s legs out for the man who cut the pig.

It can also function like a causative verb, as in (400) and (401).

(400) ru re fu siri rete-m-r 6100

3SG.M 3SG.M.OBJ 3DU die put-PAST2-3SG.M
He hit him and it caused him to die.

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 (401) yen=t ka rete=ka sukna-m-s maure=s 6058
child=DIM REAL put=REAL sleep-PAST2-3SG.F ancestor=F
She put the child to sleep, the spirit did.

However, it also occurs in combination with other verbs in a way that leaves it

unclear exactly what it contributes to the meaning of the sentence, as in (402) to (407).

(402) sukna dana-r rete=ka 6118

sleep dawn-INF put=REAL
Morning comes.

(403) fu mesu reteka di dun-go kom mende kara 7033

3DU hear put=REAL DET 1DU-POSS village very indeed
They [dual] heard too much [noise] coming from our [dual] village.

(404) naka ekra fangi sumbu rete-m-r 2171

and thus river follow put-PAST2-3SG.M
And thus he set to following the river.

(405) lisi ningi=f fu ambe-m-k nemen tiri rete=ka 4003

two day=DU 3DU finish-PAST2-SUB 1PL.OBJ leave put=REAL
After finishing two days [with us], they [dual] left us.

(406) ka re tisi=ka raya rete-wa-yun 6117

REAL 3SG.M.OBJ carry.on.shoulder=REAL bring put-PAST1-1SG
I set it on his shoulder to carry.

(407) ru a ambe rete=ka 6115

3SG.M eat finish put=REAL
He finished eating it up.

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7.11 Repetition

Repetition is a somewhat common method of indicating or emphasizing frequency,

intensity, or duration of the action or event. The only productive type of repetition is

lexical repetition; there are no examples of a productive phonological means of

reduplication. However, ideophonic adverbs (see §7.3.2.5) do incorporate a mix of

lexical reduplication with some consistent patterns of phonological reduplication.

However, those adverbs comprise a closed class of set phrases, and the phonological

methods employed in those words cannot be applied to other words.

The most frequent use of lexical repetition is lexical doubling. It is most commonly

adverbs and verbs that are doubled, as in (408) to (415). In (408) and (409), it is adverbs

that are doubled.

(408) o-r-a indi indi ru ka yiri-m-r 4091

DIST-M-EMP back back 3SG.M REAL fall-PAST2-3SG.M
He went back and back.

(409) di=n nu ser ser 4116

DET=2SG 2SG first first
You, you go first.

In (410) and (411), it is verbs that are doubled.

(410) fer fu fu raya raya naku tawo tawo kisi kisi 4092
pig hit hit bring bring sago turn.sago turn.sago boil boil
Go kill pigs, get them, turn sago and boil it.

(411) fu narete narete ka fu sau=ka 4095

3D debate debate REAL 3DU stand.up=REAL
The two of them debated and then stood up.

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Occasionally it is nouns that are repeated, as in (412).

(412) ru aka aka aka aku=ka 1127

3SG.M house house house go.back=REAL
He runs away home.

For verbs, doubling most often indicates a longer duration of an event than would

be conveyed by a single instance of the word. In some cases, the repetition can simply

be a way of drawing attention to the word being repeated or of placing the focus on

that word without implying any special lengthening or duration, as in (412).

Lexical repetition will occasionally contain three repeated elements, as in (413) to

(414) (as well as (412) above).

(413) eku fle fle fle ka i i i nime=ka 4080

do search search search REAL go go go be.unable=REAL
[He] went about searching. He went and went, but could not [find it].

(414) ka ekaa-m-f fu ekaa ekaa ekaa

REAL eat.food-PAST2-3DU 3DU eat.food eat.food eat.food

fu rusu rusu rusu i i i 6094

3DU sit sit sit go go go

The two of them ate. They ate and ate. They rested a long time
and then kept on going.

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 (415) ru war sukna-m-k
3SG.M go.down sleep-PAST2-SUB

re waki waki waki=ka ELIC

3SG.M.OBJ tie tie tie=REAL

When he went down to sleep, he tied him all up.

Even more frequent than lexical repetition is phrasal repetition, repetition of two or

three words, immediately in sequence. However, just as it is most often verbs which are

reduplicated, phrasal repetition often includes a verb. An example is given in (416) with

repetition of the phrase na mesu 'and hear'.

(416) ka ekra tolo tolo rii-m-m

REAL thus tell tell remain-PAST2-3PL
ka na mesu na mesu 6048
REAL and hear and hear
So they stayed and told all about it. [They] listened carefully.

If the repetition includes a verb which takes inflections of any kind, it will only be the

last verb in the reduplicated sequence which will take that inflection, as in (417).

(417) mam yo mam yo-ya-r 7057

mother's.brother yo mother's.brother yo-PRES-3SG.M
He calls out to his mother's brother.

Similarly, if the realis clitic appears within a sequence of verbs, it appears only on the

last occurrence, as in (418).

(418) au sul=r mu sa sa=ka duwan nawa mu tukta=ka 6075

pot dirt=M 3PL dig dig=REAL basket mother 3PL carry.on.head=REAL
They dug dirt for a pot and carried it in a mother [large-sized] basket.

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A similar phenomenon is found with repeated noun phrases: the noun phrase clitic will

appear only on the last noun phrase, as in (419).

(419) aka kulu aka kulu=k 6009

house door house door=LOC
from door to door

Example (420) is a segment from a story with a variety of mostly phrasal repetition.

(420) duwan rete-m rokor yefa=m su kuna duwan rete=ka

limbum put-GER CAUS bone=PL 3SG.F self limbum put=REAL

yefa=m o-m-ra su me noko noko noko

bone=PL DIST-PL-EMP 3SG.F 3PL.OBJ gather gather gather

duwan rete-m rokor duwan rete-m rokor

limbum put-GER CAUS limbum put-GER CAUS

ra war-m-m rokor ka kuna yakuw kuna yakuw

get go.down-PAST2-3PL CAUS REAL self distribute self distribute

ru di=r di duwan=k ru di=r di duwan=k

3SG.M DET=M DET limbum=LOC 3SG.M DET=M DET limbum=LOC

ekra su me rete ambe=ka taki=ka

thus 3SG.F 3PL.OBJ put finish=REAL bite=REAL

o-m-ra aka=k aka kiri sufun wi-k o-kwra

DIST-PL-EMP house=LOC house fire smoke go.up-SUB DIST-ADV

me rete-m-s o-kwra su me rete=ka iiiiii 6006

3PL.OBJ put-PAST2-3SG.F DIST-ADV 3SG.F 3PL put=REAL go….

They put some of the bones down on those limbums. They kept on gathering
up all those bones. They set them down on the limbum over and over. They
went down so they themselves could distribute [the bones]. He put some on
one limbum and some on another limbum. So she finished putting them out
and took a bite [of the bones]. From that house smoke from a fire was rising.
She put them there. There she put them and kept on going.

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 A similar phenomenon is the lengthening of the final vowel of the word (often one

or two seconds), as in (421) and (422).

(421) fu i=ka gulma samdo=m fuuuu 7063

3DU go=REAL mantis spider=PL kill…
The two of them kill lots of spiders and mantises.

(422) mu aku=ka rusu=ka iiiii 7059

3PL go.back=REAL sit=REAL go…
They go back, rest, and then keep on going.

This is more commonly done with atelic events which are ongoing. The length of the

vowel is representative of the duration of the event. A duration of approximately one

second is the most common, and simply indicates that the action went on for some

time. Durations of up to three seconds do occasionally happen (as with multiple

repetitions) and are indicative of unusually long durations. In both instances, the pitch

of the speaker’s voice rises throughout the extension of the vowel. Many times, a verb

will be repeated a few times and the final instance of it will have a slightly lengthened

vowel. There is almost always a longer-than-normal pause after this lengthened vowel

before the speaker begins the next clause.

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 Chapter 8: Complex Sentences

8.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses several types of complex sentences, ones containing more

than one clause. These are those types where two clauses have some relationship to

each other and have a syntactic means of indicating that relationship. Each of these

clause types is described in turn in sections §8.1 to §8.4. Additionally, there are three

clausal relationships discussed in §8.5 which do not impose these restrictions on the

relationship, but have different relationships altogether. These are: comparative

constructions (§8.5.1), perceptual complements (§8.5.2) and reported speech (§8.5.3).

There are six different types of sequential relationships that two clauses can have to

each other. These relationship types are summarized in Table 47, and are listed roughly

in the order of least restrictive to most restrictive in terms of the relationship the two

clauses must have with one another.

Depen-
Type Marker Temporal Order dency Other Requirements
conjunction na-, =ben any or none no -
subordinate -k any no -
simultaneous yombo simultaneous no -
dependent yungu (nearly) simultaneous yes typically different
subjects
causal rokor yes (did/will occur) yes one common argument
conditional -na yes (but may not occur) yes FUT1/2 on second clause

Table 47: Summary of Clausal Relationships

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 These restrictions include the temporal sequencing of the two clauses, and the

dependency status of the second clause to the first. (This is real-world, rather than

grammatical dependency.) The first type listed, conjunction, merely requires the

juxtaposition of the two clauses and no further ordering or dependency is implied

(though these may both be implied by context). Going down the list, the different clause

types impose restrictions, first on the temporal relationship, then on the dependency

status of the second clause. The final type listed, conditional, requires not only a

temporal sequence and a dependency relationship, but the further requirement that the

first clause itself may not actually occur.

The syntax for the clausal particles yombo 'simultaneous', yungu 'dependent', and

rokor 'causal' relationships is similar. Unlike the verbal aspectual particles (§7.2), these

particles are not affixes, but are instead separate words with their own stress and (in

some cases), capable of taking their own agreement markers. As for the syntax of the

clauses themselves, in the default, unmarked context, they each require the verb

immediately preceding to have no inflection and to end in the gerundial suffix –m (see

§8.3.3). It is also possible for the preceding verb to have no inflection when imperative,

as well as the conditional marker if the speaker wishes to emphasize that the action has

not yet happened. The syntax of the two clauses linked by a particle is the same in the

case of all three. These cases are summarized in Table 48 below. The abbreviations used

include V for verb and INFL for full verbal inflection.

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 Particle and Affix
Type First Clause yombo yungu rokor Second Clause
Default V-m -r -r - V-INFL
Tensed V-INFL -k -k - V-INFL or V
Imperative V - - - V

Table 48: Syntax of Linked Clauses

The columns headed “Particle and Affix” show that any of the three particles can be

used to link each of the types, though the suffix which appears on a given particle in

each case is different. The particle yombo can take either of the suffixes –r or –k. The

particle yungu can take no affix or either -r or –k. The particle rokor is invariant in form

and cannot takes a suffix (though the final /r/ might be analyzed as a suffix).

8.1 Conjoined clauses

There are two words for simple clausal conjunction. One is the word naka ~ na 'and'

illustrated in (1).

(1) marsofo ru war naka re sungamba

marsofo 3SG.M come.down and 3SG.M.OBJ story

tolo-ya-num 7042
tell-PRES-1PL

Marsofo is coming down and we are telling him the story.

The other is the word na but with inflection for the gender and number, but not person,

of the noun phrase that follows, as in (2).

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 (2) mu-ra kana yam a-r erka na-r ru ka kra kra 2723
3PL-EMP with banana eat-INF want but-M 3SG.M REAL cry cry
He wanted to go with them to eat bananas, but he was crying.

This second construction is often associated with contrast and is often best translated

with 'but'. I discuss the first construction in 9.1.1. and the second in 9.1.2.

8.1.1 naka ~ na 'and'

The most common way to conjoin clauses with an overt marker is with naka ~ na

'and', illustrated by naka in (3) to (5).

(3) mu liti tuwar=ka ka te nuwa-m-m

3PL fill pour=REAL REAL 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST2-3PL

naka su a=ka 7052

and 3SG.F eat=REAL

They fill it up and give it to her. And she eats.

(4) tolo nambuko tiri=ka naka on oro=ka raya=ka

talk debate leave=REAL and 1SG chop=REAL bring=REAL

eku=ka 6022
do=REAL

After [we] finished debating, I chopped the tree and brought

[the wood] back.

(5) [ber bar] waki-m-r naka wi tongo-m-r 4046

[messed up] wrap-PAST2-3SG.M and go.up hold-PAST2-3SG.M
He wrapped [the hook] up badly and he took it up [the tree].

The alternative form na, illustrated in (6) and (7), is less common than naka in my data.

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 (6) nu eku-wa-k aku=ka i=ka na rusu-wa-f 4099
2SG do-PAST1-SUB go.back=REAL go=REAL and sit-PAST1-3DU
While you did that, you went back and rested.

(7) ka ekra tolo tolo rii-m-m ka na mesu

REAL thus tell tell remain-PAST2-3PL REAL and hear

na mesu 6048
and hear

So they stayed and told all about it; and they listened carefully.

The mere juxtaposition of clauses is quite common without the use of na-. Because

of this, it is not necessary in most cases to connect related clauses or concepts with na-.

The absence of overt marking is particularly common when the sequence of episodes

are clearly related. This is illustrated in (8).

(8) tawa=s kana maure=s kana tama=s kahakana fu-m-s

woman=F with spirit=F with person=F many hit-PAST2-3SG.F

maure=s su numbul kanda=f fu-m-s

spirit=F 3SG.F small small=DU hit-PAST2-3SG.F

su-ra mulu bu=m kana fu-m-s 7063

3SG.F-EMP rodent what=PL with hit-PAST2-3SG.F

A woman and a spirit [were going together]. The woman killed many
[animals]. The spirit killed very few. She [the woman] killed them
with rodents.

However, naka ~ na is often used at conceptual boundaries. That is, the use of naka

~ na helps to connect different episodes within the discourse and to show that the next

utterance follows what came before, even if it seems unrelated. Examples (9) to (11)

show this phenomenon.

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 (9) mu liti tuwar=ka ka te nuwa-m-m
3PL fill pour=REAL REAL 3SG.F.OBJ give-PAST2-3PL

naka su a=ka muwku fi kana na-m-s 7052

and 3SG.F eat=REAL breast milk with be.at-PAST2-3SG.F

They fill it and give it to her. And she eats; she is full up with breast milk.

(10) su semra=ka ama su bu=ka

3SG.F plant=REAL bamboo 3SG.F rub.off.skin=REAL

naka tongo=ka ka wi-m-s 4025

and hold=REAL REAL go.up-PAST2-3SG.F

She planted [seeds], she rubbed off the bamboo skin. And she took it and
went up.

(11) nekwa su wuya=ka su sukna-wa-k

moon 3SG.F come.up=REAL 3SG.F sleep-PAST1-SUB

ka aka sere wuwr-ya-n naka nawa=s ni rete=ka

REAL house break go.in-PRES-2SG and mother=F see put=REAL

ka afa=r eloko-ya-s yen=s ka aka

REAL father=M say-PRES-3SG.F child=F REAL house

sere wuwr-wa-s naka su aka sere wuwr 7080

break go.in-PAST1-3SG.F and 3SG.F house break go.in

She was sleeping when the moon came up. Mother saw it and told father,
“[our] child broke into [that] house.” And she broke into the house.

Note that the use of na does not preclude the use of some morphology on the first verb

that could be considered as marking the clause as subordinate. For example, in (12) , the

subordinate suffix occurs on the first verb.

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 (12) ana i gorngi a-k naka kute wiyi tama liki=k 6020
1SG.IMP go wild.taro eat-SUB and cut wash person skin=LOC
I will eat wild taro, and then I will cut and wash [my] human skin.”

8.1.2 na 'but'

The second construction for conjoining clauses is by using the word na with a

number/gender suffix. It often has a meaning closer to 'but' in English or at least some

contrast, as in (13) and (14).16

(13) su sukna-m-s na-r tama=r i=ka te

3SG.F sleep-PAST2-3SG.F but-M person=M go=REAL 3SG.DIM

eloko-m-r 3140
tell-PAST2-3SG.M

She was sleeping, but the man came and talked to her.

(14) on ni-kwa-yun na-r anele=r ni ka ra-wa-r ELIC

1SG see-DESD-1SG but-M anele=M see REAL get-PAST1-3SG.M
I wish I could have seen it, but Anele got it.

The number/gender affix often agrees with the subject of the second clause,

whether or not there is an overt subject noun phrase in the second clause. This is

illustrated by the the masculine suffix -r on na in (13) and (14) above, agreeing with the

subject of the second clause. It is also illustrated by the feminine suffix -s on na in (15),

agreeing with the feminine subject of the clause that follows na.

16
Since the same forms occur as clitics on noun phrases, it would also be possible to analyze these
occurrence of number/gender as clitics rather than suffixes. My choice of analyzing them as suffixes is
somewhat arbitrary.

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 (15) sofo amblekul=s mu kulka yingu ni-s na-s o-s-a
Sofo Amblekul=F tree leaf like see-3SG.F and-F DIST-F-EMP

di ningir mu yengla mu bongo waki waki=ka

DET day tree branch tree tree tree.fork wrap wrap=REAL

ekra sukna-ya-s 1705

thus sleep-PRES-3SG.F

Sofo Amblekul looks like a leaf. And sometimes she rolls herself around
the base of a branch and sleeps like that.

And it is illustrated by the dual suffix -f on na in (16) and by the plural suffix -m on na in

(17).

(16) su nawa afko=s okwra eme=r sa-m-s tekwle=m

3SG.F mother old=F DIST place=M dig-PAST2-3SG.F worm=PL

lisi lisi ams na-f o-f-ra tama=f

cook cook eat-PAST2-3SG.F but-DU DIST-DU-EMP man=DU

indi=k ka ya i-m-f ka te
again=INS REAL come go-PAST2-3DU REAL 3SG.F.OBJ

ermesu-m-f ke-m kaha=m a-ya-m 7024

ask-PAST2-3DU PROX-PL bad=PL eat-PRES-3PL

The old mother was there digging in that place. She was cooking and
eating worms. But those two men went back and asked her,
“You are eating these bad things?”

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 (17) di num-go suma indor o-r-a o-kwra num ya=ka
DET 1PL-POSS voice true DIST-M-EMP DIST-ADV 1PL come=REAL

ya war rusu-ka ekra tolo-m-num na-m o-m-ra

come go.down sit=REAL thus tell-PAST2-1PL and-PL DIST-PL-EMP

o-kwra ekra Nuku Makru di num-go suma=r 2727

DIST-ADV thus Nuku Makru DET 1PL-POSS voice=M

It’s our own language. We came up and that’s how we talk. But there,
that’s how they talk. That’s our Nuku Makru language.

However, it is only possible to have third person affixes. What this means is that if

the subject of the second clause is first or second person, the affix will only agree with

the gender and number of the subject, not the person. So if the subject is first person

and male, then the third person singular masculine agreement affix –r will be used. This

is illustrated in (18).

(18) yale i-r erka eku-m-yun na-r arko mehek ELIC

yesterday go-INF want do-PAST2-1SG but-M money NEG
I wanted to go, but I had no money.

This is also illustrated by the plural suffix -m on na in (19), where the subject of the next

clause is first person plural.

(19) eku tolo-m-num o-kwra war rusu=ka na-m num

do tell-PAST2-1PL DIST-ADV go.down sit=REALand-PL and-PL 1PL

o-kwra na masi=ka naka ekra wiya-m-num 2727

DIST-ADV and go.separate.ways=REAL and thus come.up-PAST2-1PL

That’s how they talk over there where they stay. But we separated
ourselves. And so we went up.

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 The conjunction na sometimes occurs with a masculine clitic despite the fact that

the subject of the immediately following clause is not masculine singular. For example,

in (20), we get the masculine suffix on na, but the subject of the next clause is feminine.

(20) na-r su iki su duwan lau=ka rusu-nak 6101

but-M 3SG.F NEG 3SG.F limbum spread.flat=REAL stand-VNEG
But she did not put the limbum bed out to sit on.

And in (21), we get the masculine suffix, which is always singular, despite the fact that

the subject of the next clause is dual.

(21) fe ermesu-m-r na-r re eloko-m-f 4078

3DU.OBJ ask-PAST2-3SG.M but-M 3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-3DU
He asked the two of them [about what they were doing],
but they told him [a lie].

It appears that nar is the neutral form of this word and can occur in environments

where it is not agreeing with the subject of the next clause.

8.1.3 kamben ~ =ben 'either/or'

To express the possibility of alternatives, it is necessary to use either the clausal

enclitic =ben 'or' or the word kamben. The enclitic form =ben does not carry its own

stress and is pronounced as an unstressed syllable in the word it attaches to. The more

common expression is the word kamben. It typically occurs twice, after each of the

conjoined clauses, as in (22) and (23).

350
 (22) ke-kwra aku-wa-r kamben o-r-a
PROX-ADV go.back-PAST1-3SG.M or DIST-M-EMP

sukna-ya-r kamben 6084

sleep-PRES-3SG.M or

He went away or he is sleeping.

(23) ka siri-wa-fun kamben o-r-a

REAL die-PAST1-2DU or DIST-M-EMP

hamba-ya-fun kamben 7083

be.present-PRES-2DU or

“[He asked them] if they were dead or still alive.”

It can also follow only one of the clauses. It follows the first clause in (24) and it follows

the second clause in (25).

(24) [aka tenge]=k sukna-n kamben rusu aka=k sukna-na 4033

[boys’ house]=LOC sleep-2SG or sit house=LOC sleep-COND
Will you sleep in the boys' house or stay in [this] house?

(25) fu siri-wa-r wou di=m kamben 2177

3DU die-PAST1-3SG.M spirit DET=PL or
You died. Or [perhaps you] are some spirit.

The enclitic form =ben attaches to verbs, as in (26) and (27).

(26) ana mu lau=ben ana mu lau=ka tasu=ka

1SG.IMP tree lay=or 1SG.IMP tree lay=REAL step.on=REAL

wuwr=ben ELIC
go.over=or

Shall I put a plank down? Shall I cross over [the river] on the tree trunk?

351
 (27) ana naku ra=ben ana kaku ra=ben ELIC
1SG.IMP sago get=or 1SG.IMP mami get=or
Shall I get sago or mami?

As discussed in §7.7.3, kamben and =ben is also used in a related construction, for

forming polar questions.

8.2 Subordinators yombo, yungu and roko

There are three clausal particles: yombo, yungu, and rokor. They indicate the type

of relationship that two clauses have with one another. They occur at the end of the

first of two clauses within a sentence and signal some sort of relationship between the

two clauses. Roughly speaking, yombo is used for simultaneous events, yungu is used for

real-world dependent events (one must occur before the other may occur, though not

necessarily causing it), and rokor is used for causal events (one event actually causes the

other). They share the property that the preceding verb often bears the gerundial suffix

-m; this suffix only occurs on verbs preceding one of these three words. The semantic

differences among these three words is not always clear and my suggestions here have

to be somewhat preliminary. Both yombo and yungu optionally occur with either the

infinitival suffix -r or the subordinate suffix -k; it is not clear what conditions these

alternate forms.

8.2.1 yombo

The clearest of the three words is yombo, which signals simultaneity between the

events in the two clauses, or more accurately signals that the event denoted by the

352
second clause took place within the period in which the event denoted by the first

clause took place, as in (28). It is often most naturally translated into English by 'while'.

(28) fu i-m yombo-r na-r ru ya-m-r 6094

3DU go-GER SIM-INF but-M 3SG.M come-PAST2-3SG.M
They [dual] were going when he [unexpectedly] came.
(or) While they [dual] were going, he [unexpectedly] came.

In all instances in my data, yombo occurs with either the infinitival suffix -r. as in (29), or

the subordinate suffix -k, as in (30). These suffixes are discussed further in §8.3, below.

(29) fu aku-m yombo-r kom yoko tama siri-m-r 7078

3DU go.back-GER SIM-INF village towards man die-PAST2-3SG.M
While they [dual] were going back, the man going to the village died.

(30) su susu-m-k afa=r i-m-r yombo-k

3SG.F stand-PAST2-SUB father=M go-PAST2-3SG.M SIM-SUB

su wi ra=ka indi=k yilo-m-s 2710

3SG.F go.up get=REAL again=INS cover-PAST2-3SG.F

When she was standing and father went away, she went up again
and covered it [the fire she was trying to hide].

It is not clear what conditions the choice between these two forms of yombo.

In (31), yombo again appears with the subordinate suffix, but this example differs

from the three preceding examples in that the verb that precedes it occurs with the

conditional suffix rather than the infinitive suffix. This appears to be due to the fact that

this example is future.

353
 (31) on wula i-na yombo-k nu wa ene sumbu ELIC
1SG jungle go-COND SIM-SUB 2SG IRR 1SG.OBJ follow
While I go to the jungle, you will come follow me.

The word yombo has a second use as an adjectival modifier to indicate a limit on a

continuum. It is roughly equivalent to English “this” in “this tall, this long”, etc. In this

usage, it occurs with the Mehek kekwra 'here' or okwra 'there'.17 Examples (32) and (33)

illustrate this.

(32) biki yungu-t=ka ke-kwra yombo kanda=t 3097

how like-3DIM=INT PROX-ADV SIM small=3DIM
What size is it? It is about this small. [Used with a gesture]

(33) ter lako ro-ko=r ekra yombo ni-r ELIC

head face 3SG.M-POSS=M in.that.way SIM see-INF
His face looks like this.

8.2.2 yungu

The meaning of the word yungu is less clear than yombo. In fact, in some of its uses,

there is the same simultaneous relationship associated with yombo, as in (34) to (37).

Like yombo, it can occur with the infinitival or subordinate suffixes, though in my data it

more often occurs without a suffix.

(34) ru rusu-kla-m yungu loko=r re wate-m-r ELIC

3SG.M sit-CONT-PAST2 DEP rain=M 3SG.M.OBJ rain.fall-PAST2-3SG.M
As he was sitting, a big rain fell.

17
This usage can be seen as a type of simultaneity, as it unites the location (locative pronoun) with the
quality being described (adjective).

354
 (35) ru er-m yungu hamba-yu-m-m 6094
3SG.M say-GER DEP be.present-REP-PAST2-3PL
While he talked [about them], they all started to show up.

(36) mu=m wi yungu wi-r emta=m 5013

tree=PL grow DEP grow-INF half=PL
When trees grow, they grow up half as tall [as the trees].

(37) loko=r wate ambe-ya-r mu siki=k sukna-ya-m ekra

rain=M rain.fall finish-PRES-3SG.M tree hole=LOC sleep-PRES-3PL thus

yungu loko wate=ka ru ya-wa-k ni rete=ka 5029

DEP rain rain.fall=REAL 3SG.M come-PAST1-SUB see put=REAL

When the rain stops, they sleep in holes in trees. [But] while it is raining,
he comes out to see [it].

Example (38) illustrates a case where yombo would not be used since the relationship of

simultaneity does not hold. Again, the conditional suffix is used on the preceding verb

since the time is future.

(38) on i-na yungu naka wa mu oro ELIC

1SG go-COND DEP and IRR tree chop
I will go and then you will cut the tree.

These three pairs of examples in (39) to (44) illustrate contexts where both yombo

and yungu are possible. Examples (39) and (40) illustrate a case where both yombo and

yungu are possible. Note that (40) shows that yungu is like yombo in that it can take a

number/gender suffix agreeing with the subject of the next clause.

(39) su fer fu-m yombo-r mu mulu fu-m-m ELIC

3SG.F pig hit-GER SIM-INF 3PL rat hit-PAST2-3PL
She shoots pigs while they shoot rats.

355
 (40) su fer fu-m yungu-r mu mulu fu-m-m ELIC
3SG.F pig hit-GER DEP-INF 3PL rat hit-PAST2-3PL
She shoots pigs [to make it easier for them] to shoot rats.

The pair of examples in (41) and (42) and the pair in (43) and (44) also illustrate cases

where either yombo or yungu could be used.

(41) on wula i-na yombo-k nu wa ene sumbu ELIC

1SG jungle go-COND SIM-SUB 2SG IRR 1SG.OBJ follow
While I go to the jungle, you will come follow me.

(42) on wula i-na yungu-k nu wa ene sumbu ELIC

1SG jungle go-COND DEP-SUB 2SG IRR 1SG.OBJ follow
While I go to the jungle, you will come follow me.

(43) nu owete tuya yombo ana sirka fu ELIC

2SG pile.up fold SIM 1SG.IMP leaf hit
You pile up and fold [the leaves] and I will break the leaves.

(44) nu owete tuya yungu ana sirka fu ELIC

2SG pile.up fold DEP 1SG.IMP leaf hit
You pile up and fold [the leaves] and I will break the leaves.

The pair of examples in (45) and (46), shows a context where yungu is possible, but

yombo is not. The planting can be seen as dependent on the digging, as in (45). But the

two actions cannot be simultaneous so yombo is not possible.

(45) siki=r sa-na yungu-k naka suwa=r ana fiti ELIC

hole=M dig-COND DEP-SUB and coconut=M 1SG.IMP plant
I will dig a hole and then plant the coconut.

356
 (46) *siki=r sa-na yombo-k naka suwa=r ana fiti ELIC
hole=M dig-COND SIM-SUB and coconut=M 1SG.IMP plant
I will dig a hole and then plant the coconut.

Note that one could also express the meaning of (45) without yungu, but just the

subordinate suffix on the verb, as in (47).

(47) siki=r sa-k suwa=r ana fiti ELIC

hole=M dig-SUB coconut=M 1SG.IMP plant
I will dig a hole before I plant the coconut.

8.2.3 rokor

The causal marker rokor is used to link two clauses together in a way that indicates

that there is a causal connection between them. It is always the final element in the first

clause. It is also typically followed by a pause in speech before the next clause is begun.

Examples (48) to (53) illustrate this.

(48) re eku-m rokor weke ru lisi=ka okwra 4091

3SG.M.OBJ do-GER CAUS clay 3SG.M cook=REAL DIST
He made it so he could cook the clay there.

(49) re eku ambe rete-m rokor aku-m-r 6115

3SG.M.OBJ do finish put-GER CAUS go.back-PAST2-3SG.M
[They] finished putting it for him so he could leave.

(50) re fu-m rokor ru yiri-m-k

3SG.M.OBJ hit-GER CAUS 3SG.M fall-PAST2-SUB

wala=m mu re kusu-m-m 4092

dog=PL 3PL 3SG.M.OBJ chase-PAST2-3PL

They hit him so he would fall and the dogs would chase him.

357
 (51) ra war-m-m rokor ka kuna yakuw kuna yakuw 6006
get go.down-PAST2-3PL CAUS REAL self distribute self distribute
They went down so they themselves could distribute [the bones].

(52) on ifi eku=ka rusu=ka ni-m rokor

1SG trap do=REAL sit=REAL see-GER CAUS

wa woro koko mo-ko=r fu-ka-r ifi=k ELIC

IRR tomorrow chicken 3PL-POSS=M hit-FUT2-3SG.M trap=INS

I set a trap [intending] to kill their chicken (with the trap).

(53) ru yefa=f ra tongo-m rokor hokwa=t o-t-a

3SG.M bone=DU get hold-GER CAUS song=DIM DIST-DIM-EMP

kete rusu-yu-m-r 4034

sing sit-REP-PAST2-3SG.M

He takes the two bones in order to sing that song, when he was sitting.

Rokor is sometimes used without a clause following it, where the meaning is 'A did X in

order that Y', where Y is implicit in the context, as in (54) to (56).

(54) ru kanda=r war yefa=f tongo-m rokor 4032

3SG.M small=M go.down bone=DU hold-GER CAUS
The small one is down there holding two bones [so he can sing].

(55) mu ka kisi mu kisi rokor 4116

3PL REAL boil 3PL boil CAUS
They boil it [to prepare].

(56) fu nanglu fasu tiri=ka naku sokwe-m-f

3DU greens cook.in.a.leaf leave=REAL sago untie-PAST2-3DU
su naku garfu ra-m rokor 7063
3SF sago bowl get-GER CAUS

They [dual] cooked it with greens and left it. They untied the sago.
She got the sago bowl (in order to prepare the rest of the meal).

358
 It is similar in usage to the subordinate affix –k in that it indicates that there is a

connection between the clause containing rokor and the one or ones following. The

difference here, however, is that the subordinate clitic applies only to the verb of the

clause it attaches to and does not imply any syntactic connection to the following

clause(s). It only indicates that another action (often left unstated as it is often made

clear through context, implication, or speaker world knowledge) will follow or is

dependent on the clause it is in (see §8.2). The causal marker rokor, on the other hand,

has a syntactic requirement that another clause follow it (although the second clause

may be implicit, as in (54) to (56) above) and that there be some dependency

relationship between the two. The dependency requirement is that the following

clause(s) must occur after and as a result of the first clause. It may also indicate the

purpose of undertaking the succeeding action(s). That is, the rokor clause is a precursor

or prerequisite for the succeeding clause(s). Example (57) illustrates it being used

multiple times in a sequence of connected events that the subject is undertaking.

(57) su oku si ra=ka ka wuya-m-s

3SG.F water get.water get=REAL REAL come.up-PAST2-3SG.F

su wuya-m rokor klei [di ningi]=k

3SG.F come.up-GER CAUS then [sometimes]=INS

ekra su oku=m su ra-m rokor au=m

thus 3SG.F water=PL 3SG.F get-GER CAUS pot=PL

su ra-m rokor oku ama=m su tisi

3SG.F get-GER CAUS water bamboo=PL 3SG.F carry

359
 ra-m rokor ka war-m-s su war=ka
get-GER CAUS REAL go.down-PAST2-3SG.F 3SG.F go.down=REAL

ekra re eloko-m-s re er-m-s

in.that.way 3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-3SG.F 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F

ekra nawe 2803

in.that.way only

She goes up to get water and keeps going up. She goes up to
do this. And sometimes, in order to get water, she brings a pot or a
bamboo water [carrier]. She carries these things [back] down. She
goes down and tells him [about it]. She tells him [about it] just like that.

Example (58) shows that this marker requires the gerundial suffix –m on the verb

which immediately precedes it.

(58) re fu-m rokor ru yiri-m-k

3SG.M.OBJ hit-GER CAUS 3SG.M fall-PAST2-SUB

wala=m mu re kusu-m-m 4092

dog=PL 3PL 3SG.M.OBJ chase-PAST2-3PL

They hit him so he would fall and the dogs would chase him.

Examples (59) and (60) show that rokor used in this context cannot be preceded by an

inflected verb, or by the infinitival forms of a verb, respectively. See §8.5.3 for cases

where rokor can be preceded by an inflected verb.

(59) *re fu-m-r rokor ru yiri-m-k ELIC

3SG.M.OBJ hit-PAST2-3PL CAUS 3SG.M fall-PAST2-SUB
They hit him so he would fall.

(60) *re fu-r rokor ru yiri-m-k ELIC

3SG.M.OBJ hit-INF CAUS 3SG.M fall-PAST2-SUB
They hit him so he would fall.

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 Examples (61) and (62) illustrate the need for causality when using rokor. When an

event is accidental, it is not appropriate to use rokor, as in (61). But when there is a

causal link, as in intentional acts with a desired outcome, shown in (62), rokor must be

used.

(61) wala go=r no-ko-ra ifi fu-wa-r ELIC

dog 1SG.POSS=M 2SG-POSS-EMP trap hit-PAST1-3SG.M
Your trap killed my dog [accidentally].

(62) on ifi eku=ka rusu=ka ni-m rokor

1SG trap do=REAL sit=REAL see-GER CAUS

wa woro koko mo-ko=r fu-ka-r ifi=k ELIC

IRR tomorrow chicken 3PL-POSS=M hit-FUT2-3SG.M trap=LOC

I set a trap [intending] to kill their chicken.

8.3 Subordinating Suffixes

There are three verbal suffixes, all of which mark a verb as subordinate, but whose

uses are rather varied and difficult to characterize semantically. These are the

subordinate suffix -k, the infinitival suffix -r, and the gerundial suffix -m. The names I use

for these three suffixes are somewhat arbitrary, but it was difficult to find better names,

given the lack of clear semantics associated with them. These suffixes were initially

discussed in §6.7.

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8.3.1 Subordinate Suffix –k

I refer to the suffix -k as the subordinate suffix, since it occurs on verbs that are

backgrounded relative to some other verb, but without a specific relationship between

the two clauses. The temporal relationship between the two clauses is often one of

sequence, as in (63) to (65), where the event of the clause marked as subordinate

precedes the event denoted by the other verb.

(63) mu re eloko-yu-m-k fi tongo ra=ka 6070

3PL 3SG.M.OBJ say-REP-PAST2-SUB spear hold get=REAL
When they would tell him, he would grab [his] spear.

(64) kiri ru fe sunngo-m-k kulfo=k a-m-f 6001

fire 3SG.M 3D start.fire-PAST2-SUB uncooked=INS eat-PAST2-3DU
When he started a fire for them [dual], they just ate it uncooked.

(65) di ningi=r su eku-wa-k

DET today=M 3SG.F do-PAST1-SUB
sul o-m-ra bre-ya-m 2727
ground DIST-PL-EMP landslide-PRES-3PL
Sometimes when she [moves] underground, it causes a landslide.

But in other cases, the relationship is a simultaneous one, or more accurately, the event

denoted by the second clause takes place within the period of time taken by the event

denoted by the first clause, as in (66) to (68).

(66) nangu fra rete-m-k na ru maure=r

urine spray put-PAST2-SUB and 3SG.M spirit=M
te ra-m-r 6021
3SG.F.OBJ get-PAST2-3SG.M
As she went to urinate, the spirit took her.

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 (67) on ka sukna-wa-k ru i-wa-r ELIC
1SG REAL sleep-PAST1-SUB 3SG.M go-PAST1-3SG.M
While I was sleeping, he went.

(68) ekra re er-m-k oku=r

in.that.way 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-SUB water=M

indi=k yiri-m-r 6106

back=LOC fall-PAST2-3SG.M

As he was telling him [something], he fell back down into the water.

The subordinate suffix occurs in the agreement slot on the verb, following the

tense suffix, as in the above examples. However, it sometimes occurs on verbs that lack

a tense suffix, where it is the only suffix, as in (69) to (72).

(69) nekwa=s o-s tare-k naka wa i-ka-num 7077

moon=F DIST-F shine-SUB and IRR go-FUT2-1PL
When the moon shines, we will go.

(70) o-r-a minga=r mu a-k

DET.DT-M-EMP party=M 3PL eat-SUB

minga [aka tenge]=r mu eku=ka 4105

party [boys’ house]=M 3PL do=REAL

When they ate at that party they built a boys’ house for the party.

(71) num a-k klei ka i=ka al yam a-ya-num 4123

1PL eat-SUB then REAL go=REAL taro banana eat-PRES-1PL
We eat it and then go to eat taro and bananas.

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 (72) ana i gorngi a-k
1SG.IMP go wild.taro eat-SUB

naka kute wiyi tama liki=k 6020

and cut wash person skin=LOC

I will eat wild taro, and then I will cut and wash [my] human skin.”

In (73), the verb retek 'put-SUB' contains only the subordinate suffix. But in this case, it is

because the form is imperative and would otherwise contain no suffix, like the last verb

nuwa 'give'.

(73) kumba rete-k naka gwame nuwa ELIC

leaf put-SUB and bowl give
Put a leaf [underneath first] and then give [him] the bowl.

While the verb marked as subordinate most often precedes the main verb, there

are exceptions, like (74) and (75).

(74) yengla di=f eme war sere=ka i-k 6093

branch DET=DU place go.down break=REAL go-SUB
Go down to that place and break some branches. [I want to start a fire.]

(75) ru sumbu=ka i-m-r loko=s wate yiri-m-k 6062

3SG.M follow=REAL go-PAST2-3SG.M rain=F rain.fall fall-PAST2-SUB
He went and followed when it started raining.

But when the verb marked as subordinate follows the main verb, it still must denote an

event that precedes the event of the main verb or is simultaneous with it.

It is also possible for the verb marked with the subordinate suffix to be embedded

inside the main clause, as in (76), where the clause with the verb marked as subordinate

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follows the subject of the main clause afar ora 'that father' and precedes the verb of the

main clause imri 'he went'.

(76) afa=r o-r-a fer=m mu ya-m-k i-m-r 2162

father=M DIST-M-EMP pig=PL 3PL come-PAST2-SUB go-PAST2-3SG.M
That father left when the pigs were coming.

The subordinate suffix is used primarily in the non-future tenses. For sequential

events in the future, the conditional marker −na (see §8.4) is generally used, as in (77) to

(79).

(77) gwa=r ru namble aku-na wa tare-ka-s ELIC

fog=M 3SG.M dissipate go.back-COND IRR shine-FUT2-3SG.F
When the fog clears, [the moon] will shine.

(78) on ka sukna-na ru i-kya-r ELIC

1SG REAL sleep-COND 3SG.M go-FUT1-3SG.M
When I sleep, he will go [today].

(79) mu rusu-na mu yengla=r wa take sere-ka-m 5032

3PL sit-COND tree branch=M IRR bite break-FUT2-3PL
When they sit in tree branches, they will bite them and break them.

In (80), the conditional marker is not used, as the events are taking place currently.

(80) fun ya-k fun tongo ra=ka ya-k 7009

2DU come-SUB 2DU hold get=REAL come-SUB
You [dual] come and get [the knives and axe] and come.

Note that the tense on the verb marked with the subordinate suffix will always be

the same tense as the tense on the other verb or a tense denoting an earlier time. The

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examples in (81) to (83) illustrate cases where they are the same tense, the more

common situation. In (81), both verbs are remote past.

(81) ru siri-m-k ka re raya rete-m-m 6049

3SG.M die-PAST2-SUB REAL 3SG.M.OBJ bring put-PAST2-3PL
When he died they took him and layed him out.

In (82), both verbs are past today.

(82) ende wuron ru sukna-wa-k re tirite=ka

ende wuron 3SG.M sleep-PAST1-SUB 3SG.M.OBJ leave=REAL

ya-wa-yun 4074
come-PAST1-1SG

While Ende Wuron was sleeping, I left him and came.

In (83), both verbs are present tense.

(83) mu oku wiyi-r ya-ya-k ka fu-ya-num 4125

3PL water wash-INF come-PRES-SUB REAL hit-PRES-1PL
When they come to bathe, we fight [with them].

In (84), however, the first verb is past today, while the second verb is present; the

reverse would not be possible.

(84) di ningi=r su eku-wa-k

DET today=M 3SG.F do-PAST1-SUB

sul o-m-ra bre-ya-m 2727

ground DIST-PL-EMP landslide-PRES-3PL

Sometimes when she [moved] underground, it causes a landslide.

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8.3.2 The Infinitival Suffix –r

There is a very common verb form in Mehek that is formed by adding a suffix -r that

I refer to as the infinitival suffix and gloss as 'INF' and which lacks other verbal

morphology. It is used in a number of different environments.

One use of the infinitival suffix is to mark verbs in purpose constructions, typically

when the main (finite) verb is the verb i 'go', as in (85) to (89).

(85) naku dorko-r i-ya=ø 4050

sago scrape-INF go-PRES=2SG.INT
Are you going sago-scraping?

(86) num oku wiyi-r i-num ELIC

1PL water wash-INF go-PRES.1PL
We go to wash.

(87) fi fer liki ru ra=ka ka afi eku-r i-m-r 6049

spear pig skin 3SG.M get=REAL REAL hit do-INF go-PAST2-3SG.M
He took his spear and shield and went to fight.

(88) [ifi lulu] ni-r i-wa-num OVH

[trap] see-INF go-PAST1-1PL
We went to see bandicoot a trap(s).

(89) [ifi lulu]=m ni-r i-wa-num ELIC

[trap]=PL see-INF go-PAST1-1PL
We went to see bandicoot traps.

This use of the infinitival suffix is also found with other verbs of motion, such as aku 'go

back', as in (90), and tirite 'leave', as in (91).

(90) on ka indi=k me eloko-r aku-n ELIC

1SG REAL again=LOC 3PL.OBJ tell-INF go.back-PRES.1SG
I went back to tell them.

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 (91) ru afa=r ru re tirite=ka i-r
3SG.M father=M 3SG.M 3SG.M.OBJ leave=REAL go-INF
afa ro-ko=r 4034
father 3SG.M-POSS=M
The father leaves him to go to his [own] father.

This construction with a infinitival verb plus a verb of motion need not involve purpose,

but can simply involve a infinitival verb denoting something happening simultaneously

with the motion, as in (92).

(92) mu oku wiyi-r ya-ya-k ka fu-ya-num 4125

3PL water wash-INF come-PRES-SUB REAL hit-PRES-1PL
They bathe while coming and we fight [with them].

A second use is one which is naturally translated into English using a participle, as a

type of subordinate clause sharing the same subject as the finite verb, as in (93) to (96).

(93) felnde aka num ni-r felnde aka ki-m-num 5091

bird house 1PL see-INF bird house build-PAST2-1P
Seeing a bird blind, we built one.

(94) kaku mu sa mu ri-r ka naku oro-m-m 4106

mami 3PL dig 3PL remain-INF REAL sago chop-PAST2-3P
The [finished] digging the mami and remained to chop sago.

(95) yen kanda=m ru fu-r ru fu fu nawe=k 6103

child small=PL 3SG.M hit-INF 3SG.M hit hit only=INS
Hitting the small children, he kept on hitting them.

(96) wangu tenge=k rusu-r na fe er-m-r 6091

wound.around branch=LOC sit-INF and 3DU.OBJ speak-PAST2-3SG.M
Wound around a branch, he spoke to them [dual].

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 Note that the shared subject can be overt in the infinitival clause, as in (94) above,

where the third person plural pronoun mu occurs in the infinitival clause, even though it

is also subject of the main clause. Note that these infinitival clauses have the internal

structure of clauses, with subjects, objects, or locative phrase, as in the above examples.

A third use of the infinitival form of verbs is in one of the negative constructions in

which the verb na 'be' bears the negative suffix -nak and functions as a type of auxiliary

verb while what is semantically the main verb occurs with the infinitival suffix, as in (97).

See §7.8 for details.

(97) iki on rusu-r na-nak nawe susu-kun 4088

NEG 1SG sit-INF be.at-VNEG only stand-FUT.1SG
I do not sit, I will only stand.

A fourth use is with the nonverbal word erka 'want', as in (98).

(98) naka aku-r erka eku-m-r kara 6110

and go.back-INF want do-PAST2-3SG.M indeed
And he, wanting to go back, did it.

Among other uses, it can be used for what are probably best analyzed as

complement clauses, as in (99), where it occurs in the complement of hiki 'think'.

(99) bu=m ana ne nuwa-r hiki-ya=ø ELIC

what=PL 1SG.IMP 2SG.OBJ give-INF think-PRES=2SG.INT
Which one do you think I [will] give you?

Similarly, in (100) it occurs in the complement of ni 'see'.

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 (100) o-r-a ni nu rusu-r ka ne a-kwa-r 7065
DIST-M-EMP see garden sit-INF REAL 2SG.OBJ eat-DESD-3SG.M
That one sees you sitting in the garden and wants to eat you.

Similarly, it can be used on a verb that is complement to mana 'not want', as in (101).

(101) yifkindu i-r mana-wa-yun ELIC

yifkindu go-INF not.want-PAST1-1SG
I do not feel like going to Yifkindu.

While the infinitival clause typically precedes the main clause, it occasionally

follows, as in (102).

(102) suwa tenge=k wi-m-r

coconut branch=LOC go.up-PAST2-3SG.M
num suwa wi-r ekra 5097
1PL coconut pick-INF thus
We thus are coconut-picking.

Occasionally a verb with the infinitival suffix is the only verb in a sentence, as in (103).

(103) same takna namblo=k rusu-r 6102

same takna namblo=LOC sit-INF
He stays in Same Takna Namblo.

8.3.3 Gerundial Suffix –m

The dependent suffix -m only occurs on verbs preceding one of the subordinators

yombo, yungu, and rokor. See §8.2 for examples.

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8.4 Conditional Clauses

Conditional expressions are accomplished through the use of the conditional verbal

suffix –na on the verb in the protasis clause (see §6.3.2). Conditional clauses with this

suffix lack subject agreement. Examples are given in (104) to (107).

(104) nu hamba-na bir groro groro 6115

2SG be.present-COND branch scratch scratch
If you are alive, scratch the branch [so I can hear].

(105) nu ene danasu nime-na aku ELIC

2SG 1SG.OBJ wait.for be.unable-COND go.back
If you wait and I do not come, go back.

(106) on ya-na ya-na-yun 6037

1SG come-COND come-COND-1SG
If I come, I will come.

(107) nu i=ka loko=s wate-na o-r-a i

2SG go=REAL rain=F rain.fall-COND DIST-M-EMP go

ner ari=k susu-ø 6062

ner.tree below=LOC stand-2SG.IMP

As you go, if it rains, go stand underneath that Ner tree.

Except for counterfactual conditionals discussed below, all of the conditional

examples in my data are future conditionals, so the apodosis clause will either be

imperative, as in (104) and (107), or one of the future tenses, as in (108) to (111).

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 (108) nu felnde samba=m di=m ene nuwa-na
2SG bird big=PL DET=PL 1SG.OBJ give-COND

on felnde kaiembo di=m ne nuwa-kun 6112

1SG bird small DET=PL 2SG.OBJ give-FUT1.1SG

If you give me some big birds, I will give you some small birds.

(109) wa i-na-dun woro elowo fle-r 6049

IRR go-COND-1DU tomorrow animal search-INF
If we two were to come tomorrow, we will hunt.

(110) baye namrafuai su ro-ko=r loko wate-na

grass namrafuai bottom 3SG.M-POSS=M rain rain.fall-COND

nu i-na wa ne tongo-ka-m suwa=k 5042

2SG go-COND IRR 2SG.OBJ hold-FUT2-3PL leg=LOC

[As for] Namrafuai grass’s base, if it rains, [and] if you go [near it],
it will stick to your legs.

(111) dun oku nuw i-na ekra eku-ka-dun kara 6113

1DU water bottom go-COND in.that.way do-FUT2-1DU indeed
If we [dual] go to the bottom of the river, we will do it [wash ourselves].

Counterfactual statements also use the conditional form of the verb in the protasis

clause. If the result is a negative outcome, the verb in the following clause will have the

negative –nak (see §7.8.1), as in (112).

(112) loko wate-na iki on wa ya-r na-nak ELIC

rain rain.fall-COND NEG 1SG IRR come-INF be.at-VNEG
If it had rained, I would not have come.

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If the result is positive, both verbs will occur with the conditional suffix, although the

verb in the apodosis clause will have both the conditional marker and the appropriate

person/number/gender marking, as in (113).

(113) loko wate-na on ya-na-yun ELIC

rain rain.fall-COND 1SG come-COND-1SG
If it had rained, I would have come.

Typically, the protasis clause will be the first clause and the apodosis clause will be

the second one. However, it is possible to reverse this order, as in (114).

(114) iki ne manda-ka-t su ne ta-na 5101

NEG 2SG.OBJ hurt-FUT2-3D 3SG.F 2SG.OBJ bite-COND
It will not hurt if it (she) does not bite you.

One occasionally finds instances of full sentences consisting entirely of protasis

clauses, where the apodosis clause is clear in contexts, as in (115).

(115) ekra ende mesu-na 6094

thus 1DU.OBJ hear-COND
So if they hear us two [then something will happen].

As discussed in §6.3.2, the conditional suffix also occurs occasionally in nonconditional

clauses as a type of future, as in (116).

(116) woro wate kute lisi a-r i-na-dun 7077

tomorrow breadfruit cut burn eat-INF go-COND-1DU
Tomorrow maybe we two will go and cook and eat breadfruit.

Example (117) contains two instances of the conditional suffix. The first is in a

conditional clause, while the second is simply indicating a type of future.

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 (117) on ya-na ya-na-yun 6037
1SG come-COND come-COND-1SG
If I come, I will come.

8.5 Other Clause Relationships

There are three other clause types discussed below. These are comparative

constructions (§8.5.1), perceptual complements (§8.5.2), and reported speech clauses

(§8.5.3). These clause types are not connected temporally or by any dependency

relationships as are the other clauses discussed in this chapter.

8.5.1 Comparative Constructions

There is no way to directly compare two objects within a single clause. A direct

comparison between two objects must occur in two clauses. The first clause contains

the noun being compared which has the highest level of the feature being compared

(bigger, taller, faster, etc.). In the second clause, that feature is negated for the second

noun under comparison. This is illustrated in (118).

(118) yirkwe=r ke-r-a samba=r o-r-a i mehek ELIC

knife=M PROX-M-EMP big=M DIST-M-EMP go NEG
This knife is bigger than that one.

8.5.2 Perception Complements

Perceptual complement statements consist of two clauses in juxtaposition, each

headed by a final, fully inflected verb. The verb of perception (typically ni 'see' or mesu

'hear') is in its own clause while the event or state that was perceived is in a separate

clause. The two clauses can occur in either order with no difference in meaning.

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Examples (119) to (122) show several perceptual complements. The two verbs will

always have the same tense.

(119) ka mesu-m-r ru siri-m-r 6040

REAL hear-PAST2-3SG.M 3SG.M die-PAST2-3SG.M
He heard him die.

(120) rusu=ka ni-m-s nandasi=r ka i war-m-r 4089

sit=REAL see-PAST2-3SG.F brother=M REAL go go.down-PAST2-3SG.M
She sat and saw as her brother came down.

(121) yau=t ni-m-s ka kiri talma-m-s 6046

brother’s.wife=DIM see-PAST2-3SG.F REAL fire start.fire-PAST2-3SG.F
The brother’s wife saw [the child] started a fire.

(122) war ni-m-r oku=r

go.down see-PAST2-3SG.M water=M

ka tii-m-r sukna-m-r 4083

REAL remove-PAST2-3SG.M sleep-PAST2-3SG.M

He went down and saw how the water was rising.

When the verb of perception is a clause unto itself and contains no other

constituents, it can follow the perception clause, which will normally end in a verb, and

so there will be two finite verbs in a row, as in (123). This is the only situation in which

two finite verbs can occur in sequence.

(123) wafukaha=r wala mo-ko=r fu-wa-r ni-wa-yun ELIC

wafukaha=M dog 3PL-POSS=M hit-PAST1-3SG.M see-PAST1-1SG
I saw Wafukaha hit their dog.

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8.5.3 Reported Speech

In addition to its use as a clausal marker (see §8.2.3), the word rokor can also serve

as a complementizer in reported speech or thought. These are clauses where a person’s

speech or thoughts are reported either directly or indirectly. Verbs typically used for this

are eloko 'tell', er 'say', and hiki 'think'. The speaking/thinking verb is followed by rokor

and then the clause that contains the reported speech, as in (124) to (126).

(124) ru eloko-ya-r rokor ka aku-ka-r kara ELIC

3SG.M tell-PRES-3SG.M COMP REAL go.back-FUT2-3SG.M indeed
He said he would go back [later].

(125) ru eloko-ya-r rokor ka i-kya-r kara ELIC

3SG.M tell-PRES-3SG.M COMP REAL go-FUT1-3SG.M indeed
He said he would go [today].

(126) ru hiki-ya-r rokor su aka=k sukna-ya-s ELIC

3SG.M think-PRES-3SG.M COMP 3SG.F house=LOC sleep-PRES-3SG.F
He thinks she is sleeping at home.

It is also possible to give a direct quote of the person’s speech. In these cases, it is

customary to use a speaking verb and then follow it directly with what was said,

matching the person/number/gender marking to what the original speaker said, as in

(127) and (128).

(127) re eloko-m-s ka tambo ra=ka ya-ø 4094

3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-3SG.F REAL with get=REAL come-2SG.IMP
She told him “Come with it.”

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 (128) re er-m-r em ne eloko-wa-k 3140
3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M who 2SG.OBJ tell-PAST1-SUB
He said to him, “Who told you?”

In (129), rokor is used, but the first person subject marking on the subordinate verb

reflects the choice of person by the subject of eloko 'tell' (rather than the speaker of the

sentence).

(129) yale ene eloko-m-r rokor wa i-ka-yun ELIC

yesterday 1SG.OBJ tell-PAST2-3SG.M COMP IRR go-FUT2-1SG
Yesterday he told me, “I will go.”

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Chapter 9: Discourse and Paralanguage

9.0 Introduction

This section deals with linguistic features at the discourse level, including non-

lexical features. The topics covered include interjections (§9.1), greetings (§9.2),

expressions of anger and pain (§9.3), the discourse clitic =yu ~ =u (§9.4), techniques

used in discourse (§9.5), common gestures (§9.6), names (§9.7), whistles and other

speech sounds (§9.8), songs (§9.9), traditional drum communication (§9.10), sign

language (§9.11), and the influence of Tok Pisin (§9.12).

9.1 Interjections

Several word forms are used as interjections. These words do not occur in any

syntactic position and are typically used at the beginning of the clause in which they

appear. They are invariant in form, though nango 'maybe' can be the host of a noun

phrase clitic. Table 49 lists some of these interjections.

Form Meaning Usage

ai, a 'oh!' surprise
e, e hakum 'hey' drawing attention
hau 'animal’s cry' descriptive
kemen, kemel 'you all' address
mehek 'no' response
nahau 'yes' response
nango= 'maybe', 'uhh' place holder
yo= 'mine' kinship possession

Table 49: Interjections

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 Example (1) illustrates the interjection ai 'oh'. It almost always appears utterance-

initially.

(1) ru er-m-r ai ke-r-a bu=r ka 2095

3SG.M say-PAST2-3SG.M INJ PROX-M-EMP what=M REAL
He said “Ai, what is this?”

There are several different interjections which are used to draw a person’s

attention. These are illustrated in (2) to (5).

(2) [e hakum] welmbe=m 6088

[INJ] truth=3PL
Oh yes, that is right.

(3) e tama go=s 6088

INJ person 1SG.POSS=F
Hey, my friend!

(4) e awalaki OVH

INJ awalaki
Hey, Awalaki!

(5) kemel yirkwe=r ka tirite=ka ya-m-n OVH

INJ knife=M REAL leave.put=REAL come-PAST2-2SG
Hey! You forgot your knife.

There are two interjections which can host person/number/gender clitics. The first

is nango, illustrated in (6) and (7). The clitic used depends on the speaker’s knowledge

or expectation of the number and gender of the unknown referent.

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 (6) nango=r fer sir o-r-a ka ambasu-n 2175
INJ=M pig name DIST-M-EMP REAL forget-PRES.1SG
Uh, the pig's name. I forgot that.

(7) bu=m ra-wa-r=ka nango=f mulu felnde=f ELIC

what=PL get-PAST1-3SG.M=INT INJ=DU rat bird=DU
What did he get? Maybe a rat and a bird.

9.2 Greetings

The following examples list the most common conventionalized statements that are

used to call out to others, as greetings and as part of short dialogues. The primary

greetings meaning things like 'good morning' are likely relatively new additions to the

language due to the frequency of such greetings in Tok Pisin. They seem to be calques

based on the corresponding greetings in Tok Pisin. This is almost always accompanied by

hand-shaking on the Western model. This happens at both arrival and departure and is

also likely a recent addition to the culture. The typical greeting that many people do still

use is to ask each other where they are going or where they have come from. This is not

considered rude and is frequently shouted out from houses as one passes by on the

main road. Due to the nature of most communication while travelling, mis-hearing or

mis-understandings are quite common. Therefore it is often necessary to ask someone if

they have heard you. Examples (8) to (18) list these common greetings.

(8) ke-r-a=yu ELIC

PROX-M-EMP=DISC
There he is.

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 (9) karwi kufe=r / =m ELIC
morning good=M / =PL
Good morning.

(10) nambul kufe=r / =m ELIC

sun good=M / =PL
Good afternoon.

(11) worfa kufe=r / =m ELIC

afternoon good=M / =PL
Good afternoon.

(12) nurku kufe=r / =m ELIC

night good=M / =PL
Good night.

(13) ka mesu-ya=ø ELIC

REAL hear-PRES=2SG.INT
Did you hear?

(14) biki i-ya=ø ELIC

where go-PRES=2SG.INT
Where are you going?

(15) o-r-a kara ELIC

DIST-M-EMP indeed
That's something!

(16) hako hako ELIC

clean clean
Okay.

(17) welmbe=t / =m kara ELIC

true=DIM / =PL indeed
That is true. Absolutely.

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 (18) nahau kara / naka=yu ELIC
yes indeed / and=DISC
Yes, indeed.

9.3 Expressions of Anger and Pain

A conventionalized use of metaphor occurs with expressions of anger. As in other

cultures, an angry person will accuse the offending party of particular transgressions,

express their own emotional state, and demand certain kinds of recompense. However,

the kinds of immediate expressions the Mehek people use when angry are specific to

them. That is, before the statements which are more specific to the situation at hand

occur, there are several conventionalized statements that they are used. These typically

accuse the other person of having unflattering physical characteristics, of eating

undesirable things, or of wasting time or energy. The following examples (19) to (37) list

the attested expressions of anger.

(19) tekwle mosu / yefa=m a-wa-n ELIC

worm dirt / bone=PL eat-PAST1-2SG
You ate worm feces.

(20) tasu gwrusu susu / sukna ELIC

step hobble stand / sleep
You are just standing/lying there.

(21) mowlen kana=n ELIC

anger with=2SG
[You are a] piece of garbage.

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(22) kaha ni kanda=m ne ELIC
bad see small=PL 2SG.OBJ
You are worthless.

(23) lako wlanda=n / bol=n ELIC

eye pop.out=2SG / bulge.out=2SG
Your eyes are coming out.

(24) taku banda ELIC

jaw spread.out
[You have a] flat jaw.

(25) wilingi blengu ELIC

nose squished
[You have a] flat nose.

(26) ter au mu ne ELIC

head tree.species tree 2SG.OBJ
[You have a] big head.

(27) namra sinda ne ELIC

ear open.wide 2SG.OBJ
[You have] big ears.

(28) su solka=m gwal a-wa-n ELIC

feces dry=PL remove.skin eat-PAST1-2SG
You ate dried feces.

(29) su=m a-wa-n (ne) ELIC

feces=PL eat-PAST1-2SG (2SG.OBJ)
You ate (dried) feces.

(30) su au ata=n ELIC

stomach pot very=2SG
Your stomach is swollen up.

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 (31) tekwle mosu a 6088
worm leavings eat
[You] eat worm castings.

(32) fer wala i-m nu eku=ka a-r ELIC

pig dog go-PL 2SG do=REAL eat-INF
You just hunt; you don't work.

(33) namra wra ne ELIC

ear go.out 2SG.OBJ
Your ears are coming off.

(34) ter mombu ne ELIC

head tree.species 2SG.OBJ
You have a hard head.

(35) yen a-n ELIC

child eat-2SG
You eat [your own] child. [When marrying within one’s own clan.]

(36) ke-r-a=ka nangu fra ka ya-wa-r 4100

PROX-M-EMP=INT urine spray REAL come-PAST1-3SG.M
He came to pee all over?

(37) bu sir=t eku-ya=ø ELIC

what name=DIM do-PAST1=2SG.INT
What are you doing?

There is also a conventionalized way of expressing pain. It is quite common for

people (mostly women) in pain to yell out, cry, and draw a lot of attention to

themselves; this is an expected cultural practice. The specifics of when and how to do it

vary from person to person. The conventionalized expressions are typically used by

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children, because they are calling out to their parents or close kin. The name of the

father or mother is followed by one of these interjections: ye, yu, or o. The name of the

addressee will be followed by one of these interjections without any gender agreement,

and the clause will have a falling pitch. These will be repeated intermittently as long as

the child is in pain.

9.4 The Discourse Clitic =yu / =u

There is a clitic =yu ~ =u whose function is unclear, though it seems to have some

discourse function; for this reason, I gloss it 'DISC'. It attaches to various word classes,

following any other clitics or suffixes. The form =yu attaches to words with a final vowel,

while the =u variant attaches to words with a final consonant. The following are

examples illustrating this clitic, with the word bearing the clitic in boldface.

(38) su kom aku=ka i=ka ka ra ekaa-m-s

3SG.F village go.back=REAL go=REAL REAL get eat-PAST2-3SG.F

ru tama=r te ermesu-m-r na su=yu re

3SG.M man=M 3SG.F.OBJ ask-PAST2-3SG.M and 3SG.F=DISC 3SG.M.OBJ

eloko-m-s mehek iki anda kana su i-nak 4067

say-PAST2-3SG.F no NEG 1DU.IMP with 3SG.F go-VNEG

She went back to the village; she went back and ate. The man asked
[if he could go with her]. And she said to him, “No, let’s not go together.”

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(39) rusu=ka ni-m-f ka ya-m-r ka re
sit=REAL see-PAST2-3DU REAL come-PAST2-3SG.M REAL 3SG.M.OBJ

eloko-m-f e tama di=r=u tama yekle kanda di=r

say-PAST2-3DU INJ man DET=M=DISC man young small DET=M

ke-r-a ende ya ni-ya-r m biki yekle=r=ka

PROX-M. EMP 1DU.OBJ come see-PRES-3SG.M INJ how young=3SG.M=INT

naka rusu-m-m ekaa rusu-m-m 6094

and sit-PAST2-3PL food sit-PAST2-3PL

They [dual] were sitting and saw him come. They [dual] said to him, “Hey,
my man! [This is] a small young man, this one is coming to see us [dual].
Hmm, who is this young man? And they sat [together] and ate and rested.

(40) yen ra=ka samba=k ka samba=k na-m-r

child get=REAL big=INS REAL big=LOC become-PAST2-3SG.M

samba=k ru na-m-k ka re eloko-m-s

big=INS 3SG.M become-PAST2-SUB REAL 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F

re eloko-m-s ka nu o-m-ra di nawe=k

3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F REAL 2SG DIST-PL-EMP DET only=INS

eku-m-dun su-ra=yu o-m-ra wa ni-ka-n

do-PAST2-1DU 3SG.F-EMP=DISC DIST-PL-EMP IRR see-FUT2-2SG

o-m-ra baye nate numbu-ya-s

DIST-PL-EMP grass cut tidy-PRES-3SG.F

ka on-da=yun o-m-ra ka flo na-ya-m 6068

REAL 1SG-EMP=1SG DIST-PL-EMP REAL overgrow become-PRES-3PL

He got the child and he grew up, he grew up. He grew up and she [his
mother] told him, she told him, “You and I did these things once.” She said
it. You will see them. She cuts grass and tidies the [gardens]. But as for me,
[my gardens] are becoming overgrown.

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 (41) ekra erka wa kina=ka wane=m
thus want IRR come.last=REAL wane=PL

kana nau-m-num ka sere kana nau-m-num

with fight-PAST2-1PL REAL enemy with fight-PAST2-1PL

o-m [mele mele] tama ekra susu-m-num

DIST-PL [long ago] man thus stand-PAST2-1PL

num susu=ka ke-m-ra me ra fu kusu-m-num

1PL stand=REAL PROX-PL-EMP 3PL.OBJ get fight chase-PAST-1PL

kara ke-m-ra kusu-m-num kara num kusu=ka ka

indeed PROX-PL-EMP chase-PAST2-1PL indeed 1PL chase=REAL REAL

rusu-m-num ke-r-a kom ke-r-a=yu

sit-PAST2-1PL PROX-M-EMP village PROX-M-EMP=DISC

ke-r-a ka rusu-m-num kom rusu-m-num 3804

PROX-M-EMP REAL sit-PAST2-1PL village sit-PAST2-1PL

So we wanted them to come last. We fought with the Wanes. We fought our
enemies. We were friends a long time ago. [But] we fought and chased
them. We chased them [away]. We chased them and we stayed in this
village. Here. We stayed here in this village. We stayed here.

