4

Chapter
P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

LINGUISTIC GEOGRAPHY
The language we speak is the most important element of our culture. What we speak, and how we
speak are extraordinarily powerful markers of our identity. Language shapes our world view, both
constraining and liberating what we can know and feel. Language, like other elements of our culture
is a product of geography and a force acting upon the lives of people in all places.

Introduction
What we speak and how we speak is the most powerful marker of who we are, not
only as individuals, but as groups. Our language constrains and liberates our
thoughts and feelings; and battles over the control of words and phrases are central
to how power is exercises in most communities. The pen, or the turn of phrase, is
indeed mightier than the sword.

A language is a system of communication that persons within a community use to

convey ideas and emotions. The study of languages is called linguistics.
Sometimes, people who speak (or sign) the same language find it very easy to
communicate with each other. Chances are, people who communicate easily speak
a very similar version of version of a language, known as a dialect. On the other
hand, dialects can become so different from each other that they border on
becoming a different language because they extend past what is called mutual
intelligibility. Consider that many speakers of American English find that they
cannot understand speakers of Scottish English if their dialect is extreme. Part of
the problem is the differences in difference in accent, which refers to the way
people pronounce words. For example, the Scottish “roll” their tongues when they
pronounce words with the letter R in them and Americans do not. Americans
pronounce “to” like “tu” and the Scottish pronounce it like “tae”. A dialect is more
than just accent, because it different dialects use different vocabularies and may
structure sentences differently than Americans. A Scotsman might use “wee bairn”
to describe a small child, where Americans might use “little kid” instead. So
different is Scots English that some linguists even consider it a separate language.

There are other forms and uses of language as well. In places where two or more
languages are spoken, a pidgin language may develop. Pidgin languages are
simplified versions of a language or several languages that help people
communicate, especially in matters of trade or business. Lots of pidgin languages
have formed around the world, especially in border areas and in places where
colonial empires were built. Sometimes a pidgin will become more complex and
evolve into a language in its own right; a native tongue. Linguists call these newly

7
P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

created tongues creole languages. Most creole languages remain unofficial, but
some like Haitian Creole, a blend of French and West African languages, become
an official language with rules about
spelling and syntax, formally taught in
schools, etc.

Louisiana has a fascinating mixture of

all these elements. Louisiana Creole,
the creolized language of many people
in south and southwestern Louisiana is
spoken by people who call themselves
Creoles. It, like the language of Haiti,
is a hybrid of French and African
languages, plus probably a healthy dose
of Haitian Creole as well. Many other Figure 2: Linguistic Map of Louisiana
people in the region speak a variant Percent of Persons Speaking French at Home.
Yellow – 4-10%; Orange 10-15%; Red 15-20%; Dark Red: 20-
called “Cajun French”, which is less a 30%. Source: http://www.mla.org/map_data
creolized language, and more a very
wayward dialect of Canadian French.
The popular culture chapter in this text discusses how the linguistic differences
among French speakers in South Louisiana is express in terms of music and ethnic
identity.

Language on the Landscape

Spoken languages, like songs, jokes and other intangible elements of culture is a
mentifact, and is therefore invisible on the landscape. However, written elements
of language are quite common on the landscape in the form of signs. Because signs
generally have words on them, they provide an easy and fascinating opportunity to
practice reading the landscape, as
a geographer. Be careful though,
because frequently the words on
the landscape do not “tell” the
same story as the landscape in
which they are found. Consider
for example, a sign that is not
uncommon near the entrances to
college or high school campuses
that reads, “This is a drug free
campus”. Do you believe that
there are any college campuses
free of drugs? There are probably Figure 3: Motel Sign. The sign above, once just off U.S. 101 in Oxnard,
few high schools that could California made use of a font that conformed to the "western" theme used
by the business to attract tourists. This helped reinforce their effort to sell
legitimately claim to be drug free, “down home cooking” and “friendly hospitality”. How do you think the
and even fewer colleges. Why do aqua background and the use of neon (visible at night) fit with the overall
motif of the business?

8
P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

you think then, school administrators would place a sign like that on a campus? Are
they naïve? Are they making claims for political gain? Are they just trying to
create a drug-free environment and believe that a sign will encourage students to
abstain from using drugs? If you see a sign proclaiming something that is clearly
false, or laughably untrue, and you realize that the location in which the sign is
erected makes it obvious the message on the sign is erroneous, then you are reading
the landscape. Try reading the landscape of the house in the photo below.