(42) ke-r-a=yu ELIC

PROX-M-EMP=DISC
There he is.

9.5 Discourse Techniques

There are many common tools that speakers employ when telling stories or

describing events to others. These are exemplified below. There are two main types of

stories. The first is traditional stories, those which are known to the audience and are

often considered true events, but which have happened outside of living memory and

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can often have elements of the fantastic in them. The other is stories of day-to-day

events which have occurred in living memory, usually experienced by the person

recounting the events. Most of the techniques listed below occur in both types of

stories, though the frequency of each will vary based on the type of story being told.

An expression that only occurs in traditional stories is listed in example (43).

(43) maure yofu rete tama yofu rete 7027

ancestor barrier put man barrier put
Once upon a time…

This is equivalent to English “once upon a time”, but does not imply a distance in the

past. Though speakers know that the setting for traditional stories is long ago in the

past, it is usually not stated directly. The literal meaning is that an ancestor (viewed by

speakers as a spirit entity, see §2.3.6) placed a barrier in the jungle in the same or nearly

the same place as a human. This will be a source of trouble because they both blocked

off the same area and the spirit will take some sort of revenge. A barrier is a traditional

“do not enter” sign placed by the owner of land near a common trail that alerts casual

passers-by not to go beyond that point. It is usually in the form of broken branches in

the shape of an “X”. They are by no means impossible to cross, but they are simply a

notice that others are expected to acknowledge. Only the rightful owner of a parcel of

land may place a barrier on it. In traditional stories, it is typically unknown by the human

agent that the land is already claimed (if not occupied) by a spirit entity.

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 Example (44) illustrates another common introductory phrase used in many stories.

(44) na-m-k re eloko-m-s 4044

be.at-PAST2-SUB 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F
It came about that she told him.

9.6 Gesture

There are several gestures which are commonly used among Mehek speakers and

which were observed to be consistent from speaker to speaker and from context to

context. A fuller study of gesture is needed to determine the full range and usage of

gestures, but Table 50 gives a fairly complete summary of the most common gestures

observed.

Gesture Meaning
gentle sweeping away from self, palm in/down conclusion, result, movement
hand flat, twist up and down no more, gone, no
point with whole hand location or distance
side of hand comes down to chop open palm of other hit with knife, etc.
smack leg when laughing

Table 50: Mehek Gestures

9.7 Personal Names

The system of personal names in Mehek presents a unique system where each

person has, in addition to their given name, additional names uniquely tied to the given

name which serve as affective markers of the speaker’s attitude toward the addressee,

be it happy or upset. These are the so-called “good name” and “bad name”. Not only

does every person have these names, but the culture provides people with names in

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two further modalities: song and whistle. Just as the spoken names indicate the attitude

of the speaker, so does the song. However, the purpose of the whistle is long-distance

or out-of-sight communication; it is possible to communicate with someone over great

distances simply by whistling their unique name. The addressee has a limited repertory

of possible responses, as the whistles are mainly a component of the naming system

and not a wider method of communication. A full listing of personal names is given in

Appendix G. Appendices H and I contain additional information about names.

9.7.1 Given Name sir

The given name, or sir, is assigned at birth and the choice ultimately rests with the

mother. There is a set of given names from which to choose when a child is born,

though it is possible to create a new name for one's child. None of the names is

associated with a particular gender. Some of them do have tendencies toward one

gender or the other, though this is not a strong tendency, but only a “feeling” on the

parts of some speakers. (This is similar to unisex names in English that have gender

biases, such as Tony or Kelly.) This means that a female child can be (and often is)

named after the mam (the maternal uncle).

An important concept in the kin system is that of the yowul. A yowul is both a kin

term for the children of a male’s younger siblings (see §10.1), as well as 'namesake'.

Because the mam will at least advise (if not direct) his younger sisters on how to name

her children, a mam will also often become a yowul 'namesake' of one of his nieces or

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nephews. This type of naming is an honor, and the mam will often only be the namesake

of one person in the family. Additionally, the mam is responsible throughout his life to

look after and support his sisters’ children and their families, whether or not they are his

namesake. This includes helping out with construction, gardening, or financial assistance

for school fees. The mam’s role continues even after his nieces and nephews marry,

though in a reduced capacity.

Because of the tendency of most people to have a yowul within the family, a certain

subset of the total inventory of names tends to stay within families, but there is no

social requirement to do this. Furthermore, there are no restrictions on who can take a

particular name. Names are not secret or private, nor is there any reluctance for a

person to share his name with an outsider on first meeting them.

Names are always polysyllabic and typically bimorphemic. A majority of the names

are composed of two morphemes that have independent status and a (relatively)

transparent meaning. There are also some names where only part of the name contains

an independent morpheme or where the whole name has no identifiable morphemes or

meaning. There is no sense in which a name describes a child’s characteristics or

prescribes a destiny. Some names have negative connotations, but those connotations

do not reflect poorly on the child. The examples in (45) are a sample of personal names,

but for a full listing, see Appendix G.

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 (45) namtane ari wula kufe tongo lisi
(no meaning) 'underneath' 'jungle' + 'good' 'take' + 'drag'

wafu kaha salngiwi masi ne arko lasi

'heart' + 'bad' (no meaning) 'tree.species' + 2SG.OBJ 'stone' + 'two'

masi bor numba noko

'tree.species' + 'between' 'poison' + 'collect'

In addition to a Mehek given name, everyone also receives what is variously called

an English name, Pidgin name (after the source language, Tok Pisin), or Christian name.

These names are all typical English names which have been incorporated due to

extensive contact with the West over the last 100 years (and perhaps the difficulty of

foreigners in pronouncing native names).

9.7.2 Bad Name sir kaha

The most commonly used form after the given name is the sir kaha which means

'bad name'. The name itself does not have negative connotations, nor is it considered

rude to use the name. The name is considered “bad” because it is used when the

speaker believes that the addressee has behaved badly. Its use reflects the fact that its

owner has violated some social convention. The choice to use the sir kaha is a reflection

of the speaker’s attitude toward the addressee. Typically, however, the speaker will not

be angry with the addressee, but will be using this variant to help enforce some social

norm which the addressee has violated. In some contexts, the sir kaha is similar to

nicknames in the English speaking world and can similarly be used affectionately (akin to

calling friends by names that highlight negative personal qualities). The sir kaha is still

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used widely by most speakers and most speakers will know the kaha form of most given

names, whether or not they know someone who has that name (this is not the case with

the other name variants, see §9.7.3 - §9.7.5).

The most common usage of the sir kaha is by parents towards their children. As

children age, the likelihood that they will be addressed by their sir kaha is lessened. The

purpose of the sir kaha, the speakers say, is to “spoil the name” of someone when they

have done something wrong. When the ordinary given name consists of morphemes,

the typical method of forming the sir kaha is to replace one of the morphemes of the

given name with a different morpheme. This has the effect of changing or altogether

removing the meaning of that person’s name. For any given name, there is a unique sir

kaha. Therefore, all people with the same given name will always be addressed by the

same variant form in the sir kaha.

There are a couple of less formal ways to form the sir kaha of a name. One is to

simply shorten the name by replacing the second morpheme of the name with /ks/,

which has the sense of friendly ribbing. Example (46) gives two examples of this.

(46) nanda timba becomes nandeks solaku becomes solaks

'older.brother not.have' (no meaning)

A more affectionate shortening of the name involves dropping final syllable(s) and

stretching out the remaining final vowel. In the case of final /u/, this often transitions to

/i/ as in the second example in (47).

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 (47) anele becomes ane wafu kaha becomes wafui
'eat choke' 'heart bad'

9.7.3 Good Name sir nalingi

A lesser used, but still very prominent name variant is the sir nalingi. The word

nalingi by itself does not have a meaning, but it is related to the verb nali 'smile, laugh'.

This is appropriate as the sir nalingi is always used in situations of happiness and joy. An

appropriate translation of nalingi would be “good name”, as it shows it in

contradistinction to the sir kaha, in both meaning and usage. Just as is the case with the

sir kaha, the use of this form is an expression of the speaker’s attitude towards the

addressee. The form of the sir nalingi is also a unique form that is associated with a

particular given name. Any speakers with a particular given name will have the same

nalingi. There are fewer distinct forms of the nalingi than there are sir kaha forms; there

are several instances in which an entire set of given names share the same nalingi. The

nalingi is primarily used in greetings and when the addressee has said or done

something praiseworthy or pleasing to the speaker. The nalingi is not used for most day-

to-day greetings, but rather when the addressee has been gone for some time.

9.7.4 Name Whistle isi

There is a whistle associated with every name, called the isi. Because the isi is still

so widely used, most forms are still well-known to most speakers. Other than very small

children, all speakers know the isi for their own name. Almost without exception, every

name has its own unique whistle, though there are a few names that do share a single

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whistle call. The whistling is, in contrast to most other instances of whistle languages

reported, restricted almost entirely to the domain of names (Busnel and Classe 1996).

The speakers report that they are the only group they know of to use such whistles to

communicate, though other forms of spoken communication are common over long

distances in other areas. Many cases of whistle languages have been reported to be

restricted mainly or exclusively to the men in the community (Cowan 1948), but the isi

has no such restriction; women were observed to use it just as frequently as men and

with no reservations in doing so. A list of names and their accompanying whistles can be

found in Appendix H.

9.7.5 The Name Song hokwa

There is finally a hokwa, or name song, that is a short melody that, like the other

above-mentioned types of names, are associated with every given name. Each given

name has its own unique hokwa. This is a phenomenon which is not completely

unknown in Papua New Guinea (Niles 1992). As with the isi, however, there are a few

hokwa that are associated with more than one name. Each hokwa melody is short,

between four and 15 seconds. It will not be sung for common, day-to-day greetings, but

on special occasions and after long absences. The use of the hokwa is typically

associated with one of two taps, the mambunge fu or 'forehead tap' and the taku tongo

or 'chin slap', which are performed on the person to whom the hokwa is sung by the

singer. These are performed lightly, with about the same amount of pressure as when

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applauding. The forehead tap is done with the side of the hand (with fingers extended)

in the middle of the forehead and the chin slap is performed with a grasping motion on

the underside of the chin. Each of these is usually done two to five times in quick

succession after which the other is performed. The hokwa is not used outside of the

conventionalized greeting scenario . The hokwa is the least used of the name variants

nowadays (as opposed to the isi and sir kaha) and consequently is being lost the most

quickly amongst most speakers. A list of names and their accompanying songs can be

found in Appendix H.

9.8 Whistled Speech and Other Sounds

Mehek has a restricted set of whistles which are used for long-distance

communication, particularly outside the village and outside of visual contact. The

language itself cannot be whistled, as is common in other whistled languages

throughout the world, but there are a few set phrases which are whistled and are

understood by everyone throughout the community. Because the primary function of

the whistled speech is to address individuals by name, this topic is treated more fully

under names in §9.7.4 (see also Appendix H). In brief, however, each given name has a

unique whistle associated with it and which an individual recognizes as equivalent to

their spoken name. There are very few people who know the whistle for every name,

but almost every person will know their own whistle and those of their immediate

friends and family.

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 In addition to whistles as a form of communication, there are also some

conventionalized noises that speakers make for fixed meanings. An attempt has been

made to render these sounds into writing by using some of the typical English spelling

conventions. This is not meant to be an official representation, but rather an attempt to

accurately convey the sound. The known sounds are listed in Table 51.

Sound Meaning
iss iss call to a dog
ho oh (rising) greeting at a distance
oh oh (falling) greeting at medium distance
oh (rising) greeting, call to a pig
pwt no
ho oh (flat) no
tsk tsk sorry, surprise, amazement
hoo, woo (rising) substitute for whistle pulse, acknowledgement
wo ho ha yes in regard to questions about travel

Table 51: Conventionalized Speech Sounds

Furthermore, when people see each other at a distance, but will not get close

enough to speak in normal tones, there are some conventional ways of yelling. These

include lengthening the vowel(s) of each word to make it easier to shout. It is also quite

common to end each utterance with a long /o/ vowel sound with a falling intonation.

This indicates that a particular segment is over and the listener can then verify that he

heard everything and continue listening, ask for repetition, or make his own comment.

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9.9 Songs

Songs are an important part of stories and celebrations. Many stories include a song

which represents one of the primary characters of the story. Also, many people have a

song which they have made up for themselves or a relative has made up for them and

which represents them. Typically, it is women who make up, sing and know the songs.

These songs usually consist of one to three short stanzas, which are repeated in the

pattern AABB or ABAB. Each song usually tells a short story about an event from the

character’s life. The stanzas are not grammatical sentences per se, but usually a consist

of a place or places where important events have happened. There is also often a short

phrase which alludes to the event which took place there. The songs are usually sung in

a hushed, contralto voice which does not modulate in pitch by much. The sounds oh oh

or eh eh are used to hold the melody during parts which do not have words. See

Appendix A.2 for a short sample of the texts of these songs. Songs sung at celebrations

have a similar structure and composition, but are sung at a faster pace and in a louder

voice, to match the speed of, and overcome the volume of, the accompanying drum

music. These songs are distinct from the short tunes which accompany a person’s sir

nalingi (see §9.7.3 as well as Appendix H).

9.10 Garamut Drum Communication

As discussed in §2.3.5, the garamut is a large, traditional drum used throughout

Papua New Guinea. It is usually made from the wood of particular species of thick trees.

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It is approximately six to seven feet long and about three feet wide. It is carved to a

point at one end and is flat at the other. It has a slit cut out of the middle along the long

axis which creates a cavity that reverberates when the drum is struck. A large, flat,

mallet is used to strike the side of the garamut. This is usually about two to three feet

long and is held with two hands and is rammed into the side of the drum in particular

patterns depending on the information to be conveyed. There are dozens of different

fixed patterns which a trained drum player can play. These patterns were used to

communicate between distant villages or to call out to the members of a particular

village who might be scattered in their gardens. The messages were ones of great

importance – the garamut was not used for idle or commonplace messages. In addition

to specific beats for each clan, there are different types of information conveyed by the

garamut. Categories of beats are given in Table 52; more information is in Appendix J.

Notifications Short Exchanges Other

Women Spirit/White Man has Come Repeat Message
Men Marriage/Pay Bride Price Where Are You?
to Kafle Someone Died Hurry
from Makwru (North) Fighting/ Peace I'm Coming
from Wanwan (West) Dogs are wailing Stop Rain
from Seim (East) Thief

Table 52: Garamut Beats

Nowadays, knowledge of the garamut is fading and only a few elderly men still know the

different patterns. Due to the encroachment of cell phones and other Western

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technology, the garamut as a form of communication is becoming obsolete. The

garamut drum is also used in celebrations to keep time for singing and dancing.

9.11 Sign Language

There is a moderate-sized group of deaf people in the Mehek-speaking

communities. The local estimate is around 100, though this may be an overstatement

(due to the native unfamiliarity with counting and estimating exact amounts, especially

as it pertains to large numbers). I personally encountered two such people in two

separate villages. It was stated that certain families have more deaf members and that

there are several of these families throughout the Mehek-speaking region.

The deaf members of the community (wanwanta 'deaf') and their immediate family

and friends are the ones who use the sign language. The vast majority of the community

does not know or use the sign language, though many are aware that it exists. Those

who interact most frequently with the deaf community are, naturally, those who use

the sign language most extensively. Knowledge of the sign language and use of it

declines as interactions with deaf people decline. That is, people who only

intermittently interact with deaf people only know a few basic signs or only those few

which are most relevant to the particular kind of interaction that they typically have

with that person. The sign language is used only with those who have (presumed)

congenital or early-childhood deafness. Older members of the community and those

adults with any degree of hearing loss (including complete hearing loss) do not

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communicate with the sign language. With members of the community, people rely on

close talking into their ear, louder talking and reading lips along with attempts to discern

the spoken language. The deaf people who use sign language typically only interact with

people directly for a particular need and do not participate in larger group activities or

socialization that require following rapid streams of conversation. Therefore, the only

(deaf) users of the sign language are those who cannot, for whatever reason, master the

spoken language. There do not appear to be any middle-aged adults who have

completely lost their hearing, but who can still speak.

There may be a higher proportion of deaf people in the Mehek communities.

According to Gallaudet Research Institute (Mitchell), fewer than one out of 1000 people

in the United States become deaf before age 18. The American Hearing Research

Foundation reports a similar frequency for congenital deafness in America as well (Zhao

2007). If these numbers are reliable and transferable, then in the Mehek-speaking

community of approximately 6300, there would be only five to six individuals who are

deaf from birth or early childhood. These numbers are quite a bit lower (even allowing

for a wide margin of error in native estimates) than stated. It is therefore possible that

there is a congenital form of deafness that is endemic to the Mehek-speaking people

and that accounts for the seemingly higher percentage of deaf people in the

community. Unlike the blind, who are essentially helpless in taking care of their basic

daily needs, deaf adults are able to participate in the community life and contribute to

group survival. Their participation is necessarily limited, in that they are not able to

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participate in complex tasks that require ongoing communication (such as hunting,

which is typically done at night) or village meetings. But each person has been able to

develop a skill that benefits the community and that is practical to perform. The most

stunning example was a deaf woman who had mastered the art of weaving and made

very beautiful bilums (traditional string bags, formerly made of jungle material, now

made of dyed yarns) which were widely sought after.

As for the details of the sign language, the general rule is that each major concept

gets a sign, many of which are standardized, many of which are ad hoc. There is a lot of

repetition and in particular, a lot of pointing. The repetition often takes a variety of

forms and, as in standardized sign languages such as ASL, facial expressions and eye

contact are vitally important. Most hearing signers talk as they sign, in either Tok Pisin

or Mehek, as they feel comfortable. There is not a reliable one-to-one correspondence

between signs and words, so speech is typically at a slower, more deliberate pace. Each

sign may be embellished or repeated, and in keeping with that, the spoken equivalent

may be slowed down or longer pauses introduced. The deaf signer makes vocalizations

as they sign.

There is some degree of standardization of the basic signs. Table 53 below lists all

those that have been observed to be consistent from use to use and signer to signer.

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Word/Concept Accompanying Gesture
airplane flat hand moves around and body follows behind
angry scrunch up face and point at eyes
bathe 2 hands scoop water and rub on body
bird hold arms out and flap hands
child/boy hold hand down low to ground
climb mimic holding a rope in front of self
come wave hand in towards self
die hands at ears move outward then close eyes and tilt head
drink scoop hand below and pour into mouth
eat thumb to fingers and towards mouth
fight slap own face
garden pluck grass from the ground
girl child and then sign for woman
go flick pointer finger or hand in direction
greens/leaf pointer and thumb together twist at head height
hungry pat stomach and then sign for no
kina (currency) fists go together (1), touch fists with feet (2+)
make bilum open hand held upright twists
mami rub one pointer finger across the other
man pat shoulder
no palms facing away from body at chest height
pig/meat draw finger down each side of mouth
pronouns point
rain wave hands at sky and pat at head
sago spin fingers around each other
sleep two palms together and lay ear on top
store/buy draw circle in open palm and count fingers
time touch one finger per day (start with pinkie for today)
toea hold together fingers one for each 10t (currency)
vehicle turn invisible wheel gregariously
white man pat skin and sign for no
woman pat head or make breasts with fists

Table 53: Mehek Deaf Signs

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 The basic word order of Mehek sign language follows that of spoken Mehek, i.e.

SOV. This must be obeyed as there are not any grammatical signs to connect each sign

to its grammatical role. Often, there is a preparatory clause which sets the stage for the

specific clause which is to follow. For example, to express the concept: “a man and

woman fought”, there would be an introductory clause showing the relative heights of

the participants. A flat hand parallel to the ground would be held low, then higher to

show the heights of the participants. This is a standardized way to indicate a woman and

a man. Following that, the signs for man, woman, and fight in that order would be given

to give the specifics of the encounter. The very same introductory clause could also

serve to precede “a child and her mother went to the garden”. In that case, the signs

that would follow would be: child, mother, garden, go. No sign for possession is used.

9.12 Tok Pisin

Due to the widespread use of Tok Pisin as a medium of communication (see §1.1),

most people freely mix Tok Pisin words into their Mehek speech. In fact, they are often

unaware that they have done so if it is pointed out. One salient example of this

unawareness of the intrusion of Tok Pisin words is the word kawil. This was given as the

name for a cross-section of a particular type of bamboo that is hollow but has spoke-like

supports which children often play with. It follows the sound patterns of Mehek and

could very easily be a native Mehek word. At a later point, however, it became clear

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that it was not a Mehek word, but rather the Tok Pisin ka wil 'car wheel'. Upon extensive

questioning, speakers did acknowledge that it was Tok Pisin, though they had at first

insisted that it was indeed a Mehek word.

Children under the age of 18 or so are particularly apt to not only incorporate Tok

Pisin extensively, but to speak it almost exclusively. Most people in this age group

understand Mehek to varying degrees of proficiency, but for the most part do not speak

Mehek actively. There are exceptions to this generalization of course, but most young

people are most comfortable with Tok Pisin. This is the language of all school instruction

above the primary level (about third grade) and the language used to communicate with

all people who are not from the Mehek-speaking villages. There is frequent contact with

the Eho-speaking villagers just south of Wilwil (the southernmost non-Kafle village).

Also, women who marry into the Mehek-speaking community from outside villages

initially communicate in Tok Pisin, but typically learn Mehek to some extent. However,

due to the widespread use of Tok Pisin, it is increasingly uncommon for women who

marry in to learn to speak Mehek with any degree of proficiency. Some topics are nearly

always discussed in Tok Pisin. These include politics and religion in particular, though

many topics are discussed in Tok Pisin intermittently. Topics dealing with traditional

village life are mostly discussed in Mehek, including planting, hunting, village gossip, and

family matters. Tok Pisin words and phrases frequently enter Mehek conversations and

most speakers, when asked about this, think it is a bad thing. However, every speaker

does use at least some Tok Pisin words in their speech. When children are present, a

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primarily Mehek conversation will proceed, but when the children are addressed

directly or when their understanding is particularly desired, they will be addressed (and

respond) in Tok Pisin. In these cases, people initially make a statement in Mehek and

then repeat it in Tok Pisin. If these trends continue, it is likely that Mehek will cease to

be the primary means of communication within two generations. Below are some of the

main ways that Tok Pisin interacts with Mehek in daily conversation.

9.12.1 Borrowings and Translations

There are two broad categories of Tok Pisin borrowings: those that are for words or

concepts that pertain to Western goods and culture and therefore do not have a Mehek

equivalent; and those which do have a Mehek equivalent, but are very commonly used

in Tok Pisin and are either more succinct than the Mehek equivalent, or are perceived as

preferable for some reason. Especially with the latter group of words, speakers will be

more aware that these words come from Tok Pisin and will sometimes express

embarrassment about using them while speaking Mehek. As for the first group, there

are some words for Western goods and culture which have been created, calqued, or

borrowed into Mehek and which are perceived as Mehek words. Table 54 gives a list of

the most common Tok Pisin borrowings for which there is no Mehek equivalent. Of note

is the word for 'clan'. The Mehek kinship system does involve a clan structure (see

§2.3.3), but there does not seem to be a word meaning 'clan'. The word sambo is

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sometimes used, but it refers to the garamut beat (see §9.10) pertaining to a person or

clan.

Tok Pisin English

bris 'bridge'
klen 'clan'
mande, tunde… days of the week
nambis 'beach'
painapel 'pineapple'
pusi 'cat'
rais 'rice'
save long 'know how to'
wil 'wheel'

Table 54: Common Tok Pisin Words with no Mehek Equivalent

On the other hand, many Tok Pisin nouns are adopted despite the fact that there

are already Mehek words for those concepts. One reason for this is that Mehek makes

many finer distinctions in meaning where the Tok Pisin has a more general word. As an

example, the Tok Pisin word kari (from English 'carry') means more or less the same as

its English equivalent. However, in Mehek it is not possible to refer to carrying without

specifying the type and manner of carrying from ten different verbs. A different

situation arises in the case of the numerals. Tok Pisin numerals come from English and

are phonetically quite similar to the English. Mehek, however has a restricted counting

system with poly-syllabic numerals. Many speakers have difficulty even remembering

the numerals above five. In the past, this was not an issue, as counting was not an

important skill. But with the intrusion of Western culture and money, it is often

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necessary to refer to specific and large numbers. The Mehek system allows for counting

up to approximately 24, but is not easy or practical to use. In practice, numbers above

ten are not useful at all.

Tok Pisin is so widely used even by proficient Mehek speakers that it is often simply

easier to choose a word from Tok Pisin despite the Mehek equivalent being equally

prominent. Table 55 lists the most commonly used Tok Pisin exemplars of this type.

Tok Pisin Mehek English

baim kul fer rete (pertains to bride price) 'buy', 'pay'
bel hevi kaha mesu 'sad'
kamap na 'become', 'grow up'
kari many distinctions 'carry'
kaukau many distinctions of yam and mami 'potato'
naispela kufe ('good') 'friendly'
sik manda ('pain') 'sick'
wan, tu… dirambur, lasif… numerals

Table 55: Mehek Equivalent Which Makes a More Complex Distinction

Although it is possible to suggest reasons why some Tok Pisin words are used, there

are many Tok Pisin words or expressions that are common for which there seems to be

a natural Mehek equivalent. There are not any obvious reasons why the words listed in

Table 56 are commonly employed in place of their Mehek equivalents.

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 Tok Pisin Mehek English
de, mun… ningre, nekwa… time expressions
las kin 'last'
lukautim hoi hai 'take care of'
maus pas suma timba 'mute'
mi, yu… on, nu… personal pronouns
nem sir 'name'
sol yikwa 'salt'
stat tol 'start'
stori sungamba 'story'
tilim yakuw 'deal', 'distribute'
tumbuna maure 'ancestor'

Table 56: Mehek Equivalent Which Makes a Similar Distinction

While most borrowings from Tok Pisin are lexical in nature, there are also several

non-lexical borrowings. Most of the borrowings do have Mehek equivalents and are

likely borrowed for the reasons listed above. It might seem that the use of personal

pronouns would be simpler in Tok Pisin, but there are distinctions made in Tok Pisin

which are actually more complex than those made in Mehek. Specifically, there is an

inclusive/exclusive first person non-singular distinction that Mehek does not make. It is

simpler insofar as it does not distinguish between subject and object forms and does not

distinguish gender in the third-person singular. Table 57 is a comparison of Mehek and

Tok Pisin subject personal pronouns.

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 Singular Dual Plural
M TP M TP M TP
1 on mi dun yumitupela [inclusive], num yumi [inclusive],
mitupela [exclusive] mipela [exclusive]
2 nu yu fun yutupela kum yupela
3 ru, em fu tupela mu ol
su

Table 57: Comparison of Mehek and Tok Pisin Personal Pronouns

There are a few Tok Pisin words which do not have Mehek equivalents and these

are likely borrowed for their utility. As in many languages and cultures around the

world, okay has also found its way into Mehek speech via Tok Pisin. Some Mehek words

have also expanded their meanings to become more roughly equivalent to a similar, but

more broadly useful, Tok Pisin word. The best example of this is beena. This has become

used in all the same situations as the Tok Pisin maski 'nevermind'. However, those uses

are more likely the original extension of the word. The Tok Pisin maski is quite widely

used in both Tok Pisin and Mehek speech. Because of its utility, its closest equivalent,

beena is almost always supplied by speakers as the proper equivalent of maski. This has

increased its extension to cover both ranges of meaning. Table 58 lists the primary non-

lexical borrowings from Tok Pisin.

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 Tok Pisin Mehek English
bilong -ko- possessive marker
em nau ora kara 'that’s it'
maski beena 'nevermind'
oke era 'okay'
olgeta yelnda 'all'
olsem yungu 'like'
orait era 'alright'
sori kombo mesu 'sorry'

Table 58: Non-Lexical Borrowings

Though less common (due to the ease of simply incorporating Tok Pisin words),

Mehek speakers often use Mehek words or expressions for meanings associated with

western culture and hence meanings not expressed in traditional Mehek, especially by

metaphorical extension of Mehek words. There are not many common examples, and

even those listed in Table 59 are often simply replaced with the Tok Pisin equivalent.

Tok Pisin Mehek Literal Meaning English

balus kur bombo 'sky noise' 'airplane'
got afa sambar 'father big' 'god'
ka sul bombo 'ground noise' 'car'
lotu afa sambar roko aka 'father big his house' 'church'
pepa sanglu 'dry leaf' 'paper'
bairo gala 'twig' 'pen'
mani arko 'stone' 'money'
su suwa tasu 'foot step' 'shoe'
tisa sanglu gala 'dry leaf twig' 'teacher'
waitman liki gamu, liki okwe 'white skin', 'yellow skin' 'white person'
waitman koko gamu 'white chicken' 'white person'

Table 59: Mehek Equivalent Developed

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Some speakers do prefer having native equivalents and will think at some length about

an appropriate Mehek equivalent for a Tok Pisin concept to avoid having too many Tok

Pisin words in their speech. This appears to be mainly because they are making a

conscious effort to preserve Mehek language and culture.

9.12.2 Code Switching

In addition to the single lexical items that frequently make their way into speech,

there are many instances where grammatical particles from Mehek make their way into

speech that is primarily Tok Pisin, or where Mehek verbs head phrases which are

otherwise completely Tok Pisin. Most of the time, a given conversation will take place

mostly in Mehek, with occasional Tok Pisin lexical items sprinkled throughout. The

reverse is less common, but does occur, particularly with cultural items or practices

which Tok Pisin does not have a word for or has a cumbersome phrase rather than a

single lexical item. Code switching, by distinction, is when grammatical elements from

one language interact with the other. This mostly happens with verbs and also

sometimes discourse particles, such as klei. In the case of verbs, if the utterance is

primarily Mehek, the Tok Pisin verb will occur at the end of the clause as required by

Mehek grammar, despite the fact that Tok Pisin constituent order is usually SVO.

However, the reverse does not hold. When an utterance is primarily Tok Pisin, the

Mehek verb, which will take the appropriate tense and person agreement for the clause,

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still occurs at the end of the clause. In each of the overheard examples below, the Tok

Pisin word and its gloss are in bold, to simplify the distinction between the two

languages. Examples (48) to (53) are overheard utterances with this kind of code

switching.

(48) hariap klei OVH

hurry then
Hurry up then!

(49) lako=m o-m-ra spoilim OVH

seed=PL DIST-PL-EMP spoil
You will ruin your eyes.

(50) tumbuna stori mi-pela ambe-m-m OVH

ancestor story 1PL-POSS finish-PAST2-3PL
We finished [telling] our ancestor stories.

(51) hevi fle-ya-r OVH

trouble search-PRES-3SG.M
He is looking for trouble.

(52) bus=k [i gat] OVH

jungle=LOC [there.are]
There are [snakes] in the jungle.

(53) anda wetim OVH

1DU.IMP wait
Let's [dual] wait.

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Chapter 10: Lexical Fields

10.0 Introduction

The following sections group together various lexical domains within the language

that do not fall consistently under any other grammatical heading. This includes kinship

terms (§10.1), color terms (§10.2), lexical patterns, which includes two words for 'small'

and expressions for 'everybody' (§10.3), postural verbs (§10.4), and dialect variation

(§10.5).

10.1 Kinship System

The kinship system in Mehek is somewhat complicated, as many terms are based

not only on the gender of the referent, but also on the gender of ego. Table 60 lists all

the kin terms in alphabetical order along with summaries of their meanings. Those

terms marked with an asterisk are not kin terms per se, but are commonly used to refer

to deceased relatives.

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Kin Term Meaning(s)
afa 'father',
'paternal uncle'
ata 'maternal grandparent',
extended maternal relatives not otherwise labelled
gana younger, same-sex term:
'sibling or cousin from parent's same-sex sibling'
gasiwa male cross-sex term:
'sibling or cousin from parent's same-sex sibling'
mam 'maternal uncle'
maure* 'recently deceased relative'
namre 'paternal grandfather'
nan 'son's child and spouse'
nanda older, same-sex term:
'sibling or cousin from parent's same-sex sibling'
nandasi female cross-sex term:
'sibling or cousin from parent's same-sex sibling'
nawa 'mother',
'maternal aunt',
'same-sex parent’s cross-sex sibling’s child'
nawi 'male's sister's husband' (married to gasiwa)
nemna 'husband'
neta 'husband of a female in the next generation',
'daughter's child', 'daughter’s spouse'
tama toura 'son'
tawa 'wife'
tawa yen 'daughter'
wafu 'male cousin's wife' (except paternal aunt),
'maternal uncle's wife'
yaku 'paternal grandmother'
yau 'female’s brother’s wife' (married to nandasi)
yen 'child of sibling' (except of a male’s younger sibling),
'cross-sex parent's cross-sex sibling's child'
yinsawa 'wife of a male in the next generation'
yiwara* 'deceased relative many generations removed'
yiwi 'paternal aunt',
'paternal aunt's husband'
yowul 'child of male's younger sibling'

Table 60: Summary of Kin Terms

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 A schematic of the system is given in Table 61. It shows the entire system from a

male ego’s point of view. Boxes that are next to each other horizontally are married,

with the genetic descendent always on the left. Boxes stacked vertically are siblings

from the same parent, male on top and female underneath. Male kin are in regular type,

while females are in italics. In general, the male relation will be on the left; however, in

the case of siblings, the male (at left) and his wife will be on top and the female (at left)

and her husband will be on the bottom. In the boxes with more than one term listed,

the first term is for an older relation and the second is for a younger relation. There are

five generations listed, divided by a dotted line. Every member of the same generation

appears on the same row of the chart. Ego is referenced by the first singular pronoun on

and is in a box with thick lines. Lines connect each generation leaving from the center of

the parents’ boxes and going to the top of the single box containing the offspring.

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 namre yaku ata ata

afa nawa yiwi yiwi afa nawa mam wafu nawa afa

Older Younger

nanda, nanda,
gana
wafu nawa yinsawa nanda gana on tawa gana gana yen wafu
gana
wafu

gasiwa nawi nawa nawi gasiwa nawi gasiwa nawi yen nawa gasiwa nawi

tama tawa
yen yinsawa yinsawa neta yowul yinsawa
toura yen

yen neta yowul neta

nan nan neta neta

nan nan neta neta

Table 61: Male-Centric Kin Terms

The kin terms which vary based on the gender of ego are almost entirely those in the same

generation as ego. Members in generations above and below ego (with one exception) are the

same regardless of ego’s sex. In addition to this, the gender of the referent with respect to ego

is also relevant. However, terms that vary based on ego’s gender do not have variant forms for

the referent’s gender and vice versa. That is, the same term may be used by both a male and a

female, but it will refer to a different gendered kin relation for each person. Or, if there is a

gender distinction for a particular kin relation, egos of both genders will use the same term for

417
the same reference. The most common example of an ego-variant gender term is the terms

nanda and gana. They refer, respectively, to 'older same-sex sibling' and 'younger same-sex

sibling'. Therefore, a female using the term gana will refer to a younger sister, while a male

using that term will refer to a younger brother. These terms are also used to refer to cousins of

each parent’s same-sex sibling. Males and females have unique terms to refer to cross-sex

siblings of any age. These are nandasi 'female’s brother' and gasiwa 'male’s sister'.

As mentioned, the gender of one kin member with respect to another is of importance in

the kinship system. This applies particularly to the generation above ego. Each parent’s same-

sex sibling and their spouse is referred to by the same name as 'father' or 'mother'. Therefore

afa refers to 'father', 'father’s brother', and 'mother’s sister’s husband'. The children of these

aunts and uncles are also referred to by the same terms for 'brother' and 'sister', with the same

rules applying to gender of ego and gender of kin relation as described above. Each parent’s

cross-sex sibling has a unique term, which does not vary for gender of ego. These are mam

'maternal uncle' and yiwi 'paternal aunt'. (The mam has a special role in child-rearing, see

§9.7.1). The terms used for the children of each of these relations (cousins), however, do vary

by the gender of ego. In fact, they are reversed. That is, for a male ego, the children of the mam

(a male relation) are called yen. For a female ego, the children of yiwi (a female relation) are

called nawa. (This is not to be confused with nawa 'mother'. In this case, both a male and

female child are called nawa and can be disambiguated by gender clitics, either nawa=r for

males or nawa=s for females.) These cousin terms are exactly reversed for males and females,

in that male ego calls children of his yiwi (a female), yen and female ego calls children of her

mam (a male), nawa.

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 The second chart, Table 62 is for terms when ego is female. It only lists the same

generation as ego, along with one set of children from her younger siblings. The reason for a set

of differing terms beyond the same generation is that women cannot have a yowul 'namesake'

relationship with the next generation. Though women do have a mam in the higher generation,

women cannot be a mam to the next generation. Most of the terms females use for members

of the same generation are different from those in the male-centric chart and are listed in bold

for ease of comparison. The terms that are the same for a male and a female are listed in non-

bold type (but in italics still for female relations). The rest of the chart, that is, the kin terms

which are not shown, are the same as those given in the male chart (Table 61).

Older Younger

nandasi wafu yen nan nandasi yau on nemna nandasi yau nawa yinsawa nandasi wafu

nanda, nanda,
gana yen nan nanda gana gana gana nawa neta gana
gana gana

yen yinsawa

yen neta

Table 62: Female-Centric Kin Terms

Terms in the kinship system are used both for reference and address. In practice, the terms

are quite frequently used as the most basic way to refer to a family member both in their

presence and when speaking to others. Personal names (see §9.7) are very infrequently used

for address.

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10.2 Colors

The most common color terms follow the hierarchy established by Berlin and Kay (1969). In

order to qualify as “basic color terms”, they must meet the following criteria: be mono-

morphemic, in common use, apply to many objects, and not be subsumed under another color.

There is a hierarchy proposed for color terms in which terms to the right of the hierarchy

will only be present in a language if all the terms to the left are present. Mehek has eight color

terms which are given in (1). There are no terms for 'pink', 'purple', or 'gray', though the term

solka can be applied to gray hair and certain shades of gray close to brown.

(1) [black, white] > [red] > [green, yellow] >

[kur, gamu] > [kasa] > [kulfo, okwe] >

[blue] > [brown] > [orange] pink / purple / gray

[gurmbo] > [solka] > [kwesu]; gai / kurkurmbo / gweheta

Not all speakers accept the color term gurmbo 'blue'. Example (2) below shows another way to

describe the color blue without use of the word gurmbo.

(2) yikwa kisi yungu ni-ya-r ELIC

salt cook like see-PRES-3SG.M
It is blue (literally 'It looks like cooked salt').

The color terms are listed in Table 63 with their typical extension along with any other

meanings that are associated with that term.

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 Color Term Color(s) in Extension Other Uses
kur 'black' 'sky'
gamu 'white' 'white skin'
kasa 'red' -
kulfo 'green' 'edible greens', 'uncooked food'
okwe 'yellow' 'white skin'
gurmbo 'blue' -
solka 'brown', 'beige', 'gray-brown' 'dead plant material'
kwesu 'orange', 'yellow-brown'
gweheta 'pink' 'partially cooked food', 'sunset'
gai 'white' 'white hair', 'white of eyes'
kurkurmbo 'gray' 'gray hair'

Table 63: Mehek Color Terms

10.3 Lexical Patterns

The following are word pairs used in a particular syntactic frame to express a particular

meaning, or are common juxtapositions that deserve special mention.

10.3.1 kaiembo versus kanda 'small'

While both kaiembo and kanda can be translated as 'small', the two words do not mean

the same thing. The word kaiembo is used for things that are small for the category of the thing,

even though the thing itself may be quite large in absolute terms. This is illustrated in (3) and

(4).

(3) samba=m nu=k kaeimbo=m ekra klei ili=k rete 4111

big=PL garden=LOC small=PL thus then top=LOC put
The big ones [are in] the garden. The small ones, then, are placed on top.

(4) nu-ra kaeimbo=r na re eloko-m-r nanda=r 7034

2SG-EMP small=M and 3SG.M.OBJ tell-PAST2-3SG.M older.brother=M
“You are the small one”, the older brother said to him.

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The word kanda, in contast, is used for people or things that are inherently small or, in the case

of people, young, as illustrated in (5).

(5) gasiwa kanda ro-ko=s

sister small 3SG.M-POSS=F

o-s-a kewa tenge=k ka wi-m-s 4022

DIST-F-EMP kewa branch=LOC REAL go.up-PAST2-3SG.F

His small [young] sister climbed up onto that Kewa branch.

For small objects, the two words are often used together, as in (6) and (7), where the

combination means 'very small'.

(6) aye gil=s kaiembo kanda=s 4016

bat bat.species=F small small=3SG.F
The gil bat is very small.

(7) felnde loko wul wul iki samba=m na-nak

bird loko wul wul NEG big=PL be.at-VNEG

kaeimbo kanda=m 5033

small small=3PL

The Loko Wul Wul birds are there. They are not big. They are very small.

There is a third word numbul that can also be translated 'small', but it refers to a small

amount of something or a small number of things, not the size of the object(s). This word is

illustrated in (8).

(8) iki numbul kanda wu-ya-r

NEG small.amount small come.up-PRES-3SG.M

kahakana wu-ya-r 5095

many come.up-PRES-3SG.M

It is not a small amount of small ones that will grow, but a large amount will grow.

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 The Kafle dialect also has the word waska, which typically refers to smallness due to youth,

as in (9).

(9) felnde waska=m tongo ra=ka 6064

bird small=PL hold get=REAL
Take a hold of the young birds.

10.3.2 Words relating to 'everybody'

There are three expressions which refer to a group of people. These are yelnda, yelnda oku,

and dira dira. The first of these is the default expression when the meaning is 'everybody',

illustrated in (10).

(10) yelnda=r ekra hauna ra=ka ama aku ELIC

all=M thus come.together get=REAL 1PL.IMP go.back
Let's all go back together.

Yelnda is also used adnominally, as an adjective, following the noun, to mean 'all', as in (11).

(11) ro-ko tama yelnda=r ru eloko=ka 2110

3SG.M-POSS person all=M 3SG.M tell=REAL
He told all his men.

The expression yelnda oku, on the other hand, is used when one wants to include some

larger group of people or to contrast one group with another, larger group, 'absolutely

everyone'. This is illustrated in (12).

(12) ke-kwra fenda tama tawa yelnda=m

PROX-ADV from man woman all=PL

moni rete-m-m [yelnda oku]=t mehek ELIC

money put-PAST2-3PL [all]=DIM NEG
The people from here paid the bride price, but not everyone [else] did.

423
 The final expression, dira dira, can refer to everyone, but it draws attention to the

individuality of the group, 'each one'. This is illustrated in (13) and (14).

(13) di=ra di=ra ra naka anda a ELIC

DET=EMP DET=EMP get and 1DU.IMP eat
Take one at a time and we will eat.

(14) di=ra di=ra ya=ka o-r

DET=EMP DET=EMP come=REAL DIST-M

kemen foto ra ELIC

2PL.OBJ photo get

Each one [will] come to get a photo one at a time.

10.4 Postural Verbs

There are four main postural verbs, susu 'stand', rusu 'sit', sukna 'sleep' or 'lie', and tiri

'lean' or 'leave' (though this latter meaning is not a postural one). They can be used both for

being in a position, moving into that position, or causing something to be put into that position.

In (15), for example, susu 'stand' denotes a standing position.

(15) ka fe er-m-m [biki naka] susu-ya-fun=ka 2710

REAL 3DU.OBJ say-PAST2-3PL [why] stand-PRES-2DU=INT
They asked them [dual], “Why are you standing [there]?”

In (16), however, it involves movement into a standing position, though it combines with wuya

'go up' to express this meaning.

(16) bulmu oku=k ekra emefa=k wuya susu-m-r 6017

swamp water=LOC thus clearing=LOC go.up stand-PAST2-3SG.M
So he stood up in a clearing in the swamp.

And in (17), it involves causing something to be in a standing position.

424
 (17) o-r-a sul=k susu-ka-n 4125
DIST-M-EMP ground=LOC stand-FUT2-2SG
You will stand that one up on the ground.

To express that someone or something is in a particular location, it is possible to use the verb

na 'be', as in (18).

(18) o-s iroko=k na-ya-s=ka ELIC

DIST-F where=LOC be.at-PRES-3SG.F=INT
Where is she?

However, it is more common to use one of the postural verbs, without intending the literal

posture. To express that a person is in a location, without specifying their posture, it is normal

to use the verb rusu 'sit', as in (19) to (24).

(19) aka siki=k rusu-n ELIC

house hole=LOC sit-PRES.1SG
I am in the house.

(20) ke-r-a du-ra-dun rusu-ya-dun 6077

PROX-M-EMP 1DU-EMP-1DU sit-PRES-1DU
Here we two are, we are staying here.

(21) ka num ke-r-a okwra rusu-ya-num 2175

REAL 1PL PROX-M-EMP DIST sit-PRES-1PL
We are staying in this place there.

(22) wanirkwesu ro-ko yen=r okwra rusu-m-r 7045

wanirkwesu 3SG.M-POSS child=M DIST sit-PAST2-3SG.M
Wanirkwesu’s son stayed there.

(23) same takna namblo=k rusu-r 6102

same takna namblo=LOC sit-INF
Same Takna is staying in Namblo.

425
 (24) ru kom=k rusu-ya-r=ka ELIC
3SG.M village=LOC sit-PRES-3SG.M=INT
Is he staying in the village?

The same appears to apply to animals, as in (25), where it occurs twice.

(25) mulu ata wula=k rusu-m-s aka eku=ka

rodent ata jungle=LOC sit-PAST2-3SG.F house do=REAL

mu samba ata=r lako kana=r rusu-m-s 4006

tree big very=M seed with=M sit-PAST2-3SG.F

The Ata rodent lives in the jungle. It makes its house there.
It lives in a very large tree that has seeds.

The examples in (26) and (27) reflect the use of rusu with the more specific meaning 'sit'.

(26) iki on rusu-r na-nak nawe susu-kun 4088

NEG 1SG sit-INF be.at-VNEG only stand-FUT.1SG
I do not sit, I will only stand.

(27) on rusu-r mana-wa-yun ELIC

1SG sit-M not.want-PAST1-1SG
I do not feel like sitting down. [I do not like to sit down.]

With inanimate objects, it is more common to use either the verb susu 'stand' or the verb

sukna 'lie, sleep', the choice being apparently determined at least in part by whether the

vertical dimension is longer than the horizontal dimension or the reverse. Examples (28) and

(29) illustrate the use of susu 'stand' with trees.

(28) duwngu mu=r wula=k susu=ka 5091

duwngu tree=M jungle=LOC stand=REAL
The Duwngu tree grows in the jungle.

426
 (29) mu=m ke-m-ra kahakana susu-ya-m 1628
tree=PL PROX-PL-EMP many stand-PRES-3PL
There are many trees here.

Examples (30) and (31) show how the noun fi 'spear' can occur with either susu 'stand' or sukna

'sleep, lie', depending on its position.

(30) fi ka susu-ya-r ELIC

spear REAL stand-PRES-3SG.M
The spear is standing.

(31) fi sul=k sukna-ya-r ELIC

spear ground=LOC sleep-PRES-3SG.M
The spear is lying on the ground.

The ungrammaticality of (32) shows that this noun cannot be used with rusu 'sit', presumably

because one dimension is always longer than the other.

(32) *fi ka rusu-ya-r ELIC

spear REAL sit-PRES-3SG.M
The spear is sitting.

On the other hand, (33) shows that susu 'stand' is used with the noun for 'house', despite the

fact that the horizontal dimension is normally longer than the vertical dimension for Mehek

houses.

(33) aka=r o-r-a oku gan=k susu-ya-r

house=M DIST-M-EMP water edge=LOC stand-PRES-3SG.M

num i-m-m kulu=r oku sumbu-m-num 1626

1PL go-PAST2-3PL road=M water follow-PAST2-1PL

The house is located near water. We go along the road following the water.

427
10.5 Dialect Variation

Table 64 lists some of the major distinctions between the Kafle dialect and the major, non-

Kafle dialect. As stated in §1.4, these distinctions are primarily lexical. The words on the left

side are animal and plant names along with their variant name in Kafle. The words on the right

side are general lexical items that are different in Kafle. While animal and plant names are

typically quite different, lexical items often are quite similar and only vary by a sound.

Plant or Animal Kafle Variant Type Word Kafle Variant Meaning

aka sumbu male aka lowe snake asiri ahiri 'thirsty'
blafo kute wakre bumblan lako fan pod eme ale eme nambu 'clean up'
mafi kre gal gal asa mantis fenda yenda/henda 'from'
safko yafin lakwiyi tree kifal kilfan/kinfal 'wind'
sifi a sifi arman lizard mei mai 'leave me alone'
sil i flower nime mani 'not able'
singil sungel sekel sakel bird oku ohu 'water'
sungra same vine yal yau REM
tawa yekle nekwa klor mantis yale yele 'yesterday'
yefa afta wamun snake yembu hembu 'hold in arms'

Table 64: Kafle Dialect Variants

There are a few other features of the Kafle dialect of note. One of these is a couple of

words that involve metathesis relative to the main dialect, as in (34), where the first form is the

form in the main dialect while the second is the form in the Kafle dialect.

(34) kifal / kilfan algan / angal

'wind' 'fly (insect)'

428
A second difference is pairs of words where a /u/ occurs in the main dialect but a /e/ in the

corresponding form in the Kafle dialect, as in (35).

(35) muye / meye sure / sere kute / kete

'grow' 'break' 'cough'

429
Appendix A: Sample Texts
This appendix contains three texts from different genres. The first text (A.1) is an account

of events which took place in the past. The second text (A.2) is a collection of personal songs

(see 10.4). The third and final text (A.3) is a verbal description of a culturally significant event,

harvesting from the garden.

A.1 Mombu Ketelu Story

This story has a mythical quality in that it has not been experienced in living memory. But

rather, it is a story of cultural significance to the Mehek people. The reference for this story is

4029.

(1) sungamba=t mombu ketelu=t

story=DIM mombu ketelu=DIM
Mombu Ketelu's story.

(2) tama=r tawa=f lisif ra-m-r

person=M woman=DU two get-PAST2-3SG.M
A man took two wives.

(3) tawa mus kana yasumbu kana

woman first.wife with second.wife with
The first wife and the second wife.

(4) na su tawa mus yen wau=k na-m-s

and 3SG.F woman first.wife child stomach=LOC become-PAST2-3SG.F
The first wife became pregnant.

(5) yasumbu=t mehek

second.wife=DIM no
But the second wife was not [pregnant].

430
 (6) ka mombu kete-r i-m-f
REAL mombu cut-INF go-PAST2-3DU
They [dual] go to cut the mombu tree.

(7) fu ka i=ka tawa mus=u yen wau=k kana=s

3DU REAL go=REAL woman first.wife=DISC child stomach=LOC with=F
They [dual] go and the first wife, the pregnant one,

(8) o-sa sul=k susu-m-s ka war-m-t

DIST-F.EMP ground=LOC stand-PAST2-3SG.F REAL go.down-PAST2-3DIM
She stood on the ground and [then] went down.

(9) yasumbu=s ka wi-m-s mombu kete-r erka

second.wife=F REAL go.up-PAST2-3SG.F mombu cut-INF want
The second wife goes up to cut the mombu tree.

(10) su ka wi ka mombu=m su kete kete ra tori=ka

3SG.F REAL go.up REAL mombu=PL 3SG.F cut cut take drop=REAL
She goes up and cuts the mombu tree, collects [edible leaves] and drops them.

(11) te ermesu-m-s oriko=k na-ya=ø

3SG.F.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F where=LOC be.at-PRES=2SG.INT
She says [to the first wife], "Where are you?”

(12) oriko=k rusu-ya=ø

where=LOC stand-PRES=2SG.INT
“Where are you standing?”

(13) ka on kete tori-na kin ne totori yen kin sere-ka-yun

REAL 1SG cut drop-COND tail 2SG.OBJ drop child tail break-FUT2-1SG
“I'm cutting [leaves] and if I drop them down to you, your child’s back will break."

(14) na te eloko-m-s ke-kwra mende=k susu=n

and 3SG.F.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F PROX-ADV very=LOC stand=2SG.IMP
And she said, "Stand right here [to collect the leaves]."

431
(15) su te eloko mesu=ka
3SG.F 3SG.F.OBJ say hear=REAL
She [first wife] said she understood.

(16) su mombu=r kete ra-m-s o-ra susu-m eme=k

3SG.F mombu=M cut take-PAST2-3SG.F DIST-M.EMP stand-PAST2 place=LOC
She cuts mombu and [first wife] collects them standing at that spot.

(17) tu tori-m-s ekra te yen fu kin sere-m-s

3SG.DIM fall-PAST2-3SG.F thus 3SG.F.OBJ child 3DU tail break-PAST2-3SG.F
So she throws [branches] down, and hits the child and breaks her backbone.

(18) ekra su siri ka sukna-m-k

thus 3SG.F die REAL sleep-PAST2-SUB
So she dies while lying there.

(19) su te yiri ni=ka

3SG.F 3SG.F.OBJ fall see=REAL
She comes down and sees.

(20) siki=r o-ra wuwr mombu tombo lowe=k su sa rumba=ka

hole=M DIST-M.EMP go.in mombu trunk edge=LOC 3SG.F dig clear=REAL
She digs and clears dirt for a hole there inside the mombu trunk.

(21) o-kwra te tuwar-m-s

DIST-ADV 3SG.F.OBJ put.down.in-PAST2-3SG.F
She puts her in there.

(22) mu=r su te oro tasu tiri=ka

tree=M 3SG.F 3SG.F.OBJ chop step.on leave=REAL
She cuts the tree, stamps down on it covers it and leaves it.

(23) mombu kumba nanglu o-m-ra su ra-m-m

mombu leaf greens DIST-PL-EMP 3SG.F get-PAST2-3PL
She collects the mombu leaves, greens, and other things.

432
(24) mombu lako bu=m tukta ra=ka ka aku-m-s
mombu seed what=PL carry.on.head get=REAL REAL go.back-PAST2-3SG.F
She carries the mombu seeds and things and goes back.

(25) kom aku=ka ya=ka

village go.back=REAL come=REAL
She goes back to the village.

(26) mombu wuta kisi nanglu bu=m kisi naku tawo=ka a rusu-m-s
mombu cut.up cook greens what=PL boil sago turn.sago=REAL eat sit-PAST2-3SG.F
She breaks the seeds, cooks the greens and things, turns sago and sits to eat.

(27) aka rusu-m-s tama=r ya-m-r

house sit-PAST2-3SG.F person=M come-PAST2-3SG.M
She sits in the house and the husband comes.

(28) na ke-s=u [tawa mu]=t ya ermesu-m-r

and PROX-F=DISC [first wife]=DIM come ask-PAST2-3SG.M
"Now this first wife?" He asks.

(29) na=m su yasumbu=s re eloko-m-s

and=PL 3SG.F second.wife=F 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F
And the second wife said to him,

(30) su kuna i-wa-s on kuna i-wa-yun

3SG.F self go-PAST1-3SG.F 1SG self go-PAST1-1SG
"She went her own way and I went my own."

(31) ka ekaa=m su re nuwa-m-s

REAL food=PL 3SG.F 3SG.M.OBJ give-PAST2-3SG.F
And she gives him food.

(32) iki ru a-nak

NEG 3SG.M eat-VNEG
He doesn't eat.

433
(33) tawa=t [tawa mu]=t o-ta te iki soro ka
woman=DIM [first.wife]=DIM DIST-DIM.EMP 3SG.F.OBJ feel feel.bad REAL
The wife the first wife, he feels bad about her.

(34) iki ru a-nak

NEG 3SG.M eat-VNEG
He will not eat.

(35) ekra ru wuwr=ka ru rusu dana=ka

thus 3SG.M go.in=REAL 3SG.M sit daybreak=REAL
So he goes in and sits until morning.

(36) ru ka klei i ru te i-m-s

3SG.M REAL then go 3SG.M 3SG.F.OBJ go-PAST2-3SG.F
He goes to look for her [first wife].

(37) eku fle=ka i nime=ka ka rusu dana=ka

do search=REAL go be.unable=REAL REAL sit daybreak=REAL
He cannot find her. He waits until morning.

(38) naka rusu ka i...

and sit REAL go…
And he sits and then goes [to search].

(39) biki biki i-m-f ka meke=f

where where go-PAST2-3DU REAL body=DU
[He thinks,] "Where could these two have gotten themselves off to?"

(40) naka o-ra fu mombu kete=m-f yoko i-m-r

and DIST-M.EMP 3DU mombu cut=PAST2-3DU side go-PAST2-3SG.M
And he goes to the mombu tree. The two of them cut.

(41) mombu kete yoko mombu fu kete eme o-kwra i war-m-r

mombu cut side mombu 3DU cut place DIST-ADV go go.down-PAST2-3SG.M
He goes down to the place where they [dual] cut the mombu tree.

434
(42) susu=ka mesu-m-r su yen kanda so-ko=r
stand=REAL hear-PAST2-3SG.M 3SG.F child small 3SG.F-POSS=M
He stands there and hears her little child.

(43) o-ra ka kuwa oku a=ka ka samba=k na-m-r

DIST-M.EMP REAL foul water eat=REAL REAL big=INS be.at-PAST2-3SG.M
[The child] drank the foul water [from the corpse] and grew up.

(44) naka nawa so-ko yefa=f ru ra=ka

and mother 3SG.F-POSS bone=DU 3SG.M take=REAL
And he gets his mother's two bones.

(45) o-f-ra doi doi rusu-m-r fu-m-r

DIST-DU-EMP bang bang sit-PAST2-3SG.M hit-PAST2-3SG.M
He sits and bangs the two of them together. He hits [them].

(46) nawa so-ko yefa=f ra=ka fu rusu-m-r

mother 3SG.F-POSS bone=DU take=REAL 3DU sit-PAST2-3SG.M
He gets the mother's two bones.

(47) hokwa kete kete hokwa=t ekra kete-m-r

song sing sing song=DIM in.that.way sing-PAST2-3SG.M
And he sings the song. He sings.

(48) nawa yu=s kana mombu kete-r i-wa-dun

mother 1SG.POSS=F with mombu cut-INF go-PAST1-1DU
"My mother and I came to cut mombu.

(49) loko loko kifal kifal sul sul sukna

rain rain wind wind ground ground sleep
Rain rain, wind wind, earth earth sleep."

(50) ekra kete kete yefa=f o-f-ra fu-yu-m-r

thus sing sing bone=DU DIST-DU-EMP hit-HAB-PAST2-3SG.M
So he sings, playing her two bones.

435
(51) ru afa=r i susu=ka mesu-m-r
3SG.M father=M go stand=REAL hear-PAST2-3SG.M
The father stands there and hears.

(52) oriko mende ka

where very REAL
"Where could that be coming from?"

(53) o-kwra mesu nime rete

DIST-ADV hear be.unable put
He hears it, but can't figure it out.

(54) klei ka ke-kwra yoko susu=ka mesu-m-r mehek

then REAL PROX-ADV side stand=REAL hear-PAST2-3SG.M no
And so he goes to another place and listens, but [he doesn't hear].

(55) o-ra ru tirite=ka wi-m-r eme=k mesu-m-r

DIST-M.EMP 3SG.M leave=REAL go.up-PAST2-3SG.M place=LOC hear-PAST2-3SG.M
So he leaves there and goes up to another place to listen.

(56) klei ka indi=k yiri-m-r

then REAL again=LOC fall-PAST2-3SG.M
And then in the same way he goes down.

(57) indi=k yiri=ka mesu-m-r

again=LOC fall=REAL hear-PAST2-3SG.M
He goes back down to listen.

(58) o-ra ka kasi yungu na-m-r

DIST-M.EMP REAL REM DEP become-PAST2-3SG.M
The same sound comes up from there again.

(59) klei ka ekra yungu yal susu=ka mesu-m-r

then REAL thus DEP REM stand=REAL hear-PAST2-3SG.M
So he stands over there to hear.

436
(60) klei o-ra indi=k ke-r ke-kwra mende=k kete-ya
then DIST-M.EMP again=LOC PROX-M PROX-ADV very=LOC sing-PRES
[He comes] back to that same place where [the child] sings.

(61) ru okwa=r ke-ra=yu

3SG.M song=M PROX-M.EMP=DISC
This song here.

(62) ru kanda=r war yefa=f tongo-m rokor

3SG.M small=M go.down bone=DU hold-GER CAUS
The small one is down there holding two bones [so he can sing].

(63) nawa yu=s kana mombu kete-r i-wa-dun

mother 1SG.POSS=F with mombu cut-INF go-PAST1-1DU
"My mother and I came to cut mombu.

(64) loko loko kifal kifal sul sul sukna

rain rain wind wind earth earth sleep
Rain rain, wind wind, earth earth sleep."

(65) ekra er er yefa=f [doi doi]-m-r

thus say say bone=DU [bang bang]-PAST2-3SG.M
So he says while banging the two bones.

(66) mesu towur=ka er-m-r ke-kwra mende=k

hear throw.down=REAL speak-PAST2-3SG.M PROX-ADV very=LOC
He [father] listened and went back to the sound.

(67) naka wuwr tasu-m-r sul=f ni-m-r

and go.outside step.on-PAST2-3SG.M earth=DU see-PAST2-3SG.M
And he went down and stepped on the ground and saw.

(68) ka bre=ka war-m-r ru tasu eku-m-k

REAL break=REAL go.down-PAST2-3SG.M 3SG.M step.on do-PAST2-SUB
It broke and fell down when he stepped.

437
(69) em aka gur ene ya tasu=ka eku-ya=ø
who house apex 1SG.OBJ come step.on=REAL do-PRES=2SG.INT

ekra er
in.that.way say

"Who is stepping on my roof?" [The child] said.

(70) er tuya mesu=ka mu=m ru tanngu [lu lako] stii=ka

3SG.M put.inside hear=REAL tree=PL 3SG.M cover [clean] clear.ground=REAL
[Father] hears [something] and cuts the trees. He clears the area.

(71) sul o-ra rumba-m-r

earth DIST-M.EMP scrape.away-PAST2-3SG.M
He levels the ground.

(72) sul=r rumba rumba tii ka re ni=ka

earth=M remove remove throw.away REAL 3SG.M.OBJ see=REAL
He removes the dirt and sees him [the child].

(73) ermesu-m-r na nu biki yen nu ka

ask-PAST2-3SG.M and 2SG what child 2SG REAL
He asks, "And [as for] you, what kind of child are you?"

(74) na re eloko-m-r ka
and 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M REAL
And he said,

(75) nawa yu=s afa=r ru nawa fu lisi lisi ra-m-r

mother 1SG.POSS=F father=M 3SG.M mother 3DU two two take-PAST2-3SG.M
“As for my mother and father, he took two wives.

(76) ka tawa mus so-ko yen-yun

REAL wife first.wife F-POSS child-1SG
I am the first wife's child.

438
(77) na-m su mombu kete-r ra=ka su te fu=ka
but-PL 3SG.F mombu cut-INF get=REAL 3SG.F 3SG.F.OBJ hit=REAL
She cut the mombu and hit her.

(78) naka su siri=ka ke-kwra

and 3SG.F die=REAL PROX-ADV
And she died here

(79) te siki sa fiti tirite=ka aku-m-s

3SG.F.OBJ hole dig cover leave=REAL go.home-PAST2-3SG.F
She dug a hole for her, left her here and went home.

(80) naka on nawa so-ko kuwa oku a=ka

and 1SG mother F-POSS foul water eat=REAL
And I drank mother's foul [corpse] water.

(81) naka ke-ra rusu-n kara ekra eloko-m-r

and PROX-M.EMP sit-PRES.1SG indeed in.that.way say-PAST2-3SG.M
And here I stay." So he said.

(82) ka ru rumba=ka re tambo ra=ka

REAL 3SG.M remove=REAL 3SG.M.OBJ bring.along get=REAL
So he [father] digs the ground and takes the child with him.

(83) re er-m-r beena wuya-k

3SG.M say-PAST2-3SG.M enough come.up-SUB
And he said, "It's over now," when they were coming up.

(84) wuya=ka ru oku wiyi ru oku wiyi ka

come.up=REAL 3SG.M water wash 3SG.M water wash REAL
[They] come up and they wash themselves.

(85) re a=ka aku-m-r

3SG.M.OBJ eat=REAL go.home-PAST2-3SG.M
He eats and goes back to the house.

439
(86) oku maha=k tenge oku wiyi
water hot=LOC boil water wash
He washes in hot water.

(87) re ra=ka aku=ka ya=ka

3SG.M.OBJ get=REAL go.home=REAL come=REAL
He [father] gets him and takes him back.

(88) o-ra kanda=r hokwa kete rusu-yu-m-r kara

DIST-M.EMP small=M song sing sit-HAB-PAST2-3SG.M indeed
The little one who was sitting and singing there.

(89) ru afa=r ru re tirite=ka i-r afa rokor

3SG.M father=M 3SG.M 3SG.M.OBJ leave=REAL go-INF father CAUS
The father leaves him to go to his [own] father.

(90) ru yefa=f ra tongo rokor hokwa=t o-ta kete

3SG.M bone=DU get hold CAUS song=DIM DIST-DIM.EMP sing

rusu-yu-m-r
sit-HAB-PAST2-3SG.M

He takes the two bones in order to sing that song, when he was sitting.

(91) yefa=f fu fu o-sa yasumbu=s ka ya-m-s

bone=DU hit hit DIST-F.EMP second.wife=F REAL come-PAST2-3SG.F
He hits the two bones and the second wife comes.

(92) ya=ka re er-m-s mesu-ya

come=REAL 3SG.M.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.F hear-PRES
She comes and says, "Hey!

(93) ene namra samba gun-ya-n ke-m-ra ke-kwra nu

1SG.OBJ ear big block.ear-PRES-2SG PROX-PL.EMP PROX-ADV 2SG

eku-ya-m
do-PRES-3PL

You're filling my ears with this thing they did to you?

440
 (94) bu yefa=m o-m-ra tongo=ka eku rusu-ya-r
what bone=PL DIST-PL-EMP hold=REAL do sit-PRES-3SG.M
What are those bones that you are sitting there holding?”

(95) tongo ra=ka kasi=k i rusu=ka

hold get=REAL REM=LOC go sit=REAL
[I] got them and went far away to sit.

(96) eku werko=k ekra er-m-s

do far.away=LOC in.that.way say-PAST2-3SG.F
[I] did it far away, so she said.

(97) na ru afa=r mesu=ka te er-m-r

and 3SG.M father=M hear=REAL 3SG.F.OBJ say-PAST2-3SG.M
Father heard and asked her [second wife],

(98) na biki yombo na yen=r

and where SIM be.at child=M
"Whose child is that?”

(99) on raya ekaa nuwa kom towur a=ka

1SG bring food give village throw.down eat=REAL
I got [him], gave him food and brought him to the village.