Figure 4: House with Realtor Sign: Attempt to read the sign and landscape of the photo of this working class neighborhood in
Louisiana above. Can you spot the irony? Focus your attention on the sign and the windows of the house in the foreground.

Not only are words inscribed on signs occasionally misleading, but often they don’t
match the media or materials used in the sign. For example, a sign made of wood
might be appropriate and effective for a restaurant specializing in Bar-B-Q ribs or
cowboy boots, but would seem inappropriate and misleading for a store that sold
laptop computers or high-definition televisions.

World Languages
There are hundreds of languages around the world and many thousands more
dialects. Often, the world’s languages are arranged into a sort of family tree, with
languages that share similarities occupying a close spot on a branch and more
distant relatives sharing a common proto-language that forms the trunk of the tree,
much like an ancestor who died thousands of years would on a human family tree.

The major world language families are Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Afro-Asiatic

and the Niger-Congo. The distribution is displayed on the map below.

9
P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

With nearly a billion speakers, more people communicate using Mandarin Chinese,
a Sino-Tibetan language, than with any other in the world. However, there are
multiple dialects of Chinese, so you may find that even in the United States people
from China who are from Beijing have a hard time understanding other Chinese

Figure 5: Map of Major World Language Families. Note that much of India and Southwest Asia share a common language with
Europe. What does this suggest about ancient migration patterns? Why do you suppose the people of Madagascar speak a language
related to Malaysia, rather than East Africa?
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Primary_Human_Language_Families_Map.png Source: By PiMaster3 (Own
work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

immigrants who came from Guangdong province in Southern China. The Chinese
language has been translated into English using several different systems over the
years, so you may find older Americans (or older maps) calling China’s capital city
things like Peiping or Peking. The Chinese use a character based orthography or
writing system that has a complex relationship to the spoken language. Chinese
characters (logograms) have been adapted for use in Korea, Japan and Vietnam;
even though those languages are not in the Sino-Tibetan language family. Because
Chinese characters represent entire words, literate Chinese readers must know over
3,000. An even bigger challenge has been designing software that can write
Chinese using a standard computer keyboard (or cell phone key pad) developed for
another language system, using around 50 keys. Several ingenious methods have
been invented, but each requires significant effort and may have implications for the
adoption of certain technologies by Asians using a character based writing system.

The second most commonly spoken language is Spanish, a member of the Indo-
European language family and one of a number of Romance languages that evolved
from a common ancestor known as Vulgar Latin. While certainly there were swear
words in that language, “vulgar” in this instance refers to its use among the common
people (unlike Classical Latin). Other Romance languages include, Portuguese,
Italian, French and Romanian. There may be as many as two dozen additional
Romance languages (Catalan, Romansh, Sicilian, etc.) Many of the less well
known members of the Romance family are found in mountainous locations, on

10
 P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

Figure 6: Languages in Europe:. This map displays many of the language boundaries of Europe. Note how often the boundaries follow physiographic features on the
lands, such as mountains or water bodies. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Languages_of_Europe_map.png

islands or other isolated locations. Each language in this language family will
MAP READING:
When languages feature words and linguistic structures that are similar, but they remain generally
and language unintelligible to speakers of other Romance languages.
families are drawn
In addition to the Slavic languages of Eastern Europe, the other major linguistic
on a map, those
languages that are family in Europe is Germanic which dominates Northern Europe. English,
similar should be German, Dutch as well as the languages of Scandinavia are related. Most people in
draw using the same North America speak English, as do other locations that were once part of the
color family. In the British Empire. In fact, the map of world languages offers important clues into the
map above Slavic military history of the world. Languages, as well as other elements of common
languages of culture, were carried by armies and navies where ever they roamed.
Eastern Europe
(Russian, Polish, German and English are closely related members of the Germanic language family,
etc.) all share shades but English has become the most international of all languages, with more people
of green, while speaking it than any other. English isn’t a particularly easy language to learn, it
Basque, which is includes an enormous number of words adopted from other languages; loads of
not related to any irregular spellings and verbs, and the it is awash in slang; so why has it become the
family is marked in world’s most popular second language? The answers lie mostly in the political and
yellow. military prowess of England and the United States. British naval power and their

11
 P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

ambitious colonization program during the 18 and 19th centuries expanded the use
of English around the globe. During the 20th century, the United States’ ascension
into the realm of military and technological superpower elevated the status of
English even further. An example can be found on jet airliners around the world.
Most communication between pilots (and traffic controllers) is in English in large
part because the airplane was invented by Americans and the British began the first
international commercial flights. It’s similar to the doctrine of first effective
settlement, discussed earlier, but now with a technology. Consider the other
technologies, invented by Americans, and used worldwide. Many users, especially
early adopters of such technologies, find them easier to use if they know English.
Certainly, the massive cultural influence of rock and hip hop, plus the success of
Hollywood has spread the appeal of English worldwide.