(100) towur war na-r ke-kwra eku-ya

throw.down go.down but-M PROX-ADV do-PRES
[I did this], brought him down and you are doing this?"

(101) yen [a nuwa]-r ka tawa=t ke-ta

child [adopt]-INF REAL woman=DIM PROX-DIM.EMP
The adopted child and this woman.

(102) nu-ra ene fu-m-n kara

2SG-EMP 1SG.OBJ hit-PAST2-2SG indeed
You killed me.

441
(103) mombu [kete tuka] naka nu te fu=ka
mombu [jump.out] and 2SG 3SG.F.OBJ hit=REAL
You cut mombu and threw it and you hit her.

(104) naka su siri=ka

and 3SG.F die=REAL
And she died.

(105) naka yen=r o-kwra siki=k re ni=ka

and child=M DIST-ADV hole=LOC 3SG.M.OBJ see=REAL
And I saw the child in that hole.

(106) rumba ka ra-wa-yun

remove REAL get-PAST1-1SG
I cleared the dirt and took him.

(107) naka ya=ka ke-kwra tolo-n ka ekra er-m-r

and come=REAL PROX-ADV say-2SG REAL in.that.way say-PAST2-3SG.M
And you come here and say such things, so said [father].

(108) o-ta fi=k ru te fu=ka

DIST-DIM.EMP spear=INS 3SG.M 3SG.F.OBJ hit=REAL
So he hit her with a spear [divorced her].

(109) su afa nandasi erka su sauwro ka

3SG.F father brother want 3SG.F remove.possessions REAL
He gathered all his things and wanted to go back to his family.

(110) tukta=ka aku-m-r

carry.on.head=REAL go.home-PAST2-3SG.M
He carried it and went home.

(111) ru o-ra yen kanda kana ekra rusu-m-f

3SG.M DIST-M.EMP child small with in.that.way sit-PAST2-3DU
The little child came with him and the two stayed there.

442
 (112) naka ambe
and finish
And that's all.

A.2 Songs

These songs are various personal songs. People often make up songs for themselves or for

their loved ones. They can also be about historical events, such as those recounted in the

previous story. The reference for all of these songs is 4102.

A.2.1 Safungrow

(1) wane wane tambo tambo wate

seim seim bring bring breadfruit

afla lisi safungrou ni-ya-m biarna-ya-n ka

medium.river cook safungrou see-PRES-3PL surprise-PRES-2SG REAL

At the last place of all the Seims, they cook breadfruit. They cook at the river
and see Safungrou and are thrilled.

(2) awa awa yekle kanda-n fi okto lam okto

awa awa young small-2SG spear wash spine wash

kiri gle nonglo nambi fa gumbo=r sere sere

kiri gle nonglo nambi plant new.growth=M break break

An Awa Awa youth washes his spear and arrow. At Kiri Gle and Nonglo Nambi
he goes to fight.

A.2.2 Wulmba

(3) oku tombo tombo nali

oku tombo tombo nali

el marko=r [kio kio] [kio kio]

penis headdress=M [up.and.down] [up.and.down]

At Oku Tombo Tombo Nali, he has a good penis, he goes up and down.

443
 (4) kom meyu terwo a-m-r kisi naku tawo
kom meyu terwo eat-PAST2-3SG.M boil sago turn.sago

lomandi wate musun kwata yen geu geu

lomandi wate musun rub child chatter chatter

At Kom Meyu Terwo he eats. He boils [water] and turns sago. At Lomandi Wate
Musun, he fights and kills all the children.

A.2.3 Kafle

(5) naku nuku=r nambe nambe wiya-n

naku nuku=M check.out check.out go.down-2SG

wasutenge=r nambe nambe wiya-n

wasutenge=M check.out check.out go.down-2SG

wongle oku gale fi tori wol tori

wongle oku gale spear throw.down frond throw.down

or nungu tawa-n [hewe kawe]

bilum lime.powder woman-2SG [trick]

At Naku Nuku you look and go down. At Wasutenge you look and go down.
At Wongle and Oku Gale you throw your spear and shield down. A bilum (string bag)
and lime powder, you trick a woman.

A.2.4 Kitalako Story

(6) kin gaiyen tawa wanembukwa tawa

kin gaiyen woman wanembukwa woman

kitalako mulu gra tirite=ka aku=ka

kitalako rodent fern leave=REAL go.back=REAL

Kin Gaiyen women and Wanembuka women leave Kitalako and his food and greens.

444
A.2.5 Felnde Afu Story

(7) nawa yu=s mokomele=s ka fer fer ka te fu-wa-yun

mother 1SG.POSS=F mokomele=F REAL pig pig REAL 3SG.F.OBJ hit-PAST1-1SG

ka sambu sambu ka te fu-wa-yun ka

REAL cassowary cassowary REAL 3SG.F.OBJ hit-PAST1-1SG REAL

My mother Mokomele. I killed pigs for you. I killed cassowaries for you.

(8) nawa afa kom sere hauwa aku-ya

mother father village break move.house go.back-PRES

kra aka aku ya-yun=a kra aka ya-yun=a

kra aka go.back come-1SG=INT kra aka come-1SG=INT

Mom and dad leave the village and move to another. Do they come to Kra Aka?
Do they come to Kra Aka?

(9) nawa nawa mini kom aku

mother mother betelnut village go.back

suwa kom aku nawa yu=s mokomele=s

coconut village go.back mother 1SG.POSS=F mokomele=F

kom [diwir diwir] sul [diwir diwir] nawa nawa

village [earthquake] earth [earthquake] mother mother

Mother mother, I'm going to Betelnut Village. I'm going to Coconut Village.
My mother Mokomele. The village shakes, the earth shakes. Mother mother.

A.2.6 Personal Songs (Gasiwatimba and her Children)

(10) fi=k fu ambe numba siri ambe

spear=INS hit finish poison die finish

yen wari tawa wari=m basi flou flou

child orphan woman widow=PL tree.species tree.variety tree.variety

Killed with a spear, poisoned and died. Widows and orphans in the deep jungle.

445
 (11) mini glengu yiri-wa-n suwa glengu yiri-wa-n
betelnut pod fall-PAST1-2SG coconut pod fall-PAST1-2SG

kom tombo nemna no-ko=r [wafu boi boi]

village end husband 2SG-POSS=M [full of love]

Betelnut seeds fall down, coconut seeds fall down. She thinks of her husband
in the end of the village.

(12) nanda=s so-ko kita mende=r

older.sister=F 3SG.F-POSS tree.species very=M

gana=s toto kur-ya-s ka

younger.sister=F pull.down pick-PRES-3SG.F REAL

Big sister’s own Kita. Little sister lowers it to pick.

A.3 Garden and First Harvest Description

This text is about the process that is undergone when the first mami is ready to be

harvested. Mami, a type of yam, is culturally quite significant to the Mehek speakers and the

surrounding cultural groups. It is a time to come together and celebrate. This text describes the

important aspects connected to the mami harvest. The reference for this description is 4115.

(1) [mele mele]=r kaku okwe meke ningi=r

[long ago]=M mami ripe body now=M
A long time goes by and then the mami is ripe.

(2) luwku makwa eku ningi=r

greens bean do now=M
Greens and beans are ready now.

(3) na-r=u makwa=m mu ka ekra mu lei-r ni rete=ka

but-M=DISC bean=PL 3PL REAL thus 3PL hang-INF see put=REAL
And when we see beans hanging, they are ready.

446
 (4) di=m om duma eku-num di=m naku dorko si-num
DET=PL fish trap do-PRES.1PL DET=PL sago scrape wash-PRES.1PL
We set traps for fish and scrape and wash sago.

(5) ka makwa=m ka okwe-ka-m ka makwa kisi-ka-num eku eloko-m-m

REAL bean=PL REAL fresh-FUT2-3PL REAL bean boil-FUT2-1PL do say-PAST2-3PL
When the beans are ready we will boil them, it is said.

(6) felnde aka ki fu-num

bird house build hit-PRES.1PL
We build bird blinds and hunt.

(7) [ifi lako]=r eku-m-num nausu kwata-num

[bandicoot.trap]=M do-PAST2-1PL gum apply-PRES.1PL
We make bandicoot traps and apply glue (for bird traps).

(8) felnde num ra-r rokor

bird 1PL get-INF CAUS
We do this to get birds.

(9) mulu fu ka ra-ya=ka kware tiri tiri

rodent 3DIM REAL take-PRES=REAL dry.on.fire leave leave
We kill and take rodents and leave them on the fire to dry, then go again.

(10) naku dorko si-num

sago scrape wash-PRES.1PL
We scrape and wash sago.

(11) naku eku ambe=ka makwa=m ni-num makwa okwe meke rokor
sago do finish=REAL bean=PL see-PRES.1PL bean ripe body CAUS
When the sago is finished and we see the [individual] beans, the beans are ripe.

(12) ka nimba rete-m kara ekra rokor

PRT agree put-GER indeed thus CAUS
Then we agree to set them out.

447
(13) ka makwa=m ka okwe-ya-m kara
REAL bean=PL REAL ripen-PRES-3PL indeed
[At that time] the beans are ripe.

(14) ka [ekra rokok] ka luwku makwa kisi-ka-num

REAL [when] REAL greens bean boil-FUT2-1PL
At this time we boil greens and beans.

(15) ekra mu nimba rete=ka

in.that.way 3PL agree put=REAL
This is how we inform each other.

(16) ka elowo=m kara elowo i=ka raya rete tiri=ka

REAL animal=PL indeed animal go=REAL bring put leave=REAL
They go for animals, they go to get animals and leave them.

(17) ka er-m-m kara

REAL say-PAST2-3PL indeed
And they say,

(18) di=n nu ser ser okwe-ka-m kete-r er

DET=2SG 2SG first first ripen-FUT2-3PL cut-INF say
"If your beans are getting ripe, cut them first."

(19) dungwa dungwa ka o-m-ra gwasifran salwan mu ra=ka

shell shell REAL DIST-PL-EMP gwasifran salwan 3PL take=REAL
They shell the beans and get Gwasifran and Salwan [edible plants].

(20) gulma nembe=r wa ra=ka raya=ka rokor

mantis lizard=M IRR take=REAL bring=REAL CAUS
They get grasshoppers and lizards.

(21) makwa=r mu dungwa dungwa=ka yikwa=r mu nato=ka

bean=M 3PL shell shell=REAL salt=M 3PL make.salt=REAL
They shell the beans and they make salt.

448
(22) o-kwra kisi-m-m om=t owe=t mulu=t wa kute
DIST-ADV boil-PAST2-3PL fish=DIM caterpillar=DIM rodent=DIM IRR cut
They boiled the fish, caterpillars and rodents there and cut them.

(23) nambu nambu=ka o-ra makwa kana

smash smash=REAL DIST-M.EMP bean with
[They] smash them into pieces [and mix them] with the beans.

(24) suwa kur kur rokor

coconut scrape scrape CAUS
They scrape coconuts.

(25) yikwa nato=ka o-ra yikwa=k

salt make.salt=REAL DIST-M.EMP salt=INS
They make salt with that salt.

(26) mu ka kisi mu kisi rokor

3PL REAL boil 3PL boil CAUS
They boil it [to prepare].

(27) wa yelnda mu wafu titimbin wa ya-ka-m

IRR all 3PL wafu titimbin IRR come-FUT2-3PL
Everyone from Wafu and Titimbin will come.

(28) au siki wolkai fenda=m wa ya-ka-m

au siki wolkai come.from=PL IRR come-FUT2-3PL
They will come from Au Siki and Wolkai .

(29) yambutu sengaula walkufu fenda=m wa nambo ya-ka-m

yambutu sengaula walkufu come.from=PL IRR with come-FUT2-3PL
They will come with people from Yambutu, Sengaula and Walkufu.

(30) o-ra wa ya=ka dinamble=k dinamble mu kisi=ka

DIST-M.EMP IRR come=REAL be.one=LOC be.one 3PL boil=REAL
They all come together and cook together.

449
(31) mu kisi rokor mu kisi ambe rokor
3PL boil CAUS 3PL boil finish CAUS
They cook so they can finish.

(32) yelnda ekra kumba mu suw suw naka rusu-m-m kara

all in.that.way leaf 3PL set.out set.out and sit-PAST2-3PL indeed
They set out leaves [on the ground] and everyone sits on them.

(33) ekra ale=ka worna=k ekra rusu=ka

in.that.way careful=REAL straight.line=INS in.that.way sit=REAL

ra ya-m-m kara
take come-PAST2-3PL indeed

They come and sit in a straight line.

(34) di=m yoko=k di=m yoko=k

DET=PL side=LOC DET=PL side=LOC
Some on this side, some on that side.

(35) naka makwa=m suwla

and bean=PL share
And they share beans.

(36) elowo=m o-kwra naku=r gal ra ra yen kanda=m

animal=PL DIST-ADV sago=M sago.ball take take child small=PL
They take meat and sago and little children take them.

(37) [kuna yaku]=m ke-m ke-m-ra yen oku=m wa [kuna yena]

[one’s own]=PL PROX-PL PROX-PL-EMP child all=PL IRR [one’s own]
Each one sits on his own side.

(38) tawa=m mu rusu=ka rokor kumba=m mu rusu ambe=ka rokor

woman=PL 3PL sit=REAL CAUS leaf=PL 3PL sit finish=REAL CAUS
The women set out leaves, they finish setting them out.

450
(39) naku=m gwal ra ra rete rii=ka
sago=PL pick.up.sago take take put remain=REAL
[They set them out so] they pick up sago and put it [on the leaves].

(40) a-m-m o-kwra suwla suwla rii ambe=ka

eat-PAST2-3PL DIST-ADV share share remain finish=REAL
They go on sharing food there until it is gone.

(41) ka sau=ka ta-m-m

REAL stand.up=REAL bite-PAST2-3PL
They stand up and bite it.

(42) mu sombo tii sombo tuya=ka

3PL spit remove spit drop=REAL
[Some men] spit it out here and there [to prevent disaster from coming].

(43) di o-ra nambo wra timba-wa-r

DET DIST-M.EMP with come.in be.without-PAST1-3SG.M
Some men may not come.

(44) wa re tongo-ka-m
IRR 3SG.M.OBJ take-FUT2-3PL
They [may] save some for him.

(45) wa re waki=ka rii nuwa-ka-m=ka

IRR 3SG.M.OBJ tie=REAL remain give-FUT2-3PL=REAL
They will tie it up and give it to him [so that he will not eat in secret].

(46) or o-ra nawe sombo-ka-m ekra rokor

3SG.M.IMP DIST-M.EMP only spit-FUT2-3PL thus CAUS
So you must just spit out [the first bite].

(47) iki a-ta a-num

NEG eat-IMP eat-1PL
We can't eat it. [Or the spirits will get angry]

451
(48) num luwku makwa eku timba=r
1PL greens bean do be.without=3SG.M
When we are out of beans or greens, we [eat] nothing.

(49) iki a-num kaku ata=m

NEG eat-1PL mami very=PL
We don't eat the old mami [with the new or we get sick].

(50) o-m-ra ka siki fenda=m a-ka-num kara naka

DIST-PL-EMP REAL hole from=PL eat-FUT2-1PL indeed and
We eat the old mami from other holes [from later garden harvests].

(51) ekra num rusu rokor makwa=m

thus 1PL sit CAUS bean=PL
And so we stay to eat the beans.

(52) mu eme saki nuwa ambe=ka rii raya=ka

3PL place share give finish=REAL remain bring=REAL
They share and give these things out.

(53) ekaa=ka rii num kara

food=REAL remain 1PL indeed
We go along eating.

(54) naka ka ta-m-m sombo tii sombo tuya

and REAL bite-PAST2-3PL spit remove spit drop=REAL
And we bite it and spit it out here and there.

(55) sombo stii=ka ambe kara ka a-num kara

spit clear.away=REAL finish indeed REAL eat-PRES.1PL indeed
When we finish spitting it out, then we eat.

(56) ka kaku rusu=ka ni-num ru okwe meke rokor

REAL mami sit=REAL see-PRES.1PL 3SG.M ripe body CAUS
We see the mami sitting there and it's fresh.

452
(57) iki nu angur=k bunandi=t tongo-ka-num
NEG garden new=LOC maybe=DIM hold-FUT2-1PL
And so you can't touch anything from the new garden (until you eat the first mami).

(58) wa ekra nu nambu sombo=ka

IRR thus 2SG pacify.spirits spit=REAL
You pacify the spirits when you spit them [beans].

(59) makwa kisi sombo=ka o-ra wa sakwe kulfo sere-ka-n

bean boil spit=REAL DIST-M.EMP IRR smoke fresh cut-FUT2-2SG
You cook the beans, spit and the same with the first tobacco.

(60) bali wa kur-ka-n

aibika IRR pick-FUT2-2SG
You will pick aibika.

(61) bali o-ra ekra wa [timringi tamringi] ka yiri kara

aibika DIST-M.EMP thus IRR [ruined] REAL fall indeed
If that aibika falls, it is ruined.

(62) iki nu angur=k bunandi=t ka wuwr tongo-ka-n

NEG garden new=LOC maybe=DIM REAL pitpit hold-FUT2-2SG
If there is none [aibika] in the new garden, you will get some pitpit.

(63) bondi bongu=r iki wa tongo-ka-n

cucumber.variety cucumber.variety=M NEG IRR hold-FUT2-2SG
You will not get bondi or bongur [cucumbers].

(64) makwa=r o-ra kisi sombo-na ka tongo-ka-n kara

bean=M DIST-M.EMP boil spit-COND REAL hold-FUT2-2SG indeed
Boil those beans. If you spit them, then you will get them.

(65) nu makwa kisi-r o-kwra na-ya-r

2SG bean boil-INF DIST-ADV be.at-PRES-3SG.M
Then you will boil the beans. That's how it is.

453
Appendix B: Mehek-English-Tok Pisin Dictionary
This appendix is a trilingual dictionary with Mehek words listed alphabetically along with

their English and Tok Pisin glosses. Included below in the KEY are two main lists: a schematic

representation of each entry showing what information is included and the formatting of each

section. Below that, abbreviations used in each section are explained.

KEY
Mehek Word [variant/extended forms] (part of speech) English Gloss. Tok Pisin Gloss. --notes--

Abbreviations used in Variant/Extended Forms section:

+word the extended form occurs after the main entry
word+ the extended form precedes the main entry
' precedes the stressed syllable in words that do not follow regular stress patterns
K the Kafle variant follows
RDP entry can be reduplicated

Abbreviations used for Parts of Speech:

adj adjective n.b. either masculine or feminine
adv adverb (based on natural gender)
cnj conjunction n.f. feminine noun
grm grammatical particle neg negative
int interrogative num numeral
intj interjection phr phrase (greeting, utterance)
loc locative rel.n relational noun
n (masculine) noun pro pronoun
v verb
Abbreviations used in Notes section:
ONOM onomatopoeic word
TP likely a Tok Pisin borrowing

454
 aka galwo (n) weaving pattern for walls.
A flain.
a (v) eat, drink. kaikai, dring. aka gu takwlulu amam (n) bamboo weights
a afe (v) full (from eating). pulap. for roof. mambu long banisim rup. --
a belna (v) drink. dring. hold down additional panels on roof apex to
a durna (v) eat until full. kaikai na pulapim. keep rain out--

a nu (n) food garden. kaikai bilong gaden. aka guw (n) roof (apex). rup.
a nuwa (v) feed. givim kaikai. aka kaha (n) toilet house. haus pekpek.
a siri [K = ahiri, asi'ri] (v) be hungry. hangri. aka krorongo (n) center roof support beam.
a suwa (n) food cooked with coconuts. bim bilong namel long rup.
kaikai na ol samting bilong kaikai. aka kulu (n) door, area in front of house.
a wiyi (n.f.) bee. bi, binen. dua, arere long haus.
afa (n.m.) father, paternal uncle. papa, aka kusu (n) bark used to close door on
brata bilong papa. outside. skin diwai long pasim dua
afa nanda (n) ancestors. ol tumbuna. (ausait). --made from galwo--
afa samba (n) god. god. aka late (n) key. ki.
afa samba roko aka (n) church. lotu. aka lau (n) floor crossbeams in raised
afa samba roko suma (n) word of god. wot house. bim aninit long plua.
bilong god. aka lewe (n) wall. banis.
afi (v) hit. paitim. aka lowe (n) woman's period. taim sik mun.
afi nau (v) fight. paitim. aka masi (n) house for menstruation. haus
afko (adj) old (person). lapun. long sik mun.
afko toto (n) leaf of wild sago. lip bilong wel aka solo (n) house frame. bun bilong haus.
saksak. aka ta bringi (n) threshold, jamb. dua, bun
afla (n) river (medium). wara. bilong dua.
afla tak (n) name of river near hole in aka take (n) porch roof. rup long pes bilong
creation story. nem bilong wara klostu haus.
long hul long as stori. --near Sepik river-- aka tasu (v) tie roof support beams to each
afla taku (n) shore. nambis. other. pasim ol bim bilong rup.
afrete (v) cross, step over. kalapim. aka tenge (n) boys' house. haus boi.
aka (n) house. haus. aka u (n) house fire, burn house down. haus
aka ari (n) space under house. hap aninit i pairap. --light coconut leaves and set them
on roof--
long haus.
aka yurmu (n) bark used to close door on
aka bam (n) support beam for bottom of
inside. diwai long pasim dua (insait).
roof. bim i stap aninit long rup.
aka yurmu kusu (n) door side frame. bun
aka dulu (n) fence. banis.
bilong dua.
aka ekaa (n) kitchen house. haus bilong
kuk.

455
aku [haku] (v) go home, go back. go long ana (pro) I'm going to. bai mi mekim
haus, go bek. sampela samting. –1SG.IMP--
akum welmbem (intj) really?!. trupela?!. anda (pro) let's (dual). yumitupela mekim
akuma gramba (n) Orion's belt. tripela sta i sampela samting. --1DU.IMP--
mekim lain. --when seen just after sunset, anda manda (v) stumble. klostu pundaun.
time to harvest yam (June)-- angla (v) say good things, be happy. ol
akwa (n) bee hive or home of insect. haus gutpela toktok, stap belgut.
bilong ol bi o arapela kain binatang. angulma (n) cricket. binatang bilong kaikai
akwando kwando (n) spider web. umben mami. --eats mami--
bilong spaida. anuwa (v) adopt. lukautim.
al (n.m.) taro (kind of tuber). taro. ara fasu (v) boil. boilim.
ale [+ka warnak = level surface, K = alek, numbu] arawan (n) fence. banis.
(adv) properly. gutpela, stretpela. ari (post) below. ananit.
algan [angal] (n) fly. lang. arko (n) rock, shell, money, file. ston, sel,
alingi (n) grassy area at edge of village. gras mani.
long arere bilong ples. arko rete (v) pay bride price. baim meri.
alingi (n) small internal organs, intestines. arko sunngu (n) stove stones. ol ston bilong
insait bilong bel. stov.
ama (n) bamboo. mambu. arma (n) bow. banara.
ama (pro) let's (plural). bai yumipela o arma bol bol (n) stone/seed used in bow
mipela mekim sampela samting. -- tips. ston o sit long het banara.
1PL.IMP-- arma ginfa (n) bow shaft, outside part.
ama gwalsa (n) tongs. stik long holim ausait bilong banara.
kaikai. arma sou (n) coverlet to strengthen bow
ama wungusu (n) promise rope, knot, shaft. liklilk rop long strongim banara.
crossbeam. rop long wokim promis, arma terfa [suwa kin = top of coconut] (n) top of
buk, bim bilong morota. --made from awa bow. het bilong banara.
kufu--
arma wako (n) inside of bow shaft. insait
ama wusilele (n) flute. mambu.
bilong banara.
amba [hamba, 'amba] (v) have, exist, be
armu (n) scar. mak.
present. stap (sampela samting i stap).
asama [asa'ma] (n) type of edible leafy
ambasu (v) forget. lusim tingting.
green. kain kumu.
ambe [K = hako] (v) finish. pinisim.
asanga (n) leaf used to tie mami. lip long
ambombo (intj) word said while applauding
pasim mami. --multiple, curled, green
(at story's end). wot ol i tok taim i leaves--
paitim han (stori i pinisim). asi (v) remove bark. rausim skin diwai.
ambu tongo (v) agree, contract. orait long, asiri mende kara [K = lukte makte] (v) starving.
agri. hangri tumas.

456
ata (grm) oldest, most important. bikpela bali (n) edible leaves from various shrubs.
antap tru. --very-- aibika.
ata (n.b.) maternal grandparent. bubu banda [RDP] (adj) spread out, large. i go long
tumbuna. --used in superlatives: 'first'-- planti hap, bikpela.
au (n.m.) small clay pot, metal pot, dirt used bane (v) plant a stick in the ground. planim
to make clay pot. sospen, liklik sospen stik i go insait long graun. --when making
graun, graun bilong wokim. a bed--
au kumba (n) plant species. kain diwai. bango [K = lomo] (adj) curvy, crooked,
au mal (n) flying mud particles. liklik hap greedy. i no stret, krum, mangal.
graun i pairap. --from production of clay bango bango (adj) mixed up. tanim
pot-- wantaim.
au tembe (n) shelf. liklik bris, bet long ol bangol bangol (adj) coil. raun.
plet. bangramen (n) budding site of Kita branch.
auna (v) claim, mark as one's own. kisim, ol plaua blong tulip i kamap bikpela.
bilong man yet. --used when taking land-- bangu (n) kwar seeds. sit bilong kwar.
aungu (adj) new growth. nupela sayor. bansi (adj) open of mushroom or leaf. opim
aungwa (n) hook. huk. (talinga o lip).
ausana [ausa] (n) noise. nois. bar bar (adj) in a circle. raunpela.
ause [yam kumba +, duwan +] (n) umbrella, barka (n) type of edible leafy green. opa.
cover up. ambrela, karamapim. barna [sa+ = dig around a rock, +eku] (v) wander.
auwrara (n) brace (in roof). sapot bilong wokabaut nating.
rup. --to prevent leaks-- bau (v) loosen (of skin), scrape off. mekim i
awa [awa su] (n) flower. plaua. lus (skin), sikarapim. --for mami or a tree--
awa kumba (n) cordyline plant variety baye (n) grass. gras long arere bilong ples.
(green). tanget (grin). beena (intj) it's okay, I don't mind, enough.
awa kumba nomro (n) cordyline plant mi orait, maski, inap.
variety (red). tanget (ret). bein (n) pot holder. samting long holim
awangu [nekwa+, nambul+] (n) halo. lait i sospen.
raunim san o mun. bela (n) stick with skin removed. stik i no
awar [+k] (adj) after, later, slow. behain. gat skin.
awar kanda eloko (v) whisper. tok isi. belmun (n) bush species. kain liklik diwai.
awark kandak (adv) cautiously. isi isi. belna [RDP, a+] (n) throat. nek.
aye (n.b.) bat. blak bokis. belo (adj) angry. belhat. --TP--
ayum (n) a long time ago. longpela taim i go belo (adj) crazy. longlong.
pinis. belo barna (adj) light-headed. ai i raun.
ben (adv) either, or. wanpela bilong tupela.
B ber bar [a+ = eat bad food] (adj) do in the
balan (v) break (rope). brukim (rop). wrong way, messed up. wokim nogut.

457
bermun (n) ferns used to decorate spear. ol bir ber (adj) do in your own way. mekim
pulpul i go antap long spia. sampela wok long pasin bilong yu yet. --
berso [aku+] (adj) completely free of debris. i unpretentiously--
no gat pipia. bisisi [+na, K = takul (na)] (adj) cold. kol.
beu beu (adj) shimmy, expand. surik, i bisisu bususu (n) steam from water on hot
kamap bikpela. object. smok bilong wara i hat.
bi [bi a] (n) tooth (incisors). tit (long kaikai). biya (v) finish altogether. pinisim olgeta.
bi bi nindi yombo (intj) what kind of thing?. biya saya (v) run away in a hurry. ranawe
wanem kain samting?. hariap.
bi luku (n) gums. antap long tit (insait blafo kute wakre (n) slippery ground, rust.
maus). graun malumalu, ros.
bi mel (n) tooth (fang). tit (sap). blala (adj) colorful. kala kala.
bi na tufrasi wuyar (n) overbite/underbite. blala [+na] (v) strike (lightning). lait i pairap.
tit i go ausait long maus. --bad teeth-- blauwo [a+] (n) leftovers. kaikai i no kaikai
bi sambaf (n) front teeth. tit (bikpela pinis.
tupela). ble (adj) slippery. i gat wara.
bi tasuku (n) toothpick. stik long rausim ol blele ka i (v) spread along the ground, go
samting long tit. everywhere. surik i karamapim graun,
biarna (n) dance and make noise with go long olgeta hap. --inanimates only--
feathers on. danis na mekim nois blena aku (v) slippery. wel.
wantaim gras pisin. --ONOM-- blengu (v) bruise, squish, soup. liklik buk,
bihi (n) soupy sago. saksak i gat wara. sup, memeim. --of fruit--
biki (int) which. we. bleu (v) lick. klinim long tang.
biki biki (int) how. olsem. blili blala (adj) light up (esp. from embers). i
biki naka (int) why. watpo?, bilong gat lait long paia.
wanem?. bliwi blauwo (adj) part way. liklik (wokim
biki nawarka [nawatka] (int) what samting).
happened?. wanem samting i kamap?. blo oku (n) small pond. liklik raunwara.
biki rokok (int) when. wanem taim. blofu kutu wakre (n) dirt gathered on
biki saima (int) how many. hamaspela. water's surface. pipia i stap antap long
bil bol [u+] (adj) for skin to come off in hot raunwara.
water. skin i lus long hot wara. blolo (v) wipe on. putim i go antap.
bilau (v) slip away or through. abrusim. bloso (v) pound flat, roll flat. mekim i slet.
bilau alau (adj) slippery. wel. blosu (v) pound with stick. paitim wantaim
bingil bangol [K = rewe dewe] (adj) wound up, stik.
curvy. tantanim olgeta, i no stret. bo (v) remove kunai grass to prepare
bir [naku+] (n) dry frond shaft. han saksak. ground, peel banana. stretim hap na
rausim ol kunai, rausim lip banana.

458
boi [boi boi] (adj) straight. stretpela. bri i bre ya ni (adj) seeing double. olgeta
bol (v) remove seeds, pop out. rausim ol sit, samting yu lukim tupela i stap.
kamautim. bringi (v) divide in half. hapim.
bol bol (n) decorative vine made of linked brongo (v) break a leaf for food. brukim lip
rings. bilas long rop i mekim wantaim long kaikai.
ring i bung pinis. broro (v) yank out, remove pig entrails with
bombo (n.f.) loud fly, buzzing, loud noise. bamboo. rausim i kamaut, rausim bel
bikpela lang, bikpela nois. bilong pik wantaim mambu.
bona (v) remove fruit-bearing banana stem, bruru [RDP] (v) fly. plai.
yank branch to cut it. katim han i gat bu (int) what. wanem.
banana long en. bu (v) break. brukim.
bondi (n) cucumber species. kukamba. bu bum (n) everything. olgeta samting.
bongo (n) place where branch emerges buku (v) rub skin off seeds, pull feathers off
from trunk. han i kam ausait long a bird. rausim skin bilong ol sit o gras
diwai. pisin.
bongur (n) cucumber species. kukamba. bul (v) shatter. brukim olgeta.
bor (post) between, in the middle. namel. bulmba aka (n) cantilievered bed for
bor kir kirk (adv) exactly in the middle. building a large (non-cooking) fire. liklik
namel stret. bet bilong wokim paia.
boro boro (v) pull up, rope used to lift. bulmu (n) lake, swamp. raunwara, ples tais.
pulim i go antap, rop long apim. bulnu (n) sap of vines used as fuel. blut
bou (adj) dry. drai. bilong rop i kisim long kuk.
bou (v) emerge. kam ausait. bumblan (n) small limbum. liklik limbum.
bra (n) cover (over a hole). karamapim bumbu sauwom ene eku tamar (n) slave.
(hul). man i mekim wok bilong arapela man.
bran (n) rip in strips (as of leaf), tear. bunandi (n) something. sampela samting.
brukim lip. bundu [embleo+] (n) slope, ridge. liklik
brau brau (adj) stamp feet, fan flame, up maunten, kilrot.
and down. krungutim, wokim paia, i go bungro a (v) smash, crunch, chew up
antap na daunbilo. completely. memeim.
bre [RDP] (n) landslide. graun i pundaun. bungu (n) main shaft of
bre [K = tehena] (v) break loose, run away. i leaf/frond/mushroom. bun bilong lip o
lus, ranawe. talinga.
bre du [bre = landslide] (n) landslide. graun i bur (v) pluck (feathers). rausim (ol gras
pundaun. bilong pisin).
brena aku [prina aku] (v) fly away, scatter. bur kana (int) what is that?. em wanem?.
plai, tromoim nabaut. bur kuw (v) crunch, twist off. brukim,
bri bre (adj) spin around. raun raun. rausim.

459
burnga yarnga (n) special/magical skills or di yoko fendam (n) people from other
power. i yusim puripuri. places. ol manmeri bilong arapela hap.
bursu [tongo+] (v) grind. wilwilim. difi (n) lower wing. daun long pul.
busu (v) fold leaf without breaking. hapim difi [ama difi] (n) instrument used to help
lip i no bruk. taro grow. mambu long helpim taro i
buta (v) break bamboo. brukim mambu. -- kamap.
when building roof-- difi el (n) central part of difi instrument.
butu [fu+ = punch] (v) make a fist, punch, put ples namel bilong mambu.
hands together. brukim han, paitim. difor [+ka sau] (v) wake up. kirap.
buwsu (v) break without severing. brukim dil (v) slide down. pundaun. --ending in death-
tasol i yet no bruk olgeta. -
dil dol (adj) fall straight down and stick
D straight up in ground. pundaun na
da (v) scrub: wash or dry (self). rabim sanap stret long graun.
(waswas, draim). dimingi (n) chest. bros.
dal dal (v) flicker on and off. paia o lait i dina (v) be quiet, don't cry, enough. pasim
laitim na indai. --of a fire or firefly-- maus, maski krai, inap.
dama (v) fold up into bowl shape. brukim i dinafle [dinamble, K = dinafu] (adj) same.
go long plet. wankain.
dambi (n) grass species (kunai). kunai gras. dinafler hiki (v) decide. mekim wanpela
damen (v) roll (of cigarettes). tanim smok. tingting.
dana (n) daybreak. san i kamap. dingei tii (v) push. sakim.
dana kute (v) for morning to break. moning dira dira [K = wolo wolo] (adv) a few. sampela.
i stat. dirambu (num) one (1). wan (1).
danasu (v) set a time. makim taim. diwir diwir (n) earthquake. guria. --Kafle
only, cf. yiflou yiflou--
danda (v) rub. rabim.
dangwen [a+ = partially chewed] (adj) chewy, diwle (n) stinging nettle. salat. --leaf rubbed
on skin to kill pain--
tough (of food). strongpela (kaikai).
dofo [gila+ = fabric covering (sauwa) under male
der (v) cut open lengthwise. katim longpela.
genitals] (n) tie a knot (in fabric). mekim
--used for snakes, spine is also removed--
di [K = o] (grm) one, some. wanpela, buk.
sampela. --DEM-- doi doi (v) bang together (like drumsticks).
di delko i (v) take a secret route (to avoid paitim wantaim.
detection). wokabaut hait. dol au (n) fan leaf which grows on tree
di ningi (adv) sometimes, often, rarely, one trunks. okit.
day. planti taim, no gat planti. dombe (v) break. brukim.
di wirki di warko (adj) flail. surik i go i kam. - dondo (v) slide. rasusim longpela.
-up on alternating sides--

460
donsuna donsuna (intj) tsk tsk. tok bilong duwan nawa (n) limbum basket. limbum
sori. basket.
dorko (v) scrape sago, pound ground (with duwan yenbun (n) limbum (palm bark)
stick). sikarapim saksak, paitim graun bucket. basket long limbum.
(wantaim stik). duwarko na (v) sprain. lus (bilong skru).
du [bre+ = landslide] (n) valley, side of a duwlolo (n) shallow stream. liklik wara.
mountain. maunten i go daun. duwn [+go = start a large fire for cooking] (v)
du (n) neck of bird. nek bilong pisin. ignite a large fire. laitim bikpela paia.
dufu (n) leaf for festival house. lip bilong duwn (v) join together. bungim.
singsing. duwye (v) lower head. putim het i go daun.
dulsan (n) basket made from bamboo.
basket long mambu. E
dulu (n) wall. banis (skin bilong haus). e hakum (intj) oh sorry, oh yes. sori, yes.
dumbai (v) make noise. wokim nois. ekaa (n.m.) food. kaikai. --ekaam = different
dumbu (v) lean. slip. kinds of food--
dumbu a [K = dumbu dambu] (n) white spot ekaa wangu (v) starve. hangri tumas.
(skin). waitpela hap skin. ekaa wau (v) be hungry. hangri.
dumu muna (v) kiss. kis. --action and sound-- ekra na [+kara] (adj) similar to. klostu
dun (pro) we two. yumitupela, mitupela. -- wankain.
1DU-- ekra nawe (adv) just in this way. olsem.
dun (v) go into ground, probe at. putim i go ekra ni (adv) just like that. olsem.
insait long graun. eku (v) do, make, use. mekim banis. --many--
dungwa (v) remove individual items from a eku barna (v) wander. wok nabaut.
pod or shell. rausim liklik bin. eku tii (v) get rid of. tromoi.
dunsu (n) valley. ples daun. ekun (intj) that one there. dispela i go long
dur dan [+si] (adj) rubbery, tough to eat hap.
(leaves). strongpela kaikai. el (n) penis. kok.
durkun [durkun kumba] (n) cordyline plant el fan (n) erection. sanap stret.
variety. bikpela lip. el kulwa tama (adj) angry. belhat. --
durna (v) strengthen, dry up. mekim strong, statement of anger--
mekim drai. el oku (n) semen. wara bilong kok.
duw basi (n) cassowary head ridge. kap el tongo kul (v) masturbate. pilim kok.
bilong muruk. elen (n) secret. hait (tok).
duw walko (n) rooster comb and waddle. elkwai [ifi+] (n) trip line. rop long mekim i
kap bilong kakaruk man. pundaun.
duwan (n) limbum (palm used for eloko (v) tell, say. tokim.
construction). limbum. eloko barna (v) humiliate. bagarapim nem.
elombo (n) lips. arere bilong maus.

461
elombo tafra (n) cleft palate. arere bilong er wawa [+ isi] (v) summon spirits. singautim
maus i bruk. ol masalai. --Kafle only--
elowo (n) animal. abus. er wawa isi (v) pray to spirit for help in
elowo fle (v) hunt. painim abus. killing. singautim ol masalai long kisim
elowo fu (v) hunt. painim abus. help. --Kafle only--
em (int) who. husat (man). era (intj) okay. orait.
embensini ['embensini, emben'sini] (intj) ere [+we, K = fingin fangi] (n) lie, trick. tok
maybe, I don't know. ating, mi no save. giaman.
embleo (n) mountain. maunten. erete (v) send. salim. --er + rete--
embleo kahamender (n) cliff, rough erewe naweka rii tamar (n) liar. giaman
mountain. hap maunten i go daun. man.
eme (n) place. hap. erewe tama (n) hypocrite. man bilong tok
eme ale [K = eme nambu] (v) clean a place up. giaman.
klinim graun. erfa [tolo + = explain] (v) inform. tok save.
eme fa (adj) clearing, in public, naked. ples erka (v) want, be ready to. laik, redi.
klia, as nating. erka kemen (intj) what the...?. wanem
eme wil (n) sitting area. hap long sindaun. -- samting?.
where leaf etc. has been placed-- ese kur [K = ese] (n) ringworm, tinea. grile.
emoko (int) whose. bilong husat. esoko [esko] (n) dew. wara long gras.
emta (n) half. hap. esunguna (adj) now, just now. nau.
endon (n) truth. trupela.
ene (pro) me. long mi. --1SG.OBJ-- F
eneku (v) improve, develop. kamapim, fa (v) swim. swim.
mekim moa gut. fa (v) plant two sticks in an 'X'. planim
engle (n) love spell, ingredients for a spell. tupela stik olsem 'X'. --to make a bed--
malira, ol samting bilong poisin. fa (v) full growth, ready to eat (pitpit or
engurka (n) fuzz, prickles. mosong. sago). kamap pinis, redi long kaikai
er [K = eloko] (v) speak. tok. (pitpit o saksak).
er aku (v) be afraid of. pret long. faina [tongo+] (v) drop, miss (a shot). larim
er kombo fa kombo (phr) happy behavior em pundaun, abrusim.
on arrival or departure of another. ol fal (n) long feathers. longpela gras pisin.
pasin long amamasim man i kam o go. fal fal [+ta] (v) come and go, back and forth.
er mesu (v) ask. askim. kam na go.
er numbu (phr) greeting, goodbye. salut. -- fal na [K = bou] (v) turn, turn into, rotate
used with Nalingi--
(cooking food), twist. krungutim, tanim
er rete (v) send. salim.
i go long, tanim kaikai (i kuk).
er sokom (n) and all the rest (of her family).
fame (n.f.) river (large). bikplela wara.
olgeta famili. --Kafle only--

462
fana (v) carry a child in a sling. karim fer nawek i (v) crawl. wokabaut long bel.
pikinini long rop. fer oku sul (n) pig watering hole. wara
fanga (n) leaf of wild sago. lip bilong wel bilong ol pik long waswas. --filthy water
saksak. at roadside--
fangi (n) river (small). liklik wara. fer tasu i (v) go hunt/chase pig. ranim pik.
fasu (v) cook on a fire wrapped in a leaf. fer waa (n) domesticated pig. pik bilong
kukim insait lip long paia. ples.
fe (pro) them two. tupela. --3DU.OBJ-- fer wosu (n) pig bush home, mosquito net.
feke [terfa+] (v) lay out on top, carry on top haus bilong pik, moskito net.
of head. karim antap long het. -- fer youre (n) trail used for driving pigs. rot
especially of house beams-- long bus long ol pik.
fel mango (n) center of singsing area or of feta (v) show (s.o.). soim sampela man.
swamp. namel long singsing o ples tais. feta kata (v) show around (many things).
felmbu (v) huddle up (as in fetal position). soim planti samting.
holim bodi bilong yu yet. fi (n.f.) mosquito. natnat.
felnde (n.b.) bird. pisin. fi [naku+ = sago water, muku+ = breast milk, suwa+
felnde afu mai (n) cassowary bone used as = coconut water] (n) milk. susu.
a needle. bun bilong muruk long wokim fi (n) spear. spia.
hul. fi fi (v) make dirty (of water). i kamap doti
felnde aka (n) bird blind. haus long painim (wara).
ol pisin. --house built in trees to hunt for fi kusa [ku'sa] (n) spear without a tip (shaft
birds-- sharpened). mambu i sap olsem spia.
felnde bi (n) beak. maus bilong pisin. fi sul (n) land taken by force. kisim graun
felnde kulka (n) feather. gras bilong pisin. bilong arapela.
felnde lako (n) egg. kiau. fi tombo (n) spear shaft. bodi bilong spia.
felnde wosu (n) nest. haus bilong pisin. filni falna [K = bri bre] (v) change back and
fenda [K = yenda, henda, hena] (post) from, be forth. senisim pes.
from. long (kam long, kamaut long). fingri [fin'gri, fringi] (adj) tall. bikpela.
fendo (v) reinforce. sapotim. fir fir for for (adj) splotchy with colors (like
fendumbu (v) carry under arm, carry in camoflauge). kala kala.
crook of elbow. holim aninit long han o fir mango [kefur+] (n) blister. buk i gat wara.
skru bilong han. fisi [lesu+ = right hand] (adj) right. raithan sait.
fer (n) pig, horse. pik, hos. fiti (v) cover a hole with dirt. karamapim,
fer (v) mold, rub (clay). wokim (graun), planim kokonas. --when planting a
rabim. coconut, yam, or mami--
fer klulu (v) feel with back of hand. pilim fiwol (n) shield. samting long banisim ol
long baksait bilong han. spia. --made from pig skin--
fer mir (n) brown pig. braun pik.

463
fla (adj) shred. katim i go long planti hap. -- fu kwiyi [+ka wuya] (n) early morning, late
of a leaf when making decorations-- afternoon. moning o apinun i gat liklik
flate (v) break a vine. brukim rop. --used lait. --as sun rises/sets, enough light to see--
when making portable coconut-- fu wangora (v) stamp foot to protect one's
fle (v) find. painim pinis. spirit. daunim fut long lukautim spirit.
flen (adj) small (of grass and leaves). liklik fu wunsondo nuwa (n) whip. wip.
(gras na lip). ful [RDP] (v) plant by inserting with hand
flili flolo [flili flulu] (adj) snore, sound of a (esp. a stick). planim long putim stik i
flute. pulimnus, nois bilong mambu. go insait.
flo (v) overgrow with weeds. i gat planti fun (pro) you two. yutupela. --2DU--
gras no gut. fun (v) grow up and blossom (of
foko (n) muddy water. wara i gat graun. --in yam/mami). kamap wantaim plaua.
road--
furku (v) for a lizard's tail to break off. tel
foku (n) young plant (sapling). liklik sayor
bilong palai i bruk pinis.
(taim i planim pinis).
furndu na [K = ungwre] (v) startle, jump in
for (v) collect or sweep away (embers).
surprise. kirap nogut.
hiphipim o klinim liklik paia.
fuwol [aku+] (v) break a shoot. brukim liklik
for nuwa (v) give fire (embers). givim liklik
diwai.
paia.
forna (v) pull up (of a plant). rausim (sayor). G
fra [susu ka+ = stand and pee] (v) spray, split
gai [+wuya] (n) hair (white). gras (waitpela).
apart, pass out (coins). haphapim, tilim,
gaie (n) feathers. gras bilong pisin.
kapsaitim wara.
gaima [lesu+ = left hand] (adj) left. lephan sait.
fri fro [K = fro fro] (adj) rinse off. waswas
gal (n) sago jelly ball. susu saksak.
liklik.
gala (n) twig, thin stick. liklik stik.
fru eme (n) valley. ples daun.
gali (n) testicle. bol.
fu (pro) they two. tupela. --3DU--
galmbon (n) sago bark. skin long saksak. --
fu [+nau = fight, K = tinde, tafa] (v) hit, kill,
board made from naku galwo--
sound out (bell, thunder). paitim, belo.
galo (v) raise, pull or peel back (lid etc.).
fu (v) sew. samap.
rausim (tuptup).
fu ambo (v) be covered, be surrounded. i
galwo (n) bark from live sago. pangal
karamap, i raunim olgeta. --e.g. swarm of
saksak. --used to make sago bed (naku
flies, spiderweb--
yofu)--
fu blala na nuwa (v) slap. solapim.
galwo a (n) sago bark used in bulmba aka.
fu griri (v) scrape. skrapim.
pangal saksak bilong bulmba aka.
fu gun [tongo gun] (n) dent. beng.
galwo kuwsu (v) lock (door). lokim dua.
fu gurmba (n) itch, scratch. skrap.

464
galwo wama (n) kindling and bottom gerere (v) growl. tok kros.
supports of bulmba aka. liklik hap diwai geu geu (adj) murmur, crackle, shiver. saun
na hap i stap aninit bilong bulmba aka. bilong seksek. --ONOM--
galwo wuta (n) top layers of bulmba aka. gil (n) ceremonial pole used for payment of
hap i stap antap bilong bulmba aka. bride price. longpela diwai long bikpela
gam (n) beetle (flat and round). binatang bung i mekim long baim meri.
bilong kaikai lip. --any small hard insect-- gila (n) large stick (often for stirring sago
gam [+nuwa = give food] (v) pour. kapsaitim. jelly). bikpela stik (long miksim saksak).
gam tii (v) spill, wipe away. larim em gila gungwa (v) stick to hold up bark
pundaun. covering. stik long holim laplap.
gamba [oku+] (n) reflection, mirror. glas ginfa (n) back. baksait.
bilong lukluk. ginfa yefa (n) spine. bun bilong baksait.
gamu (adj) white. wait. gir gir (v) slide, slither. surik olsem snek. --of
gan (post) edges. arere. snakes and worms--
gana (n.b.) younger same-sex sibling or gira burka (int) what's this. dispela em
cousin (from parent's same-sex sibling). wanem?.
liklik brata bilong man o susa bilong girfi towi (v) hop. kalap. --two feet--
meri. giri guro (v) fall apart, snort, oink.
gara (n) driftwood. diwai i kamap long bagarap(im), nois olsem pik.
nambis. girsi (n.b.) frog. prok.
garfu [K = aumbu] (n) clay pot (large size for glengu (n) failed fruiting body (small). liklik
sago). sospen graun (bikpela bilong prut i no kamap bikpela pinis. --mango,
saksak). coconut, betelnut, etc.--
gasiwa (n.f.) sister (as spoken by her glir glor [glor glor] (adj) noise, jingle. nois. --
shaking or jingling--
brother), female cousin (from parent's
glou [+a] (adj) good to eat. gutpela kaikai.
same-sex sibling). susa (bilong man),
gloulo (adj) very tall. longpela tru.
pikinini meri bilong brata bilong papa o
go (v) ignite fire for cooking. laitim paia
susa bilong mama.
bilong kuk. --small fire, 2-3 logs--
gaso (v) remove inner shell (papery
golo (n) beginning, first time, now. stat,
covering) from nut. skin bilong kapiak.
pastaim, nau.
gau (v) remove bark (in sheets). rausim skin
golo mende (adj) brand new. nupela.
diwai.
gome fa mu (n) axe handle. stik bilong
gausa [lesu+] (n) shoulder. sol.
tamiok.
gel (n) branch (with a fork). han bilong
gome faa (n) metal axe. tamiok long ain.
diwai (i gat tupela hap).
gorngi (n) wild taro. wel taro.
gelna (v) remove an unripe banana. rausim
gorso (v) stick to. putim i go pas.
banana i no mau yet.
gou (v) pile up. hiphipim.
gen (n) sound. belo.

465
gowe [isi+] (v) broadcast. toktok bikpela. gru ou ako ou (v) sweep. brumim.
gowen (n) bark from old sago. pangal gruru (v) shake, shiver, snore. sekim o
bilong olpela saksak. guria. --as of chills--
gra (n) fern-like plant. aran. gu (n) young leaf or frond. kru.
grafa (n) rubbish. pipia. --sticks left over from gu (v) cut out, split sago. katim na rausim,
fire-- katim saksak.
gramba (n) stick for planting. stik long gu taku (n) facial hair. gras bilong pes.
brukim graun. gul (adj) short. sot. --not necessarily small--
gramba saku (n) walking stick. stik bilong gul busa [bul gusa] (v) spit. spetim.
wokabaut. gulfu (v) cut in half, chop repeatedly.
gramba sarsar (n) large digging stick. hapim, katim planti taim.
bikpela stik long brukim graun. gulma (n.b.) mantis or grasshopper.
gramba warmona (n) small digging stick for grashopa.
yam and mami. liklik stik long brukim gulmombu (v) ready to flower (of
graun bilong yam mami. mushroom). redi long kamap (talinga).
grambi (n) mango. mango. gumbo (n) new growth. nupela rop. --not
grato (v) flay. katim long tupela hap. ready to harvest--
gre (v) scrape to start fire. sikarapim long gun (n) dent. beng.
statim paia. gun (v) stuff in to block ears. putim i go
gre gre (v) fine abrasive dust. liklik das ii insait long pasim yau.
sikarapim. gungwa (n) giant beetle species. bikpela
grembu (n) frond branch (hard interior binatang bilong kaikai lip. --wate, busu,
portion). han bilong diwai. some become gungwa--
grewe [RDP, yoko+ = other side] (n) edge, bank. gur (v) tie, wrap around. pasim gut. --esp.
sait (bilong wara, maunten). large objects--
grisi greso (v) try to grab something that gur gur nangur sa (v) full of sores. i gat
runs away, feel weak. traim long kisim planti sua.
abus i ranawe pinis, pilim wik. gurmba (v) scrape or scratch, shave off
grom (v) shatter (esp. bamboo). brukim i go wood bits. skrapim, rausim diwai.
long planti hap (mambu). gurmbo (adj) blue. blupela. --cf. (terfa)
kurkurmbo--
groro groro (v) scratch. skrapim.
gursu (v) cough, sneeze. kus.
grou (n) in the middle. namel. --cf. krou--
gusa (v) glue inside tubers. ol lain bilong
grou [RDP = shake] (v) make noise. mekim
yam mami.
nois.
gusu (n) joint in bamboo. han bilong
gru (v) pile up dirt. hiphipim graun.
mambu.
gru fiti (v) pile dirt over, remove topsoil.
gusu (v) tie, bend in half. pasim, krungutim
karamapim wantaim graun, rausim
long hap.
graun.
guw (v) loosen and fall. i lus na pundaun.
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guwsu (n) razor. resa. gwoho (v) shout, animal noise. bikmaus,
guwsu (n) horizontal slab in bamboo which nois bilong abus.
divides sections. slet insait long mambu gwoho i gwoho ya (v) shout. bikmaus.
i pasim hap. gwre (v) jump up. kalap kalap.
gwa (n) fog. sno. gwru gwru (adj) shake from nerves. guria.
gwa [mu+ = hard] (v) punch (lesu+), kick
(suwa+). paitim (han o put). H
gwai (v) puzzle out, discuss. bung long hako (v) wipe away debris. rausim pipia. --
toktok. ancestors would use mangas leaves to wipe
gwal (v) pick up sago, remove skin. kisim away sickness--
saksak, rausim skin. hako hako (v) sure, okay. orait.
gwal aku [K = fengrako] (v) come loose and haku (v) divide mami. tilim mami. --some to
fall. lus na pundaun. plant and some to eat--
gwal gwal (intj) call of mammal. nois bilong hanganafu [(h)anganafe, K = (h)anganambu/-be/,
rat. somra] (adv) fast, quickly, hurry. hariap.
gwalsa [gila+] (n) clothespin. samting long hau (intj) dog's cry. krai bilong dok. --on
pasim klos. catching an animal--
gwame (n) bowl. plet. --made of limbum or hauna (v) come together. bungim.
limbum-like substance-- hauwa aku (v) move house. senisim haus.
gwarlako [wafu] (n) heart. hat, klok. hele [hele ya] (intj) hurry up, don't dawdle.
gwasi (v) peel (banana), remove skin (yam). hariap, no ken westim taim.
rausim skin (bilong banana, yam, hema kama (v) mimic words. behainim tok.
mami). hema ni (v) check (if something fits, etc.).
gwehe (n) partially uncooked food. kaikai i skelim.
no kuk pinis. hembu [K = yembu] (v) hold tucked or cradled
gwehe sayi (n) decorations. bilas. in arms. holim aninit o insait long ol
gwehe ta (adj) red, pink or gold color at han.
sunset. retpela o yelopela kala taim hewe kawe (v) trick. giaman.
sandaun. hiki [iki] (v) remember, think, know. ting.
gwesai i (n) dressings. ol laplap. hiki haka (v) be confused, wrong
gweu (v) lift. apim i go antap. understanding. paulim tingting.
gwini (n) mushroom. talinga. hili hala [hili hala] (adj) try but fail. traim
gwiyo (n.b.) firefly. komkom, paiaplai. tasol nogat.
gwiyo yen yen keteka akuyar (n) shooting hingre hangre (adj) joke, play around.
star. sta i paia na suruk. giaman na lap.
gwlar gwlar (n) shell noise maker. sel bilong hingre hangre yoko ekur (n) joker. man
mekim nois. bilong lap.

467
ho ho ho (intj) sound of drumbeats. belo ifi finsi (v) drop a log, for a tree to fall. larim
(bilong kundu o garamut). diwai i pundaun, diwai i pundaun.
hoi (v) hold tight. holim gut. ifi lako (n) log trap for bandicoot (trip line
hoi hai (v) take care of, organize. lukautim, and crush). trap long mumut.
stretim. ifi lulu (n) system of connected log traps to
hoi hoi (intj) sound used when hunting pigs. catch rats. bikpela trap long mumut
saun bilong painim pik. long ples daun. --walled off area between
hokwa kete (v) sing. sing. hills--
hokwek na [hokwek tombo na] (v) waste time. iki (neg) no, not. no, nogat.
westim taim. iki ale (v) pay attention. lukluk gut.
hol (v) loose. i lus. iki di ningik (adv) never. i no gat wanpela
holei (adj) dangerous. samting nogut. taim.
holo wafu (adj) be upset. bel hat. iki namra mesu (v) disobey. sakim tok.
hongo (v) put into a hole/loop to carry, set iki naweyan re fur erka (n) grudge. kros na i
in a frame. putim insait long hul long laik bekim.
karim. --needle hole-- ili (post) top. antap.
horke harke (adj) mixture of food. kain kain inba [minba] (post) beside, near (KF). klostu
kaikai. long.
huma (n) mami skin added to sago to indi [in'dik] (adv) go back. go bek. --often with
increase the amount. skin mami long -k--
apim saksak. indor (adj) true, legitimate. trupela.
huma fa tu (n) spell to get sick, forget, lose inin ['inin] (n) sap (thick). blut bilong diwai.
emotion, etc.. sanguma. --cast on stone ir erka hikin (v) wish/desire. laik. --to go
which is planted near recipient's home-- somewhere--
humbo (v) slacken. mekim i lus. ir oku (n) tears. aiwara.
humondu (n) spell to forget. poisin long iroko [eriko] (intj) where (motive). we (i go
lusim tingting. --use person's leavings, burn long we).
in fire or wrap around stone and bury-- is is [es es] (intj) call to dogs (esp. while
hunting). singaut long dok (long painim
I abus).
i (intj) vocative marker. wot bilong isi (n) whistle call. singaut long arere long
singautim man. maus.
i (v) go away. go. isi (v) animal vocalization, call out. abus i
i tama i [K = hangor] (intj) hey you. yupela!. singaut.
ifa afa [K = bir ber] (v) walk cautiously. isuku [K = usku] (n) sneeze, cough, cold (sick).
wokabaut isi isi. kus.
ifi (n) trap (for animals). trap long abus.

468
K karwi [karni] (n) morning. moning.
kasa [ka'sa] (adj) red. ret.
ka (grm) realis. wot i got mining "nau".
kasak nakar (adj) very bright red. ret i tulait.
--REAL--
kasi [kasik, kasi sambak] (loc) over there. long
ka afinau ambe (v) make peace. mekim kol
hap. --REM--
bel.
kau (v) write, paint on, make designs on.
ka kahar yayar a (phr) greeting upon return
raitim, bilasim.
of a friend. wot long tok halo long poro.
--literally: "So the bad one comes?"-- ke (grm) this. dispela. --PROX--
ka mesuya [kama'seya] (int) did you hear?. yu kefen [kefel] (pro) you two (obj.). long
harim?. --to confirm with listener-- yutupela. --2DU.OBJ, used to address
group--
ka wula aku [gre gre ta + aku] (v) evaporate.
kefu (n) blood. blut.
wara i go olgeta.
kehek (neg) cf. nanak. lukim nanak. --Kafle
kamben (cnj) or. o
only--
kafta (n) outside. ausait.
kekra yombo (adv) this (tall, heavy, etc.).
kafu (v) count. kaunim.
(bikpela) olsem. --use with gesture--
kafu nakir (v) count out exactly. kaunim
kekwra [kera okwra] (loc) here. hia. --PROX--
stret.
kel (adj) fresh, young-looking. yangpela.
kaha [ka'ha] (adj) bad. nogut.
kelembu (n) container (cup). kap.
kaha (n) in-law. famili bilong man o meri.
kemela (intj) hey!, you people. olaboi,
kaha kana [ka'hakana] (adj) many (in
yupela.
amount). planti. --cf. wengam--
kemen (pro) you all (obj.). long yupela. --
kaha kuna (n) accident, messed up.
2PL.OBJ, used as address to group--
bagarap o paul pinis.
ken (n) sound of eating/drinking. nois
kaha ni (adj) ugly, dirty. i no naispela.
bilong kaikai.
kahaiembo [kaimbow, +kanda, K = biki it] (adj)
keso [K = tawu] (n) remove skin (yam,
small, young. liklik, yangpela.
limbum). rausim skin (yam, limbum).
kahar (v) sorry. sori.
kete tuka (v) jump out, come down. kalap,
kai [yen+] (n) newborn. nupela pikinini.
kam daunbilo. --Kafle only--
kaka (intj) so, all right. orait.
ki (n) vagina. bokis bilong meri. --"enclosure"-
kaku (n) mami (tuber similar to yam). -
mami. ki (v) build a house. wokim haus. --
kaku sa ra tongo (v) harvest (mami). taim "enclosure"--
bilong kamautim mami. ki mel (n) vulva. bokis bilong meri.
kana (post) with. wantaim. --together with-- ki oku (n) vaginal secretions. wara bilong
kanda (adj) thin, narrow, small (child). bun bokis bilong meri.
nating, i no brait liklik, liklik (pikinini). kifal [K = kilfan, kinfal] (n) wind. win.
kara (intj) therefore, truly, indeed (after kin (n) tail. tel.
verb). trupela.
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kin (n) last, end, youngest child, top of koko gamu (n) white skin, white person.
banana. diwai i pundaun pinis. waitman.
kin gala bundu (n) backbone, spine. bun kokoma (n) stick, short and thick for
bilong baksait. throwing. stik, liklik long tromoi. --used
kin menam (adj) long. longpela. to knock down galip nuts--
kina [RDP] (v) come after, behind. kam kokul (n) firewood piece split lengthwise.
behain. katim paiawut long longpela hap.
kindi kundu (adj) in a zigzag fashion. i go i kokumbu (n) neck. nek.
go kam. kokwre (v) jump. kalap.
kio kio (adj) up and down. i go antap na kol [lesu+ = armpit, suwa+ = crotch] (n) pit. hul.
daunbilo. kolma (n) sore. sua.
kirau (n) party or feast held occasionally. kom (n) village. ples.
singsing i kamap sampela taim. kom ale [K = kom kla] (v) prepare area.
kirfi [oku+ = cross water] (v) cross. brukim stretim ples.
(wara). kom kom (n) all over the place. long olgeta
kiri (n) fire, firewood. paia, paiawut. -- hap.
metaphorically = problem-- kombo (n) sorrow. sori. --particularly at
kiri meke (n) portable fire. paia i stap long departure--
stik. --embers on a stick-- kombo mesu (v) be sorry, "it's okay". pilim
kiri nawek wuya (v) get angry. bel hat. sori, "em orait". --same as "beena"--
kiri sefu (n) weak fire. liklik paia. kombo ni [K = kombo kombo] (v) be poor.
kiri sufun (n) smoke (fire). sumuk (long tarangau.
paia). kon (v) sharpen knife. sapim naip.
kirio (intj) hooray ('ho ho ho ho'). tok bilong kondu (post) top, top of mountain. antap
amamas. (bilong maunten).
kirkir (adj) middle. namel. korfi korfi (adj) writhe (of detached tail). tel
kisi (v) boil (trans). boilim. i surik surik.
kitil kutol [kutol kutol, kitil kotol] (v) jump, hop. kormo (adj) orange decorative fruit. muli.
kalap kalap. kormo kulfo (n) green decorative fruit.
kiyi kiyi (adj) right now, as soon as possible. grinpela muli.
nau stret, kwiktaim. kou (v) file (knife etc.). naip long sapim.
kla (v) clean area to prepare to cut down a koukre (v) roll over. tanim olgeta.
tree. klinim graun long redim long kowe (n) steep (of mountain). i go daun
katim diwai. tumas (long maunten).
klei (intj) and then. nau, orait. kra (v) cry. krai.
kofo (adj) muddy. graun malumalu. krafo (n) only child. pikinini i no gat brata
kofon (n) steam. smok bilong wara. susa.
krafo kute (v) have a child. karim pikinini.

470
kre (v) pound. paitim. meri. --traditionally an exchange of beads
kre sul (n) colored dirt. graun i gat kala. and pigs--
kri (v) make bridge. wokim bris. kul okwa (n) bead with hole. bis i gat hul.
kri kri (adj) lean against or lay across. slip kul soto (v) remove (sheet from stack).
long. rausim lip long hip.
kroro [RDP] (v) crawl (centipedes, snails...). kulfo (adj) green, uncooked. grin, amat.
wokabaut long bel. --TP-- kulka [kul'ka] (n) hair, leaf, insect wing. gras
kroro guw (n) support bamboo for roof bilong het, lip, han bilong binatang.
apex. bim (mambu) i stap antap long kulko [kul'ko] (v) scrape wood (as in
rup. sandpaper). sikarapim diwai. --used to
krorongo [aka+] (n) support beam. bim. sharpen knife as well as work wood--
krou [RDP] (adj) round. raun. kulu (n) path, road, behavior (ways). rot,
kruru suru (adj) pretend by making noise. pasin.
mekim nois long giaman. kulu taku [K = kulu sumbu] (n) side of road.
ku (intj) noise of rain. nois bilong ren. sait bilong rot.
ku (v) give birth, father. karim pikinini. kulu tenge (n) junction. ol rot i bung.
ku aku (v) pull a limb out. rausim han o lek. kum (pro) you all. yupela. --2PL--
kufe [ku'fe] (adj) good, happy. gutpela, kumba (n) leaf. lip.
amamas. kumba okwe (n) dead leaf. lip i drai pinis.
kufe iki (adj) happy. amamas. kuna (grm) emphatic, self. wot long
kufe sumba (adj) tasty. swit. strongim tok, man yet. --self--
kufeni (adj) pretty, clean, smart. klin, nais, i kuna (v) wait for. wetim.
gat save. kuna kuna [K = gan gan] (adj) different.
kufu (n) rope, vine, lineage. rop, lain. narapela kain.
kufu nele (v) hang. hangamap. kuna noko sauwo (phr) that's your
kufu yuwklu (n) vine prepared for use business/responsibility. em samting
(skinned and dried). rop redi long bilong yu.
wokim (i no gat skin). kuna susu (v) guard. was long.
kukumbu (n) neck. nek. kuna yaku (grm) one's own. bilong man yet.
kukumbu yefa (n) back of neck. baksait kuna yena (grm) to each his own share.
bilong nek. wanwan hap bilong wanwan man.
kukwe (n) fat, cooking oil. gris. kundu (n) stump. liklik diwai.
kukwe [mulu+, sofo+, fer+] (n) fat (used as kunsu tuku (n) mold. mau pinis na i gat
cooking oil). gris bilong kuk (olsem wel). mosong.
kukwi (adv) hurry. hariap. kur [+si = very black] (adj) black. blak.
kul (n) bead, money. bis, smolbis, mani. kur (adj) sky, high. skai, antap tru.
kul fer rete (n) compensation (related to kur (v) pick (bali). kisim (aibika).
bride price). mani i givim long baim kur bombo (n) airplane. balus.

471
kur su [kur kur] (n) ash. sit bilong paia. kwasi (n) peel (of banana). rausim skin
kurfa (v) grate. skrapim. --strong scratch-- banana.
kurna (n) dusk. klostu tudak. kwata (v) rub, spread glue. rabim, laimim. --
kurna (v) for dusk to arrive. klostu tudak i tree branches on which glue is placed--
kamap. kwaya (n) yellow Same seeds. yelopela sit
kursei [RDP] (n) raspy noise. nois olsem bilong ton.
skrapim. --ONOM-- kwaya (v) smell. smelim.
kursi (adj) very black. blakpela tru. kwesu (adj) yellow, orange, yellow-brown.
kursu walaman ya (v) dark clouds when a yelopela, orens, yelo na braun.
big rain is coming. ol klaut tudak taim kwesu kwiyo (adj) dark brown color.
bikpela ren i kam. braunpela kala tudak. --color of coconut
kuso (n) decorations in singsing area. bilas shell (kulau)--
bilong singsing. kwete (n) vomit, clear throat. traut, rausim
kusu [+tikte, +tii] (v) chase. ranim. pipia long nek.
kute [kete, K = sara] (v) slice, cut (grass, kwi kwai (adj) up and down. i go antap na
flowers). katim (gras, plaua). daunbilo.
kute (v) pick leaf, cut animal or grass. kisim kwini (v) chop firewood. katim paiawut.
lip, katim abus o gras. kwiyau (v) lean down. brukim bek.
kute wiyi (v) burp. traut. kwiyi (v) cut (esp. deeply), cut cane grass.
kutu (v) splash, scoop out (water). wara i katim (bikpela), katim pitpit. --while
preparing animals for cooking--
kamap taim sampela i kalap long en,
kwla (v) have sex. koapim.
rausim wara.
kwlele (n) sinewy insides (of wild fruit).
kuw [K = na] (v) collect (Mini or Same). kisim
strongpela lain bilong ol prut.
na bungim (buai o ton).
kwleya (adj) bad/strong taste, stinging
kuwa (adj) soft (esp. of fruit), smell.
sensation. kaikai hat, pait. --bitter, spicy,
malumalu (prut), smel.
etc.--
kuwa mesu (v) sniff. smelim.
kwleya wafu (n) gallbladder. lewa.
kuwr (v) scrape, shave, fashion garamut.
kwre (v) hang something. hangamapim. --
sikarapim, wokim garamut.
used when suspended over a fire, also with
kuwsu (v) close (door). pasim dua. hands--
kwai kwai [RDP] (n) small sticks for turning kwresu (v) place leaf-holding bamboo in
sago jelly. liklik stik long tanim saksak. roof. wokim rup wantaim mambu long
kwande (n) bird feathers used to decorate holim ol lip. --important part of roof-
cap. gras pisin long bilasim. building process--
kwar bar bar lu (adj) dizzy. ai i raun. kwro kwro (v) collect mud. hipimapim
kwaramba (n) snake bone. bun bilong snek. malumalu.
kware (v) smoke or dry fish. pis i smokim o
draim pinis.

472
L lam opei (n) arrow with one spear. spia i
gat wanpela hap. --bamboo--
laka (adj) big, oldest child. bikpela, namba
landu (n) bellybutton, umbilical cord,
wan pikinini. --SPL--
placenta. hul bilong bel, bilum (doti
laka (v) weave together. flain.
bilong pikinini).
laka bol (v) stare. lukim strong.
lasi [K = lisi] (num) two (2). tu (2).
lako (n) eye. ai.
lasifirndi [K = lisifirndin] (num) three (3). tri (3).
lako bu (v) shut eyes. pasim ai.
lasifu lasifu [K = lisifu lisifu] (num) four (4). foa
lako bur bur fele fele (v) blink quickly.
(4).
brukim ai hariap. --done when making a
late (v) open a door or window. opim dua o
joke--
windo.
lako bur tanngur (v) blink. brukim ai. --done
to express romantic interest-- lau (v) spread flat, lay out. slipim long
lako felnde (n) eyelash. gras bilong ai. graun.
lako gai (n) white of eye. waitpela hap ai. leferko (v) fold. hapim.
lako gaima (n) sidelong glance. lukim long lei (v) hang (from vine), ready to eat (with
sait bilong ai. seeds). hangamapim (long rop), redi
lako golwa [lako kaha] (n) one eye. man i gat long kaikai.
wanpela ai. lendo (v) hide, cover (esp. with a leaf). hait,
lako kur (n) pupil. blakpela hap bilong ai. karamapim (wantaim lip).
lako mir (v) look straight in eyes. lukim lermu sermu (adj) have sex in an aggressive
strong long ai. manner. koapim pait.
lako musuka (n) eyebrow. gras antap long lesu (n) hand, arm, finger, handle. han,
ai. pinga. --in a compound: gwini lesu(r) = hand
planted gwini--
lako timba (n) blind person. man aipas.
lesu afa (n) thumb. bikpla pinga.
lako wando (n) pupil, iris. hap tudak insait
lesu arma fuyau (n) middle finger. bikpela
long ai.
pinga namel.
lako yen [+meke] (n) iris. hap ai i gat kala.
lesu bela (n) forearm. han.
lakwiyi (n) first-born child. namba wan
lesu bombo (v) clap. paitim han.
pikinini.
lesu bor (n) pointer finger, ring finger.
lam (n) arrow, thorn. spia (bilong banara).
namba wan na tri pinga.
lam bendu (n) sago arrowtip. spia long
lesu bouna (n) crack knuckles. brukim
saksak.
pinga.
lam bendu (n) arrow with many spears (6-
lesu du (n) elbow (back). baksait bilong skru
7). spia i gat planti hap. --sago--
bilong han.
lam gwroso (n) arrow with four spears. spia
lesu gaien (n) pinkie. liklik pinga.
i gat foapela hap. --bamboo--
lesu gausa (n) shoulder. sol.
lam gwroso (n) arrow tip. het bilong spia. --
some have hooks, some don't-- lesu gilombo (n) forearm. han.

473
lesu gisi [+sere = cut fingernails] (n) fingernail. lili (v) hang. hangamapim.
kapa bilong pinga. lisi (v) burn, cook in or over fire. kukim long
lesu gisi tombo (n) cuticle. hap long kapa i paia.
kamaut. lisi (v) drag, pull. pulim long graun.
lesu gul na tongo (v) link arms. bungim han. lisi lisi hikiyan (v) be indecisive. i no inap
lesu gusu (n) joint. skru. tok yes o nogat.
lesu guwl (n) elbow. skru bilong han lisi lisi rusu [K = namblo kir rusu] (v) sit side by
(namel). side. sindaun sait sait.
lesu lako [lesu lauko] (n) hand. han. liti [+rete] (v) fill with water. pulapim
lesu na tongo (v) hold hands. holim han. wantaim wara.
lesu om (n) upper arm. han antap. liwi luwau (v) twist or stir up. krungutim o
lesu om gumbul (n) wrist. skru i stap antap tanim. --of gramba when planting--
long han. lofor (v) distribute, take a share from group
lesu tongo (v) shake hands. sekan. mami pile. tilim mami. --during singsing--
lesu wafu (n) palm. insait bilong han. loko (n.b.) rain. ren.
lesu wol (n) upper wing. antap long pul. loko [+rete] (v) open bag (bilum). opim
lesu yokondambe (n) fist. han i pas. bilum.
lesuk feta (n) sign language. tok bilong loko baye [+eku] (v) do garden work. wokim
yaupas. gaden.
lete (v) remove leaf, shuck (cane grass). loko fi (n) rain drop. wanpela hap wara.
rausim lip (bilong pitpit). loko fi boule (n) rain drop (large). bikpela
li (n.f.) sore. sua. hap wara.
li (n) tail feathers of bird used as loko kifal (n) storm. bikwin.
decorations. gras pisin long bilasim. lolo (v) remove pelt, bark, or skin. rausim
lifir mango (n) pus. waitpela blut. skin abus.
liki (n) skin (person or fruit). skin (bilong lom [a+] (v) dance. singsing raun. --garamut
man o prut). and singsing only--
liki bau (v) scrape skin off. sikarapim i lus. loma (v) remove sago bark. rausim skin
liki gamu (n) white skin, white person. saksak.
waitman. lombo (n) dry banana spine. bun bilong lip
liki kasa (n) light black skin. man i gat skin banana.
blak liklik. lorkwle (v) make a mess, spoil. bagarapim,
liki kur (n) dark black skin. man i gat skin mekim nogut.
blak tudak. lorkwle sorkwle (adj) have sex with.
liki manngra (n) goose bump. skin i kirap koapim.
nogut. losu na (v) loosen and fall. i lus na pundaun.
liki mena (v) with skin. i gat skin. lotu (v) be in church, go to church. stap o
liki tombo (n) food scraps. ol hap kaikai. go long lotu. --TP--

474
lowe (n) edge. arere. maindi (v) put head down. daunim het i
lu (n) mountain (range). planti maunten. stap.
lu (v) mix (into sago powder,) roll together, maku (n) dull side of a blade. hap bilong
rotate. tanim sampela samting i go naip i no sap. --cf. mel--
long saksak, tanim. makwa (n) green bean. bin.
lu gaso (v) force feed. givim kaikai long mala (v) wipe butt. rausim pekpek.
wanpela i no laik kaikai. --usually with a male (v) decorate. bilasim.
stick-- mam (n.m.) maternal uncle. brata bilong
lu lako [+tori = slip and fall] (v) clear ground mama.
(remove overgrowth). rausim ol pipia mambunge (n) forehead. poret.
long graun. mambunge fu (v) forehead tap, used as a
lufau (v) float. drip. greeting. salut (paitim isi long poret).
lufu (n) sliver, small pieces as a result of mana (neg) don't.... maski. --Kafle only, cf.
cutting. liklik hap diwai. nime--
luku grafa [+eku] (n) yard or garden waste. mana (v) not want, not feel like, divorce. no
pipia bilong gaden. --Kafle only-- laik, brukim marit.
luku luku nawek [+na] (n) nauseous. bel i manda [terfa+ = headache] (v) hurt. nogutim, i
tantanim. pen.
luma (v) remove spine of leaf. rausim ton manda timba (phr) don't worry, it's okay,
bilong lip. thank you. no ken wori.
lun (n) shoot of grass. wanpela hap gras. mangi fofo (n.f.) snail. demdem.
lungutu [K = lumbu kanda] (n) dry leaves. lip i mangle [engle+] (n) spell. poisin.
drai pinis. mango (n) support stick for plants. stik long
lungwa [+aku] (v) loose (of teeth). ol tit i lus. apim diwai, sayor.
lunsu [tongo+] (v) pinch. pulim skin namel mangrangra (n) guria's head feathers. gras
long tupela pinga. bilong pisin guria.
luwku (adj) new, new (green) growth, mangru [u+] (adj) incompletely cooked. i no
seeds. nupela, nupela (grinpela) lip, sit. kuk pinis.
luwnguya (n) itch. skrap. mangur kon [mangre kon] (n) millipede.
plantihan.
M manu manu (n.f.) tadpole. liklik pis. --
becomes girsi naku tombo kri--
ma i (n) magic stone. stong bilong puripuri. -
-supposedly fell from sky-- mar wate (n) papaya. popo.
maha [ma'ha] (adj) hot. hat. mar wate melon (n) watermelon.
mahak [yoko+] (n) opposite side. arapela watamelon.
hap. marko (adj) headdress. bilas bilong het.
maifo [oku+] (n) leech. snek bilong dringim masai (n) comb. kom. --made from ama yolo--
blut.

475
masi (v) go to one's own/appropriate place, milifa [+yefa = ribs] (n) side of body. sait
say goodbye (ai yo). go bek long ples. bilong bodi.
masi dondo (n) broom. brum. --made from minba [inba] (post) approaching, near. kam
duwan branch-- klostu, klostu.
mau [wula+] (n) thick jungle. bikbus. minga [+romo, a+, and both] (n) dance (with
mau (n) stomach. insait bilong bel. food). kain singsing (wantaim kaikai).
mau liki (n) cloth. laplap. minga aka (n) house built in preparation for
maure (n.b.) ancestor (+3 generations). ol a dance. haus long singsing. --built to
tumbuna. store food, each family builds one--
maure maure (n) make a face. senisim pes. - minga gaien (n) party without meat.
-fingers in nose, stick out tongue, open eyes-- singsing i no gat abus.
maure tongo raka i (v) possess. spirit i go minga gwasi (n) party where pepper is
insait long man. exchanged and consumed. singsing
me (pro) them all. long ol. --3PL.OBJ-- bilong daka.
mehe na (v) deep sleep (unaware). slip minga kufu (n) friends who exchange food,
olgeta. same family/clan line. poro i tilim
mehek [K = uhu] (neg) no. nogat. kaikai, wanpela lain.
mei [K = mai] (v) leave me alone. larim mi. mini (n) betelnut. buai.
meke (n) body. bodi. minwun (v) break into pieces. brukim i go
mel (adj) sharpen. sapim. long planti hap.
mel (n) sharp blade (cutting surface). naip i miri marau (n) turbulent water. wara i ran
sap. hariap.
mele (adj) long time ago. longtaim bipo. -- mofi (n) vine sap used as medicine. blut
more than 2 days-- bilong rop i gat marasin.
mele kusa [ku'sa] (adj) long time ago. mol (v) for fire to burn out. paia i dai.
longtaim bipo. molkon [K = morkon] (n) penis sheath (shell).
mena (post) with (inherent sel long karamapim kok.
possession/contents). wantaim (bilong momoseya [mumusuya] (n) small fly. liklik
sampela tru). lang. --used to make tacky glue--
mende (adj) all, very, too. olgeta, tumas. -- mondo (n) fruiting body. prut. --often
used in comparative/superlative-- inedible--
mengu (n) small, traditional drum. kundu. mongur (n) crocodile. pukpuk.
mera (v) mark, set aside. makim. mororo a (v) strong or chewy food. kaikai i
mesu (v) touch, feel, hear. harim, pilim. strongpela.
meye [muye] (v) grow, fat person. kamap mosu (v) chip at. brukim liklik.
bikpela, grisman. moulen [+kaham] (adj) angry. bel hat.
mili mele [K = mele mele] (adj) a long time mu (n) tree, wood, branch. diwai, han
ago. longtaim bipo. diwai.

476
mu [toko+ = play garamut] (n) garamut (large musun (n) piece of dirt, dust (from cutting
traditional drum). garamut. wood). liklik hap graun.
mu (pro) they all. ol (tripela o moa). --3PL-- musun kana na (adj) impure. doti pinis.
mu duko (v) break sago powder. brukim musun lako ene golwar (n) eye resin. pipia
paura bilong saksak. bilong ai.
mu duw (n) big roots. bikpela as bilong muwku [a+] (n) breast. susu.
sayor. muwku (n) dead man's effects, mourning.
mu gun [tama sangu] (n.f.) termite. wait anis. haus krai.
mu gwa (n) hard. strong. muwku fi (n) milk. susu.
mu gwra (n) small branches. liklik han muwku masi (n) end of mourning. krai sori
diwai. pinis. --marked by a feast--
mu lau (n) bridge. bris. --fallen tree-- muwngu (adj) small. liklik.
mu liki (n) tree bark. skin diwai. muwor (n) pole used to carry (esp. pigs).
mu mango (n) branch used as support for stik bilong karim (ol pik).
mami vines. stik long sapotim mami.
mu nambi (n) root. as, rop. N
mu oku fi (n.f.) mosquito. natnat. na (n) seed. sit.
mu sermba (n) stick used to play garamut. na (v) go by, be at, become, to function. go
skik long paitim garamut. long, stap long, wokim.
mu tenge (n) branch. han diwai. na- (grm) but. tasol.
mu toklo wosu (n) strangler vine. rop i kilim na fu na fu [K = na tu na tu] (v) shoot at each
diwai. other. sutim wanwan.
mu yen (n) bush (shrub). liklik diwai. na nuwa (v) reciprocal giving. givim bilong
mu yengla (n) branch. han diwai. mipela yet.
mulu (n.b.) small rodent, rat. rat. na sau waki a sau waki (adv) tangled up as
mundu (n) centipede. plantihan. a knot. paul pinis.
mundu fa (n) antenna. ai gras bilong ol na sumbu na sumbu (v) back and forth. i go
binatang. na i kam.
mungwa (n) hard (surface). stongpela na tawi na tawi i (v) race. resis.
antap. nahau (intj) yes. yes.
mur (n) three days from now, three days naka (cnj) and. na
ago. behain long tripela de, tripela de i nakir [RDP] (adv) at the same time. wantaim.
go pinis. --1,2,3, go!--
musun (n) hole in tree where water nakir tirika (v) to have the same amount.
collects. hul i gat wara (ol pisin save wanwan i gat wankain hap.
long dring long en). --birds drink from naku (n) sago. saksak.
these-- naku ama yalwun [naku ama wur] (n) sago
hammer. skrap bilong saksak.

477
naku bir (n) dry sago branch. han saksak i namble [+aku] (v) disappear, lose, scatter,
drai. --outside of gowen, used in yofu frame- wander. i lus olgeta, lusim ples, wok
- nabaut.
naku bitki (n) sago bark. pangol bilong nambo (n) one of a set. wanpela i go long
saksak. planti.
naku bormborsa (n) sago stem, used for nambo nambo (adj) go along together. go
decorations. bilas long saksak. wantaim.
naku bungu (n) young/small sago palm. namra (n) ear. ia.
nupela diwai saksak. namra mesu (v) listen up. harim gut.
naku fer kisi (n) boiled sago. saksak i boil namra su (n) ear wax. pipia bilong yau.
pinis. namre (n.m.) paternal grandfather. papa
naku fraim (n) sago pancake. saksak fraim. - bilong papa.
-TP-- nambu [tongo+] (v) placate spirits (when
naku indi mu (n) half sago trunk entering their land). tok sori long
(unscraped). hap diwai saksak (i no masalai. --apologize and make an offering--
skrap yet). nambu (v) pulverize, break into pieces.
naku kwainda kasa (n) red (fresh) sago. paitim i go long planti hap.
retpela saksak. --newest sago-- nambuko [tolo+] (n) angry yelling. singaut
naku ormo okwe (n) red (fresh) sago. belhat.
retpela saksak. --darker red-- nambul (n.f.) sun. san.
naku sun (n) sago powder. paura bilong nambul gwa ki (v) covered in fog. sno
saksak. karamapim pinis.
naku sun kuwa (n) washed sago powder, nambul lako okto (n) light rain/fog that
cast off. saksak i was pinis. portends a clear day. liklik sno na san
naku wursa (n) sago trunk that has been behainim.
scraped. diwai saksak i sikarap pinis. nambul okwe (n) morning sun. san hat
naku yofu (n) sago bedding, for strained (long moning).
sago. bet long saksak (taim i was pinis). nambul war [+ya = to set] (n) west. sandaun.
nakwel (n) blood brother. poro tru. nambul wou (n) shadow. tewel.
nalafau (v) refuse to do useful work. i no nambul wuya [+ya = to rise] (n) east, sunrise.
laik mekim gutepela wok. --RDP-- is (hap san i kamap).
nalfa (v) stare. lukluk strong. nambutu naruku (v) fighting (initial). pait (i
nali (v) laugh, smile. lap. stat).
nalu [tongo+ , suka+] (v) pinch. holim nan (n.b.) son's child or spouse. pikinini
strongpela wantaim tupela pinga. bilong pikinini man, meri bilong em.
namasi (v) separate. tilimaut. nanak [K = kehek] (neg) negative marker. wot
nambe [+ na] (v) check out, deny. skelim, tok bilong tok nogat.
nogat.

478
nanda (n.b.) older same-sex sibling or nawa (n.f.) mother, maternal aunt, cousin
cousin (from parent's same-sex sibling). of cross-sex aunt/uncle. mama, susa
bikbrata bilong man o biksusa bilong bilong mama, pikinini bilong brata
meri. bilong mama o susa bilong papa.
nandasi (n.m.) brother (as spoken by sister), nawa (n) trunk of tree, heart of fruit. diwai,
male cousin (from parent's same-sex insait long prut.
sibling). brata (bilong meri), pikinini nawe [ne (in fast speech)] (v) empty, alone,
man bilong brata bilong papa o susa still, always, just, only. stap nating,
bilong mama. wanpela, yet, olgeta taim.
nandu (v) put (back) together, huddle nawi (n.m.) husband of gasiwa. man bilong
together. stretim, bung wantaim. gasiwa.
nanglu [+eku = to prepare greens] (n) greens. ne (pro) you (obj.). long yu. --2SG.OBJ--
kumu. nekna (v) be full of. em i pulap.
nango (intj) sound made when nekwa (n) tree kangaroo. sikau antap.
thinking/unsure. wot ol i tok taim ol i nekwa (n.f.) moon, month. mun.
tingting. nekwa bi (n) sliver moon. liklik mun.
nangu (n) urine. pispis. nekwa glengu (n) crescent moon. liklik
nangu fra (v) urinate. go long pispis. mun.
narete [RDP] (v) discuss back and forth, nekwa mekek na (n) half moon. hap mun.
argue. bung long toktok. nekwa sukna (n) new moon. nupela mun.
nari (adj) first. pastaim. nekwa tawa laka meye (n) full moon.
narun [same+] (n) red seeds of Pacific Maple bikpela mun.
tree. sit bilong ton. nekwas famek suknayas (v) moonset. mun i
natal atal (v) echo. krai i kam bek long pundaun.
maunten. nele [a+, re+] (v) become lodged in throat.
nate (v) pull up grass, weed with knife. pasim win.
pulim gras, katim gras. nembe (n.b.) lizard. palai.
nato (v) make salt. mekim sol. --made from nemen (pro) us all. long yumipela o mipela.
burnt sago frond filtered through water-- --1PL.OBJ--
nau [angrily: tolo+ = scream, fu+ = fight] (v) yell, nemna (n.m.) husband. man.
bark (any animal call). singaut, abus nende (pro) us two. long yumitupela. --
singaut. 1DU.OBJ--
nausu (n) gum. blut bilong diwai, gam. -- ner yikwa (n) salt water at base of Ner trees
made from dried breadfruit sap, often used where birds drink. solwara bilong ol
to trap birds-- pisin long dring.
nausu tanngu [+a] (v) delicious, chewy. swit, nere (adj) strong, hard. strongpela.
strongpela kaikai. neta (n.b.) husband of child or nephew,
daughter's child and spouse. man

479
 bilong pikinini meri, pikinini bilong nu asama [+warem] (n) year. yia.
pikinini meri. nu bor (n) garden that has been harvested.
ni (v) see. lukim. olpela gaden. --some food may be left--
ni (v) try, attempt. traim. nu kursu (n) garden that has been burned
ni hiki kufem hamba (v) wish. laik. for planting. gaden i kuk pinis.
nimba [+rete] (n) news, come to an nul (n) sky, cloud. skai, klaut.
agreement (on a date). tok save, tok na nul sikik wur aku [nambul+ or nekwa+] (n)
wanbel. eclipse. san i karamap pinis.
nimre (v) exorcise, douse. rausim spirit, num (pro) we all. yumipela, mipela (tripela
tromoim wara. --get water from masalai o moa). --1PL--
ground and sprinkle-- numa [nurku+ , typically + -k] (n) many nights (1
nime (v) not be able to. no inap long. to 2 weeks). planti nait (1 o 2 wik).
nindi [+oku] (n) snot. kus. numba (adj) last (in series and remaining).
nindi [bor+] (n) central area. hap namel. la, behain tru.
nindi kursu tii (v) blow nose. rausim kus numba (n) poison. gip, poisin.
long nus. numba noko (n) person who poisons others
nindi su (n) booger. pipia bilong nus. (poisoner). man i poisinim. --literally
ningi [K = nurkuk] (n) date. taim. "poison gather"--
ningle (v) shout in surprise. singaut taim i numblangan [kumblangan] (n) thunder,
kirap nogut. lightning. lait bilong klaut, klaut i
ningli (adj) cold (food). kol (kaikai). pairap.
ningre (n) today, day. tude. numboto [RDP] (v) shiver. seksekim. --as in
ningre nawe (adv) right now. nau. sickness--
nisuku [+ni = to dream] (n) dream. driman. numbu [K = nambu] (v) tidy, straighten up, fall
noko (v) collect or gather small objects. (leaves). stretim, klinim, pundaun (ol
kisim na bungim ol liklik samting. lip).
noko rete (v) return st to its place. surikim. numbul (adj) small amount. liklik hap. --not
noko wafu (intj) you agree?, you think so?. small in size--
wanbel?, yu ting olsem?. nun (n.f.) louse. laus.
nokorar (phr) it's yours, keep it. bilong yu nungrou (v) snatch (with talons). rausim
nau. wantaim han.
nol (n) hole that renders useless (as in a nungu (n) rattan, stem with fruit (banana,
bowl). hul (i brukim plet). --used as a verb Same). kanda, stik i gat prut (banana,
too-- ton).
nu (n) garden. gaden. nungul (adj) cold. kol.
nu (pro) you. yu. --2SG-- nurku (n) night, darkness. nait, tudak. --used
nu angur (n) garden that has been planted. in counting days--
gaden i planim pinis. nuw (post) inside (hole or pile). insait
(bilong hul o hip).
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nuwa (v) give. givim. oku tol (n) upstream. long hap wara i stat.
nuwku [take+ = spy on] (v) survey, look oku tombo (n) downstream. hap wara i
around. lukluk. pinis. --also "kom tombo"--
nuwngu (n) lime powder. kambang. --eaten oku warme (n) bucket. baket.
together with betelnut and pepper-- oku yefa (n) gourd for carrying water. sel
long karim wara.
O okusa [kin+] (n) fish tail. tel bilong pis.
o (grm) that. dispela (longwe). --DIST-- okwe (adj) yellow, white (of skin). yelo, wait
o [call a pig: [name, oh!] (rising on both)] (intj) (skin).
greeting. gude, halo. --falling intonation-- okwe [+kuwa = almost rotten] (v) ripe,
o nir u (phr) 'get a load of him'. 'lukim em'. sapling/shoot. kamap mau, liklik diwai.
oe [K = o el] (intj) angry exclamation (used to okwe tambo na [okwe na] (v) waste time.
get attention). singaut bilong tok westim taim.
belhat. okwra (loc) there. long hap. --DIST--
ofol [bi+ = gap in teeth] (n) gap, small hole. okwre (v) carry child on back, legs around
liklik hul. neck. karim pikinini long baksait, ol lek
ofto [+tii = blow dirt from eye, K = tafa] (v) blow, bilong em raunim nek.
play flute, smoke. winim (mambu), olfo [K = nale gongon] (v) hole that spoils for
smokim (brus). use. hul i brukim samting pinis.
okana [+rete] (v) put together, mix together. om (n.b.) fish. pis.
putim i go wantaim, taintainim. om gursu (n) scale (of fish), mole, pimple.
okto [oto] (v) wash hands. wasim ol han. hap skin bilong pis, mak long skin.
oku [K = ohu] (n) water, watery sap. wara, on (pro) I. mi. --1SG--
wara bilong diwai. ongo ongo (adj) show the way. soim rot.
oku ama (n) bamboo for carrying water. ongwa (n) clearing. ples klia long bus.
mambu long karim wara. ongwa aka (n) bush camp. haus long bus.
oku blo (n) pond. liklik raunwara. ongwa al oku (n) area of medium growth.
oku brara (n) waterfall. wara i kalap. -- ples i gat sampela sayor.
manmade or natural-- ongwa bor (n) garden where all food is
oku dangi (n) beetle that lives under water. gone. olpela gaden. --must lie fallow 3-4
binatang i stap aninit long wara. years--
oku kulfo (adj) cold water. kol wara. --PR: or (n) traditional net bag, neck pouch.
okufol-- bilum, bilum bilong nek.
oku siki (n) water well. hul wara. or waa (n) big bilum for filling with beads.
oku sofo (n.f.) eel. mario, snek blong wara. bikpela bilum i pulap wantaim bis.
oku tasu tiri (v) soak. putim i go daun long or wosu (n) uterus. bilum bilong meri.
wara. ora kara (phr) that's all, that's right. orait,
oku tenge (v) boil water. boilim wara. em tasol.

481
orira (int) where (locative). we (i stap long re (pro) him. long em (man). --3SG.M.OBJ--
we). re i nika furndu na (v) run into. lukim man
ormbein (intj) funny nonsense word. wot i yu no wetim.
no gat mining. rengongo (n) natural pool (in rock). liklik
oro (v) chop (break in half), cut bananas. raunwara (i stap long ston).
katim (haphapim), katim banana. --large rete (v) put. putim. --many--
objects (tree trunks, etc.)-- rete sukna (v) watch. was.
osai (n) dressings for singsing. ol laplap rii (v) remain, usually (do st). stap long
bilong singsing. wanpela hap, save long (mekim ss).
osna [+rete] (v) to a certain point, but no ringi rongo (v) rub eye to remove dirt.
further. i kamap long wanpela hap, rausim ol pipia long ai.
tasol i no pinisim. ringi si [ringi ringi si] (n) cocoon. liklik haus
ou (v) swallow. daunim. bilong ol katapila.
ou (v) gather solids (esp. sago). bungim riwi rewe (v) walk with legs spread apart
sampela samting (olsem saksak). --large (esp. in pain). wokabaut lek abrus.
amounts (cf. ra)-- rokor (grm) when, as a consequence, in
oule (adj) full. pulap. order to. wanem taim. --CAUS--
owe (n) caterpillar. katapila. rombo (n) rotten wood, stump. diwai sting.
owe (v) pile up, raise up. hipim, apim. romo [minga+] (n) dance. danis.
owe ne (v) pile up. hipim. romo (v) rub (sago). rabim (saksak).
owete (v) support, lift. apim, sapotim. romo kau [romo wele] (v) tattoo, carving.
katim mak.
R rondo (v) drill. boaim.
ra (v) collect, gather, get. kisim na bungim. - roto (v) rub flat. rabim i go stret.
-a small amount of objects-- ru (pro) he. em (man). --3SG.M--
ra [K = tongo] (v) take to marry. kisim na ruku [+ra] (v) pick ripe bananas individually.
maritim. kisim wanwan ol banana mau.
ra falna [+ ka indik iyan] (v) turn around. rumba (v) remove st with hands (esp. dirt),
tanim. scrape away. rausim ss wantaim ol han
ra tanngur (v) cover. karamapim. (graun).
ra tii ra ti ya (v) divide up. hapim. rusu [K = songo, kwande, towi towi] (v) sit, settle.
ra towi ra tori (v) toss up and down. sindaun.
tromoim i go antap. ruwku [RDP] (n) in tatters, full of holes
ra war (v) drown. lus long wara. (fabric). i gat planti hul, bagarap pinis
ra wra (v) pull out, draw bow. rausim, pulim (laplap).
banara.
raka anuwa (v) adopt. lukautim.
raya (v) bring. kari i kam. --'get come'--

482
S samre (v) imitate, guide, try to dance.
makim, stat long danis.
sa (v) for water to begin to boil. wara i stat
sambu tii (v) erase. rausim.
long boilim.
samdo (n.f.) spider. spaida.
sa (v) dig (yam). kisim (yam).
sana su (v) wait a minute. wet liklik.
sa sa gul gul (adj) rolling boil. wara i boilim
sanak [sana] (v) wait. wetim.
hariap.
sanglei (n) vine loop (to raise logs or help in
safko (n) post from deep jungle. pos bilong
climbing a tree). rop long apim diwai o
bikbus.
go antap long diwai.
safko waa (n) large post from deep jungle.
sanglu (n) dry banana leaf, paper, book.
bikpela pos bilong bikbus.
banana lip i drai pinis, pepa, buk.
safko yafin [K = safko lakwiyi] (n) small post
sanglu gala (n) teacher. tisa.
from deep jungle. liklik pos bilong
sangra fai (n) flying ant. anis i gat pul.
bikbus.
sangu [tama sangu] (n.f.) termite. wait anis.
safran (n) ring on a stem where fruit
sangu tama (n.f.) white ant with wings. wait
emerges (banana or Same). raunpela
anis i gat pul.
hap bilong stik i gat prut (banana o
sangwa yamba (n) stick used for fighting.
ton).
stik long pait. --serrated at the top--
safran (n) shoot (of seed). liklik diwai (long
sar bambu (n) dragonfly. binatang i gat 4
sit).
pul.
safu (n) yam vines. rop bilong yam.
sara (n) basket. basket. --made from coconut
sai (n) basket for storing sago. basket long
leaf--
holim saksak. --made from galmbon--
saro (v) arrange, sort, organize. redim,
saki (v) share. tilim. --used when offering
stretim.
directly--
satawi (n) type of dance or song. kain danis
saku (n) walking stick. kanda.
o singsing.
sakwe [sakwe mu] (n) tobacco-like plant.
sau (v) get up (from sleep). kirap (long slip).
brus. --grown in gardens to smoke leaves--
sau susu (v) stand up. sanap.
sal (n) scrap of bark. liklik hap skin diwai.
sauwa (n) coconut bark used as seive. skin
salai (adj) wild (of dogs). wail (olsem dok).
diwai long mekim strena.
salwan (n) small decorative colorful leaf.
sauwo (n) work. wok.
liklik lip i gat kala long bilasim. --used to
sauwro (v) remove everything from a
make traditional bilum--
house. rausim olgeta samting long
samba (adj) big, loud, difficult, etc.. bikpela,
haus. --said of a woman when she moves to
bikpela nois, hatwok.
her husband's house--
sambla (v) open up, unfold. opim.
sawe (v) lean. slip long.
sambo (n) personal signal (esp. of garamut).
seklem (n) smile with teeth clenched. lap
pisin bilong man (long garamut).
na soim tit.
samra (n) noise. nois.
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sel (n) lungs. wait lewa, banis win. simba selwando (n) short outer wall posts
selefe (v) get off track. abrus. for roof overhang. liklik pos bilong
selmbo (n) frothy water (bubbly). wara i ausait long sapotim rup.
surik. sinda (v) open wide, spread out wide. opim
selwando [aka+] (n) side wall post of ground olgeta.
house. pos bilong sait long haus. singlili senglele (v) make a rucus (birds and
semra (v) pull up (plants). kamautim (ol bats). pairap (ol pisin).
sayor). sir (n) name. nem.
sen (n) powder. paura. sir kaha (n) bad variant name (used as
sengeta ['sengeta, a+] (n) skin of yam etc.. reprimand). nem nogut.
skin yam. sir nalingi (n) good variant name (used as
sengu (v) be angry, frown. mekim pes greeting). gutpela nem.
tudak, belhat. sir ra towi [nokora +] (v) brag. bikmaus.
ser (v) go first. go pastaim. sirfako (adj) nauseous. bel i tantanim. --
ser kuta (n) spear. spia. about to throw up--
sere (n) trading partner. poroman bilong siri (v) for jelly to harden. saksak i kamap
tret. --person who was formerly an enemy-- strong.
sere [sure, +aku = break in half, K = bri] (v) break siri [K = yufuka yiri] (v) die, kill, faint, be sick.
into pieces. brukim i go long planti hap. dai, kilim i dai, sik, pundaun.
sere aku (v) break in half. brukim i go long siri gru gru (n) malaria. malaria.
hap. siri sau (n) sensitive plant. mamosa.
seseme (n) stick used to support growth of siri sere (v) break into pieces. brukim long
mami vines. stik long sapotim mami. planti hap.
si (v) fetch water. kisim wara. siri sure (v) feel weak. pilim wik. --cf. siri sere--
si (v) wash sago. wasim saksak. sirka (n) leaf or frond. lip.
sifi (n.f.) ant. anis. sirka bungu (n) spine of large leaf. nil bilong
sifingi (n) garbage pile. hip rabis. bikpela lip.
siki (n) hole (small). liklik hul. sirka melulu (n) thorn on frond. ton long lip.
siki termu (n) grave, cemetery. matmat, hul sirki (n) trivet for clay pot (Garfu). plet
bilong matmat. bilong sospen graun (Garfu). --made
sili (v) line up, lay out. lainim. from aran leaves--
simba (n) post. pos. sisi [+i] (v) poop. pekpek.
simba bor (n) central house post. bikplela sisi humbu (n) diarrhea. pekpek wara.
pos long haus. sisi ki okwe nuwa (v) stick butt out. putim
simba nawa (n) large inner support posts beksait i go aut.
for roof. bikpela pos long sapotim rup. sisi ki tombo (n) anus. as pekpek.
siti (v) remove garbage. rausim pipia.

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siwoku (v) trick, pretend, act as if. trik, su (n) entrails, feces, bottom. bel, beksait,
giaman. pekpek.
siwri sauwro (adj) pack up in preparation to su (n) flower. plaua.
leave. kisim ol samting long wokabaut. su (pro) she. em (meri). --3SG.F--
so (v) lick. klinim long tang. su aka (n) toilet house. haus pekpek.
sofo (n.b.) snake. snek. su aye (n) buttocks. as.
sofu [K = sufu] (v) blow on as part of spell. su baya (n) waist, kidney. bel, kidni.
winim wantaim poisin. su boro emefa (adj) naked. as nating.
soko sako (adj) check out, inspect, evaluate. su fur (v) fart. kapupu.
skelim (lukim antap na daunbilo). su gumbo (n) tailbone. bun bilong as bilong
sokwe (v) untie, unstring bow. lusim (rop, kakaruk.
banara). su gumbu (n) stomach (internal). bel
sokwro (v) stir hardened sago jelly. (insait).
taintainim saksak i strong pinis. su kur (n) large intestine. bikpela bel
solka [K = sol] (v) light brown, beige, gray, old (insait).
(plant material). braun, olpela lip. su sumbu (n) tail feathers. gras bilong as
solo (n) twigs, small branches. liklik han pisin.
diwai. su tombo (n) feces. pekpek.
sombo (v) spit. spetim. sufongo (v) put clothes on. putim klos.
sombu (adj) empty. stap nating. sufuw (v) stir sago liquid. tainim saksak.
somo (n) small piece. liklik hap. sukna (v) sleep, lie down, placed in a flat
somo baye (n) small tuft of grass. liklik hap position. silip, sindaun, putim i go
gras. olsem.
songo sango (adj) itchy/scratchy. skrap. sukrate (v) trip. pundaun.
sorflo (n) big hole to shoot arrow through. sukwle (n) mortar. malu malu long banisim
hul long sutim banara. haus. --often mud--
sorna (v) become untied. kamap lus pinis. sul (n) ground, brown. graun, braun.
sorndo [K = kuw] (v) cut or slice quickly. sul au (n) clay pot. sospen graun.
katim hariap. sul awa [+tuku] (n) boundary marker. tanget
soro (v) regret, be upset. sori. long makim graun.
sou (n) band for holding tight, also sul bombo (n) motor vehicle. ka.
armband. bilas bilong han. sul dil (n) mud, mushy ground. supgraun.
sowe (v) loosen. i lus. sul dinglan (n) small flying ant. liklik anis i
sowe tii (v) loosen and throw away. i lus na plai.
rausim. sul fi (v) root around. lukluk long ol
sowur sowur [K = kinnglu kinnglu] (adj) stagger, samting.
slither, stretch out. wokabaut krungut, sul fiki (n) boundary marker. tanget long
suruk, taitim. makim graun. --usually a plant--

485
sul foko (n) mud, dust, dirt. graun sungutu (v) saw. so. --of bamboo--
malumalu, dus, graun. sungutu yangutu (adj) giant beetle species.
sul foko mambu ningi [sul foko+] (n) muddy bikpela binatang bilong kaikai lip.
water (from digging). graun malu malu sungwal (v) snap. nois long tupela pinga.
long digim. --kasa/kwesu to describe color-- sunngu [sunngu tombo] (n) stove. stov.
sul fra wunsondo (v) angry. bel hat. --beat at sur nu ene aka (n) good time feelings/talk.
the ground as an expression of anger-- gutpela tok. --literally: "You ate my feces."--
sul kre (n) colored dirt. graun i gat kala. sur sur (adj) long, heavy rain. bikpela rain.
sul kulfo kur [kur] (n) millipede species. kain sure (v) break, fall (of a tree). katim, diwai
binatang. pundaun.
sul kurkur (n) dirt. graun. surmun (adj) brittle. klostu i bruk.
sulfo (n) small yam. liklik kaku. surna (n) coldness of morning (dew etc.).
sulu (n) dirt rubbed on a surface. graun i kol long moning.
putim long skin o limbum. --skin or suru (v) turn around and go back, mix up in
limbum-- pot. tanim na go, tanim wantaim.
suma [su'ma] (n) voice, sound, question. nek, susu (v) be standing up. sanap.
nois, askim. susu [kufu+] (v) weave rope. wokim rop.
suma bango (n) lies. giaman. susu sowur (v) stand and stretch. sanap na
suma kaha yoko rumbo [+tamar] (n) taitim.
behavior. pasin. suw (v) set out on leaf (as a placemat).
suma kute (n) stomach noise. bel i pairap. putim samting long lip. --of flat objects--
suma langi (n) mouth. maus. suw (v) coil. raunim.
suma timba (adj) quiet, mute. no gat nois, suwa (n) leg, bottom (bow, kundu drum).
maus pas. lek, aninit (long banara, kundu).
sumba [+tii = wipe self off] (v) clean things, suwa (n) coconut. kokonas.
naked. samting i klin, as nating. suwa aku tombo (n) ankle. skru bilong lek.
sumraya (intj) pay attention, "look what suwa ama (n) pole for hanging dry
happened". lukim gut. coconuts. stik long hangamapim drai.
sumbu (v) follow. behainim. suwa bela (n) calf (of leg). baksait bilong
sumbu kumba (n) plant species. kain sayor. lek.
sun (n) powder. paura. suwa bli (n) large, open sore. bikpela sua i
sun go (v) extinguish, go out. mekim paia i gat wara.
dai, paia (yet) i dai. suwa bow turari (n) partially ripe coconut
sungamba [sun'gamba] (n) legend, story. (beginning to dry). kokonas (drai).
stori. suwa dika (v) sit on egg (as bird). putim kiau
sungel (n) hip joint. bun antap bilong lek. (sindaun long).
sungre (n) embers (esp. mixed with ashes). suwa du (n) knees (back). skru bilong lek
liklik paia i stap long ol sit. (baksait bilong em).

486
suwa fan (n) coconut sapling. kuru. suwa wurngen (n) ankle bone. bun bilong
suwa fi (n) coconut milk. wara bilong skru bilong lek.
kokonas. suwa yel (n) shoot of coconut. kuru, pikinini
suwa fli fle [lesu+] (v) swing feet. surik ol lek. kokonas (long planim).
suwa fol (n) footprint. mak bilong fut. suwa yomo (n) solid interior of coconut
suwa gaia (n) small intestine. liklik bel after shoot has emerged. insait bilong
(insait). kokonas taim liklik diwai i kam ausait.
suwa gilombo (n) thigh. antap bilong lek. suwku (n) upper body (chest, back,
suwa gisi (n) toenail, bird's foot. kapa stomach). bun bilong baksait.
bilong pinga bilong put, put bilong suwla (v) share food. tilim kaikai.
pisin. suwri sauron (adj) pack up. bungim ol
suwa glongu (n) failed fruiting body (large). samting.
prut i no kamap bikpela pinis. suwruw (v) mix together. tanim wantaim.
suwa gumbo (n) green coconut. kulau. --
ready to drink-- T
suwa guwl (n) knee. skru bilong lek. ta (v) bite. kaikaim.
suwa kulko lendo (n) coffin. bokis bilong ta [oku tol+] (v) dam river. pasim wara.
daiman. ta ar [tama+] (v) cannibalize. kaikai man.
suwa kwaina ra (v) lift feet when sitting. ta grambi a (v) split bamboo lengthwise.
apim lek taim sindaun. brukim mambu.
suwa lako (n) toe. put. tafa (v) break, cut open coconut. brukim,
suwa lombo (n) foot. fut. opim kokonas. --used with garamut--
suwa meke (n) coconut meat. kopra. tafa ki (v) hug. amamas na raunim man.
suwa om (n) thigh. antap bilong lek. tafirsa (v) remove sago/coconut leaves.
suwa roho (n) ulcer, foot callous. bikpela kisim ol lip bilong diwai kokonas o
sua. saksak.
suwa solka (n) dry coconut, used in tahu (v) remove a section of wood. rausim
cooking. drai kokonas. hap diwai.
suwa tasu (n) shoe. su. --novel creation-- tai (v) block with body, inhale smoke. pasim
suwa tongo [lesu re sirimr] (n) one leg. i gat wantaim bodi, smuk.
wanpela lek tasol. take (v) lift or tear out with mouth, insert in
suwa wafu (n) heel. baksait bilong lek. roof. kisim wantaim maus, putim i go
suwa wangalambo (n) half green/half dry insait long rup.
coconut. kokonas drai. --used for cooking take miti (v) pray to masalai (ask leinency
only--
from trespass). toktok long ol masalai.
suwa wangwarama (n) coconut stem. stik
take nuku (v) trail someone. behainim hait.
bilong lip bilong kokonas.
take tiri (v) insert in roof. putim i go insait
long rup.
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taki [+tukta/tokmbo = carry rolled up] (v) tie to tama tawa [K = wolom] (n) people. ol
carry. pasim (rop) long karim. manmeri.
takorko tiri (v) get snagged. i pas. tama tombo (n) bachelor. man i no marit. --
takra (v) break open. brukim. tawa tombo--
takre (v) prepare self for singsing. redim tama toura (n.m.) son. pikinini man.
man yet long singsing. --abstain from tama yelndam kana ekuka i tawas (n)
meat and large yams, no garden work-- prostitute. pamuk meri.
taku [oku+ = water's edge, kom+ = village taman (phr) you're a good man. boi stret.
boundary] (n) chin, jawbone, bill of bird, tambangi (v) hold on (in tree etc.). holim
edge. wasket, tit bilong pisin, arere. gut.
taku tongo (v) chin slap, used as a greeting. tambenge (v) cut open top to drink. katim
salut, ol i paitim wasket. long dring.
taku wango (n) cheek. sait bilong pes. tamblakan (n) small bush. liklik diwai.
takwlu (v) stretch out (string, etc.), string tambo (v) bring (a person) along, together.
bow. taitim (banara). kisim (man) i kam, wantaim.
takwruwru (v) scoop (small objects). tanenger a (v) clear throat. kliaim nek.
savolim. tangel (v) draw a bow. pulim rop banara.
talma (v) light a fire with kindling. laitim tangor (v) track quietly. behainim hait.
paia wantaim ol liklik stik. tanku [+lisi] (v) cut a rope, chop, break down
talo (v) remove skin in sections. rausim skin a house. katim rop, brukim haus olgeta.
haphap. tanku a (v) bite (a piece off). kaikaim (liklik
tam (v) chew, cut branch. kaikaim, katim hap).
han diwai. tanngu [K = gram] (v) cover with lid.
tama (intj) greeting. halo. karamapim wantaim tuptup.
tama (n) man, person. man. tare (v) shine, be bright in color. i lait, kala
tama algan (n) fly. lang. kala. --esp. moon and stars--
tama amba (n) crazy person. longlong man tarmbe (adj) wild (of pigs). wail (olsem pik).
o meri. tarmbo [K = tikin] (v) sharpen bone or spear.
tama kaha mender (adj) stubborn. bikhet. sapim bun o spia.
tama lakar (n) head man. hetman. tasu (v) step on, lower into. sanap antap
tama likir kau aku (n) wart. buk. long, putim i go daun.
tama meke (n) upper body (chest, back, tasu burku (v) step on (dry leaves, etc.).
stomach). bros na bel na baksait. daunim fut.
tama mu kuwar [ka tama mu kuwak nawar] (n) tasu gwrusu (v) hobbled walk. no inap long
corpse. man i dai pinis. wokabaut gut.
tama nuwar (n) generous. man bilong tate (v) remove from fire. rausim long paia.
givim. tati (v) listen carefully/closely. harim gut.
tausi (v) bite (not chew). kaikaim.

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tawa (n.f.) woman, wife. meri. tengle (v) split in long object (river, branch,
tawa laka atas meyeyas (v) moonrise. mun etc.). stretpela samting i gat tupela hap
i kamap. bilong em (diwai, wara).
tawa mus (n) first wife (in plural marriage). tengur (n) wild cane grass. wail pitpit. --like
namba wan meri (bilong man i gat Wuwr--
planti meri). ter gila (n) clothes, dressing. ol laplap.
tawa ya sumbu (n) second wife (in plural ter so (adj) bald. kela.
marriage). namba tu meri (bilong man i ter wando (n) skull. bun bilong het.
gat planti meri). terfa (n) head, highest point (bow, kundu
tawa yen (n.f.) daughter. pikinini meri. drum). het, antap (bilong banara,
tawi [+ rete = escape] (v) get out of the way. kundu).
klirim rot. terfa duwyeyan (n) bow down. baut. --ene
tawo (v) turn sago. taintainim saksak. kufe ikiyan--
tawul (n) tongue. tang. terfa kurkurmbu (n) hair (gray). gras (klostu
tawul bleu a (v) stick tongue out at s.o.. waitpela).
givim tang. --rapidly, as a snake-- terfa manda (n) headache. pen bilong het.
te (pro) her. long em (meri). --3SG.F.OBJ-- terfa sal (n) dandruff. pipia sking long het.
te hema kama tolo nali (v) ridicule. terfa tisi (v) comb. komim.
giamanim. terfa yefa (n) back of neck. baksait bilong
tei (n) platform for drying meat over fire. nek.
bet bilong mekim abus i drai. teri lako (v) change face (magic, etc.).
tekwle (n) worm. liklik snek. senisim pes.
tekwle waki (n) bruise. liklik buk. termu (n) pile. hipim.
telako si (v) spit. spet. ternngu (v) cut small trees or branches,
tele (n) outcropping, sheer rock. hap ston i slice quickly. katim ol liklik han diwai.
kamaut long maunten. tete (n.b.) term of respect for an older
tele (v) divine via tapping. skelim long sibling (esp. first born). wot long
paitim liklik. --ancestor or dead person-- belgutim bikbrata o biksusa.
tele ari (n) foot of mountain. as bilong ti [oku+] (n) flood. haiwara.
maunten. ti wuta ta wuta (v) bite and break skin.
tele sumbu (n) space or declivity at foot of kaikaim na brukim skin.
mountain. arere long maunten. tii [sti i, ra+] (v) throw away, brush away.
tembe (n.m.) bed, bench, table. bet, bens, tromoi.
tebol. tii tu ya (v) put here and there. putim i go
ten (v) braid rope, repair damaged vine. long planti hap.
mekim rop, stretim rop i bruk pinis. tikin [suwa+ = remove sliver] (v) remove rind.
tenge (n) branch. han diwai. rausim skin.

489
tikir na (v) move quickly out of the way. i go tingwara [+tii] (v) push a person down or out
hariap. (esp. hard). sakim man i go daun.
tikorfo (n) sweep away (esp. with foot). tinol tanol [u+] (v) burn a hole. wokim hul
brumim. --ashes, etc.-- long paia.
tikorko (v) hiccup, burp. liklik kus. tiri [[cut]+ = not cut all the way] (v) leave alone,
tikorko (v) insert in roof (bones from food). let, allow. larim em i stap.
putim insait long rup (ol bun bilong tiri lako (n) face. pes.
kaikai). tirite (v) leave (someone). larim em (man o
tikte [tite] (v) cover, hide. karamapim, meri). --contraction of tiri rete--
haitim. tisi (v) carry on top of shoulder/in mouth
tikwa [+ama] (n) dry coconut frond used as a (animals). karim antap long sol/long
torch (small). bombom (liklik). --made maus (ol abus).
from burning bamboo-- tisi lom (n) song while carrying (pig etc.).
tikwasa [K = sara] (n) dry coconut frond used singsing long holim pik.
as a torch (large). bombom (bikpela). tisoro (v) wake someone up. kirapim.
tikwete takwete (adj) bright, colorful. i gat titi (v) run. ran.
lait o kala. tofun (v) huddle up, wrap around. raunim.
tikwiyi (n) ginger root. kawar. toina (adj) remove quickly from pain, long.
tikwlo takwlo (adj) uncooked food. kaikai i pulim hariap bilong pen, langpela. --
no kuk. Kafle only--
tilse (v) fall, drop, pull out. larim em tokmbo (v) carry around shoulder (like a
pundaun, rausim. bilum/net bag). karim long sol (olsem
timba (v) not have, not be here, empty. no bilum).
stap, no inap long painim. toko (v) dig with a stick (esp. to plant pitpit,
timba kamba (adj) unable to do something, taro, banana). digim wantaim stik (long
blind. noken, aipas. plainim pitpit, taro, banana).
timran tamran (adj) split (fabric, limbum). toko [K = tuwar] (v) play garamut (large
ripim (laplap, limbum). traditional drum). paitim garamut.
timringi tamringi (adj) ruined, about to tokundu (v) stunted growth, body part that
collapse. bagarap. is asleep. i no kamap olgeta, han o fut i
tindu tandu (adj) dark, blind. tudak, aipas. slip.
tingil [tin'gil, +na] (n) water for cooking sago tol (n) headwater, north. not.
that is too cold. kolwara bilong kukim tolo (v) say, tell. tok, spik.
saksak. tolo eloko barna tamar (n) good behavior.
tingir tangir (adj) rush, sled down. ran, go gutpela pasin.
daunbilo hariap. tolo eloko tamar (n) judge. skelim.
tingre tangre (adj) erupt with light (as in tolo erfa [K = tolo tu] (v) explain, inform. tok
embers). lait, pairap. klia.

490
tolo nambuko (v) argue heatedly. resis long touso (v) remove frond from stem, split
toktok. frond in half. rausim ol lip bilong sakak
tolo sengu [+ginfa yoko, K = tarndo] (v) gossip. o kokonas, hapim lip.
tok baksait. towi (v) stack, hold up. hipim, holim.
tolo sengu barna (v) humiliate. tok nogut towur [towi, K = tisi, wur] (v) throw
long arapela. down/back. tromoi daun.
tombo (adj) short, dull blade, tree trunk, tu (pro) she, diminuitive (obsolete). em
broken limb, etc.. liklik naip, as bilong (liklik meri), (ol i no tok olsem nau). --
diwai. --incomplete or partial main part-- 3SG.DIM--
tombo [+mender = beginning] (adj) end point tu (v) put inside (hole, etc.), swing axe.
(beginning, end, bottom, back, putim i go insait (hul), holim tamiok.
downstream, south). pinis, daunbilo, tu [suwa/lesu+ = stretch] (v) throw. tromoim.
baksait. tu tii (v) throw away. rausim.
tombo lakam (n) family. famili. tu tiri (v) put in. putim i go insait.
tomre (v) say goodbye. tok gutbai. tufa (v) remove caterpillars (from tree
tongo (v) hold. holim. bark). rausim ol katapila (long skin
tongo bango (v) change one's mind. tanim diwai).
bel. tufarna [wafu+] (v) change mind. senisim
tongo burku (v) crack open (betelnuts etc.). tingting.
opim (buai). tufrasi (v) stop in the middle of something,
tongo durna (v) hold tight. holim strong. change plans. brukim namel.
tongo lisi [tongo lisi tuya] (v) drag away. pulim tufu [+ra] (v) for a tree to be completely
long graun. uprooted and fall. diwai i pundaun
tongo nele (v) strangle. pasim nek bilong olgeta.
arapela. tuka (v) go down. go daunbilo.
tongo sere (v) break with hands. brukim tukarka (n) leaf used as a marker when
wantaim ol han. distributing food. lip long makim man
tori (v) look down, throw down, lower. taim bilong tilim kaikai.
lukim daun, tromoim daun, daunim. tukta [tuta] (v) carry around head
toro (v) lift from fire (pot, etc.). apim long (suspended from forehead by rope).
paia (sospen). karim long het (long rop i hangamap
toto (v) pull down tree to collect leaves. long poret).
pulim daun. tuku (v) plant stick-like object (esp. sago).
totori (v) put down. putim i go daun. -- planim stik (olsem saksak).
contraction of toto tori-- tuku towi (v) hold up something that is
toura (n) male animal. abus man. falling. sapotim sampela samting i
klostu pundaun.

491
tuku tuku (n) support crossbeam under umaka (n) edible ant species. karakum. --
floor. bim long sapotim aninit. --in bird lives in a leaf pouch attached to a tree,
blind-- edible, sm rd--
tukur (n) four days from now, four days umbu [naku umbu] (n) sago grub variety.
ago. behain long foapela de, foapela de waitpela snek bilong saksak. --2 in, bl,
i go pinis. has wings, edible--
tukwra (v) scratch (like chicken), rake up. uwfu (n) sweat. swet.
skarapim (olsem kakaruk), rekim. uwku (n) sugar cane. suga.
tul (v) plant by inserting directly in ground.
planim i go long graun. W
tulei tulei (adj) tip toe. wokabaut long finga wa (grm) irrealis. wot i gat mining "taim
bilong fut. bipo". --IRR--
tulku (v) pluck (fruit/seeds). kisim prut. wa kwre ya (v) vomit. trautim.
tulna [+aku] (v) run away. ranawe. waa (adj) cultivated, domestic. bilong ples.
tumu muna (v) kiss noise, hiss noise. nois wafu [+toura, K = kiri] (n) central body part
bilong kis o bilong snek. (heart, lungs, liver, palm, sole). hap i
tunbu (v) shake. seksekim. stap namel (klok, banis win, lewa, han,
turku (v) become loose. i lus. fut).
turon tauron (adj) collapse. pundaun. wafu boi boi (adj) full of love. laikim olgeta.
tuwra [ra+] (v) throw down, throw out. wafu hiki (v) love. laikim. --wafu RDP for
tromoi i go daun, rausim. intensity--
tuyal (v) throw straight. tromoim stret. wafu kana (adj) smart. i gat save.
wafu kau (n) good notion. gutpela tingting.
U wafu toura (n) spleen. lewa.
wafu wendu (v) short of breath. sotwin.
u (v) cook, begin to boil (intr), glow. kukim,
wafu wuya (v) short of breath. sotwin.
wara i boil.
wafuw (n.f.) male cousin's wife, maternal
u (v) swollen (when used with body part).
uncle's wife. meri bilong pikinini bilong
solap.
smolpapa, meri bilong pikinini bilong
u groto (v) burnt. i paia pinis.
brata.
uhu [oho] (intj) acknowledgement, yes. mi
wahai (v) clear, clean, completely. klia, klin,
harim, yes. --intonation = rising, falling--
olgeta.
uhunta (intj) okay. orait.
wai wai [wai] (intj) wait, not yet. wet, i no
uhwu (intj) acknowledgement, no. mi
yet. --"I'm not sure."--
harim, nogat. --rising, falling/rising--
waingu (v) flap (wings), blow, twirl, make
uklu maklu (adj) flower of taro, bruise.
noise, signal to come. winim, raunim,
plaua bilong taro, liklik buk.
tok kam. --signal is hand back towards
addressee, fingers down--

492
waki [K = yama, tuku] (v) cover (dress a wanda (v) open a basket or net bag. opim
wound, build a fence, wrap small basket o bilum.
things). karamapim, karamapim sua, wanda lako (n) potato species. kaukau.
wokim banis, raunim. wandi [K = si] (n) thin shell (small coconut,
wako bor bor (n) underwater. aninit long egg), lay an egg. liklik sel (kokonas,
wara. kiau), putim kiau.
wakre (v) wear around neck (child with wando (n) thick shell (beetle, cap on insect,
arms around neck, necklace), climb on coconut, egg). bikpela sel (binatang,
(inan.). werim i go long nek (pikinini kokonas, kiau).
long baksait, bis), kalap long. wanembuka ['wane'mbuka] (n.b.) great-
wakre busu busu (n) pull down leaves. grandchild. bubu pikinini, tumbuna.
rausim ol lip. wanga lako (n) necklace. bis. --made from
waku (n) leftovers. hap kaikai. wanga seeds--
wal (n.f.) tall ginger. gorgor. --stick used in wangorama (n) outer spine of coconut
battle, light citrus-- frond spine. ausait hap bilong bun
wal aka dumbu (n) sago shed. liklik haus bilong lip bilong kokonas.
bilong saksak. --built near sago site for wangu [fu+ = make a promise] (v) surround,
protection from rain, no walls-- wind around. raunim.
wala (n.b.) dog. dok. wangul (n) pointy end of garamut. as bilong
wala gusu (n) back of neck. baksait bilong garamut.
nek. wani [wanims dir] (n.b.) second spouse (after
wala gusu [K = wakimba] (v) climb on back. go death of first). namba tu man o meri
antap long baksait. (taim namba wan i dai pinis).
wala kwiyi (n) beetle with large front wansinango (n) stem of Same leaf. han
pincers. binatang (i gat bikpela tit). bilong lip ton.
walanga (v) make a path. mekim rot. wanwanta (n) deaf. yau pas.
walingi (n.f.) crab, turtle. kuka bilong wara, war [K = ko] (v) go down, rub (on skin). go
trausel. --large variety (2ft) lives in rivers, daun, rabim (long skin).
edible-- war saklo (n) cockroach. kokoros, kakalak. --
walko (n) rooster comb, red in color, 2 varieties: bl, stinks when killed; sm in
hibiscus. plaua bilong kakaruk, retpela, house--
kain plaua. war susu (v) sun to set. san i go daun.
walma (n.b.) beetle. binatang (bilong kaikai wara (n) father's mother's father or
lip). --sm and not flat, lives in wood-- spouse's father's father. bubu.
walndo (n) yam. yam. wara (n) great- (greatgrandfather, etc.). bik-
wan gala (n) dry skin of coconut. drai skin (olsem bikpapa).
bilong kokonas. --used for fires-- waran (n) grass skirt. purpur.
wan gre (v) ripe from sun. mau long san. ware (n) star. sta.

493
ware nembe gwrara (n) Milky Way. ol liklik werko (post) far side of something, far
sta. away. sait, longwe.
wari (n) orphan, widow. wanpis. --single werngu (v) pull apart. brukim namel.
parent as well-- wi (v) go up, pick a coconut. go antap, kisim
waska (adj) little. liklik. --Kafle only-- kokonas.
wasune ['wasune] (n) bush species. kain liklik wi (v) drop into a hole (to plant yam or
diwai. mami). planim yam o mami.
wasune belmun (n) headdress. bilas bilong wi nuwa (v) give birth. karim pikinini.
singsing (i go long het). --made from wil (n) mark, footprint. mak bilong fut.
seeds and flowers of these two plants-- wilingi ['wilingi] (n) nose. nus.
wate (v) for rain to fall. ren i pundaun. wilingi siki (n) nostril. hul bilong nus.
wate blangi (n) breadfruit cone. kon bilong wilti wulte (adj) wrinkle. baret.
kapiak. wir (v) roll (make thread for clay pot). rabim
watefa (n) pit (of seed). ston bilong sit. (wokim liklik rop long sospen graun).
wau (n) stomach (external). bel (ausait). wira (n) enemy, non-wantok. birua.
wauk na (v) be pregnant. karim pikinini. wirki [RDP] (adv) always. oltaim.
waye (v) stack, insert leaves into roof, wirngin wurngun (adj) twisted. krumgut
decorate armband. haphapim, putim lip (long han).
i go insait long rup, bilasim han. wisiki [wiski] (n) armband. bilas bilong
weinbeni (n) similar to limbum (palm bark). singsing (i go long han). --made from
olsem limbum. vine, leaves, and flowers--
weke (n) clay. strongpela graun. wiyi (n.f.) bee. bi.
weke somo (n) clay shards. liklik hap wiyi (v) wash face or body. wasim pes o
strongpela graun. bodi.
wele (v) wear, dress, add color, decorate. wla (v) pop out. kamaut.
werim, pasim klos. --mud used as wle [RDP] (n) flame. tang bilong paia.
decoration-- wo ho ha (phr) yes in response to
welku [suma+] (n) bark used in spell or to statement or question regarding where
protect a barrier. skin diwai long poisin one is going. tok yes taim sampela i
o long banisim tanget. --cf. huma fatu, askim yu long yu go we.
causes sickness--
wokra wokra (n) spikes on an animal. ton
welku fa tu (v) SEE welku. LUKIM welku.
bilong abus.
welmbe (n) truth, agreed. tru, trupela.
wol (n) sago frond, shoulder joint. lip bilong
wendu (adj) heavy. hevi.
saksak, hap bilong sol. --used as a shield
wenga (adj) many in kind. planti. --cf. kaha when placed crossways--
kana--
wol gu (n) cover self with shield.
wera (adj) poor. tarangu. --not having
karamapim wantaim banis.
possessions or land--

494
wondo (v) burn off animal's fur. kukim gras wur susu (n) sunset. sandaun.
bilong abus. wur wra (v) evade in circular pattern.
wor (v) tie on (to a stick or spear). pasim ranawe raun raun.
(long stik o spia). wur yen (n) shavings. ol liklik hap ston. --
worfa (n) afternoon. apinun. stone or metal--
worna (n) in a straight line. stretpela. wurfoto (v) small scratch (of skin). liklik
woro (n) tomorrow. tumora. skrap (long skin).
wosu [fer+ = mosquito net, felnde+ = nest] (n) wurmu (v) make level ground (break rocks).
small house for insects or animals. liklik stretim graun (brukim ol ston).
haus bilong binatang o pik. --umaka wurngen [lesu+] (n) vein. rop long han.
(ants)-- wurngun (adj) tangled. paul pinis.
wosu (v) pull, pull down (of vines). kisim ol wuron (v) pull down (vines from above).
rop. rausim rop i go daun.
wou (n) spirit, shadow, reflection. spirit, wursa (n) bark of sago palm. skin saksak.
tewel. wurso (v) stab into to carry. karim wantaim
wra (v) come in, go out. kam insait, go stik.
ausait. wursu [K = fusur] (n) fence. banis.
wra ni (v) deliver a baby. karim pikinini. wuskwra [+tama] (n) thief. stilman.
wre (v) shine (of sun), heat up. san i lait, i wusor [RDP] (v) shake, dump out (as to
hat. empty). surikim hariap, kapsaitim.
wro (v) pluck. kisim. wusu (v) play (flute etc.). winim mambu.
wru wru (v) pull. pulim. wusu wusu (v) rope burn. skin i bagarap
wul (v) squeeze, wring out, churn (earth). long rop. --as in limbum basket--
rausim wara, holim tait. wusukwa [+ra] (v) steal. stilim.
wul dondo (v) express fluid from animal wusunal (n) glue for kundu drum. laim
intestines. rausim wara long bel bilong bilong kundu.
abus. wuta [K = buku buku] (v) cut in pieces, split
wul wul (v) drizzle. liklik ren. lengthwise. katim long planti hap,
wula [K = mandika akat] (n) jungle (bush). bus. ripim.
wule nungusa (n) Pleiades. yar. --when you wutu (n) sago chute (for washing sago),
see it, it's the new year (November)-- sago branch. bet long wasim saksak,
wulmbo (v) remove liquid from a long han bilong saksak.
skinny object (finger, etc.). rausim wara wutu (n) felled sago stump. diwai saksak i
long longpela samting. pundaun pinis.
wungusu (v) tie a knot. pasim. --used when wuwr (n) edible cane grass. pitpit.
making portable coconut-- wuwr (v) go outside. go ausait.
wur (n) stone axe. tamiok long ston. wuya (v) come up. kam antap.
wur kon (n) small corn. liklik kon. --wur
(Mehek) + kon (TP)--
495
Y yefane (adj) thin. bun nating.
yekle (adj) young. yangpela. --often with
ya (v) come. kam.
connotations of energetic or adventurous--
yaki (n) two days ago. tu de i go pinis.
yekle amba (n) empty headed young
yaku (n.f.) paternal grandmother. bubu meri
person. yangpela man o meri i no gat
bilong papa.
senis.
yal [K = yau] (v) go flat, go straight. go stret.
yel (n) sapling (ready for planting). liklik
yale [K = yele] (n) yesterday. asde.
diwai redi long planim. --ready to plant--
yalwun [K = yalwan] (n) sago scraping tool.
yelnda (adj) all, many. olgeta, planti.
skrap bilong saksak.
yelnda oku [K = yelnda ohu] (n) everybody.
yam (n) banana. banana.
olgeta manmeri.
yam blafo (n) petals which cover banana
yema (v) measure. metaim.
heart. kep bilong banana. --pinkish-red
yema kufa [nambe+] (adj) good time (for
color--
something). gutpela taim (long wokim
yam kino (n) banana heart, infloresence.
sampela samting).
hat bilong banana.
yema kufa nambe (v) a really good time.
yam landu (n) earwig. binatang i gat
gutepla taim tru.
bikpela tit.
yembu [K = hembu] (v) cradle in hands. holim
yam lombo kufu (n) dry spine of banana
long tupela han.
leaf which falls down. stik bilong lip
yen (n.b.) child, niece or nephew. pikinini,
banana i pundaun.
pikinini bilong brata o susa.
yam ter kamba (n) highest ring of banana
yen kufu (n) sling to carry child. rop long
growth. hap banana i kamap antap tru.
karim pikinini.
yam wanafa (n) bare stem connecting to
yen timba tawas (n) barren. i no gat
banana heart. stik i go long hat bilong
pikinini.
banana i no gat prut.
yen/gasiwa rokot rar (v) incest. tanim plet.
yama (v) sew together. samapim. --thorn and
yiflondo (v) breathe heavily, be out of
vine--
breath. sotwin.
yar taka (n) double leaf split apart. lip i gat
yiflou yiflou (n) earthquake. guria.
tupela hap. --used when making an arrow
head-- yikte (v) remove s.t. which is hanging.
yau (n.f.) wife of nandasi. meri bilong rausim ol samting i hangamap.
nandasi. yikwa (n) salt. sol.
yawo [+kawo] (v) look up. lukim antap. yikwa gan (n) beach. nambis.
yefa (n) bone, muscle, firm support (as in yikwa oku (n) ocean water. solwara.
plants). bun, mit, strongpela sapot yikwa sun (n) salt made with water. sol i
(bilong ol diwai). wokim wantaim wara. --eaten with
greens--
yefa kana (adj) strong. strongpela.
yefa timba (adj) weak. wik.