C O O L L I N K
Some locations, particularly those that were difficult for armies or navies to conquer
H T T P : / / W W W . F E
boast unique languages. Locations that are isolated by high mountains, on islands,
S T I V A L . S I . E D U /
across vast wastelands or deep in swamps have a tendency to house people who
2 0 1 3 / O N E _ W O R speak uncommon languages. Hungarians and Finns speak a language that is
L D _ M A N Y _ V O I C different than most of the rest of Europe. People on the islands of Corsica and
E S / M A P . A S P X Sardinia speak a language similar, but different than their neighbors in Italy.
Others, like Armenian and Greek are very far removed from their “cousins” on the
Indo-European family tree, and so are called linguistic isolates.

Perhaps the best example of this

is found in the Eastern Pyrenees
Mountains of Spain and France
where people speak Basque.
This language is so unique, that
it appears to be unrelated to any
other in the world. There are
theories that suggest the
language is exceptionally old,
perhaps dating back around
40,000 years, before the time
that most European’s ancestors
migrated (with their proto- Figure 7: Basque Restaurant, San Miguel, California. Basques came to the
language) into Europe. Some United States and largely settled in California where the landscape resembles
their home territory in Spain.
genetic evidence suggests there
has been less interbreeding
between Basque people and their European neighbors, which may account for how
this language survived when presumably other very old European languages went
extinct. The rugged mountains where Basques have lived for thousands of years
surely played a role in protecting their language and culture from invasion and
succession.

12
 P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

Over the centuries, membership in a language or even a language family has proven
critical in the fates of both individuals, regions and nations. When the Germanic
Archduke of Austria Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Bosnian
Serb, it touched off World War I. Though there were numerous additional reasons
for the First World War, the first alliances were based on linguistic alliances. The
Russians had agreed to help their Slavic cousins in Serbia. The Germans were
allied with the Germanic Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The earliest rumblings of World War II in Europe were also generated when
Adolph Hitler attempted to expand Germany’s borders to include parts of
neighboring countries where a significant population of German speakers lived.
German speaking Austria was effectively became part of Germany in early 1938.
Nazi Germany later that year forcibly annexed parts of Czechoslovakia known as
“the Sudetenland” because the language created a right to take that land for
Germany. Later all of the Czech and Slovak areas were taken. It was when
Germany invaded Poland, to take land where the language was once primarily
German, World War II began.

It should be noted that many wars have been fought between people of similar
linguistic heritage, (Germany vs. England, e.g.), but the longstanding alliances
between the U.S. and other English speaking nations of the world is no doubt a
product of the way our common language has shaped a common core of values that
bind us in ways that are especially strong.

C O O L L I N K :
American Dialects
M O D E R N
L A N G U A G E Your ability to communicate
A S S O C I A T I O N efficiently with other Americans
M A P D A T A may depend on where you (or
C E N T E R
perhaps your parents) grew up.
H T T P : / / W W W . M Some parts of the United States have
L A . O R G / M A P _ D
very distinct dialects that others find
A T A
challenging to understand. People in
the Midwest and much of the West
Coast, on the other hand, speak a
kind of “ordinary” American English
that is used by national television
news anchors, and spokespersons for Figure 8: Menu Sign This menu sign from Jim's Steaks in Philadelphia
various products advertised on TV uses the word "Hoagie" to refer to the large bready sandwich, that most of
the United States calls a "sub" sandwich. Can you think of other words for
and radio. these sandwiches?

There are quite a few regional dialects

in the United States. Some argue that distinct dialects exist within different
boroughs of New York City, or that Cincinnati has its own dialect. The map in
figure ff is a very clever use of youtube videos to plot differences in the
pronunciation of words can be found in the US. However, the main dialect regions

13
 P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

in the United States align

reasonably close to the
main folk culture regions.
In the northeastern states,
they speak in the family of
C O O L L I N K : Yankee dialects. In much
H T T P : / / A S C H M A
of the Mid-Atlantic and
N N . N E T / A M E N G Midwest, people use the
/ # L A R G E M A P Midland dialect, and the
South is broken into
Upland and Lowland
Southern dialects.