496
yikwa tate (n) salt made without water. sol yoko (post) towards. long (go long).
i wokim i no gat wara. --eaten with fruit-- yoko yoko (n) every side. olgeta sait.
yilo (v) cover (self). karamapim (man yet). yokondambe lesu [yokolesumbutu, yokondafe
yim (n) two days from now. behain long lesu] (num) five (5). faiv (5).
tupela de. yokwle (v) spoil. bagarap.
yimau (v) rotate or flip (food while yokwro (v) cover up. karamapim.
cooking). tanim kaikai. yomar (v) yawn, be tired. han i pas.
yinal [RDP] (adj) slanted, at an angle. i no yombo (grm) while. taim (sampela wss).
stret. --SIM--
yinawe (n.f.) earthquake. guria. yombo mesu [[verb]+] (v) feel like. tingting
yindi kundu (adj) stubborn. bikhet. strong (long samting).
yingwe (n.m.) coconut shell (large), plate, yomne (v) finish (food, work etc.). pinisim
bowl. sel kokonas (bikpela), plet. (kaikai, wok).
yinsawa (n.f.) son's wife, grandson's wife. yomo [tama+] (n) scrotum. basket bilong
meri bilong pikinini man o bubu pikinini. man.
yirfi (v) fall. pundaun. yomo lako (n) testicle. bol bilong man.
yiri (v) come down, fall. pundaun, kam yoso (v) pluck out (spear, taro). rausim
daun. (spia, taro).
yiri butu (v) fall on one's face. pundaun yowul [K = yen nawar] (n.b.) namesake. wan
antap long pes. nem.
yirkwe (n) bush knife. busnaip. yowul (n.b.) maternal uncle's wife, child of
yiwara (n) ancestor. tumbuna. husband's sister. meri bilong brata
yiwi (n.b.) paternal aunt or her husband. bilong mama, pikinini bilong man
susa bilong papa, man bilong em. bilong susa.
yofo (v) cover. karamapim. yu (v) bend down. baut long.
yofu [+rete = block off] (n) sign (esp. to mark yungu (grm) in the manner of. olsem. --DEP--
forbidden territory). mak (putim yungu bangol [K = wendu sum] (v) wrap
tanget). around. raunim.
yofu rete emek wuryan (v) trespass. brukim yuwklu [kufu+] (n) vine with outer shell
tanget. removed and dried. skin rop i rausim
yoko (n) other place, opposite side. hapsait. pinis. --in preparation for use--

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Appendix C: English-Mehek Dictionary
This appendix is a bilingual dictionary with the English glosses of all Mehek words listed

alphabetically along with their Mehek glosses. This dictionary contains less information than

the main Mehek dictionary in appendix B. To see full information for a Mehek word, it is

necessary to look it up in Appendix B. Included below in the KEY are a schematic representation

of each entry showing what information is included and the formatting of each section, as well

as the abbreviations used for parts of speech.

KEY
English Word (part of speech) Mehek Word.

Abbreviations used for Parts of Speech:

adj adjective n.b. either masculine or feminine
adv adverb (based on natural gender)
cnj conjunction n.f. feminine noun
grm grammatical particle neg negative
int interrogative num numeral
intj interjection phr phrase (greeting, utterance)
loc locative rel.n relational noun
n (masculine) noun pro pronoun
v verb

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A area of medium growth (n) ongwa al oku.
argue heatedly (v) tolo nambuko.
a few (adv) dira dira.
armband (n) wisiki.
a long time ago (n) ayum.
arrange, sort, organize (v) saro.
a long time ago (adj) mili mele.
arrow tip (n) lam gwroso.
a really good time (v) yema kufa nambe.
arrow with four spears (n) lam gwroso.
accident, messed up (n) kaha kuna.
arrow with many spears (6-7) (n) lam
acknowledgement, no (intj) uhwu.
bendu.
acknowledgement, yes (intj) uhu.
arrow with one spear (n) lam opei.
adopt (v) anuwa.
arrow, thorn (n) lam.
adopt (v) raka anuwa.
ash (n) kur su.
after, later, slow (adj) awar.
ask (v) er mesu.
afternoon (n) worfa.
at the same time (adv) nakir.
agree, contract (v) ambu tongo.
axe handle (n) gome fa mu.
airplane (n) kur bombo.
all over the place (n) kom kom.
B
all, many (adj) yelnda.
all, very, too (adj) mende. bachelor (n) tama tombo.
always (adv) wirki. back (n) ginfa.
ancestor (n) yiwara. back and forth (v) na sumbu na sumbu.
ancestor (+3 generations) (n) maure. back of neck (n) kukumbu yefa.
ancestors (n) afa nanda. back of neck (n) terfa yefa.
and all the rest (of her family) (n) er sokom. back of neck (n) wala gusu.
and then (intj) klei. backbone, spine (n) kin gala bundu.
angry (adj) belo. bad (adj) kaha.
angry (adj) el kulwa tama. bad variant name (used as reprimand) (n) sir
angry (adj) moulen. kaha.
angry (v) sul fra wunsondo. bad/strong taste, stinging sensation (adj)
angry exclamation (used to get attention) kwleya.
(intj) oe. bald (adj) ter so.
angry yelling (n) nambuko. bamboo (n) ama.
animal (n) elowo. bamboo for carrying water (n) oku ama.
animal vocalization, call out (v) isi. bamboo weights for roof (n) aka gu
ankle (n) suwa aku tombo. takwlulu amam.
ankle bone (n) suwa wurngen. banana (n) yam.
ant (n) sifi. banana heart, infloresence (n) yam kino.
antenna (n) mundu fa. band for holding tight, also armband (n)
anus (n) sisi ki tombo. sou.
approaching, near (post) minba. bang together (like drumsticks) (v) doi doi.
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bare stem connecting to banana heart (n) become untied (v) sorna.
yam wanafa. bed, bench, table (n) tembe.
bark from live sago (n) galwo. bee (n) a wiyi.
bark from old sago (n) gowen. bee (n) wiyi.
bark of sago palm (n) wursa. bee hive or home of insect (n) akwa.
bark used in spell or to protect a barrier (n) beetle (n) walma.
welku. beetle (flat and round) (n) gam.
bark used to close door on inside (n) aka beetle that lives under water (n) oku dangi.
yurmu. beetle with large front pincers (n) wala
bark used to close door on outside (n) aka kwiyi.
kusu. beginning, first time, now (n) golo.
barren (n) yen timba tawas. behavior (n) suma kaha yoko rumbo.
basket (n) sara. bellybutton, umbilical cord, placenta (n)
basket for storing sago (n) sai. landu.
basket made from bamboo (n) dulsan. below (post) ari.
bat (n) aye. bend down (v) yu.
be afraid of (v) er aku. beside, near (KF) (post) inba.
be angry, frown (v) sengu. betelnut (n) mini.
be confused, wrong understanding (v) hiki between, in the middle (post) bor.
haka. big bilum for filling with beads (n) or waa.
be covered, be surrounded (v) fu ambo. big hole to shoot arrow through (n) sorflo.
be full of (v) nekna. big roots (n) mu duw.
be hungry (v) a siri. big, loud, difficult, etc. (adj) samba.
be hungry (v) ekaa wau. big, oldest child (adj) laka.
be in church, go to church (v) lotu. bird (n) felnde.
be indecisive (v) lisi lisi hikiyan. bird blind (n) felnde aka.
be poor (v) kombo ni. bird feathers used to decorate cap (n)
be pregnant (v) wauk na. kwande.
be quiet, don't cry, enough (v) dina. bite (v) ta.
be sorry, "it's okay" (v) kombo mesu. bite (a piece off) (v) tanku a.
be standing up (v) susu. bite (not chew) (v) tausi.
be upset (adj) holo wafu. bite and break skin (v) ti wuta ta wuta.
beach (n) yikwa gan. black (adj) kur.
bead with hole (n) kul okwa. blind person (n) lako timba.
bead, money (n) kul. blink (v) lako bur tanngur.
beak (n) felnde bi. blink quickly (v) lako bur bur fele fele.
become lodged in throat (v) nele. blister (n) fir mango.
become loose (v) turku. block with body, inhale smoke (v) tai.

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blood (n) kefu. break bamboo (v) buta.
blood brother (n) nakwel. break in half (v) sere aku.
blow nose (v) nindi kursu tii. break into pieces (v) minwun.
blow on as part of spell (v) sofu. break into pieces (v) sere.
blow, play flute, smoke (v) ofto. break into pieces (v) siri sere.
blue (adj) gurmbo. break loose, run away (v) bre.
body (n) meke. break open (v) takra.
boil (v) ara fasu. break sago powder (v) mu duko.
boil (trans) (v) kisi. break with hands (v) tongo sere.
boil water (v) oku tenge. break without severing (v) buwsu.
boiled sago (n) naku fer kisi. break, cut open coconut (v) tafa.
bone, muscle, firm support (as in plants) (n) break, fall (of a tree) (v) sure.
yefa. breast (n) muwku.
booger (n) nindi su. breathe heavily, be out of breath (v)
boundary marker (n) sul awa. yiflondo.
boundary marker (n) sul fiki. bridge (n) mu lau.
bow (n) arma. bright, colorful (adj) tikwete takwete.
bow down (n) terfa duwyeyan. bring (v) raya.
bow shaft, outside part (n) arma ginfa. bring (a person) along, together (v) tambo.
bowl (n) gwame. brittle (adj) surmun.
boys' house (n) aka tenge. broadcast (v) gowe.
brace (in roof) (n) auwrara. broom (n) masi dondo.
brag (v) sir ra towi. brother (as spoken by sister), male cousin
braid rope, repair damaged vine (v) ten. (from parent's same-sex sibling) (n)
branch (n) mu tenge. nandasi.
branch (n) mu yengla. brown pig (n) fer mir.
branch (n) tenge. bruise (n) tekwle waki.
branch (with a fork) (n) gel. bruise, squish, soup (v) blengu.
branch used as support for mami vines (n) bucket (n) oku warme.
mu mango. budding site of Kita branch (n) bangramen.
brand new (adj) golo mende. build a house (v) ki.
breadfruit cone (n) wate blangi. burn a hole (v) tinol tanol.
break (v) bu. burn off animal's fur (v) wondo.
break (v) dombe. burn, cook in or over fire (v) lisi.
break (rope) (v) balan. burnt (v) u groto.
break a leaf for food (v) brongo. burp (v) kute wiyi.
break a shoot (v) fuwol. bush (shrub) (n) mu yen.
break a vine (v) flate. bush camp (n) ongwa aka.

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bush knife (n) yirkwe. ceremonial pole used for payment of bride
bush species (n) belmun. price (n) gil.
bush species (n) wasune. change back and forth (v) filni falna.
but (grm) nar. change face (magic, etc.) (v) teri lako.
buttocks (n) su aye. change mind (v) tufarna.
change one's mind (v) tongo bango.
C chase (v) kusu.
calf (of leg) (n) suwa bela. check (if something fits, etc.) (v) hema ni.
call of mammal (intj) gwal gwal. check out, deny (v) nambe.
call to dogs (esp. while hunting) (intj) is is. check out, inspect, evaluate (adj) soko sako.
cannibalize (v) ta ar. cheek (n) taku wango.
cantilievered bed for building a large (non- chest (n) dimingi.
cooking) fire (n) bulmba aka. chew, cut branch (v) tam.
carry a child in a sling (v) fana. chewy, tough (of food) (adj) dangwen.
carry around head (suspended from child, niece or nephew (n) yen.
forehead by rope) (v) tukta. chin slap, used as a greeting (v) taku tongo.
carry around shoulder (like a bilum/net bag) chin, jawbone, bill of bird, edge (n) taku.
(v) tokmbo. chip at (v) mosu.
carry child on back, legs around neck (v) chop (break in half), cut bananas (v) oro.
okwre. chop firewood (v) kwini.
carry on top of shoulder/in mouth (animals) church (n) afa samba roko aka.
(v) tisi. claim, mark as one's own (v) auna.
carry under arm, carry in crook of elbow (v) clap (v) lesu bombo.
fendumbu. clay (n) weke.
cassowary bone used as a needle (n) felnde clay pot (n) sul au.
afu mai. clay pot (large size for sago) (n) garfu.
cassowary head ridge (n) duw basi. clay shards (n) weke somo.
caterpillar (n) owe. clean a place up (v) eme ale.
cautiously (adv) awark kandak. clean area to prepare to cut down a tree (v)
center of singsing area or of swamp (n) fel kla.
mango. clean things, naked (v) sumba.
center roof support beam (n) aka krorongo. clear ground (remove overgrowth) (v) lu
centipede (n) mundu. lako.
central area (n) nindi. clear throat (v) tanenger a.
central body part (heart, lungs, liver, palm, clear, clean, completely (v) wahai.
sole) (n) wafu. clearing (n) ongwa.
central house post (n) simba bor. clearing, in public, naked (adj) eme fa.
central part of difi instrument (n) difi el. cleft palate (n) elombo tafra.

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cliff, rough mountain (n) embleo come down, fall (v) yiri.
kahamender. come in, go out (v) wra.
climb on back (v) wala gusu. come loose and fall (v) gwal aku.
close (door) (v) kuwsu. come together (v) hauna.
cloth (n) mau liki. come up (v) wuya.
clothes, dressing (n) ter gila. compensation (related to bride price) (n) kul
clothespin (n) gwalsa. fer rete.
cockroach (n) war saklo. completely free of debris (adj) berso.
coconut (n) suwa. container (cup) (n) kelembu.
coconut bark used as seive (n) sauwa. cook on a fire wrapped in a leaf (v) fasu.
coconut meat (n) suwa meke. cook, begin to boil (intr), glow (v) u.
coconut milk (n) suwa fi. cordyline plant variety (n) durkun.
coconut sapling (n) suwa fan. cordyline plant variety (green) (n) awa
coconut shell (large), plate, bowl (n) yingwe. kumba.
coconut stem (n) suwa wangwarama. cordyline plant variety (red) (n) awa kumba
cocoon (n) ringi si. nomro.
coffin (n) suwa kulko lendo. corpse (n) tama mu kuwar.
coil (adj) bangol bangol. cough, sneeze (v) gursu.
coil (v) suw. count (v) kafu.
cold (adj) bisisi. count out exactly (v) kafu nakir.
cold (adj) nungul. cover (v) ra tanngur.
cold (food) (adj) ningli. cover (v) yofo.
cold water (adj) oku kulfo. cover (dress a wound, build a fence, wrap
coldness of morning (dew etc.) (n) surna. small things) (v) waki.
collapse (adj) turon tauron. cover (over a hole) (n) bra.
collect (Mini or Same) (v) kuw. cover (self) (v) yilo.
collect mud (v) kwro kwro. cover a hole with dirt (v) fiti.
collect or gather small objects (v) noko. cover self with shield (n) wol gu.
collect or sweep away (embers) (v) for. cover up (v) yokwro.
collect, gather, get (v) ra. cover with lid (v) tanngu.
colored dirt (n) kre sul. cover, hide (v) tikte.
colored dirt (n) sul kre. covered in fog (v) nambul gwa ki.
colorful (adj) blala. coverlet to strengthen bow shaft (n) arma
comb (n) masai. sou.
comb (v) terfa tisi. crab, turtle (n) walingi.
come (v) ya. crack knuckles (n) lesu bouna.
come after, behind (v) kina. crack open (betelnuts etc.) (v) tongo burku.
come and go, back and forth (v) fal fal. cradle in hands (v) yembu.

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crawl (v) fer nawek i. dark brown color (adj) kwesu kwiyo.
crawl (centipedes, snails...) (v) kroro. dark clouds when a big rain is coming (v)
crazy (adj) belo. kursu walaman ya.
crazy person (n) tama amba. dark, blind (adj) tindu tandu.
crescent moon (n) nekwa glengu. date (n) ningi.
cricket (n) angulma. daughter (n) tawa yen.
crocodile (n) mongur. daybreak (n) dana.
cross (v) kirfi. dead leaf (n) kumba okwe.
cross, step over (v) afrete. dead man's effects, mourning (n) muwku.
crunch, twist off (v) bur kuw. deaf (n) wanwanta.
cry (v) kra. decide (v) dinafler hiki.
cucumber species (n) bondi. decorate (v) male.
cucumber species (n) bongur. decorations (n) gwehe sayi.
cultivated, domestic (adj) waa. decorations in singsing area (n) kuso.
curvy, crooked, greedy (adj) bango. decorative vine made of linked rings (n) bol
cut (esp. deeply), cut cane grass (v) kwiyi. bol.
cut a rope, chop, break down a house (v) deep sleep (unaware) (v) mehe na.
tanku. delicious, chewy (v) nausu tanngu.
cut in half, chop repeatedly (v) gulfu. deliver a baby (v) wra ni.
cut in pieces, split lengthwise (v) wuta. dent (n) fu gun.
cut open lengthwise (v) der. dent (n) gun.
cut open top to drink (v) tambenge. dew (n) esoko.
cut or slice quickly (v) sorndo. diarrhea (n) sisi humbu.
cut out, split sago (v) gu. did you hear? (int) ka mesuya.
cut small trees or branches, slice quickly (v) die, kill, faint, be sick (v) siri.
ternngu. different (adj) kuna kuna.
cuticle (n) lesu gisi tombo. dig (yam) (v) sa.
dig with a stick (esp. to plant pitpit, taro,
D banana) (v) toko.
dam river (v) ta. dirt (n) sul kurkur.
dance (v) lom. dirt gathered on water's surface (n) blofu
dance (n) romo. kutu wakre.
dance (with food) (n) minga. dirt rubbed on a surface (n) sulu.
dance and make noise with feathers on (n) disappear, lose, scatter, wander (v) namble.
biarna. discuss back and forth, argue (v) narete.
dandruff (n) terfa sal. disobey (v) iki namra mesu.
dangerous (adj) holei. distribute, take a share from group mami
dark black skin (n) liki kur. pile (v) lofor.

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divide in half (v) bringi. dry banana spine (n) lombo.
divide mami (v) haku. dry coconut frond used as a torch (large) (n)
divide up (v) ra tii ra ti ya. tikwasa.
divine via tapping (v) tele. dry coconut frond used as a torch (small) (n)
dizzy (adj) kwar bar bar lu. tikwa.
do garden work (v) loko baye. dry coconut, used in cooking (n) suwa solka.
do in the wrong way, messed up (adj) ber dry frond shaft (n) bir.
bar. dry leaves (n) lungutu.
do in your own way (adj) bir ber. dry sago branch (n) naku bir.
do, make, use (v) eku. dry skin of coconut (n) wan gala.
dog (n) wala. dry spine of banana leaf which falls down
dog's cry (intj) hau. (n) yam lombo kufu.
domesticated pig (n) fer waa. dull side of a blade (n) maku.
don't worry, it's okay, thank you (phr) dusk (n) kurna.
manda timba.
don't... (neg) mana. E
door side frame (n) aka yurmu kusu. ear (n) namra.
door, area in front of house (n) aka kulu. ear wax (n) namra su.
double leaf split apart (n) yar taka. early morning, late afternoon (n) fu kwiyi.
downstream (n) oku tombo. earthquake (n) diwir diwir.
drag away (v) tongo lisi. earthquake (n) yiflou yiflou.
drag, pull (v) lisi. earthquake (n) yinawe.
dragonfly (n) sar bambu. earwig (n) yam landu.
draw a bow (v) tangel. east, sunrise (n) nambul wuya.
dream (n) nisuku. eat until full (v) a durna.
dressings (n) gwesai i. eat, drink (v) a.
dressings for singsing (n) osai. echo (v) natal atal.
driftwood (n) gara. eclipse (n) nul sikik wur aku.
drill (v) rondo. edge (n) lowe.
drink (v) a belna. edge, bank (n) grewe.
drizzle (v) wul wul. edges (post) gan.
drop a log, for a tree to fall (v) ifi finsi. edible ant species (n) umaka.
drop into a hole (to plant yam or mami) (v) edible cane grass (n) wuwr.
wi. edible leaves from various shrubs (n) bali.
drop, miss (a shot) (v) faina. eel (n) oku sofo.
drown (v) ra war. egg (n) felnde lako.
dry (adj) bou. either, or (adv) ben.
dry banana leaf, paper, book (n) sanglu. elbow (n) lesu guwl.
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elbow (back) (n) lesu du. fall (v) yirfi.
embers (esp. mixed with ashes) (n) sungre. fall apart, snort, oink (v) giri guro.
emerge (v) bou. fall on one's face (v) yiri butu.
emphatic, self (grm) kuna. fall straight down and stick straight up in
empty (adj) sombu. ground (adj) dil dol.
empty headed young person (n) yekle fall, drop, pull out (v) tilse.
amba. family (n) tombo lakam.
empty, alone, still, always, just (v) nawe. fan leaf which grows on tree trunks (n) dol
end of mourning (n) muwku masi. au.
end point (beginning, end, bottom, back, far side of something, far away (post)
downstream, south) (adj) tombo. werko.
enemy, non-wantok (n) wira. fart (v) su fur.
entrails, feces, bottom (n) su. fast, quickly, hurry (adv) hanganafu.
erase (v) sambu tii. fat (used as cooking oil) (n) kukwe.
erection (n) el fan. fat, cooking oil (n) kukwe.
erupt with light (as in embers) (adj) tingre father, paternal uncle (n) afa.
tangre. father's mother's father or spouse's father's
evade in circular pattern (v) wur wra. father (n) wara.
evaporate (v) ka wula aku. feather (n) felnde kulka.
every side (n) yoko yoko. feathers (n) gaie.
everybody (n) yelnda oku. feces (n) su tombo.
everything (n) bu bum. feed (v) a nuwa.
exactly in the middle (adv) bor kir kirk. feel like (v) yombo mesu.
exorcise, douse (v) nimre. feel weak (v) siri sure.
explain, inform (v) tolo erfa. feel with back of hand (v) fer klulu.
express fluid from animal intestines (v) wul felled sago stump (n) wutu.
dondo. fence (n) aka dulu.
extinguish, go out (v) sun go. fence (n) arawan.
eye (n) lako. fence (n) wursu.
eye resin (n) musun lako ene golwar. fern-like plant (n) gra.
eyebrow (n) lako musuka. ferns used to decorate spear (n) bermun.
eyelash (n) lako felnde. fetch water (v) si.
fight (v) afi nau.
F fighting (initial) (v) nambutu naruku.
face (n) tiri lako. file (knife etc.) (v) kou.
facial hair (n) gu taku. fill with water (v) liti.
failed fruiting body (large) (n) suwa glongu. find (v) fle.
failed fruiting body (small) (n) glengu. fine abrasive dust (v) gre gre.

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fingernail (n) lesu gisi. follow (v) sumbu.
finish (v) ambe. food (n) ekaa.
finish (food, work etc.) (v) yomne. food cooked with coconuts (n) a suwa.
finish altogether (v) biya. food garden (n) a nu.
fire, firewood (n) kiri. food scraps (n) liki tombo.
firefly (n) gwiyo. foot (n) suwa lombo.
firewood piece split lengthwise (n) kokul. foot of mountain (n) tele ari.
first (adj) nari. footprint (n) suwa fol.
first wife (in plural marriage) (n) tawa mus. for a lizard's tail to break off (v) furku.
first-born child (n) lakwiyi. for a tree to be completely uprooted and
fish (n) om. fall (v) tufu.
fish tail (n) okusa. for dusk to arrive (v) kurna.
fist (n) lesu yokondambe. for fire to burn out (v) mol.
five (5) (num) yokondambe lesu. for jelly to harden (v) siri.
flail (adj) di wirki di warko. for morning to break (v) dana kute.
flame (n) wle. for rain to fall (v) wate.
flap (wings), blow, twirl, make noise, signal for skin to come off in hot water (adj) bil
to come (v) waingu. bol.
flay (v) grato. for water to begin to boil (v) sa.
flicker on and off (v) dal dal. force feed (v) lu gaso.
float (v) lufau. forearm (n) lesu bela.
flood (n) ti. forearm (n) lesu gilombo.
floor crossbeams in raised house (n) aka forehead (n) mambunge.
lau. forehead tap, used as a greeting (v)
flower (n) awa. mambunge fu.
flower (n) su. forget (v) ambasu.
flower of taro, bruise (adj) uklu maklu. four (4) (num) lasifu lasifu.
flute (n) ama wusilele. four days from now, four days ago (n) tukur.
fly (n) algan. fresh, young-looking (adj) kel.
fly (v) bruru. friends who exchange food, same
fly (n) tama algan. family/clan line (n) minga kufu.
fly away, scatter (v) brena aku. frog (n) girsi.
flying ant (n) sangra fai. from, be from (post) fenda.
flying mud particles (n) au mal. frond branch (hard interior portion) (n)
fog (n) gwa. grembu.
fold (v) leferko. front teeth (n) bi sambaf.
fold leaf without breaking (v) busu. frothy water (bubbly) (n) selmbo.
fold up into bowl shape (v) dama. fruiting body (n) mondo.

507
full (adj) oule. glue for kundu drum (n) wusunal.
full (from eating) (v) a afe. glue inside tubers (v) gusa.
full growth, ready to eat (pitpit or sago) (v) go along together (adj) nambo nambo.
fa. go away (v) i.
full moon (n) nekwa tawa laka meye. go back (adv) indi.
full of love (adj) wafu boi boi. go by, be at, become, to function (v) na.
full of sores (v) gur gur nangur sa. go down (v) tuka.
funny nonsense word (intj) ormbein. go down, rub (on skin) (v) war.
fuzz, prickles (n) engurka. go first (v) ser.
go flat, go straight (v) yal.
G go home, go back (v) aku.
gallbladder (n) kwleya wafu. go hunt/chase pig (v) fer tasu i.
gap, small hole (n) ofol. go into ground, probe at (v) dun.
garamut (large traditional drum) (n) mu. go outside (v) wuwr.
garbage pile (n) sifingi. go to one's own/appropriate place, say
garden (n) nu. goodbye (ai yo) (v) masi.
garden that has been burned for planting go up, pick a coconut (v) wi.
(n) nu kursu. god (n) afa samba.
garden that has been harvested (n) nu bor. good behavior (n) tolo eloko barna tamar.
garden that has been planted (n) nu angur. good notion (n) wafu kau.
garden where all food is gone (n) ongwa good time (for something) (adj) yema kufa.
bor. good time feelings/talk (n) sur nu ene aka.
gather solids (esp. sago) (v) ou. good to eat (adj) glou.
generous (n) tama nuwar. good variant name (used as greeting) (n) sir
'get a load of him' (phr) o nir u. nalingi.
get angry (v) kiri nawek wuya. good, happy (adj) kufe.
get off track (v) selefe. goose bump (n) liki manngra.
get out of the way (v) tawi. gossip (v) tolo sengu.
get rid of (v) eku tii. gourd for carrying water (n) oku yefa.
get snagged (v) takorko tiri. grass (n) baye.
get up (from sleep) (v) sau. grass skirt (n) waran.
giant beetle species (n) gungwa. grass species (kunai) (n) dambi.
giant beetle species (adj) sungutu yangutu. grassy area at edge of village (n) alingi.
ginger root (n) tikwiyi. grate (v) kurfa.
give (v) nuwa. grave, cemetery (n) siki termu.
give birth (v) wi nuwa. great- (greatgrandfather, etc.) (n) wara.
give birth, father (v) ku. great-grandchild (n) wanembuka.
give fire (embers) (v) for nuwa. green bean (n) makwa.

508
green coconut (n) suwa gumbo. hang something (v) kwre.
green decorative fruit (n) kormo kulfo. happy (adj) kufe iki.
green, uncooked (adj) kulfo. happy behavior on arrival or departure of
greens (n) nanglu. another (phr) er kombo fa kombo.
greeting (intj) o. hard (n) mu gwa.
greeting (intj) tama. hard (surface) (n) mungwa.
greeting upon return of a friend (phr) ka harvest (mami) (v) kaku sa ra tongo.
kahar yayar a. have a child (v) krafo kute.
greeting, goodbye (phr) er numbu. have sex (v) kwla.
grind (v) bursu. have sex in an aggressive manner (adj)
ground, brown (n) sul. lermu sermu.
grow up and blossom (of yam/mami) (v) have sex with (adj) lorkwle sorkwle.
fun. have, exist, be present (v) amba.
grow, fat person (v) meye. he (pro) ru.
growl (v) gerere. head man (n) tama lakar.
grudge (n) iki naweyan re fur erka. head, highest point (bow, kundu drum) (n)
guard (v) kuna susu. terfa.
gum (n) nausu. headache (n) terfa manda.
gums (n) bi luku. headdress (adj) marko.
guria's head feathers (n) mangrangra. headdress (n) wasune belmun.
headwater, north (n) tol.
H heart (n) gwarlako.
hair (gray) (n) terfa kurkurmbu. heavy (adj) wendu.
hair (white) (n) gai. heel (n) suwa wafu.
hair, leaf, insect wing (n) kulka. her (pro) te.
half (n) emta. here (loc) kekwra.
half green/half dry coconut (n) suwa hey you (intj) i tama i.
wangalambo. hey!, you people (intj) kemela.
half moon (n) nekwa mekek na. hiccup, burp (v) tikorko.
half sago trunk (unscraped) (n) naku indi hide, cover (esp. with a leaf) (v) lendo.
mu. highest ring of banana growth (n) yam ter
halo (n) awangu. kamba.
hand (n) lesu lako. him (pro) re.
hand, arm, finger, handle (n) lesu. hip joint (n) sungel.
hang (v) kufu nele. hit (v) afi.
hang (v) lili. hit, kill, sound out (bell, thunder) (v) fu.
hang (from vine), ready to eat (with seeds) hobbled walk (v) tasu gwrusu.
(v) lei. hold (v) tongo.

509
hold hands (v) lesu na tongo. husband of child or nephew, daughter's
hold on (in tree etc.) (v) tambangi. child and spouse (n) neta.
hold tight (v) hoi. husband of gasiwa (n) nawi.
hold tight (v) tongo durna. hypocrite (n) erewe tama.
hold tucked or cradled in arms (v) hembu.
hold up something that is falling (v) tuku I
towi. I (pro) on.
hole (small) (n) siki. ignite a large fire (v) duwn.
hole in tree where water collects (n) musun. ignite fire for cooking (v) go.
hole that renders useless (as in a bowl) (n) I'm going to (pro) ana.
nol. imitate, guide, try to dance (v) samre.
hole that spoils for use (v) olfo. improve, develop (v) eneku.
hook (n) aungwa. impure (adj) musun kana na.
hooray ('ho ho ho ho') (intj) kirio. in a circle (adj) bar bar.
hop (v) girfi towi. in a straight line (n) worna.
horizontal slab in bamboo which divides in a zigzag fashion (adj) kindi kundu.
sections (n) guwsu. in tatters, full of holes (fabric) (n) ruwku.
hot (adj) maha. in the manner of (grm) yungu.
house (n) aka. in the middle (n) grou.
house built in preparation for a dance (n) incest (v) yen/gasiwa rokot rar.
minga aka. incompletely cooked (adj) mangru.
house fire, burn house down (n) aka u. inform (v) erfa.
house for menstruation (n) aka masi. in-law (n) kaha.
house frame (n) aka solo. insert in roof (v) take tiri.
how (int) biki biki. insert in roof (bones from food) (v) tikorko.
how many (int) biki saima. inside (hole or pile) (post) nuw.
huddle up (as in fetal position) (v) felmbu. inside of bow shaft (n) arma wako.
huddle up, wrap around (v) tofun. instrument used to help taro grow (n) difi.
hug (v) tafa ki. iris (n) lako yen.
humiliate (v) eloko barna. irrealis (grm) wa.
humiliate (v) tolo sengu barna. itch (n) luwnguya.
hunt (v) elowo fle. itch, scratch (n) fu gurmba.
hunt (v) elowo fu. itchy/scratchy (adj) songo sango.
hurry (adv) kukwi. it's okay, I don't mind, enough (intj) beena.
hurry up, don't dawdle (intj) hele. it's yours, keep it (phr) nokorar.
hurt (v) manda.
husband (n) nemna. J
join together (v) duwn.
510
joint (n) lesu gusu. last (in series and remaining) (adj) numba.
joint in bamboo (n) gusu. last, end, youngest child, top of banana (n)
joke, play around (adj) hingre hangre. kin.
joker (n) hingre hangre yoko ekur. laugh, smile (v) nali.
judge (n) tolo eloko tamar. lay out on top, carry on top of head (v) feke.
jump (v) kokwre. leaf (n) kumba.
jump out, come down (v) kete tuka. leaf for festival house (n) dufu.
jump up (v) gwre. leaf of wild sago (n) afko toto.
jump, hop (v) kitil kutol. leaf of wild sago (n) fanga.
junction (n) kulu tenge. leaf or frond (n) sirka.
jungle (bush) (n) wula. leaf used as a marker when distributing
just in this way (adv) ekra nawe. food (n) tukarka.
just like that (adv) ekra ni. leaf used to tie mami (n) asanga.
lean (v) dumbu.
K lean (v) sawe.
key (n) aka late. lean against or lay across (adj) kri kri.
kindling and bottom supports of bulmba lean down (v) kwiyau.
aka (n) galwo wama. leave (someone) (v) tirite.
kiss (v) dumu muna. leave alone, let, allow (v) tiri.
kiss noise, hiss noise (v) tumu muna. leave me alone (v) mei.
kitchen house (n) aka ekaa. leech (n) maifo.
knee (n) suwa guwl. left (adj) gaima.
knees (back) (n) suwa du. leftovers (n) blauwo.
kwar seeds (n) bangu. leftovers (n) waku.
leg, bottom (bow, kundu drum) (n) suwa.
L legend, story (n) sungamba.
let's (dual) (pro) anda.
lake, swamp (n) bulmu.
let's (plural) (pro) ama.
land taken by force (n) fi sul.
liar (n) erewe naweka rii tamar.
landslide (n) bre.
lick (v) bleu.
landslide (n) bre du.
lick (v) so.
large digging stick (n) gramba sarsar.
lie, trick (n) ere.
large inner support posts for roof (n) simba
lies (n) suma bango.
nawa.
lift (v) gweu.
large intestine (n) su kur.
lift feet when sitting (v) suwa kwaina ra.
large post from deep jungle (n) safko waa.
lift from fire (pot, etc.) (v) toro.
large stick (often for stirring sago jelly) (n)
lift or tear out with mouth, insert in roof (v)
gila.
take.
large, open sore (n) suwa bli.
511
light a fire with kindling (v) talma. loosen and throw away (v) sowe tii.
light black skin (n) liki kasa. loud fly, buzzing, loud noise (n) bombo.
light brown, beige, gray, old (plant material) louse (n) nun.
(v) solka. love (v) wafu hiki.
light rain/fog that portends a clear day (n) love spell, ingredients for a spell (n) engle.
nambul lako okto. lower head (v) duwye.
light up (esp. from embers) (adj) blili blala. lower wing (n) difi.
light-headed (adj) belo barna. lungs (n) sel.
limbum (palm bark) bucket (n) duwan
yenbun. M
limbum (palm used for construction) (n) magic stone (n) ma i.
duwan. main shaft of leaf/frond/mushroom (n)
limbum basket (n) duwan nawa. bungu.
lime powder (n) nuwngu. make a face (n) maure maure.
line up, lay out (v) sili. make a fist, punch, put hands together (v)
link arms (v) lesu gul na tongo. butu.
lips (n) elombo. make a mess, spoil (v) lorkwle.
listen carefully/closely (v) tati. make a path (v) walanga.
listen up (v) namra mesu. make a rucus (birds and bats) (v) singlili
little (adj) waska. senglele.
lizard (n) nembe. make bridge (v) kri.
lock (door) (v) galwo kuwsu. make dirty (of water) (v) fi fi.
log trap for bandicoot (trip line and crush) make level ground (break rocks) (v) wurmu.
(n) ifi lako. make noise (v) dumbai.
long (adj) kin menam. make noise (v) grou.
long feathers (n) fal. make peace (v) ka afinau ambe.
long time ago (adj) mele. make salt (v) nato.
long time ago (adj) mele kusa. malaria (n) siri gru gru.
long, heavy rain (adj) sur sur. male animal (n) toura.
look down, throw down, lower (v) tori. male cousin's wife, maternal uncle's wife (n)
look straight in eyes (v) lako mir. wafuw.
look up (v) yawo. mami (tuber similar to yam) (n) kaku.
loose (v) hol. mami skin added to sago to increase the
loose (of teeth) (v) lungwa. amount (n) huma.
loosen (v) sowe. man, person (n) tama.
loosen (of skin), scrape off (v) bau. mango (n) grambi.
loosen and fall (v) guw. mantis or grasshopper (n) gulma.
loosen and fall (v) losu na. many (in amount) (adj) kaha kana.
512
many in kind (adj) wenga. motor vehicle (n) sul bombo.
many nights (1 to 2 weeks) (n) numa. mountain (n) embleo.
mark, footprint (n) wil. mountain (range) (n) lu.
mark, set aside (v) mera. mouth (n) suma langi.
masturbate (v) el tongo kul. move house (v) hauwa aku.
maternal grandparent (n) ata. move quickly out of the way (v) tikir na.
maternal uncle (n) mam. mud, dust, dirt (n) sul foko.
maternal uncle's wife, child of husband's mud, mushy ground (n) sul dil.
sister (n) yowul. muddy (adj) kofo.
maybe, I don't know (intj) embensini. muddy water (n) foko.
me (pro) ene. muddy water (from digging) (n) sul foko
measure (v) yema. mambu ningi.
metal axe (n) gome faa. murmur, crackle, shiver (adj) geu geu.
middle (adj) kirkir. mushroom (n) gwini.
middle finger (n) lesu arma fuyau.
milk (n) fi. N
milk (n) muwku fi. naked (adj) su boro emefa.
Milky Way (n) ware nembe gwrara. name (n) sir.
millipede (n) mangur kon. name of river near hole in creation story (n)
millipede species (n) sul kulfo kur. afla tak.
mimic words (v) hema kama. namesake (n) yowul.
mix (into sago powder,) roll together, rotate natural pool (in rock) (n) rengongo.
(v) lu. nauseous (n) luku luku nawek.
mix together (v) suwruw. nauseous (adj) sirfako.
mixed up (adj) bango bango. neck (n) kokumbu.
mixture of food (adj) horke harke. neck (n) kukumbu.
mold (n) kunsu tuku. neck of bird (n) du.
mold, rub (clay) (v) fer. necklace (n) wanga lako.
moon, month (n) nekwa. negative marker (neg) nanak.
moonrise (v) tawa laka atas meyeyas. nest (n) felnde wosu.
moonset (v) nekwas famek suknayas. never (adv) iki di ningik.
morning (n) karwi. new growth (adj) aungu.
morning sun (n) nambul okwe. new growth (n) gumbo.
mortar (n) sukwle. new moon (n) nekwa sukna.
mosquito (n) fi. new, new (green) growth, seeds (adj)
mosquito (n) mu oku fi. luwku.
mother, maternal aunt, cousin of cross-sex newborn (n) kai.
aunt/uncle (n) nawa.

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news, come to an agreement (on a date) (n) opposite side (n) mahak.
nimba. orange decorative fruit (adj) kormo.
night, darkness (n) nurku. Orion's belt (n) akuma gramba.
no (neg) mehek. orphan, widow (n) wari.
no, not (neg) iki. other place, opposite side (n) yoko.
noise (n) ausana. outcropping, sheer rock (n) tele.
noise (n) samra. outer spine of coconut frond spine (n)
noise of rain (intj) ku. wangorama.
noise, jingle (adj) glir glor. outside (n) kafta.
nose (n) wilingi. over there (loc) kasi.
nostril (n) wilingi siki. overbite/underbite (n) bi na tufrasi wuyar.
not be able to (v) nime. overgrow with weeds (v) flo.
not have, not be here, empty (v) timba.
not want, not feel like, divorce (v) mana. P
now, just now (adj) esunguna. pack up (adj) suwri sauron.
pack up in preparation to leave (adj) siwri
O sauwro.
ocean water (n) yikwa oku. palm (n) lesu wafu.
oh sorry, oh yes (intj) e hakum. papaya (n) mar wate.
okay (intj) era. part way (adj) bliwi blauwo.
okay (intj) uhunta. partially ripe coconut (beginning to dry) (n)
old (person) (adj) afko. suwa bow turari.
older same-sex sibling or cousin (from partially uncooked food (n) gwehe.
parent's same-sex sibling) (n) nanda. party or feast held occasionally (n) kirau.
oldest, most important (grm) ata. party where pepper is exchanged and
one (1) (num) dirambu. consumed (n) minga gwasi.
one eye (n) lako golwa. party without meat (n) minga gaien.
one leg (n) suwa tongo. paternal aunt or her husband (n) yiwi.
one of a set (n) nambo. paternal grandfather (n) namre.
one, some (grm) di. paternal grandmother (n) yaku.
one's own (grm) kuna yaku. path, road, behavior (ways) (n) kulu.
only child (n) krafo. pay attention (v) iki ale.
open a basket or net bag (v) wanda. pay attention, "look what happened" (intj)
open a door or window (v) late. sumraya.
open bag (bilum) (v) loko. pay bride price (v) arko rete.
open of mushroom or leaf (adj) bansi. peel (banana), remove skin (yam) (v) gwasi.
open up, unfold (v) sambla. peel (of banana) (n) kwasi.
open wide, spread out wide (v) sinda. penis (n) el.
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penis sheath (shell) (n) molkon. plant by inserting with hand (esp. a stick) (v)
people (n) tama tawa. ful.
people from other places (n) di yoko plant species (n) au kumba.
fendam. plant species (n) sumbu kumba.
person who poisons others (poisoner) (n) plant stick-like object (esp. sago) (v) tuku.
numba noko. plant two sticks in an 'X' (v) fa.
personal signal (esp. of garamut) (n) sambo. platform for drying meat over fire (n) tei.
petals which cover banana heart (n) yam play (flute etc.) (v) wusu.
blafo. play garamut (large traditional drum) (v)
pick (bali) (v) kur. toko.
pick leaf, cut animal or grass (v) kute. Pleiades (n) wule nungusa.
pick ripe bananas individually (v) ruku. pluck (v) wro.
pick up sago, remove skin (v) gwal. pluck (feathers) (v) bur.
piece of dirt, dust (from cutting wood) (n) pluck (fruit/seeds) (v) tulku.
musun. pluck out (spear, taro) (v) yoso.
pig bush home, mosquito net (n) fer wosu. pointer finger, ring finger (n) lesu bor.
pig watering hole (n) fer oku sul. pointy end of garamut (n) wangul.
pig, horse (n) fer. poison (n) numba.
pile (n) termu. pole for hanging dry coconuts (n) suwa
pile dirt over, remove topsoil (v) gru fiti. ama.
pile up (v) gou. pole used to carry (esp. pigs) (n) muwor.
pile up (v) owe ne. pond (n) oku blo.
pile up dirt (v) gru. poop (v) sisi.
pile up, raise up (v) owe. poor (adj) wera.
pinch (v) lunsu. pop out (v) wla.
pinch (v) nalu. porch roof (n) aka take.
pinkie (n) lesu gaien. portable fire (n) kiri meke.
pit (n) kol. possess (v) maure tongo raka i.
pit (of seed) (n) watefa. post (n) simba.
placate spirits (when entering their land) (v) post from deep jungle (n) safko.
nambu. pot holder (n) bein.
place (n) eme. potato species (n) wanda lako.
place leaf-holding bamboo in roof (v) pound (v) kre.
kwresu. pound flat, roll flat (v) bloso.
place where branch emerges from trunk (n) pound with stick (v) blosu.
bongo. pour (v) gam.
plant a stick in the ground (v) bane. powder (n) sen.
plant by inserting directly in ground (v) tul. powder (n) sun.

515
pray to masalai (ask leinency from trespass) put head down (v) maindi.
(v) take miti. put here and there (v) tii tu ya.
pray to spirit for help in killing (v) er wawa put in (v) tu tiri.
isi. put inside (hole, etc.), swing axe (v) tu.
prepare area (v) kom ale. put into a hole/loop to carry, set in a frame
prepare self for singsing (v) takre. (v) hongo.
pretend by making noise (adj) kruru suru. put together, mix together (v) okana.
pretty, clean, smart (adj) kufeni. puzzle out, discuss (v) gwai.
promise rope, knot, crossbeam (n) ama
wungusu. Q
properly (adv) ale. quiet, mute (adj) suma timba.
prostitute (n) tama yelndam kana ekuka i
tawas. R
pull (v) wru wru.
race (v) na tawi na tawi i.
pull a limb out (v) ku aku.
rain (n) loko.
pull apart (v) werngu.
rain drop (n) loko fi.
pull down (vines from above) (v) wuron.
rain drop (large) (n) loko fi boule.
pull down leaves (n) wakre busu busu.
raise, pull or peel back (lid etc.) (v) galo.
pull down tree to collect leaves (v) toto.
raspy noise (n) kursei.
pull out, draw bow (v) ra wra.
rattan, stem with fruit (banana, Same) (n)
pull up (of a plant) (v) forna.
nungu.
pull up (plants) (v) semra.
razor (n) guwsu.
pull up grass, weed with knife (v) nate.
ready to flower (of mushroom) (v)
pull up, rope used to lift (v) boro boro.
gulmombu.
pull, pull down (of vines) (v) wosu.
realis (grm) ka.
pulverize, break into pieces (v) nambu.
really?! (intj) akum welmbem.
punch (lesu+), kick (suwa+) (v) gwa.
reciprocal giving (v) na nuwa.
pupil (n) lako kur.
red (adj) kasa.
pupil, iris (n) lako wando.
red (fresh) sago (n) naku kwainda kasa.
pus (n) lifir mango.
red (fresh) sago (n) naku ormo okwe.
push (v) dingei tii.
red seeds of Pacific Maple tree (n) narun.
push a person down or out (esp. hard) (v)
red, pink or gold color at sunset (adj) gwehe
tingwara.
ta.
put (v) rete.
reflection, mirror (n) gamba.
put (back) together, huddle together (v)
refuse to do useful work (v) nalafau.
nandu.
regret, be upset (v) soro.
put clothes on (v) sufongo.
reinforce (v) fendo.
put down (v) totori.
remain, usually (do st) (v) rii.
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remember, think, know (v) hiki. right (adj) fisi.
remove (sheet from stack) (v) kul soto. right now (adv) ningre nawe.
remove a section of wood (v) tahu. right now, as soon as possible (adj) kiyi kiyi.
remove an unripe banana (v) gelna. ring on a stem where fruit emerges (banana
remove bark (v) asi. or Same) (n) safran.
remove bark (in sheets) (v) gau. ringworm, tinea (n) ese kur.
remove caterpillars (from tree bark) (v) tufa. rinse off (adj) fri fro.
remove everything from a house (v) rip in strips (as of leaf), tear (n) bran.
sauwro. ripe from sun (v) wan gre.
remove from fire (v) tate. ripe, sapling/shoot (v) okwe.
remove frond from stem, split frond in half river (large) (n) fame.
(v) touso. river (medium) (n) afla.
remove fruit-bearing banana stem, yank river (small) (n) fangi.
branch to cut it (v) bona. rock, shell, money, file (n) arko.
remove garbage (v) siti. roll (make thread for clay pot) (v) wir.
remove individual items from a pod or shell roll (of cigarettes) (v) damen.
(v) dungwa. roll over (v) koukre.
remove inner shell (papery covering) from rolling boil (adj) sa sa gul gul.
nut (v) gaso. roof (apex) (n) aka guw.
remove kunai grass to prepare ground, peel rooster comb and waddle (n) duw walko.
banana (v) bo. rooster comb, red in color, hibiscus (n)
remove leaf, shuck (cane grass) (v) lete. walko.
remove liquid from a long skinny object root (n) mu nambi.
(finger, etc.) (v) wulmbo. root around (v) sul fi.
remove pelt, bark, or skin (v) lolo. rope burn (v) wusu wusu.
remove quickly from pain, long (adj) toina. rope, vine, lineage (n) kufu.
remove rind (v) tikin. rotate or flip (food while cooking) (v) yimau.
remove s.t. which is hanging (v) yikte. rotten wood, stump (n) rombo.
remove sago bark (v) loma. round (adj) krou.
remove sago/coconut leaves (v) tafirsa. rub (v) danda.
remove seeds, pop out (v) bol. rub (sago) (v) romo.
remove skin (yam, limbum) (n) keso. rub eye to remove dirt (v) ringi rongo.
remove skin in sections (v) talo. rub flat (v) roto.
remove spine of leaf (v) luma. rub skin off seeds, pull feathers off a bird (v)
remove st with hands (esp. dirt), scrape buku.
away (v) rumba. rub, spread glue (v) kwata.
return st to its place (v) noko rete. rubbery, tough to eat (leaves) (adj) dur dan.
ridicule (v) te hema kama tolo nali. rubbish (n) grafa.

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ruined, about to collapse (adj) timringi sapling (ready for planting) (n) yel.
tamringi. saw (v) sungutu.
run (v) titi. say good things, be happy (v) angla.
run away (v) tulna. say goodbye (v) tomre.
run away in a hurry (v) biya saya. say, tell (v) tolo, eloko.
run into (v) re i nika furndu na. scale (of fish), mole, pimple (n) om gursu.
rush, sled down (adj) tingir tangir. scar (n) armu.
scoop (small objects) (v) takwruwru.
S scrap of bark (n) sal.
sago (n) naku. scrape (v) fu griri.
sago arrowtip (n) lam bendu. scrape or scratch, shave off wood bits (v)
sago bark (n) galmbon. gurmba.
sago bark (n) naku bitki. scrape sago, pound ground (with stick) (v)
sago bark used in bulmba aka (n) galwo a. dorko.
sago bedding, for strained sago (n) naku scrape skin off (v) liki bau.
yofu. scrape to start fire (v) gre.
sago chute (for washing sago), sago branch scrape wood (as in sandpaper) (v) kulko.
(n) wutu. scrape, shave, fashion garamut (v) kuwr.
sago frond, shoulder joint (n) wol. scratch (v) groro groro.
sago grub variety (n) umbu. scratch (like chicken), rake up (v) tukwra.
sago hammer (n) naku ama yalwun. scrotum (n) yomo.
sago jelly ball (n) gal. scrub: wash or dry (self) (v) da.
sago pancake (n) naku fraim. second spouse (after death of first) (n)
sago powder (n) naku sun. wani.
sago scraping tool (n) yalwun. second wife (in plural marriage) (n) tawa ya
sago shed (n) wal aka dumbu. sumbu.
sago stem, used for decorations (n) naku secret (n) elen.
bormborsa. see (v) ni.
sago trunk that has been scraped (n) naku seed (n) na.
wursa. seeing double (adj) bri i bre ya ni.
salt (n) yikwa. semen (n) el oku.
salt made with water (n) yikwa sun. send (v) er rete.
salt made without water (n) yikwa tate. send (v) erete.
salt water at base of Ner trees where birds sensitive plant (n) siri sau.
drink (n) ner yikwa. separate (v) namasi.
same (adj) dinafle. set a time (v) danasu.
sap (thick) (n) inin. set out on leaf (as a placemat) (v) suw.
sap of vines used as fuel (n) bulnu. sew (v) fu.

518
sew together (v) yama. short outer wall posts for roof overhang (n)
shadow (n) nambul wou. simba selwando.
shake (v) tunbu. short, dull blade, tree trunk, broken limb,
shake from nerves (adj) gwru gwru. etc. (adj) tombo.
shake hands (v) lesu tongo. shoulder (n) gausa.
shake, dump out (as to empty) (v) wusor. shoulder (n) lesu gausa.
shake, shiver, snore (v) gruru. shout (v) gwoho i gwoho ya.
shallow stream (n) duwlolo. shout in surprise (v) ningle.
share (v) saki. shout, animal noise (v) gwoho.
share food (v) suwla. show (s.o.) (v) feta.
sharp blade (cutting surface) (n) mel. show around (many things) (v) feta kata.
sharpen (adj) mel. show the way (adj) ongo ongo.
sharpen bone or spear (v) tarmbo. shred (adj) fla.
sharpen knife (v) kon. shut eyes (v) lako bu.
shatter (v) bul. side of body (n) milifa.
shatter (esp. bamboo) (v) grom. side of road (n) kulu taku.
shavings (n) wur yen. side wall post of ground house (n)
she (pro) su. selwando.
she, diminuitive (obsolete) (pro) tu. sidelong glance (n) lako gaima.
shelf (n) au tembe. sign (esp. to mark forbidden territory) (n)
shell noise maker (n) gwlar gwlar. yofu.
shield (n) fiwol. sign language (n) lesuk feta.
shimmy, expand (adj) beu beu. similar to (adj) ekra na.
shine (of sun), heat up (v) wre. similar to limbum (palm bark) (n) weinbeni.
shine, be bright in color (v) tare. sinewy insides (of wild fruit) (n) kwlele.
shiver (v) numboto. sing (v) hokwa kete.
shoe (n) suwa tasu. sister (as spoken by her brother), female
shoot (of seed) (n) safran. cousin (from parent's same-sex sibling)
shoot at each other (v) na fu na fu. (n) gasiwa.
shoot of coconut (n) suwa yel. sit on egg (as bird) (v) suwa dika.
shoot of grass (n) lun. sit side by side (v) lisi lisi rusu.
shooting star (n) gwiyo yen yen keteka sit, settle (v) rusu.
akuyar. sitting area (n) eme wil.
shore (n) afla taku. skin (person or fruit) (n) liki.
short (adj) gul. skin of yam etc. (n) sengeta.
short of breath (v) wafu wendu. skull (n) ter wando.
short of breath (v) wafu wuya. sky, cloud (n) nul.
sky, high (adj) kur.

519
slacken (v) humbo. small pond (n) blo oku.
slanted, at an angle (adj) yinal. small post from deep jungle (n) safko yafin.
slap (v) fu blala na nuwa. small rodent, rat (n) mulu.
slave (n) bumbu sauwom ene eku tamar. small scratch (of skin) (v) wurfoto.
sleep, lie down, placed in a flat position (v) small sticks for turning sago jelly (n) kwai
sukna. kwai.
slice, cut (grass, flowers) (v) kute. small tuft of grass (n) somo baye.
slide (v) dondo. small yam (n) sulfo.
slide down (v) dil. small, traditional drum (n) mengu.
slide, slither (v) gir gir. small, young (adj) kahaiembo.
sling to carry child (n) yen kufu. smart (adj) wafu kana.
slip away or through (v) bilau. smash, crunch, chew up completely (v)
slippery (adj) bilau alau. bungro a.
slippery (adj) ble. smell (v) kwaya.
slippery (v) blena aku. smile with teeth clenched (n) seklem.
slippery ground, rust (n) blafo kute wakre. smoke (fire) (n) kiri sufun.
sliver moon (n) nekwa bi. smoke or dry fish (v) kware.
sliver, small pieces as a result of cutting (n) snail (n) mangi fofo.
lufu. snake (n) sofo.
slope, ridge (n) bundu. snake bone (n) kwaramba.
small (adj) muwngu. snap (v) sungwal.
small (of grass and leaves) (adj) flen. snatch (with talons) (v) nungrou.
small amount (adj) numbul. sneeze, cough, cold (sick) (n) isuku.
small branches (n) mu gwra. sniff (v) kuwa mesu.
small bush (n) tamblakan. snore, sound of a flute (adj) flili flolo.
small clay pot, metal pot, dirt used to make snot (n) nindi.
clay pot (n) au. so, all right (intj) kaka.
small corn (n) wur kon. soak (v) oku tasu tiri.
small decorative colorful leaf (n) salwan. soft (esp. of fruit), smell (adj) kuwa.
small digging stick for yam and mami (n) solid interior of coconut after shoot has
gramba warmona. emerged (n) suwa yomo.
small fly (n) momoseya. something (n) bunandi.
small flying ant (n) sul dinglan. sometimes, often, rarely, one day (adv) di
small house for insects or animals (n) wosu. ningi.
small internal organs, intestines (n) alingi. son (n) tama toura.
small intestine (n) suwa gaia. song while carrying (pig etc.) (n) tisi lom.
small limbum (n) bumblan. son's child or spouse (n) nan.
small piece (n) somo. son's wife, grandson's wife (n) yinsawa.

520
sore (n) kolma. spleen (n) wafu toura.
sore (n) li. split (fabric, limbum) (adj) timran tamran.
sorrow (n) kombo. split bamboo lengthwise (v) ta grambi a.
sorry (v) kahar. split in long object (river, branch, etc.) (v)
sound (n) gen. tengle.
sound made when thinking/unsure (intj) splotchy with colors (like camoflauge) (adj)
nango. fir fir for for.
sound of drumbeats (intj) ho ho ho. spoil (v) yokwle.
sound of eating/drinking (n) ken. sprain (v) duwarko na.
sound used when hunting pigs (intj) hoi hoi. spray, split apart, pass out (coins) (v) fra.
soupy sago (n) bihi. spread along the ground, go everywhere (v)
space or declivity at foot of mountain (n) blele ka i.
tele sumbu. spread flat, lay out (v) lau.
space under house (n) aka ari. spread out, large (adj) banda.
speak (v) er. squeeze, wring out, churn (earth) (v) wul.
spear (n) fi. stab into to carry (v) wurso.
spear (n) ser kuta. stack, hold up (v) towi.
spear shaft (n) fi tombo. stack, insert leaves into roof, decorate
spear without a tip (shaft sharpened) (n) fi armband (v) waye.
kusa. stagger, slither, stretch out (adj) sowur
special/magical skills or power (n) burnga sowur.
yarnga. stamp feet, fan flame, up and down (adj)
spell (n) mangle. brau brau.
spell to forget (n) humondu. stamp foot to protect one's spirit (v) fu
spell to get sick, forget, lose emotion, etc. wangora.
(n) huma fa tu. stand and stretch (v) susu sowur.
spider (n) samdo. stand up (v) sau susu.
spider web (n) akwando kwando. star (n) ware.
spikes on an animal (n) wokra wokra. stare (v) laka bol.
spill, wipe away (v) gam tii. stare (v) nalfa.
spin around (adj) bri bre. startle, jump in surprise (v) furndu na.
spine (n) ginfa yefa. starve (v) ekaa wangu.
spine of large leaf (n) sirka bungu. starving (v) asiri mende kara.
spirit, shadow, reflection (n) wou. steal (v) wusukwa.
spit (v) gul busa. steam (n) kofon.
spit (v) sombo. steam from water on hot object (n) bisisu
spit (v) telako si. bususu.
splash, scoop out (water) (v) kutu. steep (of mountain) (n) kowe.

521
stem of Same leaf (n) wansinango. strong (adj) yefa kana.
step on (dry leaves, etc.) (v) tasu burku. strong or chewy food (v) mororo a.
step on, lower into (v) tasu. strong, hard (adj) nere.
stick butt out (v) sisi ki okwe nuwa. stubborn (adj) tama kaha mender.
stick for planting (n) gramba. stubborn (adj) yindi kundu.
stick to (v) gorso. stuff in to block ears (v) gun.
stick to hold up bark covering (v) gila stumble (v) anda manda.
gungwa. stump (n) kundu.
stick tongue out at s.o. (v) tawul bleu a. stunted growth, body part that is asleep (v)
stick used for fighting (n) sangwa yamba. tokundu.
stick used to play garamut (n) mu sermba. sugar cane (n) uwku.
stick used to support growth of mami vines summon spirits (v) er wawa.
(n) seseme. sun (n) nambul.
stick with skin removed (n) bela. sun to set (v) war susu.
stick, short and thick for throwing (n) sunset (n) wur susu.
kokoma. support bamboo for roof apex (n) kroro
stinging nettle (n) diwle. guw.
stir hardened sago jelly (v) sokwro. support beam (n) krorongo.
stir sago liquid (v) sufuw. support beam for bottom of roof (n) aka
stomach (n) mau. bam.
stomach (external) (n) wau. support crossbeam under floor (n) tuku
stomach (internal) (n) su gumbu. tuku.
stomach noise (n) suma kute. support stick for plants (n) mango.
stone axe (n) wur. support, lift (v) owete.
stone/seed used in bow tips (n) arma bol sure, okay (v) hako hako.
bol. surround, wind around (v) wangu.
stop in the middle of something, change survey, look around (v) nuwku.
plans (v) tufrasi. swallow (v) ou.
storm (n) loko kifal. sweat (n) uwfu.
stove (n) sunngu. sweep (v) gru ou ako ou.
stove stones (n) arko sunngu. sweep away (esp. with foot) (n) tikorfo.
straight (adj) boi. swim (v) fa.
strangle (v) tongo nele. swing feet (v) suwa fli fle.
strangler vine (n) mu toklo wosu. swollen (when used with body part) (v) u.
strengthen, dry up (v) durna. system of connected log traps to catch rats
stretch out (string, etc.), string bow (v) (n) ifi lulu.
takwlu.
strike (lightning) (v) blala.