Mapping Dialects Figure 9: Water tower - Florence, Kentucky. This monumental sign welcomes
motorists leaving "the North" into "the South" just below Cincinnati on Interstate 75.
Why do you think the vernacular "Y'ALL" is included so prominently?
Maps of dialects in the
United States are fascinating to inspect, generating a lot of laughs at the “crazy
things” other American say; but keep in mind there are significant cultural
differences frequently at play as well. You should check out Joshua Katz’s
excellent dialect survey and the accompanying maps. Possibly the most
entertaining for students is the “What do you call a soft drink?” question. Most
Americans use “pop” or “soda”, but in much of the south, people use the word
“Coke” to refer to any soft drink, even a Pepsi or a Faygo. This is funny to others,
but you probably use “Frisbee” to refer to a flying disc, or perhaps “Kleenex” to
refer to a facial tissue.

C O O L L I N K :

H T T P : / / W W W 4 .
N C S U . E D U / ~ J A
K A T Z 2 / P R O J E C T
- D I A L E C T . H T M L

14
 P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

Why Omaha?
Have you ever called a toll free (1-800-) phone number to order some product,
make hotel reservations, or get service for something like your internet connection
or cable television? If you have, there’s a chance you’ve been connected to an
American from another part of the United States. Sometimes, you’ll be connected
to someone from India, Ireland or the Philippines. Maybe you were connected to a
“computer voice” that prompted to push buttons and enter data with your key pad.
Did you have trouble understanding the accent of the person on the line? Did they
L I S T E N :
have trouble understanding you? Difficult phone calls to toll free numbers are more
O M A H A ,
common today than they once were. They are partly a product of cost saving
N E B R A S K A strategies by companies, and a general lack of concern for customer service. From
the late 1970s, when toll free calling began to become common through the early
1990s, the operator on the receiving end of many 1-800 calls was likely to be in
Omaha, Nebraska.
L I S T E N :
W E S T E R N
This Midwestern city has developed as one of the leading cities in the United States
N O R T H for telecommunication because of its central location. During the Cold War, the US
C A R O L I N A military placed the Strategic Air Command just outside Omaha. This central, but
isolated, location made it harder for other countries to strike at this key element of
our national defense. Because the Strategic Air Command was nearby, Omaha
L I S T E N :
benefitted from the nation’s most advanced (and secure) telecommunications
T A N G I E R S network. This telecom-munications network permitted nearby businesses to
I S L A N D , experiment with toll free call centers. Nebraska’s location in the Central Time zone
V I R G I N I A made Omaha more convenient for workers there to make and receive calls from
both coasts. Perhaps most importantly, the local dialect is what some linguists call
“Middle American”. This accent or dialect is the most ordinary and easy to
L I S T E N : understand speech pattern in the US for most Americans. Is it any surprise that a
O U T E R B A N K S , city located on a plain, in the center of the continental United States would have a
N O R T H “neutral” accent? The growth of the call center industry in Omaha spurred on
C A R O L I N A
additional growth in telecommunications, high tech and other service industries.
Had Omaha been isolated by mountains, or swamps; or if it was on the coast, not
only would its dialect be quite different, but so would its economy (and probably
L I S T E N : politics, religion and other elements of its culture).
S O U T H
L O U I S I A N A Several places in the United States have site and/or situations that are partly
responsible for significant linguistic differences from what folks in Omaha have
experienced.

Appalachian English, sometimes affectionately (sometimes derogatorily) referred to

L I S T E N :
as “hillbilly”, is commonly spoken by people by many people who live in the less
S E A I S L A N D S ,
S O U T H
accessible reaches of the Appalachian (and Ozark) Mountains. Many of the people
C A R O L I N A
who moved into these areas during the 18th and 19th century were from Scotland or
Ireland. Their speech patterns, though certainly changed since those times, have
perhaps undergone fewer changes because the inaccessibility of those regions
discouraged waves of immigrants from elsewhere. Because these locations have
been spatially isolated, there’s a good chance that dialect innovations made by

15
 P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

people in these mountains are prone to spreading throughout the neighboring

communities, but rarely enter the speech patterns of the rest of the United States.
Similarly isolated dialects can be found in other remote locations, such as islands or
in swamps. Check out the links on the left.