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T they all (pro) mu.
they two (pro) fu.
tadpole (n) manu manu.
thick jungle (n) mau.
tail (n) kin.
thick shell (beetle, cap on insect, coconut,
tail feathers (n) su sumbu.
egg) (n) wando.
tail feathers of bird used as decorations (n)
thief (n) wuskwra.
li.
thigh (n) suwa gilombo.
tailbone (n) su gumbo.
thigh (n) suwa om.
take a secret route (to avoid detection) (v)
thin (adj) yefane.
di delko i.
thin shell (small coconut, egg), lay an egg (n)
take care of, organize (v) hoi hai.
wandi.
take to marry (v) ra.
thin, narrow, small (child) (adj) kanda.
tall (adj) fingri.
this (grm) ke.
tall ginger (n) wal.
this (tall, heavy, etc.) (adv) kekra yombo.
tangled (adj) wurngun.
thorn on frond (n) sirka melulu.
tangled up as a knot (adv) na sau waki a sau
three (3) (num) lasifirndi.
waki.
three days from now, three days ago (n)
taro (kind of tuber) (n) al.
mur.
tasty (adj) kufe sumba.
threshold, jamb (n) aka ta bringi.
tattoo, carving (v) romo kau.
throat (n) belna.
teacher (n) sanglu gala.
throw (v) tu.
tears (n) ir oku.
throw away (v) tu tii.
tell (v) eloko.
throw away, brush away (v) tii.
term of respect for an older sibling (esp.
throw down, throw out (v) tuwra.
first born) (n) tete.
throw down/back (v) towur.
termite (n) mu gun.
throw straight (v) tuyal.
termite (n) sangu.
thumb (n) lesu afa.
testicle (n) gali.
thunder, lightning (n) numblangan.
testicle (n) yomo lako.
tidy, straighten up, fall (leaves) (v) numbu.
that (grm) o.
tie a knot (v) wungusu.
that one there (intj) ekun.
tie a knot (in fabric) (n) dofo.
that's all, that's right (phr) ora kara.
tie on (to a stick or spear) (v) wor.
that's your business/responsibility (phr)
tie roof support beams to each other (v) aka
kuna noko sauwo.
tasu.
them all (pro) me.
tie to carry (v) taki.
them two (pro) fe.
tie, bend in half (v) gusu.
there (loc) okwra.
tie, wrap around (v) gur.
therefore, truly, indeed (after verb) (intj)
tip toe (adj) tulei tulei.
kara.
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to a certain point, but no further (v) osna. trunk of tree, heart of fruit (n) nawa.
to each his own share (grm) kuna yena. truth (n) endon.
to have the same amount (v) nakir tirika. truth, agreed (n) welmbe.
tobacco-like plant (n) sakwe. try but fail (adj) hili hala.
today, day (n) ningre. try to grab something that runs away, feel
toe (n) suwa lako. weak (v) grisi greso.
toenail, bird's foot (n) suwa gisi. try, attempt (v) ni.
toilet house (n) aka kaha. tsk tsk (intj) donsuna donsuna.
toilet house (n) su aka. turbulent water (n) miri marau.
tomorrow (n) woro. turn around (v) ra falna.
tongs (n) ama gwalsa. turn around and go back, mix up in pot (v)
tongue (n) tawul. suru.
tooth (fang) (n) bi mel. turn sago (v) tawo.
tooth (incisors) (n) bi. turn, turn into, rotate (cooking food), twist
toothpick (n) bi tasuku. (v) fal na.
top (post) ili. twig, thin stick (n) gala.
top layers of bulmba aka (n) galwo wuta. twigs, small branches (n) solo.
top of bow (n) arma terfa. twist or stir up (v) liwi luwau.
top, top of mountain (post) kondu. twisted (adj) wirngin wurngun.
toss up and down (v) ra towi ra tori. two (2) (num) lasi.
touch, feel, hear (v) mesu. two days ago (n) yaki.
towards (post) yoko. two days from now (n) yim.
track quietly (v) tangor. type of dance or song (n) satawi.
trading partner (n) sere. type of edible leafy green (n) asama.
traditional net bag, neck pouch (n) or. type of edible leafy green (n) barka.
trail someone (v) take nuku.
trail used for driving pigs (n) fer youre. U
trap (for animals) (n) ifi. ugly, dirty (adj) kaha ni.
tree bark (n) mu liki. ulcer, foot callous (n) suwa roho.
tree kangaroo (n) nekwa. umbrella, cover up (n) ause.
tree, wood, branch (n) mu. unable to do something, blind (adj) timba
trespass (v) yofu rete emek wuryan. kamba.
trick (v) hewe kawe. uncooked food (adj) tikwlo takwlo.
trick, pretend, act as if (v) siwoku. underwater (n) wako bor bor.
trip (v) sukrate. untie, unstring bow (v) sokwe.
trip line (n) elkwai. up and down (adj) kio kio.
trivet for clay pot (Garfu) (n) sirki. up and down (adj) kwi kwai.
true, legitimate (adj) indor. upper arm (n) lesu om.
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upper body (chest, back, stomach) (n) wait (v) sanak.
suwku. wait a minute (v) sana su.
upper body (chest, back, stomach) (n) tama wait for (v) kuna.
meke. wait, not yet (intj) wai wai.
upper wing (n) lesu wol. wake someone up (v) tisoro.
upstream (n) oku tol. wake up (v) difor.
urinate (v) nangu fra. walk cautiously (v) ifa afa.
urine (n) nangu. walk with legs spread apart (esp. in pain) (v)
us all (pro) nemen. riwi rewe.
us two (pro) nende. walking stick (n) gramba saku.
uterus (n) or wosu. walking stick (n) saku.
wall (n) aka lewe.
V wall (n) dulu.
vagina (n) ki. wander (v) barna.
vaginal secretions (n) ki oku. wander (v) eku barna.
valley (n) dunsu. want, be ready to (v) erka.
valley (n) fru eme. wart (n) tama likir kau aku.
valley, side of a mountain (n) du. wash face or body (v) wiyi.
vein (n) wurngen. wash hands (v) okto.
very black (adj) kursi. wash sago (v) si.
very bright red (adj) kasak nakar. washed sago powder, cast off (n) naku sun
very tall (adj) gloulo. kuwa.
village (n) kom. waste time (v) hokwek na.
vine loop (to raise logs or help in climbing a waste time (v) okwe tambo na.
tree) (n) sanglei. watch (v) rete sukna.
vine prepared for use (skinned and dried) water for cooking sago that is too cold (n)
(n) kufu yuwklu. tingil.
vine sap used as medicine (n) mofi. water well (n) oku siki.
vine with outer shell removed and dried (n) water, watery sap (n) oku.
yuwklu. waterfall (n) oku brara.
vocative marker (intj) i. watermelon (n) mar wate melon.
voice, sound, question (n) suma. we all (pro) num.
vomit (v) wa kwre ya. we two (pro) dun.
vomit, clear throat (n) kwete. weak (adj) yefa timba.
vulva (n) ki mel. weak fire (n) kiri sefu.
wear around neck (child with arms around
W neck, necklace), climb on (inan.) (v)
wakre.
waist, kidney (n) su baya.
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wear, dress, add color, decorate (v) wele. wipe butt (v) mala.
weave rope (v) susu. wipe on (v) blolo.
weave together (v) laka. wish (v) ni hiki kufem hamba.
weaving pattern for walls (n) aka galwo. wish/desire (v) ir erka hikin.
west (n) nambul war. with (post) kana.
what (int) bu. with (inherent possession/contents) (post)
what happened? (int) biki nawarka. mena.
what is that? (int) bur kana. with skin (v) liki mena.
what kind of thing? (intj) bi bi nindi yombo. woman, wife (n) tawa.
what the...? (intj) erka kemen. woman's period (n) aka lowe.
what's this (int) gira burka. word of god (n) afa samba roko suma.
when (int) biki rokok. word said while applauding (at story's end)
when, as a consequence, in order to (grm) (intj) ambombo.
rokor. work (n) sauwo.
where (locative) (int) orira. worm (n) tekwle.
where (motive) (intj) iroko. wound up, curvy (adj) bingil bangol.
which (int) biki. wrap around (v) yungu bangol.
while (grm) yombo. wrinkle (adj) wilti wulte.
whip (n) fu wunsondo nuwa. wrist (n) lesu om gumbul.
whisper (v) awar kanda eloko. write, paint on, make designs on (v) kau.
whistle call (n) isi. writhe (of detached tail) (adj) korfi korfi.
white (adj) gamu.
white ant (n) sangu. Y
white ant with wings (n) sangu tama. yam (n) walndo.
white of eye (n) lako gai. yam vines (n) safu.
white skin, white person (n) koko gamu. yank out, remove pig entrails with bamboo
white skin, white person (n) liki gamu. (v) broro.
white spot (skin) (n) dumbu a. yard or garden waste (n) luku grafa.
who (int) em. yawn, be tired (v) yomar.
whose (int) emoko. year (n) nu asama.
why (int) biki naka. yell, bark (any animal call) (v) nau.
wife of nandasi (n) yau. yellow Same seeds (n) kwaya.
wild (of dogs) (adj) salai. yellow, orange, yellow-brown (adj) kwesu.
wild (of pigs) (adj) tarmbe. yellow, white (of skin) (adj) okwe.
wild cane grass (n) tengur. yes (intj) nahau.
wild taro (n) gorngi. yes in response to statement or question
wind (n) kifal. regarding where one is going (phr) wo
wipe away debris (v) hako. ho ha.
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yesterday (n) yale. young (adj) yekle.
you (pro) nu. young leaf or frond (n) gu.
you (obj.) (pro) ne. young plant (sapling) (n) foku.
you agree?, you think so? (intj) noko wafu. young/small sago palm (n) naku bungu.
you all (pro) kum. younger same-sex sibling or cousin (from
you all (obj.) (pro) kemen. parent's same-sex sibling) (n) gana.
you two (pro) fun. you're a good man (phr) taman.
you two (obj.) (pro) kefen.

527
Appendix D: Tok Pisin-Mehek Dictionary
This appendix is a bilingual dictionary with the Tok Pisin glosses of all Mehek words listed

alphabetically along with their Mehek glosses. This dictionary contains less information than

the main Mehek dictionary in appendix B. To see full information for a Mehek word, it is

necessary to look it up in Appendix B. Included below in the KEY are a schematic representation

of each entry showing what information is included and the formatting of each section, as well

as the abbreviations used for parts of speech.

KEY
Tok Pisin Word (part of speech) Mehek Word.

Abbreviations used for Parts of Speech:

adj adjective n.b. either masculine or feminine
adv adverb (based on natural gender)
cnj conjunction n.f. feminine noun
grm grammatical particle neg negative
int interrogative num numeral
intj interjection phr phrase (greeting, utterance)
loc locative rel.n relational noun
n (masculine) noun pro pronoun
v verb

528
A as bilong garamut (n) wangul.
as bilong maunten (n) tele ari.
abrus (v) selefe.
as nating (adj) su boro emefa.
abrusim (v) bilau.
as pekpek (n) sisi ki tombo.
abus (n) elowo.
as, rop (n) mu nambi.
abus i singaut (v) isi.
asde (n) yale.
abus man (n) toura.
askim (v) er mesu.
ai (n) lako.
ating, mi no save (intj) embensini.
ai gras bilong ol binatang (n) mundu fa.
ausait (n) kafta.
ai i raun (adj) kwar bar bar lu.
ausait bilong banara (n) arma ginfa.
ai i raun (adj) belo barna.
ausait hap bilong bun bilong lip bilong
aibika (n) bali.
kokonas (n) wangorama.
aiwara (n) ir oku.
amamas (adj) kufe iki.
B
amamas na raunim man (v) tafa ki.
ambrela, karamapim (n) ause. bagarap (adj) timringi tamringi.
ananit (post) ari. bagarap (v) yokwle.
aninit long wara (n) wako bor bor. bagarap o paul pinis (n) kaha kuna.
anis (n) sifi. bagarap(im), nois olsem pik (v) giri guro.
anis i gat pul (n) sangra fai. bagarapim nem (v) eloko barna.
antap (post) ili. bagarapim, mekim nogut (v) lorkwle.
antap (bilong maunten) (post) kondu. bai mi mekim sampela samting (pro) ana.
antap bilong lek (n) suwa gilombo. bai yumipela o mipela mekim sampela
antap bilong lek (n) suwa om. samting (pro) ama.
antap long pul (n) lesu wol. baim meri (v) arko rete.
antap long tit (insait maus) (n) bi luku. baket (n) oku warme.
apim i go antap (v) gweu. baksait (n) ginfa.
apim lek taim sindaun (v) suwa kwaina ra. baksait bilong lek (n) suwa bela.
apim long paia (sospen) (v) toro. baksait bilong lek (n) suwa wafu.
apim, sapotim (v) owete. baksait bilong nek (n) kukumbu yefa.
apinun (n) worfa. baksait bilong nek (n) terfa yefa.
aran (n) gra. baksait bilong nek (n) wala gusu.
arapela hap (n) mahak. baksait bilong skru bilong han (n) lesu du.
arere (n) lowe. balus (n) kur bombo.
arere (post) gan. banana (n) yam.
arere bilong maus (n) elombo. banana lip i drai pinis, pepa, buk (n) sanglu.
arere bilong maus i bruk (n) elombo tafra. banara (n) arma.
arere long maunten (n) tele sumbu. banis (n) aka dulu.
as (n) su aye. banis (n) arawan.
529
banis (n) wursu. beng (n) gun.
banis (n) aka lewe. bet bilong mekim abus i drai (n) tei.
banis (skin bilong haus) (n) dulu. bet long saksak (taim i was pinis) (n) naku
baret (adj) wilti wulte. yofu.
basket (n) sara. bet long wasim saksak, han bilong saksak
basket bilong man (n) yomo. (n) wutu.
basket long holim saksak (n) sai. bet, bens, tebol (n) tembe.
basket long limbum (n) duwan yenbun. bi (n) wiyi.
basket long mambu (n) dulsan. bi, binen (n) a wiyi.
baut (n) terfa duwyeyan. bik- (olsem bikpapa) (n) wara.
baut long (v) yu. bikbrata bilong man o biksusa bilong meri
behain (adj) awar. (n) nanda.
behain long foapela de, foapela de i go pinis bikbus (n) mau.
(n) tukur. bikhet (adj) tama kaha mender.
behain long tripela de, tripela de i go pinis bikhet (adj) yindi kundu.
(n) mur. bikmaus (v) sir ra towi.
behain long tupela de (n) yim. bikmaus (v) gwoho i gwoho ya.
behainim (v) sumbu. bikmaus, nois bilong abus (v) gwoho.
behainim hait (v) tangor. bikpela (adj) fingri.
behainim hait (v) take nuku. bikpela antap tru (grm) ata.
behainim tok (v) hema kama. bikpela as bilong sayor (n) mu duw.
bel (ausait) (n) wau. bikpela bel (insait) (n) su kur.
bel (insait) (n) su gumbu. bikpela bilum i pulap wantaim bis (n) or
bel hat (adj) moulen. waa.
bel hat (v) sul fra wunsondo. bikpela binatang bilong kaikai lip (n)
bel hat (adj) holo wafu. gungwa.
bel hat (v) kiri nawek wuya. bikpela binatang bilong kaikai lip (adj)
bel i pairap (n) suma kute. sungutu yangutu.
bel i tantanim (n) luku luku nawek. bikpela hap wara (n) loko fi boule.
bel i tantanim (adj) sirfako. bikpela lang, bikpela nois (n) bombo.
bel, beksait, pekpek (n) su. bikpela lip (n) durkun.
bel, kidni (n) su baya. bikpela mun (n) nekwa tawa laka meye.
belhat (adj) belo. bikpela pinga namel (n) lesu arma fuyau.
belhat (adj) el kulwa tama. bikpela pos bilong bikbus (n) safko waa.
belo (n) gen. bikpela pos long sapotim rup (n) simba
belo (bilong kundu o garamut) (intj) ho ho nawa.
ho. bikpela rain (adj) sur sur.
beng (n) fu gun.

530
bikpela sel (binatang, kokonas, kiau) (n) bim i stap aninit long rup (n) aka bam.
wando. bim long sapotim aninit (n) tuku tuku.
bikpela stik (long miksim saksak) (n) gila. bin (n) makwa.
bikpela stik long brukim graun (n) gramba binatang (bilong kaikai lip) (n) walma.
sarsar. binatang (i gat bikpela tit) (n) wala kwiyi.
bikpela sua (n) suwa roho. binatang bilong kaikai lip (n) gam.
bikpela sua i gat wara (n) suwa bli. binatang bilong kaikai mami (n) angulma.
bikpela trap long mumut long ples daun (n) binatang i gat 4 pul (n) sar bambu.
ifi lulu. binatang i gat bikpela tit (n) yam landu.
bikpela, bikpela nois, hatwok (adj) samba. binatang i stap aninit long wara (n) oku
bikpela, namba wan pikinini (adj) laka. dangi.
bikpla pinga (n) lesu afa. birua (n) wira.
bikplela pos long haus (n) simba bor. bis (n) wanga lako.
bikplela wara (n) fame. bis i gat hul (n) kul okwa.
bikwin (n) loko kifal. bis, smolbis, mani (n) kul.
bilas (n) gwehe sayi. blak (adj) kur.
bilas bilong han (n) sou. blak bokis (n) aye.
bilas bilong het (adj) marko. blakpela hap bilong ai (n) lako kur.
bilas bilong singsing (n) kuso. blakpela tru (adj) kursi.
bilas bilong singsing (i go long han) (n) blupela (adj) gurmbo.
wisiki. blut (n) kefu.
bilas bilong singsing (i go long het) (n) blut bilong diwai (n) inin.
wasune belmun. blut bilong diwai, gam (n) nausu.
bilas long rop i mekim wantaim ring i bung blut bilong rop i gat marasin (n) mofi.
pinis (n) bol bol. blut bilong rop i kisim long kuk (n) bulnu.
bilas long saksak (n) naku bormborsa. boaim (v) rondo.
bilasim (v) male. bodi (n) meke.
bilong husat (int) emoko. bodi bilong spia (n) fi tombo.
bilong man yet (grm) kuna yaku. boi stret (phr) taman.
bilong ples (adj) waa. boilim (v) ara fasu.
bilong yu nau (phr) nokorar. boilim (v) kisi.
bilum bilong meri (n) or wosu. boilim wara (v) oku tenge.
bilum, bilum bilong nek (n) or. bokis bilong daiman (n) suwa kulko lendo.
bim (n) krorongo. bokis bilong meri (n) ki.
bim (mambu) i stap antap long rup (n) kroro bokis bilong meri (n) ki mel.
guw. bol (n) gali.
bim aninit long plua (n) aka lau. bol bilong man (n) yomo lako.
bim bilong namel long rup (n) aka krorongo. bombom (bikpela) (n) tikwasa.

531
bombom (liklik) (n) tikwa. brukim rop (v) flate.
brata (bilong meri), pikinini man bilong brukim tanget (v) yofu rete emek wuryan.
brata bilong papa o susa bilong mama brukim tasol i yet no bruk olgeta (v) buwsu.
(n) nandasi. brukim wantaim ol han (v) tongo sere.
brata bilong mama (n) mam. brukim, opim kokonas (v) tafa.
braun pik (n) fer mir. brukim, rausim (v) bur kuw.
braun, olpela lip (v) solka. brum (n) masi dondo.
braunpela kala tudak (adj) kwesu kwiyo. brumim (v) gru ou ako ou.
bris (n) mu lau. brumim (n) tikorfo.
bros (n) dimingi. brus (n) sakwe.
bros na bel na baksait (n) tama meke. buai (n) mini.
brukim (v) bu. bubu (n) wara.
brukim (v) dombe. bubu meri bilong papa (n) yaku.
brukim (v) takra. bubu pikinini, tumbuna (n) wanembuka.
brukim (rop) (v) balan. bubu tumbuna (n) ata.
brukim (wara) (v) kirfi. buk (n) tama likir kau aku.
brukim ai (v) lako bur tanngur. buk i gat wara (n) fir mango.
brukim ai hariap (v) lako bur bur fele fele. bun antap bilong lek (n) sungel.
brukim bek (v) kwiyau. bun bilong as bilong kakaruk (n) su gumbo.
brukim han, paitim (v) butu. bun bilong baksait (n) kin gala bundu.
brukim i go long hap (v) sere aku. bun bilong baksait (n) ginfa yefa.
brukim i go long planti hap (v) minwun. bun bilong baksait (n) suwku.
brukim i go long planti hap (v) sere. bun bilong dua (n) aka yurmu kusu.
brukim i go long planti hap (mambu) (v) bun bilong haus (n) aka solo.
grom. bun bilong het (n) ter wando.
brukim i go long plet (v) dama. bun bilong lip banana (n) lombo.
brukim liklik (v) mosu. bun bilong lip o talinga (n) bungu.
brukim liklik diwai (v) fuwol. bun bilong muruk long wokim hul (n) felnde
brukim lip (n) bran. afu mai.
brukim lip long kaikai (v) brongo. bun bilong skru bilong lek (n) suwa
brukim long planti hap (v) siri sere. wurngen.
brukim mambu (v) buta. bun bilong snek (n) kwaramba.
brukim mambu (v) ta grambi a. bun nating (adj) yefane.
brukim namel (v) werngu. bun nating, i no brait liklik, liklik (pikinini)
brukim namel (v) tufrasi. (adj) kanda.
brukim olgeta (v) bul. bun, mit, strongpela sapot (bilong ol diwai)
brukim paura bilong saksak (v) mu duko. (n) yefa.
brukim pinga (n) lesu bouna. bung long toktok (v) narete.

532
bung long toktok (v) gwai. doti pinis (adj) musun kana na.
bungim (v) hauna. drai (adj) bou.
bungim (v) duwn. drai kokonas (n) suwa solka.
bungim han (v) lesu gul na tongo. drai skin bilong kokonas (n) wan gala.
bungim ol samting (adj) suwri sauron. driman (n) nisuku.
bungim sampela samting (olsem saksak) (v) dring (v) a belna.
ou. drip (v) lufau.
bus (n) wula. dua, arere long haus (n) aka kulu.
busnaip (n) yirkwe. dua, bun bilong dua (n) aka ta bringi.

D E
dai, kilim i dai, sik, pundaun (v) siri. em (liklik meri), (ol i no tok olsem nau) (pro)
danis (n) romo. tu.
danis na mekim nois wantaim gras pisin (n) em (man) (pro) ru.
biarna. em (meri) (pro) su.
daun long pul (n) difi. em i pulap (v) nekna.
daunim (v) ou. em samting bilong yu (phr) kuna noko
daunim fut (v) tasu burku. sauwo.
daunim fut long lukautim spirit (v) fu em wanem? (int) bur kana.
wangora.
daunim het i stap (v) maindi. F
demdem (n) mangi fofo. faiv (5) (num) yokondambe lesu.
digim wantaim stik (long plainim pitpit, famili (n) tombo lakam.
taro, banana) (v) toko. famili bilong man o meri (n) kaha.
dispela (grm) ke. flain (v) laka.
dispela (longwe) (grm) o. flain (n) aka galwo.
dispela em wanem? (int) gira burka. foa (4) (num) lasifu lasifu.
dispela i go long hap (intj) ekun. fut (n) suwa lombo.
diwai i kamap long nambis (n) gara.
diwai i pundaun olgeta (v) tufu. G
diwai i pundaun pinis (n) kin.
gaden (n) nu.
diwai long pasim dua (insait) (n) aka yurmu.
gaden i kuk pinis (n) nu kursu.
diwai saksak i pundaun pinis (n) wutu.
gaden i planim pinis (n) nu angur.
diwai saksak i sikarap pinis (n) naku wursa.
garamut (n) mu.
diwai sting (n) rombo.
giaman (n) suma bango.
diwai, han diwai (n) mu.
giaman (v) hewe kawe.
diwai, insait long prut (n) nawa.
giaman man (n) erewe naweka rii tamar.
dok (n) wala.
533
giaman na lap (adj) hingre hangre. gras long arere bilong ples (n) baye.
giamanim (v) te hema kama tolo nali. gras long arere bilong ples (n) alingi.
gip, poisin (n) numba. gras pisin long bilasim (n) kwande.
givim (v) nuwa. gras pisin long bilasim (n) li.
givim bilong mipela yet (v) na nuwa. grashopa (n) gulma.
givim kaikai (v) a nuwa. graun (n) sul kurkur.
givim kaikai long wanpela i no laik kaikai (v) graun i gat kala (n) kre sul.
lu gaso. graun i gat kala (n) sul kre.
givim liklik paia (v) for nuwa. graun i pundaun (n) bre.
givim tang (v) tawul bleu a. graun i pundaun (n) bre du.
glas bilong lukluk (n) gamba. graun i putim long skin o limbum (n) sulu.
go (v) i. graun malu malu long digim (n) sul foko
go antap long baksait (v) wala gusu. mambu ningi.
go antap, kisim kokonas (v) wi. graun malumalu (adj) kofo.
go ausait (v) wuwr. graun malumalu, dus, graun (n) sul foko.
go bek (adv) indi. graun malumalu, ros (n) blafo kute wakre.
go bek long ples (v) masi. graun, braun (n) sul.
go daun, rabim (long skin) (v) war. grile (n) ese kur.
go daunbilo (v) tuka. grin, amat (adj) kulfo.
go long haus, go bek (v) aku. grinpela muli (n) kormo kulfo.
go long pispis (v) nangu fra. gris (n) kukwe.
go long, stap long, wokim (v) na. gris bilong kuk (olsem wel) (n) kukwe.
go pastaim (v) ser. gude, halo (intj) o.
go stret (v) yal. guria (n) diwir diwir.
go wantaim (adj) nambo nambo. guria (n) yiflou yiflou.
god (n) afa samba. guria (n) yinawe.
gorgor (n) wal. guria (adj) gwru gwru.
gras (klostu waitpela) (n) terfa kurkurmbu. gutepla taim tru (v) yema kufa nambe.
gras (waitpela) (n) gai. gutpela kaikai (adj) glou.
gras antap long ai (n) lako musuka. gutpela nem (n) sir nalingi.
gras bilong ai (n) lako felnde. gutpela pasin (n) tolo eloko barna tamar.
gras bilong as pisin (n) su sumbu. gutpela taim (long wokim sampela samting)
gras bilong het, lip, han bilong binatang (n) (adj) yema kufa.
kulka. gutpela tingting (n) wafu kau.
gras bilong pes (n) gu taku. gutpela tok (n) sur nu ene aka.
gras bilong pisin (n) felnde kulka. gutpela, amamas (adj) kufe.
gras bilong pisin (n) gaie. gutpela, stretpela (adv) ale.
gras bilong pisin guria (n) mangrangra.

534
H hap bilong naip i no sap (n) maku.
hap diwai saksak (i no skrap yet) (n) naku
hait (tok) (n) elen.
indi mu.
hait, karamapim (wantaim lip) (v) lendo.
hap i stap antap bilong bulmba aka (n)
haiwara (n) ti.
galwo wuta.
halo (intj) tama.
hap i stap namel (klok, banis win, lewa, han,
hamaspela (int) biki saima.
fut) (n) wafu.
han (n) lesu bela.
hap kaikai (n) waku.
han (n) lesu gilombo.
hap long kapa i kamaut (n) lesu gisi tombo.
han (n) lesu lako.
hap long sindaun (n) eme wil.
han antap (n) lesu om.
hap maunten i go daun (n) embleo
han bilong diwai (n) grembu.
kahamender.
han bilong diwai (i gat tupela hap) (n) gel.
hap mun (n) nekwa mekek na.
han bilong lip ton (n) wansinango.
hap namel (n) nindi.
han bilong mambu (n) gusu.
hap skin bilong pis, mak long skin (n) om
han diwai (n) mu tenge.
gursu.
han diwai (n) mu yengla.
hap ston i kamaut long maunten (n) tele.
han diwai (n) tenge.
hap tudak insait long ai (n) lako wando.
han i kam ausait long diwai (n) bongo.
hap wara i pinis (n) oku tombo.
han i pas (n) lesu yokondambe.
haphapim, putim lip i go insait long rup,
han i pas (v) yomar.
bilasim han (v) waye.
han saksak (n) bir.
haphapim, tilim, kapsaitim wara (v) fra.
han saksak i drai (n) naku bir.
hapim (v) bringi.
han, pinga (n) lesu.
hapim (v) ra tii ra ti ya.
hangamap (v) kufu nele.
hapim (v) leferko.
hangamapim (v) lili.
hapim lip i no bruk (v) busu.
hangamapim (v) kwre.
hapim, katim planti taim (v) gulfu.
hangamapim (long rop), redi long kaikai (v)
hapsait (n) yoko.
lei.
hariap (adv) hanganafu.
hangri (v) a siri.
hariap (adv) kukwi.
hangri (v) ekaa wau.
hariap, no ken westim taim (intj) hele.
hangri tumas (v) ekaa wangu.
harim gut (v) tati.
hangri tumas (v) asiri mende kara.
harim gut (v) namra mesu.
hap (n) emta.
harim, pilim (v) mesu.
hap (n) eme.
hat (adj) maha.
hap ai i gat kala (n) lako yen.
hat bilong banana (n) yam kino.
hap aninit long haus (n) aka ari.
hat, klok (n) gwarlako.
hap banana i kamap antap tru (n) yam ter
haus (n) aka.
kamba.
535
haus bilong kuk (n) aka ekaa. holim strong (v) tongo durna.
haus bilong ol bi o arapela kain binatang (n) holim strongpela wantaim tupela pinga (v)
akwa. nalu.
haus bilong pik, moskito net (n) fer wosu. huk (n) aungwa.
haus bilong pisin (n) felnde wosu. hul (n) kol.
haus boi (n) aka tenge. hul (i brukim plet) (n) nol.
haus i pairap (n) aka u. hul bilong bel, bilum (doti bilong pikinini) (n)
haus krai (n) muwku. landu.
haus long bus (n) ongwa aka. hul bilong nus (n) wilingi siki.
haus long painim ol pisin (n) felnde aka. hul i brukim samting pinis (v) olfo.
haus long sik mun (n) aka masi. hul i gat wara (ol pisin save long dring long
haus long singsing (n) minga aka. en) (n) musun.
haus pekpek (n) aka kaha. hul long sutim banara (n) sorflo.
haus pekpek (n) su aka. hul wara (n) oku siki.
het bilong banara (n) arma terfa. husat (man) (int) em.
het bilong spia (n) lam gwroso.
het, antap (bilong banara, kundu) (n) terfa. I
hetman (n) tama lakar. i gat lait long paia (adj) blili blala.
hevi (adj) wendu. i gat lait o kala (adj) tikwete takwete.
hia (loc) kekwra. i gat planti gras no gut (v) flo.
hip rabis (n) sifingi. i gat planti hul, bagarap pinis (laplap) (n)
hiphipim (v) gou. ruwku.
hiphipim graun (v) gru. i gat planti sua (v) gur gur nangur sa.
hiphipim o klinim liklik paia (v) for. i gat save (adj) wafu kana.
hipim (n) termu. i gat skin (v) liki mena.
hipim (v) owe ne. i gat wanpela lek tasol (n) suwa tongo.
hipim, apim (v) owe. i gat wara (adj) ble.
hipim, holim (v) towi. i go antap na daunbilo (adj) kio kio.
hipimapim malumalu (v) kwro kwro. i go antap na daunbilo (adj) kwi kwai.
holim (v) tongo. i go daun tumas (long maunten) (n) kowe.
holim aninit long han o skru bilong han (v) i go hariap (v) tikir na.
fendumbu. i go i go kam (adj) kindi kundu.
holim aninit o insait long ol han (v) hembu. i go long planti hap, bikpela (adj) banda.
holim bodi bilong yu yet (v) felmbu. i go na i kam (v) na sumbu na sumbu.
holim gut (v) tambangi. i kamap doti (wara) (v) fi fi.
holim gut (v) hoi. i kamap long wanpela hap, tasol i no
holim han (v) lesu na tongo. pinisim (v) osna.
holim long tupela han (v) yembu. i karamap, i raunim olgeta (v) fu ambo.
536
i lait, kala kala (v) tare. kaikai bilong gaden (n) a nu.
i lus (v) turku. kaikai hat, pait (adj) kwleya.
i lus (v) hol. kaikai i no kaikai pinis (n) blauwo.
i lus (v) sowe. kaikai i no kuk (adj) tikwlo takwlo.
i lus na pundaun (v) guw. kaikai i no kuk pinis (n) gwehe.
i lus na pundaun (v) losu na. kaikai i strongpela (v) mororo a.
i lus na rausim (v) sowe tii. kaikai man (v) ta ar.
i lus olgeta, lusim ples, wok nabaut (v) kaikai na ol samting bilong kaikai (n) a
namble. suwa.
i lus, ranawe (v) bre. kaikai na pulapim (v) a durna.
i no gat pikinini (n) yen timba tawas. kaikai, dring (v) a.
i no gat pipia (adj) berso. kaikaim (v) ta.
i no gat wanpela taim (adv) iki di ningik. kaikaim (v) tausi.
i no inap tok yes o nogat (v) lisi lisi hikiyan. kaikaim (liklik hap) (v) tanku a.
i no kamap olgeta, han o fut i slip (v) kaikaim na brukim skin (v) ti wuta ta wuta.
tokundu. kaikaim, katim han diwai (v) tam.
i no kuk pinis (adj) mangru. kain binatang (n) sul kulfo kur.
i no laik mekim gutepela wok (v) nalafau. kain danis o singsing (n) satawi.
i no naispela (adj) kaha ni. kain diwai (n) au kumba.
i no stret (adj) yinal. kain kain kaikai (adj) horke harke.
i no stret, krum, mangal (adj) bango. kain kumu (n) asama.
i paia pinis (v) u groto. kain liklik diwai (n) belmun.
i pas (v) takorko tiri. kain liklik diwai (n) wasune.
i yusim puripuri (n) burnga yarnga. kain sayor (n) sumbu kumba.
ia (n) namra. kain singsing (wantaim kaikai) (n) minga.
insait (bilong hul o hip) (post) nuw. kala kala (adj) blala.
insait bilong banara (n) arma wako. kala kala (adj) fir fir for for.
insait bilong bel (n) alingi. kalap (v) girfi towi.
insait bilong bel (n) mau. kalap (v) kokwre.
insait bilong han (n) lesu wafu. kalap kalap (v) gwre.
insait bilong kokonas taim liklik diwai i kam kalap kalap (v) kitil kutol.
ausait (n) suwa yomo. kalap, kam daunbilo (v) kete tuka.
is (hap san i kamap) (n) nambul wuya. kalapim (v) afrete.
isi isi (adv) awark kandak. kam (v) ya.
kam antap (v) wuya.
K kam ausait (v) bou.
ka (n) sul bombo. kam behain (v) kina.
kaikai (n) ekaa. kam insait, go ausait (v) wra.

537
kam klostu, klostu (post) minba. karim antap long het (v) feke.
kam na go (v) fal fal. karim antap long sol/long maus (ol abus) (v)
kamap bikpela, grisman (v) meye. tisi.
kamap lus pinis (v) sorna. karim long het (long rop i hangamap long
kamap mau, liklik diwai (v) okwe. poret) (v) tukta.
kamap pinis, redi long kaikai (pitpit o karim long sol (olsem bilum) (v) tokmbo.
saksak) (v) fa. karim pikinini (v) wauk na.
kamap wantaim plaua (v) fun. karim pikinini (v) wra ni.
kamapim, mekim moa gut (v) eneku. karim pikinini (v) wi nuwa.
kamaut (v) wla. karim pikinini (v) ku.
kamautim (ol sayor) (v) semra. karim pikinini (v) krafo kute.
kambang (n) nuwngu. karim pikinini long baksait, ol lek bilong em
kanda (n) saku. raunim nek (v) okwre.
kanda, stik i gat prut (banana, ton) (n) karim pikinini long rop (v) fana.
nungu. karim wantaim stik (v) wurso.
kap (n) kelembu. katapila (n) owe.
kap bilong kakaruk man (n) duw walko. katim (bikpela), katim pitpit (v) kwiyi.
kap bilong muruk (n) duw basi. katim (gras, plaua) (v) kute.
kapa bilong pinga (n) lesu gisi. katim (haphapim), katim banana (v) oro.
kapa bilong pinga bilong put, put bilong katim han i gat banana long en (v) bona.
pisin (n) suwa gisi. katim hariap (v) sorndo.
kapsaitim (v) gam. katim i go long planti hap (adj) fla.
kapupu (v) su fur. katim long dring (v) tambenge.
karakum (n) umaka. katim long planti hap, ripim (v) wuta.
karamapim (v) ra tanngur. katim long tupela hap (v) grato.
karamapim (v) yofo. katim longpela (v) der.
karamapim (v) yokwro. katim mak (v) romo kau.
karamapim (hul) (n) bra. katim na rausim, katim saksak (v) gu.
karamapim (man yet) (v) yilo. katim ol liklik han diwai (v) ternngu.
karamapim wantaim banis (n) wol gu. katim paiawut (v) kwini.
karamapim wantaim graun, rausim graun katim paiawut long longpela hap (n) kokul.
(v) gru fiti. katim rop, brukim haus olgeta (v) tanku.
karamapim wantaim tuptup (v) tanngu. katim, diwai pundaun (v) sure.
karamapim, haitim (v) tikte. kaukau (n) wanda lako.
karamapim, karamapim sua, wokim banis, kaunim (v) kafu.
raunim (v) waki. kaunim stret (v) kafu nakir.
karamapim, planim kokonas (v) fiti. kawar (n) tikwiyi.
kari i kam (v) raya. kela (adj) ter so.

538
kep bilong banana (n) yam blafo. klirim rot (v) tawi.
ki (n) aka late. klostu i bruk (adj) surmun.
kiau (n) felnde lako. klostu long (post) inba.
kirap (v) difor. klostu pundaun (v) anda manda.
kirap (long slip) (v) sau. klostu tudak (n) kurna.
kirap nogut (v) furndu na. klostu tudak i kamap (v) kurna.
kirapim (v) tisoro. klostu wankain (adj) ekra na.
kis (v) dumu muna. koapim (v) kwla.
kisim (v) wro. koapim (adj) lorkwle sorkwle.
kisim (aibika) (v) kur. koapim pait (adj) lermu sermu.
kisim (man) i kam, wantaim (v) tambo. kok (n) el.
kisim (yam) (v) sa. kokonas (n) suwa.
kisim graun bilong arapela (n) fi sul. kokonas (drai) (n) suwa bow turari.
kisim lip, katim abus o gras (v) kute. kokonas drai (n) suwa wangalambo.
kisim na bungim (v) ra. kokoros, kakalak (n) war saklo.
kisim na bungim (buai o ton) (v) kuw. kol (adj) bisisi.
kisim na bungim ol liklik samting (v) noko. kol (adj) nungul.
kisim na maritim (v) ra. kol (kaikai) (adj) ningli.
kisim ol lip bilong diwai kokonas o saksak (v) kol long moning (n) surna.
tafirsa. kol wara (adj) oku kulfo.
kisim ol rop (v) wosu. kolwara bilong kukim saksak (n) tingil.
kisim ol samting long wokabaut (adj) siwri kom (n) masai.
sauwro. komim (v) terfa tisi.
kisim prut (v) tulku. komkom, paiaplai (n) gwiyo.
kisim saksak, rausim skin (v) gwal. kon bilong kapiak (n) wate blangi.
kisim wantaim maus, putim i go insait long kopra (n) suwa meke.
rup (v) take. krai (v) kra.
kisim wanwan ol banana mau (v) ruku. krai bilong dok (intj) hau.
kisim wara (v) si. krai i kam bek long maunten (v) natal atal.
kisim, bilong man yet (v) auna. krai sori pinis (n) muwku masi.
klia, klin, olgeta (v) wahai. kros na i laik bekim (n) iki naweyan re fur
kliaim nek (v) tanenger a. erka.
klin, nais, i gat save (adj) kufeni. kru (n) gu.
klinim graun (v) eme ale. krumgut (long han) (adj) wirngin wurngun.
klinim graun long redim long katim diwai (v) krungutim o tanim (v) liwi luwau.
kla. krungutim, tanim i go long, tanim kaikai (i
klinim long tang (v) bleu. kuk) (v) fal na.
klinim long tang (v) so.

539
krungutim, wokim paia, i go antap na lap (v) nali.
daunbilo (adj) brau brau. lap na soim tit (n) seklem.
kuka bilong wara, trausel (n) walingi. laplap (n) mau liki.
kukamba (n) bondi. lapun (adj) afko.
kukamba (n) bongur. larim diwai i pundaun, diwai i pundaun (v) ifi
kukim gras bilong abus (v) wondo. finsi.
kukim insait lip long paia (v) fasu. larim em (man o meri) (v) tirite.
kukim long paia (v) lisi. larim em i stap (v) tiri.
kukim, wara i boil (v) u. larim em pundaun (v) gam tii.
kulau (n) suwa gumbo. larim em pundaun, abrusim (v) faina.
kumu (n) nanglu. larim em pundaun, rausim (v) tilse.
kunai gras (n) dambi. larim mi (v) mei.
kundu (n) mengu. las, behain tru (adj) numba.
kuru (n) suwa fan. laus (n) nun.
kuru, pikinini kokonas (long planim) (n) lek, aninit (long banara, kundu) (n) suwa.
suwa yel. lephan sait (adj) gaima.
kus (v) gursu. lewa (n) kwleya wafu.
kus (n) isuku. lewa (n) wafu toura.
kus (n) nindi. liklik (adj) waska.
liklik (adj) muwngu.
L liklik (gras na lip) (adj) flen.
laik (v) ni hiki kufem hamba. liklik (wokim samting) (adj) bliwi blauwo.
laik (v) ir erka hikin. liklik anis i plai (n) sul dinglan.
laik, redi (v) erka. liklik bel (insait) (n) suwa gaia.
laikim (v) wafu hiki. liklik bet bilong wokim paia (n) bulmba aka.
laikim olgeta (adj) wafu boi boi. liklik brata bilong man o susa bilong meri (n)
laim bilong kundu (n) wusunal. gana.
lainim (v) sili. liklik bris, bet long ol plet (n) au tembe.
lait bilong klaut, klaut i pairap (n) liklik buk (n) tekwle waki.
numblangan. liklik buk, sup, memeim (v) blengu.
lait i pairap (v) blala. liklik das ii sikarapim (v) gre gre.
lait i raunim san o mun (n) awangu. liklik diwai (n) mu yen.
lait, pairap (adj) tingre tangre. liklik diwai (n) tamblakan.
laitim bikpela paia (v) duwn. liklik diwai (n) kundu.
laitim paia bilong kuk (v) go. liklik diwai (long sit) (n) safran.
laitim paia wantaim ol liklik stik (v) talma. liklik diwai redi long planim (n) yel.
lang (n) algan. liklik han diwai (n) mu gwra.
lang (n) tama algan. liklik han diwai (n) solo.

540
liklik hap (adj) numbul. liklik ren (v) wul wul.
liklik hap (n) somo. liklik sayor (taim i planim pinis) (n) foku.
liklik hap diwai (n) lufu. liklik sel (kokonas, kiau), putim kiau (n)
liklik hap diwai na hap i stap aninit bilong wandi.
bulmba aka (n) galwo wama. liklik skrap (long skin) (v) wurfoto.
liklik hap gras (n) somo baye. liklik snek (n) tekwle.
liklik hap graun (n) musun. liklik sno na san behainim (n) nambul lako
liklik hap graun i pairap (n) au mal. okto.
liklik hap skin diwai (n) sal. liklik stik (n) gala.
liklik hap strongpela graun (n) weke somo. liklik stik long brukim graun bilong yam
liklik haus bilong binatang o pik (n) wosu. mami (n) gramba warmona.
liklik haus bilong ol katapila (n) ringi si. liklik stik long tanim saksak (n) kwai kwai.
liklik haus bilong saksak (n) wal aka dumbu. liklik wara (n) fangi.
liklik hul (n) ofol. liklik wara (n) duwlolo.
liklik hul (n) siki. liklik, yangpela (adj) kahaiembo.
liklik kaku (n) sulfo. liklilk rop long strongim banara (n) arma
liklik kon (n) wur kon. sou.
liklik kus (v) tikorko. limbum (n) duwan.
liklik lang (n) momoseya. limbum basket (n) duwan nawa.
liklik limbum (n) bumblan. lip (n) kumba.
liklik lip i gat kala long bilasim (n) salwan. lip (n) sirka.
liklik maunten, kilrot (n) bundu. lip bilong saksak, hap bilong sol (n) wol.
liklik mun (n) nekwa glengu. lip bilong singsing (n) dufu.
liklik mun (n) nekwa bi. lip bilong wel saksak (n) afko toto.
liklik naip, as bilong diwai (adj) tombo. lip bilong wel saksak (n) fanga.
liklik paia (n) kiri sefu. lip i drai pinis (n) kumba okwe.
liklik paia i stap long ol sit (n) sungre. lip i drai pinis (n) lungutu.
liklik pinga (n) lesu gaien. lip i gat tupela hap (n) yar taka.
liklik pis (n) manu manu. lip long makim man taim bilong tilim kaikai
liklik pos bilong ausait long sapotim rup (n) (n) tukarka.
simba selwando. lip long pasim mami (n) asanga.
liklik pos bilong bikbus (n) safko yafin. lokim dua (v) galwo kuwsu.
liklik prut i no kamap bikpela pinis (n) long (go long) (post) yoko.
glengu. long (kam long, kamaut long) (post) fenda.
liklik raunwara (n) oku blo. long em (man) (pro) re.
liklik raunwara (n) blo oku. long em (meri) (pro) te.
liklik raunwara (i stap long ston) (n) long hap (loc) kasi.
rengongo. long hap (loc) okwra.

541
long hap wara i stat (n) oku tol. lukluk long ol samting (v) sul fi.
long mi (pro) ene. lukluk strong (v) nalfa.
long ol (pro) me. lus (bilong skru) (v) duwarko na.
long olgeta hap (n) kom kom. lus long wara (v) ra war.
long yu (pro) ne. lus na pundaun (v) gwal aku.
long yumipela o mipela (pro) nemen. lusim (rop, banara) (v) sokwe.
long yumitupela (pro) nende. lusim tingting (v) ambasu.
long yupela (pro) kemen.
long yutupela (pro) kefen. M
longlong (adj) belo. mak (n) armu.
longlong man o meri (n) tama amba. mak (putim tanget) (n) yofu.
longpela (adj) kin menam. mak bilong fut (n) suwa fol.
longpela diwai long bikpela bung i mekim mak bilong fut (n) wil.
long baim meri (n) gil. makim (v) mera.
longpela gras pisin (n) fal. makim taim (v) danasu.
longpela taim i go pinis (n) ayum. makim, stat long danis (v) samre.
longpela tru (adj) gloulo. malaria (n) siri gru gru.
longtaim bipo (adj) mili mele. malira, ol samting bilong poisin (n) engle.
longtaim bipo (adj) mele. malu malu long banisim haus (n) sukwle.
longtaim bipo (adj) mele kusa. malumalu (prut), smel (adj) kuwa.
lotu (n) afa samba roko aka. mama, susa bilong mama, pikinini bilong
lukautim (v) anuwa. brata bilong mama o susa bilong papa
lukautim (v) raka anuwa. (n) nawa.
lukautim, stretim (v) hoi hai. mambu (n) ama.
lukim (v) ni. mambu (n) ama wusilele.
lukim antap (v) yawo. mambu i sap olsem spia (n) fi kusa.
lukim daun, tromoim daun, daunim (v) tori. mambu long banisim rup (n) aka gu
'lukim em' (phr) o nir u. takwlulu amam.
lukim gut (intj) sumraya. mambu long helpim taro i kamap (n) difi.
lukim long sait bilong ai (n) lako gaima. mambu long karim wara (n) oku ama.
lukim man yu no wetim (v) re i nika furndu mami (n) kaku.
na. mamosa (n) siri sau.
lukim nanak (neg) kehek. man (n) nemna.
lukim strong (v) laka bol. man (n) tama.
lukim strong long ai (v) lako mir. man aipas (n) lako timba.
LUKIM welku (v) welku fa tu. man bilong gasiwa (n) nawi.
lukluk (v) nuwku. man bilong givim (n) tama nuwar.
lukluk gut (v) iki ale. man bilong lap (n) hingre hangre yoko ekur.
542
man bilong pikinini meri, pikinini bilong mekim wanpela tingting (v) dinafler hiki.
pikinini meri (n) neta. memeim (v) bungro a.
man bilong tok giaman (n) erewe tama. meri (n) tawa.
man i dai pinis (n) tama mu kuwar. meri bilong brata bilong mama, pikinini
man i gat skin blak liklik (n) liki kasa. bilong man bilong susa (n) yowul.
man i gat skin blak tudak (n) liki kur. meri bilong nandasi (n) yau.
man i gat wanpela ai (n) lako golwa. meri bilong pikinini bilong smolpapa, meri
man i mekim wok bilong arapela man (n) bilong pikinini bilong brata (n) wafuw.
bumbu sauwom ene eku tamar. meri bilong pikinini man o bubu pikinini (n)
man i no marit (n) tama tombo. yinsawa.
man i poisinim (n) numba noko. metaim (v) yema.
mango (n) grambi. mi (pro) on.
mani i givim long baim meri (n) kul fer rete. mi harim, nogat (intj) uhwu.
mario, snek blong wara (n) oku sofo. mi harim, yes (intj) uhu.
maski (neg) mana. mi orait, maski, inap (intj) beena.
matmat, hul bilong matmat (n) siki termu. moning (n) karwi.
mau long san (v) wan gre. moning i stat (v) dana kute.
mau pinis na i gat mosong (n) kunsu tuku. moning o apinun i gat liklik lait (n) fu kwiyi.
maunten (n) embleo. mosong (n) engurka.
maunten i go daun (n) du. muli (adj) kormo.
maus (n) suma langi. mun (n) nekwa.
maus bilong pisin (n) felnde bi. mun i kamap (v) tawa laka atas meyeyas.
mekim banis (v) eku. mun i pundaun (v) nekwas famek suknayas.
mekim buk (n) dofo.
mekim i lus (v) humbo. N
mekim i lus (skin), sikarapim (v) bau. naip i sap (n) mel.
mekim i slet (v) bloso. naip long sapim (v) kou.
mekim kol bel (v) ka afinau ambe. nait, tudak (n) nurku.
mekim nois (v) grou. namba tu man o meri (taim namba wan i
mekim nois long giaman (adj) kruru suru. dai pinis) (n) wani.
mekim paia i dai, paia (yet) i dai (v) sun go. namba tu meri (bilong man i gat planti
mekim pes tudak, belhat (v) sengu. meri) (n) tawa ya sumbu.
mekim rop, stretim rop i bruk pinis (v) ten. namba wan meri (bilong man i gat planti
mekim rot (v) walanga. meri) (n) tawa mus.
mekim sampela wok long pasin bilong yu namba wan na tri pinga (n) lesu bor.
yet (adj) bir ber. namba wan pikinini (n) lakwiyi.
mekim sol (v) nato. nambis (n) yikwa gan.
mekim strong, mekim drai (v) durna. nambis (n) afla taku.
543
namel (post) bor. nois bilong rat (intj) gwal gwal.
namel (n) grou. nois bilong ren (intj) ku.
namel (adj) kirkir. nois long tupela pinga (v) sungwal.
namel long singsing o ples tais (n) fel nois olsem skrapim (n) kursei.
mango. noken, aipas (adj) timba kamba.
namel stret (adv) bor kir kirk. not (n) tol.
narapela kain (adj) kuna kuna. nupela (adj) golo mende.
natnat (n) fi. nupela diwai saksak (n) naku bungu.
natnat (n) mu oku fi. nupela mun (n) nekwa sukna.
nau (adj) esunguna. nupela pikinini (n) kai.
nau (adv) ningre nawe. nupela rop (n) gumbo.
nau stret, kwiktaim (adj) kiyi kiyi. nupela sayor (adj) aungu.
nau, orait (intj) klei. nupela, nupela (grinpela) lip, sit (adj) luwku.
nek (n) kokumbu. nus (n) wilingi.
nek (n) kukumbu.
nek (n) belna. O
nek bilong pisin (n) du. okit (n) dol au.
nek, nois, askim (n) suma. ol (tripela o moa) (pro) mu.
nem (n) sir. ol gutpela toktok, stap belgut (v) angla.
nem bilong wara klostu long hul long as ol hap kaikai (n) liki tombo.
stori (n) afla tak. ol klaut tudak taim bikpela ren i kam (v)
nem nogut (n) sir kaha. kursu walaman ya.
nil bilong bikpela lip (n) sirka bungu. ol lain bilong yam mami (v) gusa.
no gat nois, maus pas (adj) suma timba. ol laplap (n) ter gila.
no inap long (v) nime. ol laplap (n) gwesai i.
no inap long wokabaut gut (v) tasu gwrusu. ol laplap bilong singsing (n) osai.
no ken wori (phr) manda timba. ol liklik hap ston (n) wur yen.
no laik, brukim marit (v) mana. ol liklik sta (n) ware nembe gwrara.
no stap, no inap long painim (v) timba. ol manmeri (n) tama tawa.
no, nogat (neg) iki. ol manmeri bilong arapela hap (n) di yoko
nogat (neg) mehek. fendam.
nogut (adj) kaha. ol pasin long amamasim man i kam o go
nogutim, i pen (v) manda. (phr) er kombo fa kombo.
nois (n) ausana. ol plaua blong tulip i kamap bikpela (n)
nois (n) samra. bangramen.
nois (adj) glir glor. ol pulpul i go antap long spia (n) bermun.
nois bilong kaikai (n) ken. ol rot i bung (n) kulu tenge.
nois bilong kis o bilong snek (v) tumu muna. ol ston bilong stov (n) arko sunngu.
544
ol tit i lus (v) lungwa. paia i stap long stik (n) kiri meke.
ol tumbuna (n) maure. paia o lait i laitim na indai (v) dal dal.
ol tumbuna (n) afa nanda. paia, paiawut (n) kiri.
olaboi, yupela (intj) kemela. painim abus (v) elowo fle.
olgeta famili (n) er sokom. painim abus (v) elowo fu.
olgeta manmeri (n) yelnda oku. painim pinis (v) fle.
olgeta sait (n) yoko yoko. pairap (ol pisin) (v) singlili senglele.
olgeta samting (n) bu bum. pait (i stat) (v) nambutu naruku.
olgeta samting yu lukim tupela i stap (adj) paitim (v) afi nau.
bri i bre ya ni. paitim (v) afi.
olgeta, planti (adj) yelnda. paitim (v) kre.
olgeta, tumas (adj) mende. paitim (han o put) (v) gwa.
olpela gaden (n) nu bor. paitim garamut (v) toko.
olpela gaden (n) ongwa bor. paitim han (v) lesu bombo.
olsem (int) biki biki. paitim i go long planti hap (v) nambu.
olsem (grm) yungu. paitim wantaim (v) doi doi.
olsem (adv) ekra nawe. paitim wantaim stik (v) blosu.
olsem (adv) ekra ni. paitim, belo (v) fu.
olsem (bikpela olsem) (adv) kekra yombo. palai (n) nembe.
olsem limbum (n) weinbeni. pamuk meri (n) tama yelndam kana ekuka i
oltaim (adv) wirki. tawas.
opa (n) barka. pangal bilong olpela saksak (n) gowen.
opim (v) sambla. pangal saksak (n) galwo.
opim (buai) (v) tongo burku. pangal saksak bilong bulmba aka (n) galwo
opim (talinga o lip) (adj) bansi. a.
opim basket o bilum (v) wanda. pangol bilong saksak (n) naku bitki.
opim bilum (v) loko. papa bilong papa (n) namre.
opim dua o windo (v) late. papa, brata bilong papa (n) afa.
opim olgeta (v) sinda. pasim (v) wungusu.
orait (intj) era. pasim (long stik o spia) (v) wor.
orait (intj) uhunta. pasim (rop) long karim (v) taki.
orait (intj) kaka. pasim ai (v) lako bu.
orait (v) hako hako. pasim dua (v) kuwsu.
orait long, agri (v) ambu tongo. pasim gut (v) gur.
orait, em tasol (phr) ora kara. pasim maus, maski krai, inap (v) dina.
pasim nek bilong arapela (v) tongo nele.
P pasim ol bim bilong rup (v) aka tasu.
paia i dai (v) mol. pasim wantaim bodi, smuk (v) tai.

545
pasim wara (v) ta. pipia i stap antap long raunwara (n) blofu
pasim win (v) nele. kutu wakre.
pasim, krungutim long hap (v) gusu. pipia sking long het (n) terfa sal.
pasin (n) suma kaha yoko rumbo. pis (n) om.
pastaim (adj) nari. pis i smokim o draim pinis (v) kware.
paul pinis (adj) wurngun. pisin (n) felnde.
paul pinis (adv) na sau waki a sau waki. pisin bilong man (long garamut) (n) sambo.
paulim tingting (v) hiki haka. pispis (n) nangu.
paura (n) sen. pitpit (n) wuwr.
paura (n) sun. plai (v) bruru.
paura bilong saksak (n) naku sun. plai, tromoim nabaut (v) brena aku.
pekpek (n) su tombo. planim i go long graun (v) tul.
pekpek (v) sisi. planim long putim stik i go insait (v) ful.
pekpek wara (n) sisi humbu. planim stik (olsem saksak) (v) tuku.
pen bilong het (n) terfa manda. planim stik i go insait long graun (v) bane.
pes (n) tiri lako. planim tupela stik olsem 'X' (v) fa.
pik bilong ples (n) fer waa. planim yam o mami (v) wi.
pik, hos (n) fer. planti (adj) kaha kana.
pikinini bilong pikinini man, meri bilong em planti (adj) wenga.
(n) nan. planti maunten (n) lu.
pikinini i no gat brata susa (n) krafo. planti nait (1 o 2 wik) (n) numa.
pikinini man (n) tama toura. planti taim, no gat planti (adv) di ningi.
pikinini meri (n) tawa yen. plantihan (n) mundu.
pikinini, pikinini bilong brata o susa (n) yen. plantihan (n) mangur kon.
pilim kok (v) el tongo kul. plaua (n) awa.
pilim long baksait bilong han (v) fer klulu. plaua (n) su.
pilim sori, "em orait" (v) kombo mesu. plaua bilong kakaruk, retpela, kain plaua (n)
pilim wik (v) siri sure. walko.
pinis, daunbilo, baksait (adj) tombo. plaua bilong taro, liklik buk (adj) uklu maklu.
pinisim (v) ambe. ples (n) kom.
pinisim (kaikai, wok) (v) yomne. ples daun (n) dunsu.
pinisim olgeta (v) biya. ples daun (n) fru eme.
pipia (n) grafa. ples i gat sampela sayor (n) ongwa al oku.
pipia bilong ai (n) musun lako ene golwar. ples klia long bus (n) ongwa.
pipia bilong gaden (n) luku grafa. ples klia, as nating (adj) eme fa.
pipia bilong nus (n) nindi su. ples namel bilong mambu (n) difi el.
pipia bilong yau (n) namra su. plet (n) gwame.
plet bilong sospen graun (Garfu) (n) sirki.

546
poisin (n) mangle. pundaun na sanap stret long graun (adj) dil
poisin long lusim tingting (n) humondu. dol.
popo (n) mar wate. pundaun, kam daun (v) yiri.
poret (n) mambunge. purpur (n) waran.
poro i tilim kaikai, wanpela lain (n) minga put (n) suwa lako.
kufu. putim (v) rete.
poro tru (n) nakwel. putim beksait i go aut (v) sisi ki okwe nuwa.
poroman bilong tret (n) sere. putim het i go daun (v) duwye.
pos (n) simba. putim i go antap (v) blolo.
pos bilong bikbus (n) safko. putim i go daun (v) totori.
pos bilong sait long haus (n) selwando. putim i go daun long wara (v) oku tasu tiri.
pret long (v) er aku. putim i go insait (v) tu tiri.
prok (n) girsi. putim i go insait (hul), holim tamiok (v) tu.
prut (n) mondo. putim i go insait long graun (v) dun.
prut i no kamap bikpela pinis (n) suwa putim i go insait long pasim yau (v) gun.
glongu. putim i go insait long rup (v) take tiri.
pukpuk (n) mongur. putim i go long planti hap (v) tii tu ya.
pulap (adj) oule. putim i go pas (v) gorso.
pulap (v) a afe. putim i go wantaim, taintainim (v) okana.
pulapim wantaim wara (v) liti. putim insait long hul long karim (v) hongo.
pulim (v) wru wru. putim insait long rup (ol bun bilong kaikai)
pulim daun (v) toto. (v) tikorko.
pulim gras, katim gras (v) nate. putim kiau (sindaun long) (v) suwa dika.
pulim hariap bilong pen, langpela (adj) putim klos (v) sufongo.
toina. putim samting long lip (v) suw.
pulim i go antap, rop long apim (v) boro
boro. R
pulim long graun (v) tongo lisi. rabim (v) danda.
pulim long graun (v) lisi. rabim (saksak) (v) romo.
pulim rop banara (v) tangel. rabim (waswas, draim) (v) da.
pulim skin namel long tupela pinga (v) rabim (wokim liklik rop long sospen graun)
lunsu. (v) wir.
pulimnus, nois bilong mambu (adj) flili flolo. rabim i go stret (v) roto.
pundaun (adj) turon tauron. rabim, laimim (v) kwata.
pundaun (v) yirfi. raithan sait (adj) fisi.
pundaun (v) dil. raitim, bilasim (v) kau.
pundaun (v) sukrate. ran (v) titi.
pundaun antap long pes (v) yiri butu. ran, go daunbilo hariap (adj) tingir tangir.
547
ranawe (v) tulna. rausim ol pipia long ai (v) ringi rongo.
ranawe hariap (v) biya saya. rausim ol pipia long graun (v) lu lako.
ranawe raun raun (v) wur wra. rausim ol samting i hangamap (v) yikte.
ranim (v) kusu. rausim ol sit, kamautim (v) bol.
ranim pik (v) fer tasu i. rausim olgeta samting long haus (v) sauwro.
rasusim longpela (v) dondo. rausim pekpek (v) mala.
rat (n) mulu. rausim pipia (v) siti.
raun (adj) bangol bangol. rausim pipia (v) hako.
raun (adj) krou. rausim rop i go daun (v) wuron.
raun raun (adj) bri bre. rausim skin (v) tikin.
raunim (v) suw. rausim skin (bilong banana, yam, mami) (v)
raunim (v) tofun. gwasi.
raunim (v) wangu. rausim skin (yam, limbum) (n) keso.
raunim (v) yungu bangol. rausim skin abus (v) lolo.
raunpela (adj) bar bar. rausim skin banana (n) kwasi.
raunpela hap bilong stik i gat prut (banana rausim skin bilong ol sit o gras pisin (v)
o ton) (n) safran. buku.
raunwara, ples tais (n) bulmu. rausim skin diwai (v) asi.
rausim (v) sambu tii. rausim skin diwai (v) gau.
rausim (v) tu tii. rausim skin haphap (v) talo.
rausim (ol gras bilong pisin) (v) bur. rausim skin saksak (v) loma.
rausim (sayor) (v) forna. rausim spirit, tromoim wara (v) nimre.
rausim (spia, taro) (v) yoso. rausim ss wantaim ol han (graun) (v) rumba.
rausim (tuptup) (v) galo. rausim ton bilong lip (v) luma.
rausim banana i no mau yet (v) gelna. rausim wantaim han (v) nungrou.
rausim han o lek (v) ku aku. rausim wara long bel bilong abus (v) wul
rausim hap diwai (v) tahu. dondo.
rausim i kamaut, rausim bel bilong pik rausim wara long longpela samting (v)
wantaim mambu (v) broro. wulmbo.
rausim kus long nus (v) nindi kursu tii. rausim wara, holim tait (v) wul.
rausim liklik bin (v) dungwa. rausim, pulim banara (v) ra wra.
rausim lip (bilong pitpit) (v) lete. redi long kamap (talinga) (v) gulmombu.
rausim lip long hip (v) kul soto. redim man yet long singsing (v) takre.
rausim long paia (v) tate. redim, stretim (v) saro.
rausim ol katapila (long skin diwai) (v) tufa. ren (n) loko.
rausim ol lip (n) wakre busu busu. ren i pundaun (v) wate.
rausim ol lip bilong sakak o kokonas, hapim resa (n) guwsu.
lip (v) touso. resis (v) na tawi na tawi i.

548
resis long toktok (v) tolo nambuko. saksak i kamap strong (v) siri.
ret (adj) kasa. saksak i was pinis (n) naku sun kuwa.
ret i tulait (adj) kasak nakar. salat (n) diwle.
retpela o yelopela kala taim sandaun (adj) salim (v) er rete.
gwehe ta. salim (v) erete.
retpela saksak (n) naku kwainda kasa. salut (phr) er numbu.
retpela saksak (n) naku ormo okwe. salut (paitim isi long poret) (v) mambunge
ripim (laplap, limbum) (adj) timran tamran. fu.
rop bilong yam (n) safu. salut, ol i paitim wasket (v) taku tongo.
rop i kilim diwai (n) mu toklo wosu. samap (v) fu.
rop long apim diwai o go antap long diwai samapim (v) yama.
(n) sanglei. sampela (adv) dira dira.
rop long han (n) wurngen. sampela samting (n) bunandi.
rop long karim pikinini (n) yen kufu. samting i klin, as nating (v) sumba.
rop long mekim i pundaun (n) elkwai. samting long banisim ol spia (n) fiwol.
rop long wokim promis, buk, bim bilong samting long holim sospen (n) bein.
morota (n) ama wungusu. samting long pasim klos (n) gwalsa.
rop redi long wokim (i no gat skin) (n) kufu samting nogut (adj) holei.
yuwklu. san (n) nambul.
rop, lain (n) kufu. san hat (long moning) (n) nambul okwe.
rot long bus long ol pik (n) fer youre. san i go daun (v) war susu.
rot, pasin (n) kulu. san i kamap (n) dana.
rup (n) aka guw. san i karamap pinis (n) nul sikik wur aku.
rup long pes bilong haus (n) aka take. san i lait, i hat (v) wre.
sanap (v) susu.
S sanap (v) sau susu.
sait (bilong wara, maunten) (n) grewe. sanap antap long, putim i go daun (v) tasu.
sait bilong bodi (n) milifa. sanap na taitim (v) susu sowur.
sait bilong pes (n) taku wango. sanap stret (n) el fan.
sait bilong rot (n) kulu taku. sandaun (n) wur susu.
sait, longwe (post) werko. sandaun (n) nambul war.
sakim (v) dingei tii. sanguma (n) huma fa tu.
sakim man i go daun (v) tingwara. sapim (adj) mel.
sakim tok (v) iki namra mesu. sapim bun o spia (v) tarmbo.
saksak (n) naku. sapim naip (v) kon.
saksak fraim (n) naku fraim. sapot bilong rup (n) auwrara.
saksak i boil pinis (n) naku fer kisi. sapotim (v) fendo.
saksak i gat wara (n) bihi.
549
sapotim sampela samting i klostu pundaun singautim ol masalai long kisim help (v) er
(v) tuku towi. wawa isi.
saun bilong painim pik (intj) hoi hoi. singsing bilong daka (n) minga gwasi.
saun bilong seksek (adj) geu geu. singsing i kamap sampela taim (n) kirau.
savolim (v) takwruwru. singsing i no gat abus (n) minga gaien.
sekan (v) lesu tongo. singsing long holim pik (n) tisi lom.
sekim o guria (v) gruru. singsing raun (v) lom.
seksekim (v) tunbu. sit (n) na.
seksekim (v) numboto. sit bilong kwar (n) bangu.
sel bilong mekim nois (n) gwlar gwlar. sit bilong paia (n) kur su.
sel kokonas (bikpela), plet (n) yingwe. sit bilong ton (n) narun.
sel long karamapim kok (n) molkon. skai, antap tru (adj) kur.
sel long karim wara (n) oku yefa. skai, klaut (n) nul.
senisim haus (v) hauwa aku. skarapim (olsem kakaruk), rekim (v) tukwra.
senisim pes (v) filni falna. skelim (v) hema ni.
senisim pes (v) teri lako. skelim (n) tolo eloko tamar.
senisim pes (n) maure maure. skelim (lukim antap na daunbilo) (adj) soko
senisim tingting (v) tufarna. sako.
sikarapim diwai (v) kulko. skelim long paitim liklik (v) tele.
sikarapim i lus (v) liki bau. skelim, tok nogat (v) nambe.
sikarapim long statim paia (v) gre. skik long paitim garamut (n) mu sermba.
sikarapim saksak, paitim graun (wantaim skin (bilong man o prut) (n) liki.
stik) (v) dorko. skin bilong kapiak (v) gaso.
sikarapim, wokim garamut (v) kuwr. skin diwai (n) mu liki.
sikau antap (n) nekwa. skin diwai long mekim strena (n) sauwa.
silip, sindaun, putim i go olsem (v) sukna. skin diwai long pasim dua (ausait) (n) aka
sindaun (v) rusu. kusu.
sindaun sait sait (v) lisi lisi rusu. skin diwai long poisin o long banisim tanget
sing (v) hokwa kete. (n) welku.
singaut belhat (n) nambuko. skin i bagarap long rop (v) wusu wusu.
singaut bilong tok belhat (intj) oe. skin i kirap nogut (n) liki manngra.
singaut long arere long maus (n) isi. skin i lus long hot wara (adj) bil bol.
singaut long dok (long painim abus) (intj) is skin long saksak (n) galmbon.
is. skin mami long apim saksak (n) huma.
singaut taim i kirap nogut (v) ningle. skin rop i rausim pinis (n) yuwklu.
singaut, abus singaut (v) nau. skin saksak (n) wursa.
singautim ol masalai (v) er wawa. skin yam (n) sengeta.
skrap (n) luwnguya.