Ethnicity and Dialect

Ethnicity is frequently expressed through dialect; and conversely a dialect may be a
marker of one’s ethnicity. Geographers contend that both are products of the
peculiar spatial experience of each group. Each of the dialects spoken in the United
States, or anywhere for that matter, bears the mark of the ethnicities and therefore
source points of the people who once lived there.

So for example, the dialects of New York City bears the imprint of the massive
numbers of Italian, Irish and other second wave immigrants that moved there in the
mid-19th century. They adopted English, but retained some elements of the
languages and dialects they brought
across the Atlantic. Intermarriage and
decades of living and working together
no doubt created dialects that
hybridized elements of speech into a
new working whole.

Today, speech patterns in regions of

the US that border Mexico are
progressively reflecting the influence
of the many Spanish speaking
immigrants that live there, so that
many places it is easy to find people
using a hybridized “Spanglish”. These
influences may be much, much older
though. African American Vernacular
English, sometimes called Ebonics,
demonstrates not only the power of
place, but perhaps also the
stubbornness of cultural change.

N E W Y O R K
Ebonics is a source of some controversy for a couple of reasons. In 1996, the
T I M E S Oakland, California school board passed a resolution recognizing “Ebonics” as
E D I T O R I A L : language. This sparked some measure of outrage among politicians and pundits,
O A K L A N D A N D many of whom characterized Ebonics as mostly lazy, street slang. The primary
E B O N I C S - 1 9 9 7 motivation of the Oakland School Board was to find additional funding to help
black students in their district better master standard American English by tapping
into funds used to teach English as a second language. Linguists were generally
sympathetic to the side of the Oakland school board and weighed in with studies

16
 P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

that show that a proper understanding student’s home dialect or language was useful
C O O L L I N K :
for teachers who sought to instruct students in Standard English.
P B S . O R G “ D O
Y O U S P E A K The controversy in Oakland revealed several interesting issues for cultural
A M E R I C A N ” - geographers. First, it is curious how some everyday practices like language exert a
E B O N I C S special resistance to cultural change. In this case, elements of African language
systems appear to, even after centuries, remain lodged the speech patterns of many
black folks today. Second, the controversy highlighted the important role space and
place plays in the maintenance (and diffusion) of dialects. The long history of
social, and later spatial, ghettoization of Blacks has helped preserve relic speech
patterns brought from Africa. The effects of isolating people on an
island/mountain/swamp was somewhat replicated elsewhere in the US through
restrictive covenants and other discriminatory housing practices. It is also apparent
to anyone who has listened to the speech of white southerners, or urban white folks
who were raised in predominantly Black neighborhoods (or regions) that those
speech patterns easily transcend racial and ethnic lines. Finally, the Ebonics
controversy of the mid-1990s, was depressing because of the rush to judgment by
those who knew nothing of linguistics. The vitriolic response in the media to an
suggestion that a dialect might be given some of the same pedagogic considerations
as a language was surprising. The dimensions of the controversy highlighted very
clearly how important language is to the creation and maintenance of political-
cultural order.

Toponyms – Place Name Geography

Toponyms are the words we use to name places. Toponyms are applied to huge
places, like “Russia”, and to small places like “Windsor Arms Apartments”.
Toponyms, if they are interpreted carefully, may offer a number of clues into the
history of a location and the priorities
of the people (or person) who named a
place.

Many of the place names that are very

common to us, those used to refer to
states, cities and towns are compound
terms. These toponyms often utilize a
generic indicator and a specific one.
For example, Charleston, Boston and
Newton are all city names that have the
“ – ton” suffix, which is a short-hand
way of writing “town”. So you could read “Charleston” as “Charles’ Town”,
especially if you’re in South Carolina. As you might guess there was some famous
“Charles” years ago (King Charles II of England) for whom the town was named.
The use of the word “town” or “ton” is an indication that the founders of Charleston
were not only English, but also happy with the king; which in turn should also
suggest when Charleston was founded – well before the unrest that led to the

17
P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

American Revolution. Charleston, West Virginia, founded around the time of the
Revolution, was not named after any English King, but still uses an English generic
suffix.