550
skrap (n) fu gurmba. sol i wokim i no gat wara (n) yikwa tate.
skrap (adj) songo sango. sol i wokim wantaim wara (n) yikwa sun.
skrap bilong saksak (n) naku ama yalwun. solap (v) u.
skrap bilong saksak (n) yalwun. solapim (v) fu blala na nuwa.
skrapim (v) kurfa. solwara (n) yikwa oku.
skrapim (v) fu griri. solwara bilong ol pisin long dring (n) ner
skrapim (v) groro groro. yikwa.
skrapim, rausim diwai (v) gurmba. sori (v) soro.
skru (n) lesu gusu. sori (n) kombo.
skru bilong han (namel) (n) lesu guwl. sori (v) kahar.
skru bilong lek (n) suwa aku tombo. sori, yes (intj) e hakum.
skru bilong lek (n) suwa guwl. sospen graun (n) sul au.
skru bilong lek (baksait bilong em) (n) suwa sospen graun (bikpela bilong saksak) (n)
du. garfu.
skru i stap antap long han (n) lesu om sospen, liklik sospen graun, graun bilong
gumbul. wokim (n) au.
slet insait long mambu i pasim hap (n) sot (adj) gul.
guwsu. sotwin (v) yiflondo.
slip (v) dumbu. sotwin (v) wafu wendu.
slip long (v) sawe. sotwin (v) wafu wuya.
slip long (adj) kri kri. spaida (n) samdo.
slip olgeta (v) mehe na. spet (v) telako si.
slipim long graun (v) lau. spetim (v) gul busa.
smelim (v) kwaya. spetim (v) sombo.
smelim (v) kuwa mesu. spia (n) fi.
smok bilong wara (n) kofon. spia (n) ser kuta.
smok bilong wara i hat (n) bisisu bususu. spia (bilong banara) (n) lam.
snek (n) sofo. spia i gat foapela hap (n) lam gwroso.
snek bilong dringim blut (n) maifo. spia i gat planti hap (n) lam bendu.
sno (n) gwa. spia i gat wanpela hap (n) lam opei.
sno karamapim pinis (v) nambul gwa ki. spia long saksak (n) lam bendu.
so (v) sungutu. spirit i go insait long man (v) maure tongo
soim planti samting (v) feta kata. raka i.
soim rot (adj) ongo ongo. spirit, tewel (n) wou.
soim sampela man (v) feta. sta (n) ware.
sol (n) yikwa. sta i paia na suruk (n) gwiyo yen yen keteka
sol (n) gausa. akuyar.
sol (n) lesu gausa. stap (sampela samting i stap) (v) amba.

551
stap long wanpela hap, save long (mekim stretim hap na rausim ol kunai, rausim lip
ss) (v) rii. banana (v) bo.
stap nating (adj) sombu. stretim ples (v) kom ale.
stap nating, wanpela, yet, olgeta taim (v) stretim, bung wantaim (v) nandu.
nawe. stretim, klinim, pundaun (ol lip) (v) numbu.
stap o go long lotu (v) lotu. stretpela (n) worna.
stat, pastaim, nau (n) golo. stretpela (adj) boi.
stik bilong karim (ol pik) (n) muwor. stretpela samting i gat tupela hap bilong em
stik bilong lip banana i pundaun (n) yam (diwai, wara) (v) tengle.
lombo kufu. strong (n) mu gwa.
stik bilong lip bilong kokonas (n) suwa strongpela (adj) yefa kana.
wangwarama. strongpela (adj) nere.
stik bilong tamiok (n) gome fa mu. strongpela (kaikai) (adj) dangwen.
stik bilong wokabaut (n) gramba saku. strongpela graun (n) weke.
stik i go long hat bilong banana i no gat prut strongpela kaikai (adj) dur dan.
(n) yam wanafa. strongpela lain bilong ol prut (n) kwlele.
stik i no gat skin (n) bela. su (n) suwa tasu.
stik long apim diwai, sayor (n) mango. sua (n) kolma.
stik long brukim graun (n) gramba. sua (n) li.
stik long hangamapim drai (n) suwa ama. suga (n) uwku.
stik long holim kaikai (n) ama gwalsa. sumuk (long paia) (n) kiri sufun.
stik long holim laplap (v) gila gungwa. supgraun (n) sul dil.
stik long pait (n) sangwa yamba. surik i go i kam (adj) di wirki di warko.
stik long rausim ol samting long tit (n) bi surik i karamapim graun, go long olgeta hap
tasuku. (v) blele ka i.
stik long sapotim mami (n) mu mango. surik ol lek (v) suwa fli fle.
stik long sapotim mami (n) seseme. surik olsem snek (v) gir gir.
stik, liklik long tromoi (n) kokoma. surik, i kamap bikpela (adj) beu beu.
stilim (v) wusukwa. surikim (v) noko rete.
stilman (n) wuskwra. surikim hariap, kapsaitim (v) wusor.
ston bilong sit (n) watefa. susa (bilong man), pikinini meri bilong brata
ston o sit long het banara (n) arma bol bol. bilong papa o susa bilong mama (n)
ston, sel, mani (n) arko. gasiwa.
stong bilong puripuri (n) ma i. susa bilong papa, man bilong em (n) yiwi.
stongpela antap (n) mungwa. susu (n) muwku.
stori (n) sungamba. susu (n) fi.
stov (n) sunngu. susu (n) muwku fi.
stretim graun (brukim ol ston) (v) wurmu. susu saksak (n) gal.

552
sutim wanwan (v) na fu na fu. tarangau (v) kombo ni.
swet (n) uwfu. tarangu (adj) wera.
swim (v) fa. taro (n) al.
swit (adj) kufe sumba. tasol (grm) nar.
swit, strongpela kaikai (v) nausu tanngu. tel (n) kin.
tel bilong palai i bruk pinis (v) furku.
T tel bilong pis (n) okusa.
taim (n) ningi. tel i surik surik (adj) korfi korfi.
taim (sampela wss) (grm) yombo. tewel (n) nambul wou.
taim bilong kamautim mami (v) kaku sa ra tilim (v) saki.
tongo. tilim kaikai (v) suwla.
taim sik mun (n) aka lowe. tilim mami (v) lofor.
tainim saksak (v) sufuw. tilim mami (v) haku.
taintainim saksak (v) tawo. tilimaut (v) namasi.
taintainim saksak i strong pinis (v) sokwro. ting (v) hiki.
taitim (banara) (v) takwlu. tingting strong (long samting) (v) yombo
talinga (n) gwini. mesu.
tamiok long ain (n) gome faa. tisa (n) sanglu gala.
tamiok long ston (n) wur. tit (bikpela tupela) (n) bi sambaf.
tang (n) tawul. tit (long kaikai) (n) bi.
tang bilong paia (n) wle. tit (sap) (n) bi mel.
tanget (grin) (n) awa kumba. tit i go ausait long maus (n) bi na tufrasi
tanget (ret) (n) awa kumba nomro. wuyar.
tanget long makim graun (n) sul awa. tok (v) er.
tanget long makim graun (n) sul fiki. tok baksait (v) tolo sengu.
tanim (v) ra falna. tok bilong amamas (intj) kirio.
tanim bel (v) tongo bango. tok bilong sori (intj) donsuna donsuna.
tanim kaikai (v) yimau. tok bilong yaupas (n) lesuk feta.
tanim na go, tanim wantaim (v) suru. tok giaman (n) ere.
tanim olgeta (v) koukre. tok gutbai (v) tomre.
tanim plet (v) yen/gasiwa rokot rar. tok isi (v) awar kanda eloko.
tanim sampela samting i go long saksak, tok klia (v) tolo erfa.
tanim (v) lu. tok kros (v) gerere.
tanim smok (v) damen. tok nogut long arapela (v) tolo sengu barna.
tanim wantaim (v) suwruw. tok save (v) erfa.
tanim wantaim (adj) bango bango. tok save, tok na wanbel (n) nimba.
tantanim olgeta, i no stret (adj) bingil tok sori long masalai (v) nambu.
bangol.
553
tok yes taim sampela i askim yu long yu go tupela (pro) fe.
we (phr) wo ho ha. tupela (pro) fu.
tok, spik (v) tolo.
tokim (v) eloko. U
toktok bikpela (v) gowe. umben bilong spaida (n) akwando kwando.
toktok long ol masalai (v) take miti.
ton bilong abus (n) wokra wokra. W
ton long lip (n) sirka melulu.
wail (olsem dok) (adj) salai.
traim (v) ni.
wail (olsem pik) (adj) tarmbe.
traim long kisim abus i ranawe pinis, pilim
wail pitpit (n) tengur.
wik (v) grisi greso.
wait (adj) gamu.
traim tasol nogat (adj) hili hala.
wait anis (n) mu gun.
trap long abus (n) ifi.
wait anis (n) sangu.
trap long mumut (n) ifi lako.
wait anis i gat pul (n) sangu tama.
traut (v) kute wiyi.
wait lewa, banis win (n) sel.
traut, rausim pipia long nek (n) kwete.
waitman (n) koko gamu.
trautim (v) wa kwre ya.
waitman (n) liki gamu.
tri (3) (num) lasifirndi.
waitpela blut (n) lifir mango.
trik, giaman (v) siwoku.
waitpela hap ai (n) lako gai.
tripela sta i mekim lain (n) akuma gramba.
waitpela hap skin (n) dumbu a.
tromoi (v) eku tii.
waitpela snek bilong saksak (n) umbu.
tromoi (v) tii.
wan (1) (num) dirambu.
tromoi daun (v) towur.
wan nem (n) yowul.
tromoi i go daun, rausim (v) tuwra.
wanbel?, yu ting olsem? (intj) noko wafu.
tromoim (v) tu.
wanem (int) bu.
tromoim i go antap (v) ra towi ra tori.
wanem kain samting? (intj) bi bi nindi
tromoim stret (v) tuyal.
yombo.
tru, trupela (n) welmbe.
wanem samting i kamap? (int) biki
trupela (intj) kara.
nawarka.
trupela (adj) indor.
wanem samting? (intj) erka kemen.
trupela (n) endon.
wanem taim (int) biki rokok.
trupela?! (intj) akum welmbem.
wanem taim (grm) rokor.
tu (2) (num) lasi.
wankain (adj) dinafle.
tu de i go pinis (n) yaki.
wanpela bilong tupela (adv) ben.
tudak, aipas (adj) tindu tandu.
wanpela hap gras (n) lun.
tude (n) ningre.
wanpela hap wara (n) loko fi.
tumbuna (n) yiwara.
wanpela i go long planti (n) nambo.
tumora (n) woro.
wanpela, sampela (grm) di.
554
wanpis (n) wari. wel taro (n) gorngi.
wantaim (adv) nakir. werim i go long nek (pikinini long baksait,
wantaim (post) kana. bis), kalap long (v) wakre.
wantaim (bilong sampela tru) (post) mena. werim, pasim klos (v) wele.
wanwan hap bilong wanwan man (grm) westim taim (v) hokwek na.
kuna yena. westim taim (v) okwe tambo na.
wanwan i gat wankain hap (v) nakir tirika. wet liklik (v) sana su.
wara (n) afla. wet, i no yet (intj) wai wai.
wara bilong bokis bilong meri (n) ki oku. wetim (v) sanak.
wara bilong kok (n) el oku. wetim (v) kuna.
wara bilong kokonas (n) suwa fi. wik (adj) yefa timba.
wara bilong ol pik long waswas (n) fer oku wilwilim (v) bursu.
sul. win (n) kifal.
wara i boilim hariap (adj) sa sa gul gul. winim (mambu), smokim (brus) (v) ofto.
wara i gat graun (n) foko. winim mambu (v) wusu.
wara i go olgeta (v) ka wula aku. winim wantaim poisin (v) sofu.
wara i kalap (n) oku brara. winim, raunim, tok kam (v) waingu.
wara i kamap taim sampela i kalap long en, wip (n) fu wunsondo nuwa.
rausim wara (v) kutu. wok (n) sauwo.
wara i ran hariap (n) miri marau. wok nabaut (v) eku barna.
wara i stat long boilim (v) sa. wokabaut hait (v) di delko i.
wara i surik (n) selmbo. wokabaut isi isi (v) ifa afa.
wara long gras (n) esoko. wokabaut krungut, suruk, taitim (adj) sowur
wara, wara bilong diwai (n) oku. sowur.
was (v) rete sukna. wokabaut lek abrus (v) riwi rewe.
was long (v) kuna susu. wokabaut long bel (v) fer nawek i.
wasim ol han (v) okto. wokabaut long bel (v) kroro.
wasim pes o bodi (v) wiyi. wokabaut long finga bilong fut (adj) tulei
wasim saksak (v) si. tulei.
wasket, tit bilong pisin, arere (n) taku. wokabaut nating (v) barna.
waswas liklik (adj) fri fro. wokim (graun), rabim (v) fer.
watamelon (n) mar wate melon. wokim bris (v) kri.
watpo?, bilong wanem? (int) biki naka. wokim gaden (v) loko baye.
we (int) biki. wokim haus (v) ki.
we (i go long we) (intj) iroko. wokim hul long paia (v) tinol tanol.
we (i stap long we) (int) orira. wokim nogut (adj) ber bar.
wel (adj) bilau alau. wokim nois (v) dumbai.
wel (v) blena aku. wokim rop (v) susu.

555
wokim rup wantaim mambu long holim ol yangpela (adj) kel.
lip (v) kwresu. yangpela (adj) yekle.
wot bilong god (n) afa samba roko suma. yangpela man o meri i no gat senis (n) yekle
wot bilong singautim man (intj) i. amba.
wot bilong tok nogat (neg) nanak. yar (n) wule nungusa.
wot i gat mining "taim bipo" (grm) wa. yau pas (n) wanwanta.
wot i got mining "nau" (grm) ka. yelo, wait (skin) (adj) okwe.
wot i no gat mining (intj) ormbein. yelopela sit bilong ton (n) kwaya.
wot long belgutim bikbrata o biksusa (n) yelopela, orens, yelo na braun (adj) kwesu.
tete. yes (intj) nahau.
wot long strongim tok, man yet (grm) kuna. yia (n) nu asama.
wot long tok halo long poro (phr) ka kahar yu (pro) nu.
yayar a. yu harim? (int) ka mesuya.
wot ol i tok taim i paitim han (stori i pinisim) yumipela, mipela (tripela o moa) (pro) num.
(intj) ambombo. yumitupela mekim sampela samting (pro)
wot ol i tok taim ol i tingting (intj) nango. anda.
yumitupela, mitupela (pro) dun.
Y yupela (pro) kum.
yam (n) walndo. yupela! (intj) i tama i.
yutupela (pro) fun.

556
Appendix E: Animal and Plant Species
This appendix is a trilingual dictionary including only Mehek names of animal and plant

species. Section E.1 includes all the animals, and section E.2 includes all the plants. Within these

sections, the names are listed first alphabetically by category, then alphabetically within each

category by species name. A generic English and Tok Pisin gloss of each species is listed in most

cases, as there are not common names for most Mehek species in these languages. However, in

cases where a specific name does exist in either English or Tok Pisin, it is listed. Included below

in the KEY are two main lists: a schematic representation of each entry showing what

information is included and the formatting of each section, followed by a summary of all the

categories used for ease of look up of specific species names.

KEY
Mehek Word. gender. [alternate Mehek name] English Word. Tok Pisin Word.

E.1 Animals

Categories of Animals:
Algan (Fly/Lang) Mundu (Centipede/Plantihan) Tekwle (Worm/Liklik Snek)
Aye (Bat/Blak Bokis) Nekwa (Tree Kangaroo/Sikau) Umaka (Ant/Karakum)
Felnde (Bird/Pisin) Nembe (Lizard/Palai) Umbu (Beetle/Binatang)
Fi (Mosquito/Natnat) Nun (Louse/Laus) Walingi (Crab/Kuka)
Girsi (Frog/Prok) Om (Fish/Pis) Walma (Beetle/Binatang)
Gulma (Grasshopper/Grashopa) Owe (Caterpillar/Katapila) Wiyi (Bee/Binen)
Gwiyo (Firefly/Komkom) Samdo (Spider/Spaida) Nambo (Other/Arapela)
Mulu (Rodent/Rat) Sifi (Ant/Anis)
Mangur Kon (Millipede/Plantihan) Sofo (Snake/Snek)

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Algan (Fly/Lang) kiofongul bird species. kain pisin.
kioman f. [K = kiowai] bird species. kain pisin.
dumbu dumbu fly species. kain lang.
kiri wowo bird species. kain pisin.
rumbu rumbu fly species. kain lang.
klo wild fowl. wel kakaruk.
tama p. [tama algan] fly species. kain lang.
koko b. chicken. kakaruk.
kombo grauwon bird species. kain pisin.
Aye (Bat/Blak Bokis)
koro koro bird species. kain pisin.
afu gwandi bat species. kain blak bokis. koule f. bird species. kain pisin.
bar bar su bat species. kain blak bokis. kufun white cockatoo. koki.
bla bla p. butterfly, moth. bataflai. kwarimba f. eagle. tarangau.
dimdim dumdum bat species. kain blak kwarsai f. bird species. kain pisin.
bokis. loko angla f. bird species. kain pisin.
gil f. bat species. kain blak bokis. loko wulwul f. bird species. kain pisin.
gra bat species. kain blak bokis. maha wou bird species. kain pisin.
mandimbol f. bat species. kain blak bokis. makwa kursei [kur'sei] bird species. kain
mu [mu kumba] bat species. kain blak bokis. pisin.
sar sar bat species. kain blak bokis. mambu grou bird species. kain pisin.
mangi fle bird species. kain pisin.
Felnde (Bird/Pisin) mangi fofo bird species. kain pisin.
afu f. cassowary. muruk. manwasu bird species. kain pisin.
akunderere f. bird species. kain pisin. manwi f. bird of paradise. kumul.
akwalo f. eagle. tarangau. mau kelwa bird species. kain pisin.
angoro bird species. kain pisin. mekta kiol bird species. kain pisin.
ata towe bird species. kain pisin. moto bonguwl [bo'nguwl] bird species. kain
dendomo f. ['dendomo] bird species. kain pisin.
pisin. nawa nawa bird species. kain pisin.
fangle bird species. kain pisin. ner muwe bird species. kain pisin.
fawi bird species. kalangar. nurku om bird species. kain pisin.
foro foro bird of paradise. kumul. oku wewe bird species. kain pisin.
fowe bird species. kain pisin. oku wiyi mau bird species. kain pisin.
gamu f. white cockatoo. koki. okwaa f. bird species. kain pisin.
gele au bird species. kain pisin. om sule eagle. tarangau.
gre gre bird species. kain pisin. om tukwa lala bird species. kain pisin.
gumu wur eagle. tarangau. romo [romo felnde] bird species. kain pisin.
guwwol bird species. kain pisin. sambu f. cassowary. muruk.
hole tawa bird species. kain pisin. same sifi bird species. kain pisin.
howal bird species. stonhet. sauwa futa bird species. kain pisin.
kelwa f. seabird. pisin balus.

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singil sungel f. [K = sekel sakel] bird species. Girsi (Frog/Prok)
kain pisin.
afla frog species. kain prok.
su lako wro bird species. kain pisin.
ama won frog species. kain prok.
suma lam bird species. kain pisin.
fer youre frog species. kain prok.
sun sun f. bird species. kain pisin.
glou frog species. kain prok.
suwa sun bird species. kain pisin.
gwel gwel f. frog species. apinun prok.
tama gre gre bird species. kain pisin.
kaumbu f. frog species. kain prok.
tikwiyi dor bird species. kain pisin.
kutul frog species. grin prok.
tiwi tiwi bird species. kain pisin.
kwaya f. frog species. kain prok.
wa lolo bird species. kain pisin.
naku tombo kri frog species. kain prok.
waka tumun f. bird species. kain pisin.
pupu frog species. kain prok.
wal gowe bird species. kain pisin.
wan houkur f. frog species. kain prok.
wamun hornbill. kokomo.
wanda gwal bird species. bikmaus.
Gulma (Grasshopper/Grashopa)
war bird species. wel faul.
ware bai bird species. kain pisin. a [a gulma] grasshopper species. kain
wasu lo bird species. kain pisin. grashopa.
wate gar f. sun bird. pisin san. ai isi mantis species. kain grashopa.
wate nuku bird species. kain pisin. ama golo mantis species. kain grashopa.
wira bird species. kain pisin. apapul grasshopper species. kain grashopa.
wolon bird species. kain pisin. asar bongo grasshopper species. kain
won kroso bird species. kain pisin. grashopa.
yen bruru bird species. kain pisin. au kumba f. grasshopper species. kain
yitwou bird species. kain pisin. grashopa.
yoto guria pigeon. guria. aye muku f. grasshopper species. kain
grashopa.
Fi (Mosquito/Natnat) bali toko grasshopper species. kain
grashopa.
amba amba p. mosquito species. kain
bi grou grasshopper species. kain
natnat.
grashopa.
felnde afu p. mosquito species. kain natnat.
dendomo ['dendomo] mantis species. kain
fer sambu p. mosquito species. kain natnat.
grashopa.
kwesu kwesu p. mosquito species. kain
ende grasshopper species. kain grashopa.
natnat.
esko wiyi grasshopper species. kain
mel mel p. mosquito species. kain natnat.
grashopa.
mu oku p. [mu oku fi] mosquito species. kain
fer su grasshopper species. kain grashopa.
natnat.
kiri yengla grasshopper species. kain
grashopa.

559
kita kwesu grasshopper species. kain wor sute grasshopper species. kain
grashopa. grashopa.
kormo grasshopper species. kain grashopa. wur f. [wur gulma] grasshopper species. kain
kuwa mauwo mantis species. kain grashopa.
grashopa. yambu rere grasshopper species. kain
lam lam p. [wanimana lam lam] walking stick. grashopa.
binatang stik. yikwa oku grasshopper species. kain
lando gra f. grasshopper species. kain grashopa.
grashopa.
mafu koko grasshopper species. kain Gwiyo (Firefly/Komkom)
grashopa. maure kulfo firefly species. kain komkom.
mafu krei [K = gal gal asa] grasshopper
species. kain grashopa. Mangur Kon
mini grasshopper species. kain grashopa.
(Millipede/Plantihan)
naku grasshopper species. kain grashopa.
sanga nambe grasshopper species. kain gai millipede species. kain plantihan.
grashopa. mu rombo millipede species. kain
singlo bo f. grasshopper species. kain plantihan.
grashopa. suwa kulfo kur millipede species. kain
sir kwleya grasshopper species. kain plantihan.
grashopa.
sorsor grasshopper species. kain grashopa. Mulu (Rodent/Rat)
suwa grasshopper species. kain grashopa. aka gor rodent species. kain rat.
tawa yekle f. grasshopper species. kain aka lisi rodent species. kain rat.
grashopa. arare gau ['arare] rodent species. kain rat.
tengu grasshopper species. kain grashopa. ata b. cuscus. kapul.
ter ter wayo grasshopper species. kain batu wa rodent species. kain rat.
grashopa. beena rodent species. kain rat.
waingu wor mantis species. kain grashopa. dau f. rodent species. kain rat.
waingu wor glama mantis species. kain ekrombo rat. kain rat.
grashopa. gai rodent species. kain rat.
wani mana mantis species. kain grashopa. inin f. [in'in] rodent species. kain rat.
wate lako grasshopper species. kain kurio man rodent species. kain rat.
grashopa. kuwa kwaya rodent species. kain rat.
wilingi mel namra ['wilingi] grasshopper mangi bandicoot. mumut.
species. kain grashopa. mawala rodent species. kain rat.
won grasshopper species. kain grashopa. mese kre rodent species. kain rat.
nekwa bou rodent species. kain rat.

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oku sur mundu rodent species. kain rat. men gra lizard species. kain palai.
same tombo rodent species. kain rat. mongur crocodile. pukpuk.
solyam an rodent species. kain rat. munamba lizard species. kain palai.
tengur bla rodent species. kain rat. nambul [nambul nembe] lizard species. kain
yori rodent species. kain rat. palai.
nanda f. lizard species. pukpuk palai.
Mundu (Centipede/Plantihan) nanda grou lizard species. kain palai.
kifal centipede species. kain plantihan. oku f. lizard species. kain palai.
wate centipede species. kain plantihan. om sar dango lizard species. kain palai.
same lau wate lau lizard species. kain
Nekwa (Tree Kangaroo/Sikau) palai.
sifi a [K = sifi arman] lizard species. kain palai.
dir nekwa kufer tree kangaroo species.
sul butu lizard species. kain palai.
kain sikau.
surangi lizard species. kain palai.
kwarmbe tenge tree kangaroo species.
tep tep f. gecko. palai long haus.
kain sikau.
wal komblo lizard species. kain palai.
sape tree kangaroo species. sikau bilong
wolon lizard species. kain palai.
graun.
yangi fowe lizard species. kain palai.
Nembe (Lizard/Palai)
Nun (Louse/Laus)
aikwa lala [aikwa lolo] lizard species. kain
kukwe lako louse species. kain laus.
palai.
nawa louse species. kain laus.
arko du lizard species. kain palai.
yen louse species. kain laus.
asa kwai lizard species. kain palai.
awi f. lizard species. kain palai.
Om (Fish/Pis)
blafo kute wakre [K = bumblan lako fan] lizard
species. kain nembe. ama kulka fish species. dokta pis.
fel kutu lizard species. kain palai. arko fish species. kain pis.
fer gir gi lizard species. kain palai. kino fish species. kain pis.
gorso giti lizard species. kain palai. kurmbo fish species. kolpis.
grewe lizard species. kain palai. lifin fish species. kolpis.
gwrara lizard species. kain palai. mendu fish species. kain pis.
kita lowe lizard species. kain palai. merka fish species. girile pis.
kufu lizard species. kain palai. nawa f. fish species. bikmaus.
kukwe kukwe lizard species. kain palai. wange fish species. kain pis.
kwai kwai lala lizard species. kain palai.
mangi kunai lizard. palai kunai.
mekte f. [mekete] lizard species. kundu palai.

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Owe (Caterpillar/Katapila) mu kumba spider species. kain spaida.
oku spider species. kain spaida.
bondo wol caterpillar species. kain
sambu toitoi daddy longlegs. spaida i gat
katapila.
longpela lek.
busu caterpillar species. kain katapila.
sul f. [sul samdo] spider species. kain spaida.
ende caterpillar species. kain katapila.
sumbu f. [sumbumbu yambumbu, K = waiwai]
glulu caterpillar species. kain katapila.
spider species. kain spaida.
guma caterpillar species. kain katapila.
suwa f. spider species. kain spaida.
kufu caterpillar species. kain katapila.
wala [wala samdo] spider species. kain
kuho caterpillar species. kain katapila.
spaida.
kwar [kwar owe] caterpillar species. kain
katapila.
Sifi (Ant/Anis)
makya krai caterpillar species. kain
katapila. bolur ant species. kain anis.
manbo caterpillar species. kain katapila. boule ant species. kain anis.
mandun caterpillar species. kain katapila. kunsu ant species. kain anis.
mangi p. caterpillar species. kain katapila. nekur ant species. kain anis.
mele caterpillar species. kain katapila. solka ant species. kain anis.
morkwre caterpillar species. kain katapila. su grenden ant species. kain anis.
naku [naku owe] sago grub species. waitpela
snek bilong saksak. Sofo (Snake/Snek)
ner caterpillar species. kain katapila. aka sumbu male [K = aka lowe] snake species.
nungu caterpillar species. kain katapila. kain snek.
oku ne caterpillar species. kain katapila. amble kul f. snake species. grin snek.
sifi sifi caterpillar species. kain katapila. angu masi snake species. grin snek.
sili wangu caterpillar species. kain katapila. galfa du warko snake species. grin snek.
sul ata caterpillar species. kain katapila. girmi snake species. poison snek.
suwa caterpillar species. kain katapila. girmi wala bi sel snake species. kain snek.
wate caterpillar species. kain katapila. kur snake species. moran.
wolkai kufu caterpillar species. kain laimbo tuka wul wul snake species. kain
katapila. snek.
yam caterpillar species. kain katapila. mangi snake species. kain snek.
mar ningli snake species. kain snek.
Samdo (Spider/Spaida) masi wilingi snake species. kain snek.
airewan f. spider species. kain spaida. naku tilmba snake species. kain snek.
aka [aka samdo] spider species. kain spaida. oku f. [oku sofo] eel species. mario, snek
lam lam f. spider species. kain spaida. blong wara.
lingin spider species. kain spaida. oku gir eel species. mario, snek blong wara.
same tombo snake species. kain snek.
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wala yewe snake species. kain snek. Wiyi (Bee/Binen)
wambisi f. [K = mambisi] snake species. kain
a [a wiyi] bee species. kain binen.
snek.
aka bee species. kain binen.
wan solka snake species. kain snek.
bir sol bee species. kain binen.
wasu f. snake species. moran.
bombo p. bee species. kain binen.
wusu snake species. moran.
mandura bee species. kain binen.
yefa afta [K = wamun] snake species. kain
mu kumba bee species. kain binen.
snek.
mu nawa kwla bee species. kain binen.
okuful bee species. kain binen.
Tekwle (Worm/Liklik Snek)
wale bombo bee species. kain binen.
oku worm species. kain liklik snek. yomolu bee species. kain binen.
wro wro worm species. kain liklik snek.
Nambo (Other/Arapela)
Umaka (Ant/Karakum)
a wala wala [K = wala dala] small blue insect.
dunsun edible ant species. kain karakum. liklik blupela binatang.
sar afa edible ant species. kain karakum. gam beetle (flat and round). binatang
bilong kaikai lip.
Umbu (Beetle/Binatang) momosuya small fly. liklik lang.
worofo beetle species. kain binatang. mu gun termite. wait anis.
oku dangi beetle that lives under water.
Walingi (Crab/Kuka) binatang i stap aninit long wara.
oku lake crab. kuka bilong raunwara. sul dinglan small flying ant. liklik anis i plai.
wasu tenge land crab. kuka bilong graun. sul kulfo kur [kur] millipede species. kain
binatang.
Walma (Beetle/Binatang) sungutu yangutu giant beetle species.
bikpela binatang bilong kaikai lip.
alako beetle species. kain binatang.
grafa tawai beetle species. kain binatang.

563
E.2 Plants

Categories of Plants:
Al (Taro/Taro) Kaku (Mami/Mami) Suwa (Coconut/Kokonas)
Ama (Bamboo/Mambu) Kufu (Vine/Rope) Tikwiyi (Ginger Root/Kawar)
Awa (Flower/Plaua) Makwa (Bean/Bin) Uwku (Sugar Cane/Suga)
Bali (Shrub/Aibika-Opa) Mini (Betelnut/Buai) Walndo (Yam/Yam)
Baye (Grass/Gras) Mondo (Fruit/Prut) Yam (Banana/Banana)
Diwle (Stinging Nettle/Salat) Mu (Tree/Diwai) Nambo (Other/Arapela)
Gra (Fern/Aran) Naku (Sago/Saksak)
Gwini (Mushroom/Talinga) Sakwe (Tobacco/Brus)

ter kusu p. bamboo species. kain mambu.

Al (Taro/Taro) wala p. bamboo species. kain mambu.
bela namsi taro species. kain taro. wanda p. bamboo species. kain mambu.
gorngi wild taro. wel taro. waniwer p. [K = golongon] bamboo species.
lombo taro species. kain taro. kain mambu.
maure [walndo al taro, maure al] taro species. womgo bamboo species. kain mambu.
kain taro. wulfu p. bamboo species. kain mambu.
namblo taro species. kain taro.
nembe awi taro species. kain taro. Awa (Flower/Plaua)
nungusa taro species. kain taro. amblekul flower species. kain plaua.
ofa ai taro species. kain taro. asama flower species. kain plaua.
oku bungwar taro species. kain taro. blala flower species. kain plaua.
pukwa taro species. kain taro. fi flower species. kain plaua.
waa taro species. kain taro. gwlai flower species. kain plaua.
wenam taro species. kain taro. kumba cordyline plant variety. tanget.
kumba flower species. kain plaua.
Ama (Bamboo/Mambu) kundu flower species. kain plaua.
blala bamboo species. kain mambu. loma di flower species. kain plaua.
fi p. bamboo species. kain mambu. mansula flower species. kain plaua.
golo bamboo species. kawur. nalo flower species. kain plaua.
kondo bamboo species. kain mambu. nomro cordyline plant. tanget.
kwesu p. bamboo species. kain mambu. sil [K = i] flower species. kain plaua.
pro un [prau un] bamboo species. kain yel n. bulb, flower shoot. pikinini plaua.
mambu.
suwa ga p. bamboo species. kain mambu.
564
Bali (Shrub/Aibika-Opa) Diwle (Stinging Nettle/Salat)
kasa shrub species. kain aibika. afla stinging nettle species. kain salat.
kulfo shrub species. kain aibika. dendombom stinging nettle species. kain
kwainda shrub species. kain aibika. salat.
minga san shrub species. kain aibika. kulfo stinging nettle species. kain salat.
naku tombo shrub species. kain aibika. mekta stinging nettle species. kain salat.
suwa gaien shrub species. kain aibika. sel fruru n. stinging nettle species. kain
wanngu shrub species. kain aibika. salat.
ba tete shrub species. kain opa. umran stinging nettle species. kain salat.
fawi shrub species. kain opa. yam owe stinging nettle species. kain salat.
kasa shrub species. kain opa.
kulfo shrub species. kain opa. Gra (Fern/Aran)
bi tombo fern species. kain aran.
Baye (Grass/Gras) wala [wala gra] fern species. kain aran.
alembe n. wild cane grass. wel pitpit. waa fern species. kain aran.
ama fu grass species. kain gras. mulu [mulu gra] fern species. kain aran.
dingil dangol grass species. kain gras.
ferwele grass species. kain gras. Gwini (Mushroom/Talinga)
gosoka grass species. kain gras. ama mushroom species. kain talinga.
gumbo grass species. kain gras. duwako mushroom species. kain talinga.
kom sangu grass species. kain gras. felnde afu mushroom species. kain talinga.
kuwa bo croton grass. kroton. gayafu mushroom species. kain talinga.
laimbo tuka grass species. kain gras. hemen mushroom species. kain talinga.
lambu kute flen grass species. kain gras. homan mushroom species. kain talinga.
lambu kute wurngongo grass species. kain landu gurmbo mushroom species. kain
gras. talinga.
mangi [mangi dau] kunai grass. kunai. mele mushroom species. kain talinga.
mulu wafu grass species. kain gras. mu kulfo mushroom species. kain talinga.
namra fu ai grass species. kain gras. mu kumba mushroom species. kain talinga.
nawa grass species. kain gras. mu kuwa mushroom species. kain talinga.
nembe gwrara grass species. kain gras. naku [naku gwini] mushroom species. kain
oku somo grass species. kain gras. talinga.
palo [amerika] grass species. kain gras. nambla kwai mushroom species. kain
sarkafa grass species. kain gras. talinga.
suwa tombo grass species. kain gras. nekwa namra mushroom species. kain
wani ga grass species. kain gras. talinga.
polpol mushroom species. kain talinga.

565
sel kwete mushroom species. kain talinga. girmi vine species. kain rop.
somo mushroom species. kain talinga. gorso vine species. kain rop.
su bongo mushroom species. kain talinga. gumo vine species. kain rop.
sul mushroom species. kain talinga. gwasi vine species with edible pepper.
sumbul mushroom species. kain talinga. daka.
tama kwiyefa mushroom species. kain gwasi fran small edible plant. kain rop
talinga. bilong kaikai.
tambe sungu mushroom species. kain korongo vine species. kain rop.
talinga. mafo vine species. kain rop.
uklu maklu mushroom species. kain mainala [manyala] vine species. kain rop.
talinga. misa vine species. kain rop.
won mushroom species. kain talinga. mondo vine species. kain rop.
yam tombo mushroom species. kain mu songo vine species. kain rop.
talinga. nungu vine species. kain rop.
om auwe vine species. kain rop.
Kaku (Mami/Mami) senger numba vine species. kain rop.
aktolo mami species. kain mami. sili wangu vine species. kain rop.
du basi mami species. kain mami. sul vine species. kain rop.
felnde afu mami species. kain mami. sumbu suran [sur'an] vine species. kain rop.
galwo mami species. kain mami. sungra [K = same] vine species. kain rop.
hame bongo mami species. kain mami. takre vine species. kain rop.
hau lulu mami species. kain mami. waimo vine species. kain rop.
masyengla mami species. kain mami. wal enge vine species. kain rop.
moko mami species. kain mami. wala klekle vine species. kain rop.
nekwa mami species. kain mami. wanga vine species. kain rop.
sarsar mami species. kain mami. wani vine species. kain rop.
suwa bela mami species. kain mami. waran vine species. kain rop.
wol gu mami species. kain mami. wilingi fori vine species. kain rop.
wule wild yam species. wail mami. wiski vine species. kain rop.
wolkai vine species. kain rop.
Kufu (Vine/Rop) won kambu vine species. kain rop.
yen sunambu vine species. kain rop.
afu gwandi vine species. kain rop.
aka vine species. kain rop.
Makwa (Bean/Bin)
ala mangi vine species. kain rop.
baya vine species. kain rop. waa bean species. kain bin.
bur vine species. kain rop. bin bean species. kain bin.
fawi vine species. kain rop.
fi vine species. kain rop.
566
Mini (Betelnut/Buai) fan amblo tree species. kain diwai.
fanga tree species. kain diwai.
kori betelnut species. kain buai.
fatu tree species. kain diwai.
su ba ba betelnut species. kain buai.
fawi foko fra tree species. kain diwai.
waa betelnut species. kain buai.
felnde manwi tree species. kain diwai.
wamun betelnut species. kain buai.
fere tree species. kain diwai.
foko tree species. kain diwai.
Mondo (Fruit/Prut)
fu kusa tree species. kain diwai.
dambe fruit species. kain prut. fuku bu tree species. kain diwai.
mu kumbla fruit species. kain prut. gembu tree species. kain diwai.
okro fruit species. kain prut. gramba sarsar tree species. kain diwai.
tama wulmba fruit species. kain prut. grambi mango tree. mango.
tengur fruit species. kain prut. guma tree species. kain diwai.
gumoro tree species. kain diwai.
Mu (Tree/Diwai) gwangu tree species. kain diwai.
a [a mu] tree species. kain diwai. gwara tree species. kain diwai.
aflu tree species. mangas. gwewur tree species. kain diwai.
auenim tree species. kain diwai. gwlusu tree species. kain diwai.
aume tree species. kain diwai. gwurha tree species. kain diwai.
awa sil tree species. kain diwai. homan tree species. kain diwai.
bala wor tree species. kain diwai. kamba wai tree species. kain diwai.
bali tree species. kain diwai. kese fu tree species. kain diwai.
barka tree species. kain diwai. kewa tree species. kain diwai.
basi tree species. kain diwai. kin om sape tree species. kain diwai.
batu wa tree species. kain diwai. kita fir tree with edible leaves. tulip.
belna rain tree. marmar. kofuya tree species. mangas.
besuka ['besuka] tree species. kain diwai. kormo tree species. kain diwai.
blasu tree species. kain diwai. kumru tree species. kain diwai.
blasu miniwe tree and its seeds. kain diwai kumu rere tree species. kain diwai.
na sit bilong em. kur [kur mu] tree species. kain diwai.
bondo gala tree species. kain diwai. kwainda tree species. kain diwai.
bra fungo tree species. kain diwai. kwaro tree species. kain diwai.
bundu wol tree species. kain diwai. lai tree species. kain diwai.
busu tree species. malu. lako wuwr tree species. kain diwai.
dukre tree species. kain diwai. lamba gwraha tree species. kain diwai.
dungu tree species. kain diwai. lamdro tree species. kain diwai.
duwan tree species. limbum. lombo si tree species. kain diwai.
ene su tree species. kain diwai. mainala [manyala] tree species. kain diwai.

567
mambi ango tree species. kain diwai. ter muliki tree species. kain diwai.
manbi tree species. kain diwai. tikwre tree species. kain diwai.
manbo tree species. kain diwai. turmbo tree species. kapok.
manda bru tree species. kain diwai. wa gamun tree species. kain diwai.
mandi tree species. kain diwai. wa gra gra tree species. kain diwai.
mandun tree species. kain diwai. wakla tree species. kain diwai.
mangi tree species. kain diwai. wal tree species. kain diwai.
masi tree species. kain diwai. wala yikwa tree species. kain diwai.
mau suwa tree species. kain diwai. walafai tree species. kain diwai.
maure te lako si tree species. kain diwai. walingi ['walingi] tree species. kain diwai.
meke ta tree species. kain diwai. wamun so tree species. kain diwai.
mele tree species. kain diwai. wanngu tree species. airima.
mele kofa tree species. kain diwai. war kamba tree species. kain diwai.
mendongo tree species. kain diwai. warmona tree species. kain diwai.
mini betelnut tree. buai. warsai tree species. kain diwai.
moko Java almond tree. galip. wate breadfruit tree. kapiak.
moli tree species. kain diwai. welfu tree species. kain diwai.
mombu tree species. kain diwai. wol oku tree species. kain diwai.
morkwre tree species. kain diwai. wolkai coral tree. palpal.
nala tree species. kain diwai. won ironwood tree. kwila.
nambul tree species. kain diwai. wre wre sara tree species. kain diwai.
ner tree species. bikus. wusala tree species. kain diwai.
nonglo tree species. kain diwai. yam kwatu tree species. kain diwai.
oku fla fla tree species. kain diwai. yefa tree species. kain diwai.
oku lasi tree species. kain diwai. yifki tree species. diwai mosong.
romara tree species. kain diwai. yiri birsi tree species. kain diwai.
safko tree species. kamu pos.
salwan tree species. kain diwai. Naku (Sago/Saksak)
same island lychee tree. ton. afa sago species. kain saksak.
sauwa tree species. kain diwai. al sago species. kain saksak.
selen tree species. kain diwai. alangai sago species. kain saksak.
sewre tree species. kain diwai. bre sago species. kain saksak.
silfo tree species. kain diwai. gamu sago species. kain saksak.
sul ata tree species. kain diwai. gurmbo f. sago species. kain saksak.
sul masi tree species. kain diwai. gwasu wala wild sago. wel saksak.
sun gu tree species. kain diwai. lako sago species. kain saksak.
tawa der tree species. kain diwai. lam sago species. kain saksak.
tele be [telembehe] tree species. kain diwai. mu sago species. kain saksak.
568
nekwa sago species. kain saksak. nawa mu sugar cane species. kain suga.
sula sago species. kain saksak. kur sugar cane species. kain suga.
suwa sago species. kain saksak. kulfo sugar cane species. kain suga.
tawa yekle [K = nekwa klor] sago species. kain wala [wala uwku] sugar cane species. kain
saksak. suga.
tikwiyi sago species. kain saksak.
walou sago species. kain saksak. Walndo (Yam/Yam)
welepu sago species. kain saksak. a yam species. kain yam.
welfun sago species. kain saksak. amya fi wild yam species. wel yam.
wur sago species. kain saksak. arko yam species. kain yam.
yimen sago species. kain saksak. asama yam species. kain yam.
blowu [K = blowi] yam species. kain yam.
Sakwe (Tobacco/Brus) bolo yam species. kain yam.
fasu tobacco species. kain brus. fanga yam species. kain yam.
fal tobacco species. kain brus. felnde gala yam species. kain yam.
bumblan tobacco species. kain brus. koko yam species. kain yam.
lako sul yam species. kain yam.
Suwa (Coconut/Kokonas) lando kwiyi yam species. kain yam.
akwru coconut species. kain kokonas. nombo bale yam species. kain yam.
kasa coconut species. kain kokonas. nungu sa yam species. kain yam.
kulfo coconut species. kain kokonas. sofo yam species. kain yam.
nekwa coconut species. kain kokonas. ter muye yam species. kain yam.
wambisi [K = mambisi] yam species. kain
Tikwiyi (Ginger Root/Kawar) yam.
wani we yam species. kain yam.
bambu ginger root species. kain kawar.
wolka yam species. kain yam.
kofuya ginger root species. kain kawar.
wolo fo yam species. kain yam.
kumba kasa ginger root species. kain
wule yam species. kain yam.
kawar.
kumba kufun ginger root species. kain
Yam (Banana/Banana)
kawar.
waa ginger root species. kain kawar. bukwa banana species. kain banana.
wal fer nuwngu ginger root species. kain glasku banana species. kain banana.
kawar. gu samra banana species. kain banana.
kasa banana species. kain banana.
Uwku (Sugar Cane/Suga) kevieng banana species. kain banana.
kita lako banana species. kain banana.
ama sugar cane species. kain suga.
kufun banana species. kain banana.
blala sugar cane species. kain suga.
kurkur banana species. kain banana.
569
kwari banana species. kain banana. bongur cucumber species. kukamba.
maure banana species. kain banana. dol au fan leaf which grows on tree trunks.
mombu banana species. kain banana. okit.
mu kumbla banana species. kain banana. durkun [durkun kumba] cordyline plant
namba gorfai banana species. kain banana. variety. bikpela lip.
nambul banana species. kain banana. ende n. wild sago. wel saksak.
okwendu banana species. kain banana. mar wate papaya. popo.
sangle bondo banana species. kain banana. mar wate melon papaya, watermelon.
simba banana species. kain banana. popo.
suw tama banana species. kain banana. siri sau sensitive plant. mamosa.
ta karka banana species. kain banana. sokwete palm-like flowering plant. kain
tokmbo banana species. kain banana. plaua.
waa banana species. kain banana. sulfo small yam. liklik kaku.
wal banana species. kain banana. sumbu kumba plant species. kain sayor.
wane banana species. kain banana. tamblakan small shrub. liklik diwai.
yala banana species. kain banana. tengur wild cane grass (wuwr). wail pitpit.
yangu samra banana species. kain banana. wanda lako potato species. kaukau.
yawa banana species. kain banana. wasu ne ['wasu] shrub species. kain liklik
diwai.
Nambo (Other/Arapela) wate blangi breadfruit cone. kon bilong
au [au kumba] plant species. kain diwai. kapiak.
belmun shrub species. kain liklik diwai. weinbeni limbum variety. limbum.
bondi cucumber species. kukamba. wur kon small corn. liklik kon.

570
Appendix F: Thematic Vocabulary
This appendix is a trilingual dictionary including a subset of the Mehek vocabulary grouped

by category. This makes it easier to find related words. Included below in the KEY are three

main lists: a schematic representation of each entry showing what information is included and

the formatting of each section, the abbreviations used for parts of speech, followed by a

summary of all the categories used for ease of look up of particular words.

KEY
Mehek Word (part of speech) English Gloss. Tok Pisin Gloss.

Abbreviations used for Parts of Speech:

adj adjective n.b. either masculine or feminine
adv adverb (based on natural gender)
cnj conjunction n.f. feminine noun
grm grammatical particle neg negative
int interrogative num numeral
intj interjection phr phrase (greeting, utterance)
loc locative rel.n relational noun
n (masculine) noun pro pronoun
v verb

Categories in the Thematic Section:

Animals Feeling Posture
Body Food Put
Carry Go Sago
Clean House Sharp
Cook Move Talk
Cut Pick Time
Environment Plants Tool

571
Animals wala gusu (n) back of neck. baksait bilong
nek.
aye (n) bat. blak bokis. walko (n) rooster comb, red in color,
difi (n) lower wing. daun long pul. hibiscus. plaua bilong kakaruk, retpela,
elowo (n) animal. abus. kain plaua.
felnde (n) bird. pisin. wokra wokra (n) spikes on an animal. ton
felnde bi (n) beak. maus bilong pisin. bilong abus.
felnde kulka (n) feather. gras bilong pisin.
felnde lako (n) egg. kiau. Body
fer (n) pig, horse. pik, hos.
fi (n) mosquito. natnat. belna (n) throat. nek.
gaie (n) feathers. gras bilong pisin. bi luku (n) gums. antap long tit (insait
girsi (n) frog. prok. maus).
gulma (n) mantis or grasshopper. grashopa. bungro a (v) smash, crunch, chew up
gwarlako (n) heart. hat, klok. completely. memeim.
kin (n) tail. tel. dimingi (n) chest. bros.
kin gala bundu (n) backbone, spine. bun el (n) penis. kok.
bilong baksait. elombo (n) lips. arere bilong maus.
kokumbu (n) neck. nek. gausa (n) shoulder. sol.
kwleya wafu (n) gallbladder. lewa. ginfa (n) back. baksait.
lesu wol (n) upper wing. antap long pul. ginfa yefa (n) spine. bun bilong baksait.
mangur kon (n) millipede. plantihan. gu taku (n) facial hair. gras bilong pes.
masai (n) comb. kom. gursu (v) cough, sneeze. kus.
nembe (n) lizard. palai. gwoho (v) shout, animal noise. bikmaus,
om (n) fish. pis. nois bilong abus.
ringi si (n) cocoon. liklik haus bilong ol isuku (n) sneeze, cough, cold (sick). kus.
katapila. kefu (n) blood. blut.
samdo (n) spider. spaida. ki (n) vagina. bokis bilong meri.
sifi (n) ant. anis. kol (n) pit. hul.
sofo (n) snake. snek. kra (v) cry. krai.
su gumbo (n) tailbone. bun bilong as bilong ku (v) give birth, father. karim pikinini.
kakaruk. kukumbu (n) neck. nek.
su gumbu (n) stomach (internal). bel kukumbu yefa (n) back of neck. baksait
(insait). bilong nek.
su kur (n) large intestine. bikpela bel kulka (n) hair, leaf, insect wing. gras bilong
(insait). het, lip, han bilong binatang.
suwa gaia (n) small intestine. liklik bel kwete (n) vomit, clear throat. traut, rausim
(insait). pipia long nek.
suwa gilombo (n) thigh. antap bilong lek. lako (n) eye. ai.
tekwle (n) worm. liklik snek. lako felnde (n) eyelash. gras bilong ai.
umbu (n) sago grub variety. waitpela snek lako musuka (n) eyebrow. gras antap long
bilong saksak. ai.
wafu toura (n) spleen. lewa. lako wando (n) pupil, iris. hap tudak insait
long ai.

572
landu (n) bellybutton, umbilical cord, sombo (v) spit. spetim.
placenta. hul bilong bel, bilum (doti su (n) entrails, feces, bottom. bel, beksait,
bilong pikinini). pekpek.
lesu (n) hand, arm, finger, handle. han, su aye (n) buttocks. as.
pinga. su baya (n) waist, kidney. bel, kidni.
lesu afa (n) thumb. bikpla pinga. suwa (n) leg, bottom (bow, kundu drum).
lesu arma fuyau (n) middle finger. bikpela lek, aninit (long banara, kundu).
pinga namel. suwa aku tombo (n) ankle. skru bilong lek.
lesu bela (n) forearm. han. suwa gisi (n) toenail, bird's foot. kapa
lesu bor (n) pointer finger, ring finger. bilong pinga bilong put, put bilong pisin
namba wan na tri pinga. .
lesu gaien (n) pinkie. liklik pinga. suwa guwl (n) knee. skru bilong lek.
lesu gausa (n) shoulder. sol. suwa lako (n) toe. put.
lesu gisi (n) fingernail. kapa bilong pinga. suwa om (n) thigh. antap bilong lek.
lesu gusu (n) joint. skru. suwa wafu (n) heel. baksait bilong lek.
lesu guwl (n) elbow. skru bilong han suwa wurngen (n) ankle bone. bun bilong
(namel). skru bilong lek.
lesu lako (n) hand. han. ta (v) bite. kaikaim.
lesu om (n) upper arm. han antap. take (v) lift or tear out with mouth, insert
lesu om gumbul (n) wrist. skru i stap antap in roof. kisim wantaim maus, putim i go
long han. insait long rup.
lesu tongo (v) shake hands. sekan. taku (n) chin, jawbone, bill of bird, edge.
lesu wafu (n) palm. insait bilong han. wasket, tit bilong pisin, arere.
lesu yokondambe (n) fist. han i pas. taku wango (n) cheek. sait bilong pes.
li (n) sore. sua. tama meke (n) upper body (chest, back,
liki (n) skin (person or fruit). skin (bilong stomach). bros na bel na baksait.
man o prut). tanku a (v) bite (a piece off). kaikaim (liklik
lunsu (v) pinch. pulim skin namel long hap).
tupela pinga. tati (v) listen carefully/closely. harim gut.
mambunge (n) forehead. poret. tausi (v) bite (not chew). kaikaim.
milifa (n) side of body. sait bilong bodi. tawul (n) tongue. tang.
muwku (n) breast. susu. telako si (v) spit. spet.
nalu (v) pinch. holim strongpela wantaim ter wando (n) skull. bun bilong het.
tupela pinga. terfa (n) head, highest point (bow, kundu
namra (n) ear. ia. drum). het, antap (bilong banara,
nangu (n) urine. pispis. kundu).
nangu fra (v) urinate. go long pispis. terfa tisi (v) comb. komim.
nau (v) yell, bark (any animal call). singaut, terfa yefa (n) back of neck. baksait bilong
abus singaut. nek.
nele (v) become lodged in throat. pasim tikorko (v) hiccup, burp. liklik kus.
win. tiri lako (n) face. pes.
ou (v) swallow. daunim. tisoro (v) wake someone up. kirapim.
sel (n) lungs. wait lewa, banis win. tongo nele (v) strangle. pasim nek bilong
sisi (v) poop. pekpek. arapela.
573
uwfu (n) sweat. swet. Clean
wa kwre ya (v) vomit. trautim.
wafu (n) central body part (heart, lungs, da (v) scrub: wash or dry (self). rabim
liver, palm, sole). hap i stap namel (waswas, draim).
(klok, banis win, lewa, han, fut). eme ale (v) clean a place up. klinim graun.
wau (n) stomach (external). bel (ausait). gru ou ako ou (v) sweep. brumim.
wauk na (v) be pregnant. karim pikinini. kom ale (v) prepare area. stretim ples.
wilingi (n) nose. nus. numbu (v) tidy, straighten up, fall (leaves).
wilingi siki (n) nostril. hul bilong nus. stretim, klinim, pundaun (ol lip).
wurngen (n) vein. rop long han. okto (v) wash hands. wasim ol han.
yefa (n) bone, muscle, firm support (as in rumba (v) remove st with hands (esp. dirt),
plants). bun, mit, strongpela sapot scrape away. rausim ss wantaim ol han
(bilong ol diwai). (graun).
yomar (v) yawn, be tired. han i pas. sumba (v) clean things, naked. samting i
yomo (n) scrotum. basket bilong man. klin, as nating.
wiyi (v) wash face or body. wasim pes o
Carry bodi.

fana (v) carry a child in a sling. karim Cook

pikinini long rop.
feke (v) lay out on top, carry on top of a (v) eat, drink. kaikai, dring.
head. karim antap long het. a belna (v) drink. dring.
hoi (v) hold tight. holim gut. a nuwa (v) feed. givim kaikai.
okwre (v) carry child on back, legs around fasu (v) cook on a fire wrapped in a leaf.
neck. karim pikinini long baksait, ol lek kukim insait lip long paia.
bilong em raunim nek. gam (v) pour. kapsaitim.
tisi (v) carry on top of shoulder/in mouth go (v) ignite fire for cooking. laitim paia
(animals). karim antap long sol/long bilong kuk.
maus (ol abus). gwasi (v) peel (banana), remove skin (yam).
tokmbo (v) carry around shoulder (like a rausim skin (bilong banana, yam,
bilum/net bag). karim long sol (olsem mami).
bilum). kisi (v) boil (trans). boilim.
tongo (v) hold. holim. kware (v) smoke or dry fish. pis i smokim o
tukta (v) carry around head (suspended draim pinis.
from forehead by rope). karim long het lisi (v) burn, cook in or over fire. kukim long
(long rop i hangamap long poret). paia.
wakre (v) wear around neck (child with okwe (v) ripe, sapling/shoot. kamap mau,
arms around neck, necklace), climb on liklik diwai.
(inan.). werim i go long nek (pikinini sa (v) for water to begin to boil. wara i stat
long baksait, bis), kalap long. long boilim.
yembu (v) cradle in hands. holim long si (v) fetch water. kisim wara.
tupela han. sun go (v) extinguish, go out. mekim paia i
dai, paia (yet) i dai.

574
talma (v) light a fire with kindling. laitim tongo sere (v) break with hands. brukim
paia wantaim ol liklik stik. wantaim ol han.
u (v) cook, begin to boil (intr), glow. kukim, tufa (v) remove caterpillars (from tree
wara i boil. bark). rausim ol katapila (long skin
yokwle (v) spoil. bagarap. diwai).
yomne (v) finish (food, work etc.). pinisim wuta (v) cut in pieces, split lengthwise.
(kaikai, wok). katim long planti hap, ripim.

Cut Environment
bona (v) remove fruit-bearing banana afla (n) river (medium). wara.
stem, yank branch to cut it. katim han i afla taku (n) shore. nambis.
gat banana long en. alingi (n) grassy area at edge of village. gras
buta (v) break bamboo. brukim mambu. long arere bilong ples.
der (v) cut open lengthwise. katim longpela arko (n) rock, shell, money, file. ston, sel,
. mani.
flate (v) break a vine. brukim rop. bre (n) landslide. graun i pundaun.
gu (v) cut out, split sago. katim na rausim, bre du (n) landslide. graun i pundaun.
katim saksak. bulmu (n) lake, swamp. raunwara, ples tais
gulfu (v) cut in half, chop repeatedly. .
hapim, katim planti taim. bundu (n) slope, ridge. liklik maunten, kilrot
kute (v) slice, cut (grass, flowers). katim .
(gras, plaua). dunsu (n) valley. ples daun.
kwini (v) chop firewood. katim paiawut. embleo (n) mountain. maunten.
kwiyi (v) cut (esp. deeply), cut cane grass. embleo kahamender (n) cliff, rough
katim (bikpela), katim pitpit. mountain. hap maunten i go daun.
nate (v) pull up grass, weed with knife. esoko (n) dew. wara long gras.
pulim gras, katim gras. fame (n) river (large). bikplela wara.
oro (v) chop (break in half), cut bananas. fangi (n) river (small). liklik wara.
katim (haphapim), katim banana. fel mango (n) center of singsing area or of
sere (v) break into pieces. brukim i go long swamp. namel long singsing o ples tais.
planti hap. fru eme (n) valley. ples daun.
siri sere (v) break into pieces. brukim long gwa (n) fog. sno.
planti hap. kifal (n) wind. win.
sure (v) break, fall (of a tree). katim, diwai kin (n) last, end, youngest child, top of
pundaun. banana. diwai i pundaun pinis.
tafa (v) break, cut open coconut. brukim, kurna (n) dusk. klostu tudak.
opim kokonas. loko (n) rain. ren.
tahu (v) remove a section of wood. rausim loko kifal (n) storm. bikwin.
hap diwai. lu (n) mountain (range). planti maunten.
tanku (v) cut a rope, chop, break down a mau (n) thick jungle. bikbus.
house. katim rop, brukim haus olgeta. nambul (n) sun. san.
ti wuta ta wuta (v) bite and break skin. nambul war (n) west. sandaun.
kaikaim na brukim skin.

575
nambul wuya (n) east, sunrise. is (hap san i Food
kamap).
nekwa (n) moon, month. mun. ekaa (n) food. kaikai.
nul (n) sky, cloud. skai, klaut. fi (n) milk. susu.
numblangan (n) thunder, lightning. lait kukwe (n) fat, cooking oil. gris.
bilong klaut, klaut i pairap. kur su (n) ash. sit bilong paia.
oku brara (n) waterfall. wara i kalap. nanglu (n) greens. kumu.
oku tol (n) upstream. long hap wara i stat. nausu (n) gum. blut bilong diwai, gam.
rengongo (n) natural pool (in rock). liklik nu (n) garden. gaden.
raunwara (i stap long ston). oku (n) water, watery sap. wara, wara
rombo (n) rotten wood, stump. diwai sting. bilong diwai.
sul (n) ground, brown. graun, braun. oku siki (n) water well. hul wara.
sul foko (n) mud, dust, dirt. graun ongwa bor (n) garden where all food is
malumalu, dus, graun. gone. olpela gaden.
sul kurkur (n) dirt. graun. suwa bow turari (n) partially ripe coconut
tele (n) outcropping, sheer rock. hap ston i (beginning to dry). kokonas (drai).
kamaut long maunten. suwa fi (n) coconut milk. wara bilong
tenge (n) branch. han diwai. kokonas.
ti (n) flood. haiwara. suwa meke (n) coconut meat. kopra.
ware (n) star. sta. yikwa (n) salt. sol.
weke somo (n) clay shards. liklik hap yingwe (n) coconut shell (large), plate,
strongpela graun. bowl. sel kokonas (bikpela), plet.
wula (n) jungle (bush). bus.
yikwa gan (n) beach. nambis. Go
yikwa oku (n) ocean water. solwara. aku (v) go home, go back. go long haus, go
yinawe (n) earthquake. guria. bek.
barna (v) wander. wokabaut nating.
Feeling blele ka i (v) spread along the ground, go
a siri (v) be hungry. hangri. everywhere. surik i karamapim graun,
ambasu (v) forget. lusim tingting. go long olgeta hap.
er aku (v) be afraid of. pret long. bou (v) emerge. kam ausait.
hiki (v) remember, think, know. ting. i (v) go away. go.
mana (v) not want, not feel like, divorce. no kina (v) come after, behind. kam behain.
laik, brukim marit. na (v) go by, be at, become, to function. go
mesu (v) touch, feel, hear. harim, pilim. long, stap long, wokim.
ni (v) see. lukim. ser (v) go first. go pastaim.
nime (v) not be able to. no inap long. war (v) go down, rub (on skin). go daun,
sengu (v) be angry, frown. mekim pes rabim (long skin).
tudak, belhat. wate (v) for rain to fall. ren i pundaun.
soro (v) regret, be upset. sori. wi (v) go up, pick a coconut. go antap,
wafu hiki (v) love. laikim. kisim kokonas.
yombo mesu (v) feel like. tingting strong wra (v) come in, go out. kam insait, go
(long samting). ausait.

576
wuwr (v) go outside. go ausait. simba bor (n) central house post. bikplela
wuya (v) come up. kam antap. pos long haus.
ya (v) come. kam. simba selwando (n) short outer wall posts
yiri (v) come down, fall. pundaun, kam for roof overhang. liklik pos bilong
daun. ausait long sapotim rup.
sul awa (n) boundary marker. tanget long
House makim graun.
sunngu (n) stove. stov.
aka (n) house. haus.
tembe (n) bed, bench, table. bet, bens,
aka ari (n) space under house. hap aninit
tebol.
long haus.
tuku tuku (n) support crossbeam under
aka bam (n) support beam for bottom of
floor. bim long sapotim aninit.
roof. bim i stap aninit long rup.
wal aka dumbu (n) sago shed. liklik haus
aka dulu (n) fence. banis.
bilong saksak.
aka ekaa (n) kitchen house. haus bilong kuk
wursu (n) fence. banis.
.
aka galwo (n) weaving pattern for walls.
flain.
Move
aka guw (n) roof (apex). rup. boro boro (v) pull up, rope used to lift.
aka kulu (n) door, area in front of house. pulim i go antap, rop long apim.
dua, arere long haus. dingei tii (v) push. sakim.
aka lewe (n) wall. banis. eku tii (v) get rid of. tromoi.
arko sunngu (n) stove stones. ol ston bilong faina (v) drop, miss (a shot). larim em
stov. pundaun, abrusim.
asama (n) type of edible leafy green. kain gam tii (v) spill, wipe away. larim em
kumu. pundaun.
au (n) small clay pot, metal pot, dirt used to gru fiti (v) pile dirt over, remove topsoil.
make clay pot. sospen, liklik sospen karamapim wantaim graun, rausim
graun, graun bilong wokim. graun.
au tembe (n) shelf. liklik bris, bet long ol gur (v) tie, wrap around. pasim gut.
plet. kirfi (v) cross. brukim (wara).
dulu (n) wall. banis (skin bilong haus). kusu (v) chase. ranim.
felnde aka (n) bird blind. haus long painim kuwsu (v) close (door). pasim dua.
ol pisin. late (v) open a door or window. opim dua o
garfu (n) clay pot (large size for sago). windo.
sospen graun (bikpela bilong saksak). lau (v) spread flat, lay out. slipim long
kroro guw (n) support bamboo for roof graun.
apex. bim (mambu) i stap antap long lendo (v) hide, cover (esp. with a leaf). hait,
rup. karamapim (wantaim lip).
kukwe (n) fat (used as cooking oil). gris lisi (v) drag, pull. pulim long graun.
bilong kuk (olsem wel). noko rete (v) return st to its place. surikim.
luku grafa (n) yard or garden waste. pipia rii (v) remain, usually (do st). stap long
bilong gaden. wanpela hap, save long (mekim ss).
simba (n) post. pos.

577
saro (v) arrange, sort, organize. redim, ruku (v) pick ripe bananas individually.
stretim. kisim wanwan ol banana mau.
sauwro (v) remove everything from a sa (v) dig (yam). kisim (yam).
house. rausim olgeta samting long tulku (v) pluck (fruit/seeds). kisim prut.
haus. yoso (v) pluck out (spear, taro). rausim
semra (v) pull up (plants). kamautim (ol (spia, taro).
sayor).
sokwe (v) untie, unstring bow. lusim (rop, Plants
banara).
al (n) taro (kind of tuber). taro.
taki (v) tie to carry. pasim (rop) long karim.
ama (n) bamboo. mambu.
tii (v) throw away, brush away. tromoi.
awa (n) flower. plaua.
tikir na (v) move quickly out of the way. i
baye (n) grass. gras long arere bilong ples.
go hariap.
bir (n) dry frond shaft. han saksak.
tikte (v) cover, hide. karamapim, haitim.
bongo (n) place where branch emerges
tilse (v) fall, drop, pull out. larim em
from trunk. han i kam ausait long diwai
pundaun, rausim.
.
tingwara (v) push a person down or out
fiti (v) cover a hole with dirt. karamapim,
(esp. hard). sakim man i go daun.
planim kokonas.
tongo lisi (v) drag away. pulim long graun.
gala (n) twig, thin stick. liklik stik.
tori (v) look down, throw down, lower.
galmbon (n) sago bark. skin long saksak.
lukim daun, tromoim daun, daunim.
galwo (n) bark from live sago. pangal
towi (v) stack, hold up. hipim, holim.
saksak.
towur (v) throw down/back. tromoi daun.
gel (n) branch (with a fork). han bilong
tu (v) put inside (hole, etc.), swing axe.
diwai (i gat tupela hap).
putim i go insait (hul), holim tamiok.
grembu (n) frond branch (hard interior
tunbu (v) shake. seksekim.
portion). han bilong diwai.
tuwra (v) throw down, throw out. tromoi i
gu (n) young leaf or frond. kru.
go daun, rausim.
kaku (n) mami (tuber similar to yam). mami
tuyal (v) throw straight. tromoim stret.
.
wanda (v) open a basket or net bag. opim
kokoma (n) stick, short and thick for
basket o bilum.
throwing. stik, liklik long tromoi.
wosu (v) pull, pull down (of vines). kisim ol
kufu (n) rope, vine, lineage. rop, lain.
rop.
kumba (n) leaf. lip.
wungusu (v) tie a knot. pasim.
kumba okwe (n) dead leaf. lip i drai pinis.
wusor (v) shake, dump out (as to empty).
kundu (n) stump. liklik diwai.
surikim hariap, kapsaitim.
kwasi (n) peel (of banana). rausim skin
yilo (v) cover (self). karamapim (man yet).
banana.
lungutu (n) dry leaves. lip i drai pinis.
Pick mu (n) tree, wood, branch. diwai, han
kur (v) pick (bali). kisim (aibika). diwai.
kuw (v) collect (Mini or Same). kisim na mu gwra (n) small branches. liklik han
bungim (buai o ton). diwai.
mu liki (n) tree bark. skin diwai.

578
mu nambi (n) root. as, rop. yam kino (n) banana heart, infloresence.
mu tenge (n) branch. han diwai. hat bilong banana.
mu yen (n) bush (shrub). liklik diwai. yar taka (n) double leaf split apart. lip i gat
mu yengla (n) branch. han diwai. tupela hap.
naku (n) sago. saksak.
safran (n) ring on a stem where fruit Posture
emerges (banana or Same). raunpela
brena aku (v) fly away, scatter. plai,
hap bilong stik i gat prut (banana/ton).
tromoim nabaut.
sauwa (n) coconut bark used as seive. skin
bruru (v) fly. plai.
diwai long mekim strena.
butu (v) make a fist, punch, put hands
sengeta (n) skin of yam etc.. skin yam.
together. brukim han, paitim.
sirka (n) leaf or frond. lip.
fa (v) swim. swim.
sirka bungu (n) spine of large leaf. nil
gir gir (v) slide, slither. surik olsem snek.
bilong bikpela lip.
gusu (v) tie, bend in half. pasim, krungutim
sirka melulu (n) thorn on frond. ton long lip.
long hap.
suwa (n) coconut. kokonas.
hongo (v) put into a hole/loop to carry, set
suwa fan (n) coconut sapling. kuru.
in a frame. putim insait long hul long
suwa gumbo (n) green coconut. kulau.
karim.
suwa solka (n) dry coconut, used in
kla (v) clean area to prepare to cut down a
cooking. drai kokonas.
tree. klinim graun long redim long
suwa wangwarama (n) coconut stem. stik
katim diwai.
bilong lip bilong kokonas.
kroro (v) crawl (centipedes, snails...).
suwa yel (n) shoot of coconut. kuru, pikinini
wokabaut long bel.
kokonas (long planim).
kufu nele (v) hang. hangamap.
suwa yomo (n) solid interior of coconut
kwre (v) hang something. hangamapim.
after shoot has emerged. insait bilong
lili (v) hang. hangamapim.
kokonas taim liklik diwai i kam ausait.
maindi (v) put head down. daunim het i
tikwasa (n) dry coconut frond used as a
stap.
torch (large). bombom (bikpela).
rusu (v) sit, settle. sindaun.
toko (v) dig with a stick (esp. to plant pitpit,
sau susu (v) stand up. sanap.
taro, banana). digim wantaim stik (long
sukna (v) sleep, lie down, placed in a flat
plainim pitpit, taro, banana).
position. silip, sindaun, putim i go
tuku (v) plant stick-like object (esp. sago).
olsem.
planim stik (olsem saksak).
sukrate (v) trip. pundaun.
uwku (n) sugar cane. suga.
sumbu (v) follow. behainim.
walndo (n) yam. yam.
susu (v) be standing up. sanap.
wando (n) thick shell (beetle, cap on insect,
titi (v) run. ran.
coconut, egg). bikpela sel (binatang,
yirfi (v) fall. pundaun.
kokonas, kiau).
wi (v) drop into a hole (to plant yam or
mami). planim yam o mami. Put
wursa (n) bark of sago palm. skin saksak. liti (v) fill with water. pulapim wantaim
yam (n) banana. banana. wara.
loko (v) open bag (bilum). opim bilum.
579
noko (v) collect or gather small objects. siri (v) for jelly to harden. saksak i kamap
kisim na bungim ol liklik samting. strong.
ra (v) collect, gather, get. kisim na bungim. sokwro (v) stir hardened sago jelly.
rete (v) put. putim. taintainim saksak i strong pinis.
sufuw (v) stir sago liquid. tainim saksak.
Sago tafirsa (v) remove sago/coconut leaves.
kisim ol lip bilong diwai kokonas o
ama gwalsa (n) tongs. stik long holim kaikai.
saksak.
dorko (v) scrape sago, pound ground (with
tawo (v) turn sago. taintainim saksak.
stick). sikarapim saksak, paitim graun
touso (v) remove frond from stem, split
(wantaim stik).
frond in half. rausim ol lip bilong sakak
gila (n) large stick (often for stirring sago
o kokonas, hapim lip.
jelly). bikpela stik (long miksim saksak).
wutu (n) sago chute (for washing sago),
gowen (n) bark from old sago. pangal
sago branch. bet long wasim saksak,
bilong olpela saksak.
han bilong saksak.
kwai kwai (n) small sticks for turning sago
wutu (n) felled sago stump. diwai saksak i
jelly. liklik stik long tanim saksak.
pundaun pinis.
lu (v) mix (into sago powder,) roll together,
yalwun (n) sago scraping tool. skrap bilong
rotate. tanim sampela samting i go
saksak.
long saksak, tanim.
naku ama yalwun (n) sago hammer. skrap
bilong saksak.
Sharp
naku bir (n) dry sago branch. han saksak i kon (v) sharpen knife. sapim naip.
drai. kulko (v) scrape wood (as in sandpaper).
naku bormborsa (n) sago stem, used for sikarapim diwai.
decorations. bilas long saksak. tarmbo (v) sharpen bone or spear. sapim
naku bungu (n) young/small sago palm. bun o spia.
nupela diwai saksak.
naku fraim (n) sago pancake. saksak fraim. Talk
naku sun (n) sago powder. paura bilong
eloko (v) tell. tokim.
saksak.
er (v) speak. tok.
naku sun kuwa (n) washed sago powder,
hokwa kete (v) sing. sing.
cast off. saksak i was pinis.
isi (v) animal vocalization, call out. abus i
naku wursa (n) sago trunk that has been
singaut.
scraped. diwai saksak i sikarap pinis.
nali (v) laugh, smile. lap.
naku yofu (n) sago bedding, for strained
tolo (v) say, tell. tok, spik.
sago. bet long saksak (taim i was pinis).
ou (v) gather solids (esp. sago). bungim
sampela samting (olsem saksak). Time
romo (v) rub (sago). rabim (saksak). dana (n) daybreak. san i kamap.
sai (n) basket for storing sago. basket long karwi (n) morning. moning.
holim saksak. mur (n) three days from now, three days
si (v) wash sago. wasim saksak. ago. behain long tripela de, tripela de i
go pinis.

580
ningre (n) today, day. tude. lam (n) arrow, thorn. spia (bilong banara).
nu asama (n) year. yia. lam bendu (n) sago arrowtip. spia long
nurku (n) night, darkness. nait, tudak. saksak.
tukur (n) four days from now, four days mango (n) support stick for plants. stik long
ago. behain long foapela de, foapela de apim diwai, sayor.
i go pinis. masi dondo (n) broom. brum.
worfa (n) afternoon. apinun. mau liki (n) cloth. laplap.
woro (n) tomorrow. tumora. mengu (n) small, traditional drum. kundu.
yaki (n) two days ago. tu de i go pinis. molkon (n) penis sheath (shell). sel long
yale (n) yesterday. asde. karamapim kok.
yim (n) two days from now. behain long mu sermba (n) stick used to play garamut.
tupela de. skik long paitim garamut.
or (n) traditional net bag, neck pouch.
Tool bilum, bilum bilong nek.
osai (n) dressings for singsing. ol laplap
arma (n) bow. banara.
bilong singsing.
bermun (n) ferns used to decorate spear. ol
sanglu (n) dry banana leaf, paper, book.
pulpul i go antap long spia.
banana lip i drai pinis, pepa, buk.
dofo (n) tie a knot (in fabric). mekim buk.
sangwa yamba (n) stick used for fighting.
dulsan (n) basket made from bamboo.
stik long pait.
basket long mambu.
sara (n) basket. basket.
duwan (n) limbum (palm used for
sul bombo (n) motor vehicle. ka.
construction). limbum.
ter gila (n) clothes, dressing. ol laplap.
duwan nawa (n) limbum basket. limbum
wanga lako (n) necklace. bis.
basket.
waran (n) grass skirt. purpur.
duwan yenbun (n) limbum (palm bark)
wisiki (n) armband. bilas bilong singsing (i
bucket. basket long limbum.
go long han).
felnde afu mai (n) cassowary bone used as
wur (n) stone axe. tamiok long ston.
a needle. bun bilong muruk long wokim
yen kufu (n) sling to carry child. rop long
hul.
karim pikinini.
fi (n) spear. spia.
yirkwe (n) bush knife. busnaip.
gil (n) ceremonial pole used for payment of
bride price. longpela diwai long bikpela
bung i mekim long baim meri.
gome fa mu (n) axe handle. stik bilong
tamiok.
gome faa (n) metal axe. tamiok long ain.
gramba (n) stick for planting. stik long
brukim graun.
guwsu (n) razor. resa.
gwalsa (n) clothespin. samting long pasim
klos.
gwesai i (n) dressings. ol laplap.
kur bombo (n) airplane. balus.

581
Appendix G: Personal Name Index
The following table lists all the attested names and name forms in alphabetical

order (see §9.7). The key below explains the different columns in the table, along with

the codes used to show the derivation of forms of both sir kaha and sir nalingi.

KEY
Columns in the Table:
Name any form of a name, listed in alphabetical order
Name Type given, kaha or nalingi (along with the given name it belongs to)
Change (see lists below)
Composition a morphological breakdown, when possible
WS a whistle or song exists (only for given names, see Appendix H)

Change Types for Sir Nalingi:

FULL the nalingi is entirely compositional
PART only half of the nalingi is compositional
NONE no part of the nalingi has a meaning
RDP the nalingi has two identical parts (reduplicated)
? there is not enough information

Change Types for Sir Kaha:

CHNG one morpheme of the name is changed to an unrelated morph
PHON the kaha is dervied from a phonological change
ADD a morpheme is added to create the kaha
THM one morpheme of the name is replaced with a related morph
RECIP the kaha form is identical to a different given name
SUP the kaha form is suppletive

582
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Afakra Given Name (afa + kra) 'father cries'

Afatimba Given Name (afa + timba) 'fatherless' W

Kaha for Nawatimba RECIP (nawa → afa)

Afenumbo Nalingi for Fingrau NONE
Nalingi for Wafukaha NONE
Afkombon Nalingi for Sulkra PART (afko + ?)
Afkominga Given Name (afko + minga) 'old dance'
Afkosiya Nalingi for Fawi PART (afko + si + ya) 'old come gather'
Nalingi for Okwando PART (afko + si + ya) 'old come gather'
Nalingi for Wasune PART (afko + si + ya) 'old come gather'
Nalingi for Yuwarho PART (afko + si + ya) 'old come gather'
Aflatawa Given Name (afla + tawa) 'river woman' WS

Aflawosu Given Name (afla + wosu) 'pull vines by the river'

Afunanki Nalingi for Wolo PART (afu + ?)
Aiklando Nalingi for Yala NONE
Ainambo Given Name (? + nambo) W

Akanawe Given Name (aka + nawe) 'always in the house' W

Akanumba Given Name (aka + numba) 'last house' WS

Akasingla Given Name (aka + ?) WS

Akatanku Given Name (aka + tanku) 'break the house down'

Akayawo Given Name (aka + yawo) 'look up at the house'
Akwleya Given Name (a + kwleya) 'spicy food' WS

Alembe Given Name (al + ?) WS

Alnawe Kaha for Anawe THM (a → al) 'just taro'

Amaama Nalingi for Wambenga RDP (ama + ama) 'bamboo'
Ambai Given Name
Ambamunal Nalingi for Walakasi NONE
Ambasu Given Name (ambasu) 'forget'
Ambongo Given Name (a + bongo) 'eat at the branch' W

Ambou Given Name (a + bou) 'dry food' WS

Ambur Given Name

Amekle Nalingi for Walaka ?
Amkwandai Nalingi for Akasingla ?
Anawe Given Name (a + nawe) 'always eating' WS

Anele Given Name (a + nele) 'stuck in the throat' WS

Angawur Kaha for Yakawur CHNG (yaka → anga) 'come inside quickly'
Ari Given Name (ari + ?) 'underneath' WS

Ariongo Kaha for Sirongo CHNG (sir → ari) 'be underneath something?'
Arkulasi Given Name (arko + lasi) 'two stones' W

Asamalaka Nalingi for Nanduma FULL (asama + laka) 'first garden?'

Nalingi for Wasei FULL (asama + laka) 'first garden?'

583
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Atamengu Kaha for Ataminga PHON (minga → mengu)

Ataminga Given Name (ata + minga) 'ancestor dance' W

Atenge Given Name (a + tenge) 'eat heated food'

Au Given Name (au) 'pot'
Awalaki Given Name (awa + ?) WS

Awanal Nalingi for Mamtimba PART (awa + ?)

Nalingi for Mawala PART (awa + ?)
Awanoko Kaha for Numbanoko CHNG (numba → awa) 'collect flowers'
Awasula Nalingi for Salngiwi PART (awa + ?)
Awele Nalingi for Anawe FULL (a + wele) 'eat everything'
Bayanuku Nalingi for Kuwam PART (? + nuku)
Bankufo Nalingi for Anele NONE
Bankufu Nalingi for Yakawur PART (? + kufu)
Bankusau Nalingi for Afakra PART (? + sau)
Nalingi for Komtalmbu PART (? + sau)
Nalingi for Kufunele PART (? + sau)
Bansu Given Name
Bonsiwakra Kaha for Bonwakra ADD (? → + si +)
Bonwakra Given Name (? + kra) WS

Dauafe Given Name

Daundau Nalingi for Yuhu RDP (dau + dau)
Dosolka Kaha for Noso SUP (? → ?)
Dotu Given Name
Dulembaiye Given Name (dule + baiye) 'nettle grass'
Duro Given Name
Eltengu Given Name
Fanangimbai Nalingi for Akayauwo PART (fana + ?)
Fangaata Given Name (? + ata) 'biggest ?'
Fangitawa Kaha for Aflatawa THM (afla → fangi) 'creek woman'
Fanuku Given Name (fa + nuku) 'swim and search'
Fawi Given Name (fawi + ?) 'Fawi bird'
Felndekoule Kaha for Koule ADD (? → felnde +) 'Koule bird'
Felndemanwi Given Name (felnde + manwi) 'Manwi bird'
Felndewar Given Name (felnde + war) 'wild foul'
Ferfer Nalingi for Mingayauwo RDP (fer + fer) 'pigs'
Feroku Kaha for Omoku THM (om → fer) 'pig water'
Fingrau Given Name (fi + ?) WS

Flesuma Nalingi for Aflatawa FULL (fle + suma) 'find your voice'
Galaklei Given Name (gala + klei) 'twig' W

Gurmbumele Nalingi for Wanembuka PART (? + mele)

Gurmbusalai Nalingi for Awalaki ?

584
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Gwasiyawar Nalingi for Kahafi PART (gwasi + ya + war) 'come for pepper'
Nalingi for Namtane PART (gwasi + ya + war) 'come for pepper'
Nalingi for Wafukaha PART (gwasi + ya + war) 'come for pepper'
Haulai Given Name WS

Hauwele Nalingi for Tamasombo FULL (hau + wele) 'yell out about everything?'
Herngin Kaha for Yowu SUP (? → ?)
Kahafi Given Name (kaha + afi) 'bad fight' W

Kahangu Given Name (kaha + gu) 'split sago poorly'

Kambaroho Given Name
Kewran Given Name WS

Kiyanuku Nalingi for Wangu PART (? + nuku)

Nalingi for Wangukra PART (? + nuku)
Klaiuku Nalingi for Wansana PART (? + uku)
Kleitoko Nalingi for Nurkuminga FULL (klei + toko) 'and then plant'
Kleiwormbo Nalingi for Arkulasi PART (klei + ?)
Komblau Given Name (kom + ?) 'village' W

Komboman Nalingi for Masine NONE

Komsere Given Name (kom + sere) 'village trading partner'
Komtalmbu Given Name (kom + ?) W

Kondowai Nalingi for Tawayenbor PART (? + wai)

Kornginal Nalingi for Wunum NONE
Koule Given Name (koule + ?) 'Koule bird' WS

Krafoyen Nalingi for Ombla FULL (krafo + yen) 'clan name'

Krefukwa Given Name
Kufunele Given Name (kufu + nele) 'hang by rope' W

Kumbun Given Name WS

Kumbuwon Given Name (? + won) W

Kuwam Given Name (kuwam + ?) 'too ripe (pl)' W

Kwaika Nalingi for Nawatimba SUP

Kwaikamele Nalingi for Alembe PART (? + mele)
Nalingi for Komblau PART (? + mele)
Nalingi for Koule PART (? + mele)
Nalingi for Wasumande PART (? + mele)
Kwaindayofu Nalingi for Mirin FULL (kwainda + yofu) 'bedding of kwainda'
Kwalokufka Nalingi for Ari SUP (? → ?)
Kwalonuku Nalingi for Wambone PART (? + nuku)
Kwalosu Nalingi for Wanisoro NONE
Kwaraunuku Nalingi for Kewran PART (? + nuku)
Kwarklofo Nalingi for Omoku NONE
Nalingi for Yakwaro NONE
Kwarnangi Nalingi for Haulai NONE

585
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Nalingi for Samangal NONE

Nalingi for Ule NONE
Nalingi for Yowu NONE
Kwasuma Nalingi for Wulakufe NONE
Lakwiytawa Nalingi for Akanawe FULL (lakwiyi + tawa) 'only child (female)'
Lamgrau Kaha for Fingrau THM (fi → lam)
Lamne Given Name (lam + ne) 'arrow at you'
Lesusure Given Name (lesu + sere) 'break with hands'
Lokowai Given Name (loko + wai) 'rain!' W

Lutuwar Given Name (lu + tuwar) 'go down the mountains' WS

Malaai Kaha for Owai PHON (o → mala)

Mambal Nalingi for Tamalako NONE
Mamtimba Given Name (mam + timba) 'no (maternal) uncle' WS

Manbominga Given Name (manbo + minga) 'dance at Manbo tree'

Mandero Given Name WS

Mangamele Nalingi for Numbanoko PART (? + mele)

Manguryauwo Kaha for Akayauwo CHNG (aka → mangur)
Manikou Nalingi for Ainambo NONE
Nalingi for Wanaku NONE
Nalingi for Yimauwun NONE
Manwasu Kaha for Lokowai SUP (? → ?)
Manyofo Nalingi for Lokowai SUP (? → ?)
Markotuwar Kaha for Lutuwar CHNG (lu → marko)
Marwle Kaha for Ule CHNG (u → maru?)
Masi Given Name (masi + ?) 'Masi tree' WS

Masiklei Nalingi for Mandero FULL (masi + klei) 'and then a Masi tree'
Nalingi for Sirongo FULL (masi + klei) 'and then a Masi tree'
Masikwesu Nalingi for Wulakufe FULL (masi + kwesu) 'yellow Masi tree'
Masimbor Given Name (masi + mbor) 'in between two Masi WS
trees'
Masinawe Given Name (masi + nawe) 'just a Masi tree'
Masine Given Name (masi + ne?)
Masiowe Kaha for Masine CHNG (ne → owe) 'Masi caterpillar'
Maurelasi Kaha for Arkulasi CHNG (arko → maure) 'two ancestors'
Maurenawe Kaha for Akanawe CHNG (aka → maure) 'only an ancestor'
Maurenele Kaha for Kufunele CHNG (kufu → maure) 'hung by an ancestor?'
Mauresofo Given Name (maure + sofo) 'ancestor snake'
Maurewule Nalingi for Wulane PART (maure + ?)
Mawala Given Name (? + wala)
Mehelaka Nalingi for Yefane PART (? + laka)
Meleroho Given Name (mele + ?)

586
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Mersafo Nalingi for Waimbango NONE

Mesulaka Nalingi for Yeklene FULL (mesu + laka) 'feel important'
Mingayawo Given Name (minga + yawo) 'look up at the party'
Mirin Given Name
Mirlu Given Name
Mokomele Nalingi for Wapai FULL (moko + mele) 'many galip nuts'
Mulai Kaha for Haulai CHNG (hau → mu)
Mulumawala Kaha for Mawala ADD (? → mulu +) 'Mawala rat'
Mumbongo Kaha for Ambongo THM (a → mu) 'where branch comes out'
Muri Kaha for Ari CHNG (a → mu)
Mute Given Name (mu + te?)
Nakaafi Kaha for Kahafi CHNG (kaha → naka) 'and fight'
Nakuengle Kaha for Warengle CHNG (war → naku) 'sago spell'
Nakukaha Kaha for Wafukaha CHNG (wafu → naku) 'bad sago'
Nakuklei Kaha for Galaklei RECIP (gala → naku)
Nakukra Kaha for Sulkra CHNG (sul → naku) 'sago cry'
Nakukufe Kaha for Wulakufe THM (wula → naku) 'good sago'
Nakulisi Kaha for Tongolisi CHNG (tongo → naku) 'cook sago'
Nakumande Kaha for Wasumande CHNG (wasu → naku)
Nakumbenga Kaha for Wambenga CHNG (wa → naku)
Nakumblau Kaha for Komblau CHNG (kom → naku)
Nakumbongo Kaha for Ambongo THM (a → naku) 'where branch comes out'
Nakumbukwa Kaha for Wanembuka CHNG (wane → naku)
Nakune Kaha for Wambone CHNG (wambo → naku)
Kaha for Wulane CHNG (wula → naku) 'just sago?'
Kaha for Yeklene CHNG (yekle → naku) 'just sago?'
Nakusamai Nalingi for Sametenge FULL (naku + sa + mai) 'dig sago w/bone'
Nakusamba Kaha for Yimansamba CHNG (yiman → naku) 'big sago'
Nakusingla Kaha for Akasingla CHNG (aka → naku)
Nakutalmbu Kaha for Komtalmbu CHNG (kom → naku)
Nakutalo Kaha for Waitalo CHNG (wai → naku)
Nakutanku Kaha for Akatanku CHNG (aka → naku) 'break down the sago'
Nakutenge Kaha for Sametenge CHNG (same → nuku) 'start sago boiling'
Nakuyauwo Kaha for Mingayauwo CHNG (minga → naku)
Nakwando Kaha for Okwando CHNG (oku → naku) 'sago shell'
Nalafau Given Name WS

Nalikwarsa Given Name (nali + ?)

Nalmaakla Nalingi for Nalafau CHNG (? → ?)
Nalo Kaha for Wolo CHNG (wo? → na?)
Namdandi Given Name
Namtane Given Name WS

587
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Namtaori Kaha for Namtane CHNG (ne → ori)

Nanduma Given Name WS

Nandumun Kaha for Nanduma PHON (a → un)

Nangiafe Nalingi for Walando NONE
Nanguwun Kaha for Yimauwun CHNG (yimau → nangu)
Nauwumbo Kaha for Saumbo CHNG (sau → nauwu)
Nawakra Kaha for Afakra RECIP (afa → nawa)
Nawatimba Given Name (nawa + timba) 'motherless' WS

Kaha for Afatimba RECIP (afa → nawa)

Kaha for Mamtimba RECIP (mam → nawa)
Nawun Given Name WS

Nembesingla Given Name (nembe + ?)

Noso Given Name
Numbanoko Given Name (numba + noko) 'a man who poisons' WS

Numbawin Nalingi for Ambou PART (numba + ?)

Nalingi for Wurnawe PART (numba + ?)
Nurkumengu Kaha for Nurkuminga PHON (minga → mengu)
Nurkuminga Given Name (nurku + minga) 'evening dance' W

Oflende Nalingi for Afatimba NONE

Okufau Kaha for Nalafau CHNG (nala → oku)
Okumbor Kaha for Masimbor CHNG (masi → oku) 'between the waters'
Okuroho Kaha for Mandero SUP (? → ?)
Kaha for Yuwarho CHNG (yu → oku)
Okuwarho Kaha for Yakwaro CHNG (yak → oku)
Okwando Given Name (okwe? + wando) 'coconut shell' WS

Kaha for Walando CHNG (wala? → okwe?)

Olei Given Name (olei) 'dangerous'
Olwun Kaha for Nawun PHON (na → ol)
Ombla Given Name W

Omoku Given Name (om + oku) 'fish in water'

Owai Given Name WS

Paulon Given Name (bau? + ?) WS

Pretaso Given Name

Pupuwapu Given Name
Safungrou Given Name
Salai Given Name
Salngiwi Given Name
Samai Nalingi for Saumbo FULL (sa + mai) 'dig with cassowary bone'
Samanele Kaha for Anele ADD (? → sam +)
Samangal Given Name WS

Sambai Nalingi for Tokmbaa SUP (? → ?)

588
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Sambor Nalingi for ?

Samdomele Given Name (samdo + mele) 'spider for a long time'
Samelmban Nalingi for Galaklei NONE
Sametenge Given Name (same + tenge) 'sit on a Same branch' W

Sarnol Kaha for Wunum SUP (? → ?)

Sarpaiya Kaha for Wapai SUP (? → ?)
Saumbo Given Name (sau + bow?) 'stand up straight' S

Seiyo Kaha for Weiyo PHON (w → s)

Sepeyawul Nalingi for Kumbun NONE
Sianal Nalingi for Akanumba SUP (? → ?)
Nalingi for Owai SUP (? → ?)
Nalingi for Tongolisi SUP (? → ?)
Sifi Nalingi for Weiyo FULL (si + fi) 'wash spear?'
Sikwleya Kaha for Akwleya CHNG (a → si) 'spicy water?'
Simbai Given Name
Sirongo Given Name (siri + ongo) 'die somewhere' WS

Sofosofo Nalingi for Akatanku RDP (sofo + sofo) 'snakes'

Nalingi for Yimansamba RDP (sofo + sofo) 'snakes'
Sofosoro Kaha for Wanisoro CHNG (wani → sofo) 'worry about a snake'
Sufali Given Name WS

Sufalndo Kaha for Sufali PHON (i → do)

Sukleaku Kaha for Wanaku CHNG (wan → sukwle)
Sulkra Given Name (sul + kra) 'earth cries' W

Sungane Given Name (su + ?)

Sungrai Nalingi for NONE
Suwaoku Given Name (suwa + oku) 'coconut water'
Tamaata Given Name (tama + ata) 'man's mother' W

Tamalako Given Name (tama + lako) 'man's eye' WS

Tamasombo Given Name (tama + sombo) 'man spit' WS

Tankisumbai Nalingi for Tamaata NONE

Tantarau Given Name
Tawanguma Given Name (tawa + ?)
Tawayenbor Given Name (tawayen + bor) 'between daughters ' WS

Telembakai Nalingi for Akwleya PART (tele + ?)

Tokmbaa Given Name (tokmba + a) 'carry food over the WS
shoulder'
Tomboyen Given Name (tombo + yen) 'short child'
Tongolisi Given Name (tongo + lisi) 'drag by the hand' W

Turmbundia Given Name

Turmbunuku Nalingi for Masi PART (? + nuku)
Nalingi for Nawun PART (? + nuku)

589
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Nalingi for Warengle PART (? + nuku)

Turwun Given Name
Ule Given Name WS

Waahei Given Name

Wafukaha Given Name (wafo + kaha) 'bad heart' WS

Wafuter Nalingi for Kumbuwon FULL (wafu + ter) 'head and heart'
Waikomele Kaha for Samdomele CHNG (samdo → waiko)
Waimbango Given Name (wai + bango) 'twisted!' WS

Waitalo Given Name (wai + ?) W

Wakomele Nalingi for Lutuwar PART (? + mele)

Walaa Kaha for Tokmbaa CHNG (tokmba → wala) 'dog eats'
Walaiyowe Given Name (wala + ?)
Walaka Given Name (wal + aka) 'duck blind house' W

Walakasi Given Name (wala + kasi) 'dog over there' WS

Walalaam Kaha for Wanam SUP (? → ?)

Walando Given Name WS

Walane Kaha for Yefane CHNG (yefa → wala) 'just a dog?'

Walangaso Kaha for Walakasi CHNG (kasi → gaso)
Walokwe Kaha for Walaka CHNG (aka → okwe) 'fresh ginger'
Walulu Given Name
Walyamba Nalingi for Masimbor PART (wal + ?)
Wama Given Name
Wamape Given Name
Wambenga Given Name W

Wambone Given Name W

Wanaku Given Name (? + aku) WS

Wanam Given Name W

Waname Given Name

Wanembuka Given Name (wanembuka? + ?) 'great-grandchild' W

Wangu Given Name (wango? + ?) 'cheek' W

Wangukra Given Name (wango + kra) 'stem cries' W

Wangutikrayakra Kaha for Wangu ADD (? → + tikrayakra) 'go around crying'

Kaha for Wangukra ADD (? → + tikraya +) 'go around crying'
Wanisoro Given Name (wani + soro) 'worry about 2nd wife' W

Wansana Given Name W

Wansilako Kaha for Tamalako CHNG (tama → wansi)

Wapai Given Name
Warengle Given Name WS

Warkyombo Nalingi for ? ?

Warmeninga Given Name
Warsalai Nalingi for Awalaki SUP (? → ?)

590
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Wasaaka Kaha for Tamaata SUP (? → ?)

Wasei Given Name WS

Wasukre Nalingi for Ataminga NONE

Nalingi for Sufali NONE
Nalingi for Waitalo NONE
Wasulaki Kaha for Awalaki CHNG (awa → wasu)
Wasumande Given Name W

Wasumbango Kaha for Waimbango CHNG (wai → wasu)

Wasumbou Kaha for Ambou CHNG (a → wasu)
Wasunambo Kaha for Ainambo CHNG (ai → wasu)
Wasune Given Name (wasune + ?) 'part of headdress' W

Wasunumba Kaha for Akanumba CHNG (aka → wasu)

Wasuwarme Given Name
Wasuyenbor Kaha for Tawayenbor CHNG (tawa → wasu)
Watengle Nalingi for Samdomele FULL (wate + engle) 'spell from Wate tree'
Nalingi for Wanam FULL (wate + engle) 'spell from Wate tree'
Watewon Kaha for Kumbuwon THM (kumbu → wate) 'Wate and Won trees'
Weiyo Given Name WS

Welesombo Kaha for Tamasombo CHNG (tama → wele) 'spit on many things'
Weren Given Name
Wolo Given Name WS

Wosune Kaha for Wasune PHON (a → o)

Wowu Nalingi for Paulon SUP (? → ?)
Wulakufe Given Name (wula + kufe) 'good jungle' WS

Wulane Given Name (wula + ne?) 'always in the bush?' W

Wulaongo Given Name (wula + ongo) 'be in the bush'

Wulmba Given Name
Wulongo Given Name (wul + ongo) 'squeeze somewhere'
Wundungwe Nalingi for Ambongo NONE
Wunum Given Name WS

Wurnawe Given Name (wur + nawe) 'always using a stone axe' W

Wurnefawi Given Name

Wurngal Kaha for Samangal CHNG (sama → wur)
Wursei Kaha for Wasei CHNG (wa → wur)
Wursiya Nalingi for Bonwakra PART (wur + ?)
Wurtombo Kaha for Wurnawe CHNG (nawe → tombo) 'dull axe'
Wurwau Kaha for Kuwam SUP (? → ?)
Yakawur Given Name (yaka + wur) 'come inside' WS

Yakwaro Given Name WS

Yakwaroho Given Name

Yala Given Name (yala) 'Yala banana' WS

591
Name Name Type Change Composition WS

Yalembe Kaha for Alembe PHON (ø → y)

Yalngiwi Kaha for Salngiwi PHON (sa → ya)
Yambun Kaha for Kumbun CHNG (ku → ya)
Yamkurkur Given Name (yam + kurkur) 'kurkur banana'
Yamyala Kaha for Yala ADD (? → yam +) 'Yala banana'
Yangroa Kaha for Kewran SUP (? → ?)
Yansana Kaha for Wansana PHON (w → y)
Yarin Kaha for Mirin PHON (mi → ya)
Yasi Kaha for Masi PHON (m → y)
Yauhu Kaha for Yuhu PHON (u → au)
Yawai Given Name
Yawaro Given Name
Yawi Kaha for Fawi PHON (f → y)
Yefane Given Name (yefa + ne?) 'strong' WS

Yeklene Given Name (yekle + ne?) 'young' W

Yimansamba Given Name (? + samba) W

Yimauwun Given Name WS

Yimlon Kaha for Paulon CHNG (pau → yim)

Yinauwe Given Name
Yinsauwa Given Name (yinsauwa) 'son's wife'
Yiritingen Kaha for Weiyo SUP
Yofurete Given Name (yofu + rete) 'mark as forbidden'
Yombla Kaha for Ombla PHON (ø → y)
Yowu Given Name WS

Yuhu Given Name

Yuwarho Given Name WS

592
Appendix H: Names, Songs and Whistles
This appendix lists every given name for which there is an attested whistle tune (isi).

For those which also have a song (hokwa), that is listed as well. Given names are listed

alphabetically with the sir kaha and sir nalingi forms underneath. The next two columns

give a notational form to represent the whistle and song (described below). Following

the main table, there is a table of whistles with non-name meanings. See §9.7 for more

on the Mehek naming system.

The musical notations in the table do not indicate specific pitches, hence the lack of

a clef or key signature. The important aspect of the musical notation is the relative

pitches and durations of the notes, not the absolute pitch of any given note. As different

people will naturally produce whistles of varying pitches and the same person will

produce whistles of varying pitches, it is not the absolute pitch which is relevant. In light

of this, the main type of adjustment that was made to AudioScore’s output was to

neutralize any reference to specific note pitches. For ease of reading, the first note of

each whistle is set to A for the treble clef, as this allows the bulk of the notes to be

within the staff itself rather than above or below. However, as mentioned, no specific

pitch is to be assumed. The pitch and duration of the succeeding notes are in relation to

whatever pitch and duration are chosen for the first note, with almost any initial pitch or

length being acceptable as long as the proportions are maintained. In practice, though,

the whistler’s first pitch will be that which is naturally produced when the lips are in the

593
 least suitably tense position for whistling. It is by increasing the tenseness that changes

the pitch.

The musical staff notation was produced using the program AudioScore by

Neuratron. This program analyzes sound clips and is able to produce a musical notation

of the recording. From these outputs, the notations were adjusted in concert with the

pitch tracings (produced in Praat) and by listening to the original audio recordings. The

font used to create the staff notation is Musiqwik by Robert Allgeyer. Sharps (♯) and flats

(♭) apply only to the note immediately following them. Unless otherwise noted, all songs

occur on a bass staff '¯!.

Given Name
Kaha Whistle Song (Approximate Duration in Seconds)
Nalingi

'W=V=W=U! '==================================!
Afatimba
Nawatimba
Oflende

'W$=V=g=e! 'W=X$=h$=X=F$=V¶=æF==êZº=J$=Z=W=D==W=æV! (8)

Aflatawa
Fangitawa
Flesuma

'W=V=e! '==================================!
Ainambo
Wasunambo
Manikou

'W=V=W=e! '==================================!
Akanawe
Maurenawe
Lakwiytawa

'W$=X=V$=X! ']=\¼K=Z$=J$=I=:=\=[=L=J=J$=K%=ÚJ! (7.5)

Akanumba
Wasunumba
Sianal

594
 'W=V=V=U! 'L=K»=9=Y=K=\¼=[=[=9=K=Y¹=X=K»=[=Y=i! (9.5)
Akasingla
Nakusingla
Amkwandai

'W=W=X=W=V! '^=^=[=L=K=H=H¸=X=B=K=J='&=F=V=F=H=F! (7.5)

Akwleya
Sikwleya
Telembakai

'W=X=W=Y! 'ÛK»$=K=I$¹ÛK=ÛK=K=K=9=H$=J$=ØH=Zº=G+=W=ÚZ=ØX=I! (6)

Alembe
Yalembe
Kwaikamele
Ambongo

'W=V=U! '==================================!
Mumbongo /
Nakumbongo
Wundungwe

'W=X=W=X! 'V=\=L=K»=9=M=^¾L=^=\=êZº=J=I=:=J=Z$=D=! (6)

Ambou
Wasumbou
Numbawin

'ÕE=='&=J$=Z=êJ=^=êZ=Y=ÚZ=!
'W=X=U!
Anawe
Alnawe

'¯=Z=ÛK=I=9=I¹=ÚJ=Jº=J$=ÚJ=I=D! (7)
Awele

'W=f=X$=T! '&=B=éI=B==W=:=W=V=H=G==éI='¯=[»=\B²! (5.5)

Anele
Samanele
Bankufo

'W=Y=X=Z! 'M+=N+¾]=^+=N+=N=K+=K=J=9=ÜL=N=L=L$=L$=K=:=^=N+=ÞN=N=ÛK$=K! (7)

Ari
Muri
Kwalokufka

'W=W=f! '==================================!
Arkulasi
Maurelasi
Kleiwormbo

'W=g=W=V! '==================================!
Ataminga
Atamengu
Wasukre

Awalaki 'G=ÜL=N=\=k=:=Jº$=Z=J=:=ÜL=\!
'G=F=E=d!
Wasulaki

'Ü\¼L$=K=K$=J=J=K=:=Z=ÙY=Z! (9.5)
Warsalai /
Gurmbusalai

595
 'W=X=W=V=W! 'N¾9=L$=J=9î^¾B$=@=9=]=M=L$=ëK»=M=:=K»=M=K=I=9C=K! (9)
Bonwakra
Bonsiwakra
Wursiya

'W$=X=W=X=V=g! 'M$=L¼=M=ÛK$=k=Û[ºJ=[=K$=L=ÛK=:=L=J$=K=[=:=K! (7)

Fingrau
Lamgrau
Afenumbo

'W=V=f! '==================================!
Galaklei
Nakuklei
Samelmban

'W=X=g! 'M¼=N=M=^=Þ^=K»=ÜL¼=ÛK=Z=I$=H=:=K=Z=[»9=]=[=9=ÙI=I! (8)

Haulai
Mulai
Kwarnangi

'W=V=V¶! '==================================!
Kahafi
Nakaafi
Gwasiyauwar

'M=N=N¾=N¾M=N+=L+=K=:=N+=N¾M=N!
'W=YU$=V!
Kewran
Yangroa

'K+=L+=M=N=K+=L=[=M+=ëK$=K=:=\=L$=K! (8.5)
Kwaraunuku

'G=H=F=G=U$=F! '==================================!
Komblau
Nakumblau
Kwaikamele

'G=X=d$=C! '==================================!
Komtalmbu
Nakutalmbu
Bankusau

'M+=íM½=M=í]=L+¼K=L=9=\=L=M=:!
'g=W=V!
Koule
Felndekoule

'L=M+=L=]+=íM¼=ìL+=M=9=]=9=N=L=M! (9.5)
Kwaikamele

'W=U=e! '==================================!
Kufunele
Maurenele
Bankusau

'W=V=U=T=d! 'N=^=N=L=K=K=:=[=M=K=L=K=L¼K$=I¹K$=I$=H=ØH$=ÙI¹=X=M! (8)

Kumbun
Yambun
Sepeyawul

596
 'W=U=V=W! '==================================!
Kumbuwon
Watewon
Wafuter

'W$=X=U=V! '==================================!
Kuwam
Wurwau
Baiyaunuku

'W=V=V=W! '==================================!
Lokowai
Manwasu
Manyofo

'W=V=U! 'K=\=K$=K=êZ=X=L=êJ=K$=l! (3.5)

Lutuwar
Markotuwar
Wakomele

'W=X=X=Y=X$=W! ']=M+=L=L=M½=\=9=L=]=\=:=[=I$=éI! (5.5)

Mamtimba
Nawatimba
Awanal

'&=F$=ÖF$=G=F=W=S!
'W=V=W$=X!
Mandero
Okuroho

'¯=ÙI$=H=:=H¸=I=Y=9=[=H=I$=ÙI=H$=ØI$=I! (7)
Masiklei

'N=M½L$=M=:=]=½N=[»J=Y=J$ºC=K$=ëK=X=XA$=B²=:=[=:!
'W=W=X=Y!
Masi
Yasi

'Zº=êJ=k$=K=YB=êJ=:=M=N+=L$=K»$=ìL=êZ=K»=ëK=Y=I$=J=I! (17.5)
Turmbunuku

'&B$=R=äT$=D='¯M$=K$=M=N+¾ÚJ=M+¼I$=K=!
'W=W=V=U!
Masimbor
Okumbor

'&=Y=;'¯[»J$=K=9=]$¼K$=I=J$=éI! (8)
Walyamba

'W=U$=V=U=T$=U! '^=^=]½:=L+=ìL=ëK$=Jº=9=ëK$=L=K=ìL¼J=9=L$=K=M! (8)

Masine
Masiowe
Komboman

Nalafau
…

597
Nalafau
Okufau
'g=f! 'ÜL=]½=ÜL=L=J=K=I=J=K=9=I¹=Y=K=I=K=[=Y¹B=!
'\=\=Û[=K»ØH=Z=Z=L=ÛK=:=L=K»ØH=J! (13)
Nalmaakla

'&=T´èH='¯=K=\=ÞN=k=Jº=J=9=K!
'W=W=V=X!
Namtane
Namtaori

'ÞN=íM=N=\C=M=ÚJ=L=ÚZº=ÚJ! (9)
Gwasiyauwar

'W=V=U=T=U! 'NB=N=]=N+=ÞN+=M=[=Y=ÚZ$=Y¹Y=Y=]½=ìL=]=[=ÚZ=^=Y¹B$=I=I! (11)

Nanduma
Nandumun
Asamalaka

'g=d! '[=]=[=]=\¼9=L¼Z=H=9=\=K=êJ$=K! (6)

Nawatimba
Afatimba
Kwaika

']=^=N=M=Y=ÚJ=]=Û[=J=ÚJ$=Z=I=:!
'W$=Y=U=V=W=X!
Nawun
Olwun

'ÔT$´M=]=N¾I=9=L¼=M=Û[»=ÚJ$=K=[=Z! (10.5)
Turmbunuku

'W=U=S! 'L=M½L=K$=I$=J=ÖV$=E=9=H$=H=I$¹=K=K$»ÚJ=J$=F=E=! (6)

Numbanoko
Awanoko
Mangamele

'W=V=T! '==================================!
Nurkuminga
Nurkumengu
Kleitoko

'E$=L=N+=N='&=H$=F¶=H$=F¶'¯=J$=M=9=M+=N=ÞN+=M+=L=ÚJ!
'W=X=V=W=e!
Okwando
Nakwando

'L+=íM$=I=Z=9ÚJ+=M=Z=9=ÚJ=J=Z=9=M$=ÚJ=ìL=]=J=K! (12.5)
Afkosiya

'W=V=W=U! '==================================!
Ombla
Yombla
Krafoyen

598
 'M=^=M½=î^¾M=N=M$=K»=ÚZ=M=M=K$=[=:!
'g=i!
Owai
Malaai

'^=L$=\=K+=L+=M+=K+=K+»=[»! (10)
Sianal

'M+½M=N=íM+=]+=]=L=J$=K$=K$=I$=I=ZºJ$=I¹=:!
'W=V=W=U=V!
Paulon
Yimlon

'M=]=N+¾M+½M+½J+ºG=K+»I$=×G$=J=Z=Y! (11.5)
Wowu

'N+=M+=L=M+=I$=I$=J$=Z=Y=éI=9=èH$=I=éI!
'W=X=V=W=V$=W!
Samangal
Wurngal

'9í\+=K+=I$=I+=L+=Y=éI¹=I=H$=G$=èH=F! (8.5)
Kwarnangi

'W=X=h$=W! '==================================!
Sametenge
Nakutenge
Nakusamai

'=======! '[=]=[=]=\¼9=L¼Z=H=9=\=K=êJ$=K! (6.5)

Saumbo
Nauwumbo
Samai

'g=f! 'H+=N=ÞN='&=X=:='¯=K$=J='&=ÔT=X=H¸=:='¯=J! (7)

Sirongo
Ariongo
Masiklei

'W=U=V=g! '^=M=ìL=í]=K+=M$=JB$=K=k=9=M=K$=H$=K=J$ºH=9=M=9=[$=K$=ÚJ! (9.5)

Sufali
Sufalndo
Wasukre

'W=V=W=U! '==================================!
Sulkra
Nakukra
Afkombon

'W=U$=V! '==================================!
Tamaata
Wasaaka
Tankisumbai

'W$=X=W$=Y=W=X=g! 'N+=îN+=K=I¹L=M½K=:='&=F=9E=F=C='¯A$=K$»J$=[»J$=K! (7)

Tamalako
Wansilako
Mambal

599
 'W=X=V=W! 'E=^=]=n=L+=N+=ÝM½L=ÚJ=9=J=Û[=K$»ÚJ=J! (13.5)
Tamasombo
Welesombo
Hauwele

'g=X=W=X=W! '[=]=[=]=\¼9=L¼Z=H=9=\=K=êJ$=K! (6.5)

Tawayenbor
Wasuyenbor
Kondowai

'&=H=äD$´B$=C=X=H$=çG=Eµ='¯=I¹ìL+=M½M=L=N=]=M=ìL+=ÚJ!
'W$=V=W=U=d!
Tokmbaa
Walaa

'K$=C=9=N=N+¾L¼N+¾M½J$ºB=:=K+=M=L+=M=]=L+=K=J$=B! (12.5)
Sambai

'W=X=V=e! '==================================!
Tongolisi
Nakulisi
Sianal

'M+=N+¾L¼Z=\=]=K=:=J=:='&=F=W=F$=Uµ=H$=G=ØXA=G$=F$=U!
'W$=V=U=T!
Ule
Marwle

'¯=ÙI¹ÒR! (9)
Kwarnangi

Wafukaha

'W=W$=X=W=V=U! ']=]=L$=K$=J$=K$=J$=I¹=I¹=9=[=9ìL=K$»ÚJ$º=K=ÚZ=J$=I! (7.5)

Nakukaha
Afenumbo /
Gwasiyauwar

'W=X$=Z$=X=Y! 'îN=M=G=]=îN=ëK»=K»Y¹=9=J=ëK=L¼K=Y=I¹=L=i! (7.5)

Waimbango
Wasumbango
Mersafo

'W=X=W=V=V=X! '==================================!
Waitalo
Nakutalo
Wasukre

'W=X=X$=Z=W! '==================================!
Walaka
Walokwe
Ameklei

'^¾N+=îN+¾L=[=K$=J$=I$=Z=9=ãC=K=J$=K=J='&=G$·F=$=Eµ!
'W=V=W=W=V!
Walakasi
Walangaso

'¯=[=J! (7.5)
Ambamunal

600
 'N¾L+=ÞN+=K+=L=Zº=ÚJ$=K$=H$=I=J$=éI$=H¸=G=H!
'W=X=Y=d$=W!
Walando
Okwando

'&=F=ÖV=F$=Uµ=F==:=E=XB=:=U=C=h=áQ=S! (14.5)
Nangiafe

'W=V=U=f! '==================================!
Wambenga
Nakumbenga
Amaama

'W=X=V! '==================================!
Wambone
Nakune
Kwalonuku

'W=X=f! '&=A=C³=B$²=R$=b='¯=[$=K$=I$=êJº=[»YA$=J! (8)

Wanaku
Sukleaku
Manikou

'W=f=e! '==================================!
Wanam
Walalaam
Watengle

'W=V=W=f! '==================================!
Wanembuka
Nakumbukwa
Gurmbumele
Wangu

'W=X=X=V$=X! '==================================!
Wangu-
tikrayakra
Kiyanuku
Wangukra

'W$=X=W$=X=W$=X! '==================================!
Wangu-
tikrayakra
Kiyanuku

'G=G=G=U=F$=G! '==================================!
Wanisoro
Sofosoro
Kwalosu

'W=U=d! '==================================!
Wansana
Yansana
Klaiuku

'W=X=V! 'M+½=N+¾=N=\=î^¾\¼J$=A=9=\¼'&=æF=H=éY=H='¯=ë[=I! (8.5)

Warengle
Nakuengle
Turmbunuku

'W=X=V=U! 'N=N¾=^=ÝM$=L=ÙI$¹=K=L=[=K+=L=L+¼L=Ý]=M+=L=9=ÜL=K$=K$=J! (6)

Wasei
Wursei
Asamalaka

601
 'W=X=V$=T! '==================================!
Wasumande
Nakumande
Kwaikamele

'W=V=U=S=T! '==================================!
Wasune
Wosune
Afkosiya
Weiyo

'W=V=U=V! 'N=N+=N+=N¾L¼J$=L=9=ìL=K=9=M½=L=Jº=\¼=K$=êJ=L! (6.5)

Seiyo /
Yiritingen
Sifi

'W=X=Y=V=X! 'ÞN=^+=Þ^=^=J+=N=L$=Jº=Zº=9=H$=ÚJ$=K=J$º=Jº=9=ìL! (7.5)

Wolo
Nalo
Afunanki
Wulakufe

'W=X=W=f! 'M=Þ+NC=\=9=L=M+=ÞN=\¼=L=Y=éI$=I! (5.5)

Nakukufe
Kwasuma /
Masikwesu

'W=V=U=U=V! '==================================!
Wulane
Nakune
Maurewule

'&=âB$=C$=B²='¯=L+=îN+=L=N+¾=N=I=:='&=C$=C$³=B$²=B!
'W=f=V$=S!
Wunum
Sarnol

'%¯=K$»=K»=9=L$=L=9=\=K=[=ë[=K$=K$=K$=ëK$=I! (10)
Kornginal

'W=X=W=X=W=V! '==================================!
Wurnawe
Wurtombo
Numbawin

'W=V=U=S! 'L=^+=N+=K»=N=ìL=L¼J=:=Jº=éI=^=L+=N=L$=I+=ìL=9=I! (9.5)

Yakawur
Angawur
Bankufu

'W=W$=X=V$=U! 'K=H$=I¹×G$=G=9=K$=[=éI$=ÚJ$=éI=9=I$=éI$=×G=Y=H$=G·! (5.5)

Yakwaro
Okuwarho
Kwarklofo

'N+=M+=^¾L=9=M='&=ãC$=ãC$=ãC=M+=M!
'W=W=Y=X!
Yala
Yamyala

'¯D+=M+=]=M=ëK$=K+=íM+=íM=L+=íM! (7)
Aiklando

602
 'W=V=g=f! '[=]=[=]=\¼9=L¼Z=H=9=\=K=êJ$=K! (6)
Yefane
Walane
Mehelaka

'W=Z=Y=W! '==================================!
Yeklene
Nakune
Mesulaka

'W$=X=f=U! '==================================!
Yimansamba
Nakusamba
Sofosofo

'&=ãC$=B$=b=:='¯=K$=Jº=:=L+¼L=N+=K=L+¼=L¼9=L=\=K=N!
'W=U=W=f!
Yimauwun
Nanguwun

'^=L=ëK=I=9=\=N+=M½\=ìL+=ëK! (10)
Manikou

'M=[=:=[=ÜL+=N+=K$=K@$=I=W=K=:'&=×G$B=D$=F=B$=ÓC!
'W=X=W=X!
Yowu

'¯=N+=M+=K+=[=M+=ÞN+=L=K+=K=ÜL=ÙI=K=L=I=:=K$»=K$»=[=K$=I$=K»!
Herngin
Kwarnangi

(14.5)

'N+=ÞN=M=íM+=íM+=K+=L¼9=M+=L¼9=éi=9=ÚJ=ÚZ=9!
'W=X=f=U=S!
Yuwarho
Okuroho

'\¼=íM=\=ÛK=I$=Y! (11)
Afkosiya

603
 Non-Name Tones

Meaning Signal
“I’m Going”
'W$=X=i=V=U!
“Hurry”
'W=h=j=X!
“Let’s Meet in
the Middle”
'W=V=T!
“No”
'W$=Y=U=X=e!
Whistle to Put
Lizards to Sleep
'G=W$=G$=F$=G=F+=O+=F=O!
Whistle to Bring
out the Sun
'W=H$=H=E$=G=H$=H=G$=F=F$=F=F$=G=F$=E=G=9=G$=H=G$=F=G=9!

'I=G$=I=G$=G=I$=G=:=F$=I=G$=I=I$=G=G$=I!
Whistle to Alert Allies
to Enemy Presence
'G$=H$=G=F$=D$=F$=F=E$=D$=G=H$=F$=E=9!

'=E$=F$=E=F$=H=:=G$=F$=E$=G=F$=G$=E=G$=D!
Song to
Greet Whites
'¯=M=N=n=L=J=\=L!

604
Appendix I: Place and Clan Names
This appendix lists all the attested names for micro-villages in each of the Mehek

villages (section I.1) as well as each attested clan name (section I.2). See §2.1 and §2.3.2

for more on village structure. For a visual representation of the layout of the villages,

see §2.1.2. See §2.3.3 for more on clans.

I.1 Place Names

The numbering system here corresponds to the maps in §2.1.2. The general

principal behind the numbering is ordering from north to south. The main villages are

listed in this order and the numbers within each village increase generally from north to

south. The physical layout of each village precludes a strictly north-to-south ordering;

however, when walking along a particular path, the villages will occur in the order listed.

These lists are accurate as of 2014, though due to the practice of abandoning some

tracts of land in favor of others, it may not reflect the exact layout at any given time in

the future. The micro-villages of Nuku are not numbered because the traditional village

of Nuku no longer exists. As it has developed into a larger area with government offices

and an airstrip, most of the traditional tracts of land have been lost to these common

areas. While there are many people continuing to live at Nuku near their traditional

lands, many of the residents are transplants from other areas. Because of this, the

traditional layout and naming scheme of the village is being lost. One consultant was

able to provide several names of micro-villages which had been occupied in the past.

These are listed in simple alphabetical order.

605
 Nuku Place Names
Ambambori Naku Wur Tombo Ta La La
Kom Kumbangan Nuku Ter Kusu
Kom Sep Oku Numbul Tuweimi
Manbi Oku Oule Same Nambi Wate Gwama
Mandi Sumbul Siki Wi Wonambi
Mangrengrau Su Wako Yimbango

Yiminum Place Names

1 Wala Mu 11 Wala Naku 21 Ama Leu
2 Fer Naku 12 Same Aka Miki 22 Manda Bru
3 Naku Masai 13 Wate Leu 23 Oku Ne Leu
4 Wan Suwe 14 Aume Sa 24 Wate Nomro
5 Kom Yilpu 15 Wongo 25 Mangi Kom
6 War Kamba 16 Yiminum 26 Afi Eme
7 Turmbu 17 Kumoro 27 Kur Sumbu
8 Ru Lakem 18 Kom Oku 28 Fer Angla
9 Wal Kasa 19 Kom Arko (Kom Mes) 29 Mangi Lu
10 Kufu Lako 20 Kol Mu

606
 Mansuku Place Names
1 Suwa Gol 11 Wir Wir 21 Marnu
2 Kom Du 12 Walingi Siki Sa 22 Maure Eme
3 Tama Ongo 13 Arko Lam 23 Surani
4 Wur Wau 14 Wate Si 24 Suwa Gotka
5 Selmbem 15 Kom Wonblo 25 Wal Kasa
6 Turmbu 16 Wati 26 Sol Oku
7 Sangri 17 Bombo Wol 27 Tumanglo
8 Wanwil 18 Kwasu 28 Yemer
9 Iki Mei 19 Weindu 29 Afla Wate Kuwa
10 Same Du 20 Maure Belo 30 Afla Nekwa

Yifkindu Place Names

1 Naku Lako 14 Masi Wula 26 Mau Tu
2 Wala Fondu 15 Kom Kilfan 27 Afla Wal Numbaia Tongo
3 Yifkindu 16 War Kamba 28 Fi Toko Sai Lu
4 Matawul 17 Tama Buwe 29 Tama War Ako
5 Hambambori 18 Kre Sauwo 30 Loko Faka
6 Kom Arko 19 Felnde Mu 31 Mombo Gala
7 Kom Welfu 20 Fer Arko 32 Sumbu Wafen
8 Maure Bu 21 Kom Meyu 33 Moko Ari
9 Wurko 22 Nakum Yen 34 Womrim
10 Wan Aku 23 Same Du 35 Arko Nekwa
11 Mandun 24 War Kamba Kuwa 36 Duwo
12 Wala Yowe 25 Kom Terwo 37 Au Siki
13 Manbi Du

607
 Wilwil Place Names
1 Foko Bango 31 Won Ari 61 Wanda
2 Mandu Yalwin 32 Mini Bur 62 Wala Bango
3 Wangangu 33 Kom Du 63 Welfu Bango
4 Maure Fer 34 Walma A 64 Grambi Sunaku
5 Liim 35 Gel Wokro 65 Naku Gurmbo Oku Siki
6 Wate Aumbu 36 Yam Tombo Lufu 66 Mandi Oku
7 Waninga 37 Wal Kufu 67 Naku Lako
8 Hoplem 38 Sengaula 68 Marne Lu
9 Kririri 39 Kom Arko 69 Mahawor
10 Gembu Lisi 40 Yam Butu 70 Wafu
11 Kom Masu 41 Balan 71 Fer Kwiyi
12 Kwarmbe Tongo 42 Kasa Mu 72 Naku Mekem
13 Wurko 43 Wate Koule 73 Naku Gurmbo
14 Warmona Siki 44 Peles Pal 74 Kwarmbel
15 Wilwil 45 Oku Wiyi Da 75 Sewe Der
16 Oku Blou 46 Same Rombo 76 Al Kom
17 Kom San 47 Wangu Tombo 77 Wutuwem
18 Maure Felnde 48 Wate Mu Lako 78 Nawa Muwku
19 Salwun 49 Nala Kom 79 Won Oku
20 Kom Wule 50 Wolkai 80 Titimbin
21 Wate Arko 51 Au Siki 81 Ama Blala
22 Pilpil Pelpel 52 Wate Yefa 82 Sundu Arko
23 Maure Gowen 53 Wate Mulu Kwar 83 Sangrou
24 Turmbunol 54 Wala Kra 84 Wala El Bolo
25 Kom Grambi 55 Naku Kumbo Wro Tori 85 Maure Kom
26 Naku Tuku 56 Yomombu 86 Yumu
27 Tama Wulmba 57 Sufru 87 Afla Or Ou
28 Salma Bru Oku Siki 58 Oku Falfalti 88 Afla Sirmbin
29 Lamba Gul 59 Oku Bor 89 Afla Wala Oku
30 Sul Kasa 60 Wala Nuwa

608
 Kafle 1 Place Names
1 Masi Kuwa 16 Was Komou 31 Wasulo
2 Oku Barsa 17 Manbi Rombo 32 Kwar Weya
3 Fi Sirki 18 Wate Walko 33 Durmbu Gawo
4 Maure Du 19 War Glafi 34 Gafo
5 Mangi Mu 20 Wombango 35 Ner Du
6 Durmbu 21 Wangu Nalai 36 Yikwa Tu
7 Suwa Lako 22 Wate Nekwa 37 Oku Oulei
8 Wan Solka 23 Gima Tombo 38 Mar Felnde
9 War Kaki 24 Wahakla 39 Al Wuta
10 Morkwre 25 Mahawor 40 Mili Mala
11 Kom Mangi 26 Maure Telako 41 Tembel Gwe
12 Wal Omo 27 Sul Siki 42 Nembe Lako
13 Terfa Lili 28 Felnde Mu 43 Gra Nambu
14 Wate Bumblan 29 Mandi Du 44 Kom Tombo
15 El Blengu 30 Naime 45 Sanga Tombo

Kafle 2 Place Names

1 Afla Fer Wosu 20 Lai 39 Kumoro Kwleiya
2 Naku Ter Tangu 21 Oku Tururu 40 Wala Yikwa
3 Bondi Yefa 22 Kom Blasu 41 Kormo Bango
4 Wur Yefu 23 Kom Sen 42 Kom Au
5 Wanda Difi 24 Engre Siya 43 Felnde Siki
6 Maure Fer 25 Wal Kom 44 Maure Felnde
7 Manga 26 Kom Kwangu 45 Uwmbu Minga
8 Kom Du 27 Mar Kufun 46 Au Siki
9 Wate Basi 28 Kom Grambi 47 Warme Tombo
10 Taka Fe 29 Mahawor 48 Sul Siki
11 Oku Oulei 30 Masi Mambla 49 Sul Kwesu
12 Maure Felnde 31 Marfe 50 Oku Lendu
13 Wangu Du 32 Wate Afla 51 Wate Arko
14 Manbi Rombo 33 Nanglo Rombo 52 Taumbala
15 Gurha 34 Felnde Klousu 53 Somo Gwini Wro
16 Uwku 35 War Kamba Suma Nawe 54 Al Bango
17 Kembu Rombo 36 Kursu Siki 55 Waskormbo
18 Wate Ner 37 Warme Yali 56 Wolkai Rombo
19 Afla Yen Gaiwar 38 Wate Sikiri

609
 Kafle 3 Place Names
1 Kewa 20 Kumba Yafi 39 Naku Nuku
2 Naku Fa Sere 21 Moko Tenge 40 Masi Mambla
3 Gramba Nau 22 Wala Yefa 41 Wasutenge
4 Wan Afko 23 Kom Silfo 42 Same Du
5 Au Siki 24 Wala Suka 43 Wanda Difi
6 Sul Siki 25 Grambi Solka 44 Nunguwl Kwesu
7 Maure Kulu 26 Ama Gra Gra 45 Nanglo Tombo
8 Simba Lau 27 Kom Mangi 46 Uwku Mari
9 Wate Ner 28 Muwmbu 47 War Meleu
10 Fatu 29 Si Yaki 48 Au Siki
11 Kombonge 30 Kom Arko 49 Wala Germba
12 Wan Gurombo 31 Safku Fu 50 Warme Rombo
13 Sofo Awa Si 32 Oku Wro 51 Fal Erka
14 Kom Amu 33 Kita Yausi 52 Kom Gembu
15 Wate Bongi 34 Sen Daungu 53 Wate Bale
16 Kwar Dako 35 Afko Hongo 54 Fer Angla
17 Wate Mandi 36 Bre Siki 55 Engle Kormbo
18 Maure Rusu 37 Wate Girngwan 56 Wala Yen
19 Warme 38 Warsai Tombo

I.2 Clan Names

Clan Names
Bor Lakwiyi Sofo Walwal
Bor Lakwiyi Makru Tawa Tuku
Emka Makru Lakwiyi Ter
Fawi Kombom Mansuku Gaien Tilifumbol Yowe
Felnde Afu Maure Wala
Kin Nuku Bor Walulu
Krafo Nuku Lakwiyi Wandangwal
Krafo Yen Nuku Makru Yinauwe Lakwiyi
Kumul

610
Appendix J: Garamut Drum Beats
This appendix lists visual schemas of each of the attested garamut drum beats (see

§2.3.5). It is broken into two sections: J.1 includes all the beats associated with a clan,

and J.2 includes all the beats associated with a message, be it question, command, or

response. The beats are listed in alphabetically by title, along with the length of time

each beat lasts. Each image is not meant to be used to make an exact replica of the

drum beat, but rather to preserve the broad features of each beat in a visual medium.

Particularly due to the rapid disappearance of this form of communication, it is

important to have a record in a permanent and easily accessible format.

The method for visualizing the garamut beats is as follows: A waveform diagram of

each recorded drum beat was created using Praat. The vertical axis in each case is the

intensity and the horizontal axis is time. Each image helps to provid a visual mnemonic

for the overall pattern of the drum beat, including the total number of pulses, the

intensity of each, the spacing between them, and the overall duration. Because each

image below is the same size while representing beats of different durations, the listing

of the total duration is necessary to understand the timing of each beat. Furthermore,

the absolute intensity of each pulse is not meant to have an exact value, but rather to

represent a relative value with respect to the other pulses within that beat. Those beats

which are longer than one minute have been divided into two or more images which are

preceded or followed by ellipses to help make the division clear.

611
J.1 Clan Beats

List of Clan Beats in this Section:

(1) Ende (Wild Sago) Clan (35 seconds)
(2) Fame Oku Wiyi (Wash in the River) Clan (20 seconds)
(3) Fer (Pig) Clan (25 seconds)
(4) Gra Wuwulo (Wuwulo Aran) Clan (20 seconds)
(5) Same Lomyar (Praise Lychee) Clan (10 seconds)
(6) Same Tuku (Plant Lychee) Clan (25 seconds)
(7) Sofo (Snake) Clan (60 seconds)
(8) Tarangau (Eagle) Clan (60 seconds)
(9) Wala (Dog) Clan (30 seconds)
(10) Wanda Gwal (Open and Remove) Clan (70 seconds)

(1) Ende (Wild Sago) Clan (35 seconds)

(2) Fame Oku Wiyi (Wash in the River) Clan (20 seconds)

612
 (3) Fer (Pig) Clan (25 seconds)

(4) Gra Wuwulo (Wuwulo Aran) Clan (20 seconds)

(5) Same Lomyar (Praise Lychee) Clan (10 seconds)

613
 (6) Same Tuku (Plant Lychee) Clan (25 seconds)

…
(7) Sofo (Snake) Clan (60 seconds)

614
 …

…
(8) Tarangau (Eagle) Clan (60 seconds)

(9) Wala (Dog) Clan (30 seconds)

615
 …

…
(10) Wanda Gwal (Open and Remove) Clan (70 seconds)

616
J.2 Message Beats

List of Message Beats:

(11) Come Pay the Bride Price (90 seconds)
(12) Come Back to Kafle (25 seconds)
(13) Come Back from Makruw: North (25 seconds)
(14) Come Back from Seim: East (20 seconds)
(15) Come Back from Wanwan: West (35 seconds)
(16) Come Home to Makrwu (130 seconds)
(17) Someone Died (15 seconds)
(18) The Dogs are Wailing (20 seconds)
(19) Fighting has Broken Out (70 seconds)
(20) Hurry (15 seconds)
(21) I’m Coming (15 seconds)
(22) I’m Coming Alternate (45 seconds)
(23) A Marriage is Taking Place (45 seconds)
(24) Spirits are Coming (70 seconds)
(25) Repeat the Message (50 seconds)
(26) Beat to Stop the Rain (70 seconds)
(27) A Thief is on the Loose (40 seconds)
(28) Where are You? (20 seconds)
(29) Women Come Back (30 seconds)

617
 …

…
(11) Come Pay the Bride Price (90 seconds)

(12) Come Back to Kafle (25 seconds)

618
 (13) Come Back from Makruw: North (25 seconds)

(14) Come Back from Seim: East (20 seconds)

(15) Come Back from Wanwan: West (35 seconds)

619
 …

… …

…
(16) Come Home to Makrwu (130 seconds)

620
 (17) Someone Died (15 seconds)

(18) The Dogs are Wailing (20 seconds)

621
 …

…
(19) Fighting has Broken Out (70 seconds)

(20) Hurry (15 seconds)

622
 (21) I’m Coming (15 seconds)

(22) I’m Coming Alternate (45 seconds)

(23) A Marriage is Taking Place (45 seconds)

623
 …

…
(24) Spirits are Coming (70 seconds)

(25) Repeat the Message (50 seconds)

624
 …

…
(26) Beat to Stop the Rain (70 seconds)

(27) A Thief is on the Loose (40 seconds)

625
(28) Where are You? (20 seconds)

(29) Women Come Back (30 seconds)

626
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