The English weren’t the only folks who settled in the United States, so there are
numerous other generic terms for “town” scattered across the landscape. In those
areas where German speakers settled in large numbers, town names have a
tendency to use “burg”. Pennsylvania has lots of “burgs”, including Pittsburgh.
Sometimes, as in the case of Pittsburgh, “burgh” appears to be a corruption of the
word “borough”, an Anglo term for an administrative district in a town or rural
township. The corruption may have come courtesy of the many Germans who
settled in these areas. Because German and English are quite closely related, the
evolution of town names was both easy and common. Other common markers of
German settlement in the U.S. can be found in the numerous cities named in honor
of German cities; including multiple places in the US named Hanover, Berlin or
Hamburg.

Where the French settled in large numbers in North America, towns with the suffix
“-ville”, as in Louisville, are common. Many of these are in Louisiana, where
French speakers were once very dominant in the southern reaches of the state. Still,
there are many dozens of other cities with French names as well, including Detroit,
St. Louis and Des Moines.

Other immigrant groups, especially those that settled rural areas have left their mark
on the landscape, even though many other cultural elements have disappeared.
Russians, Poles, Italians, and other came later so there are fewer toponyms
associated with these groups. Far more common are cities that have names supplied
by the American Indians. Chicago, Milwaukee and Seattle are perhaps the largest,
but perhaps far more common are names for physical features, like rivers,
mountains and valleys.

A good example of American cultural hybridization can be found in places like

Anaheim, California (home of Disneyland). This town’s name combines a
reference to Saint Anne (or St. Hannah – revered particularly in Greek Orthodox
and Islam), originally applied to the “Santa Ana” by the Spanish missionary
Juniperro Serra. Later “Ana” was adopted by German settlers who added “-heim”
(home) in order to indicate “home by the Santa Ana”.

Toponymy and Place Marketing

Toponyms are also used to great effect by real estate developers, who seek to
convince potential home buyers, or even renters of the quality of their location or
their building. One of the most common ways real estate people market their land
and buildings is by making an “appeal to snobbery”. It’s a simple ploy that
frequently uses a reference to a place or activity associated with rich or powerful
people. For example, an apartment complex on Maple Street, might be named

18
 P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

“Chateau Des Maples”, to make it

sound French, and therefore more
exotic. A gated community trying to
appeal to upscale homebuyers might
be dubbed “The Oaks at Hunter
Crossing” in order to evoke large
landed estates, where wealthy folks
who engage in sports like fox hunting
might live. The more comical efforts
at leveraging snob appeal appear on
the signs of liquor stores, or nightclubs
in rundown neighborhoods. Casinos have employed this strategy for years, cashing
in on the ability of the landscape to make people feel like “high rollers”. It’s really
quite silly once you think about it; but clearly it is effective or it wouldn’t be so very
common place.

Language and the Environment

The environment shapes language and in
R E S E A R C H turn, attitudes about nature are shaped by
F I N D I N G S : language. There are the obvious things,
H I G H like the large number of words in
A L T I T U D E S A N D Castillian Spanish for rough, hilly terrain
S P O K E N versus English. However, it is probably
L A N G U A G E S
a myth to argue that Eskimos have 50
words for snow. The point is that
languages do adapt to the physical
environment so that their speakers have
a better chance of surviving.

A new line of research in linguistics

finds that other elements in the environment may have an effect on the way
language sounds. One anthropologist recently found that languages developed in
high latitudes with “ejective sounds” using a burst of are more common among
cultures living at high altitudes.

Another fascinating recent study of particular interest to geographers is from the

R E S E A R C H
F I N D I N G S :
world of cognitive psychology. Researchers have found that the way people think
L A N G U A G E
spatially is shaped by their language. For example, Australian Aboriginals who
A F F E C T S H O W speak Kuuk Thaayorre, don’t have words for left and right, so in order to give
Y O U T H I N K people directions or even remark on something mundane, like “there’s a bug on
your left leg”, they must reference cardinal directions (north, south, east and west).
In order to do that, they must know at all times where they are. You must know
which way is north too if you’re going to understand which leg has a bug on it. If
you turn in fright, then a new instruction would have to be issued. For people born
into languages that rely upon cardinal directions, their brains become hard wired

19
P E O P L E A N D L A N D S C A P E S

like a GPS. They are acutely aware of where they are at all times, and researchers
have found it difficult to disorient even small children by blindfolding them, placing
them in windowless rooms, etc. These effects spill over into many other areas as
well, including how people experience time and how they see cause and effect. It’s
just another example of what you know being shaped by how you know it. It
reminds us to pause a moment before dismiss what others think of as “truth”.
CHAPTER END MATTERS

20