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Unit-6 Motivation
The term “motivation” is developed from the English word “motive” which is itself derived from the
Latin word “movere”. Movere means to move .Motive may be defined as needs, wants, drives or impulses
within an individual.
Motivation may be defined as the process of stimulating or inducing people to take the desired course of
action. In other words, motivation means to make an individual act in a desired manner.
According to Koontz and Weihrich; “Motivation is to do those things which satisfy drives and desires and
induce the subordinates to act in a desired manner.”
According to Fred Luthans; “Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological
deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.”
According to Ricky Griffen; “Motivation is the set of forces that causes people to behave in certain ways.
Motivation thus, defined as a combination of forces inspiring a person at work to intensify his/her
willingness to use his capabilities for the achievement of desired goals. It is an act of inducement.
Motivation induces people for higher performances. It reduces employee accidents, turnover and
absenteeism.
Characteristics of Motivation
The main characteristics of motivation are as follows.
1. Psychological aspects: Motivation is a psychological aspect of management. It is the internal
feelings which arise from the needs and desires of a person.
2. Goal Oriented: Motivation causes goal directed behavior. Feeling of needs by the person causes
him/her to behave in such a way that he/she tries to satisfy himself/herself. Which trigger to
achieve desired goal.
3. Continuous Process: Motivation is a continuous process. When one particular need is fulfilled,
another need will activate. Thus, motivation is an unending process.
4. Complex and Dynamic Process: Motivation is complex and dynamic. Individual differ in their
needs and wants same motivation techniques may not fit for all. Thus, ever changing needs are
challenge for the mangers.
5. Pervasive: Motivation covers all level of manger in an organization. Each and every level must be
motivated towards work for the higher performance.
6. Positive and Negative: Motivation may be positive or negative. Positive motivation means
inspiring people to work better by providing rewards and incentive such as high payment,
promotion, recognition etc. Negative motivation means forcing people to work by punishing them
such as: demotion, cut-of-salaries, job termination etc.
7. Intrinsic and Extrinsic: Intrinsic motivation in job related which includes job enrichment,
participation, recognition etc. Whereas Extrinsic motivation is money related .It consist of salary,
incentive etc.

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Importance of motivation
Followings are the importance of motivation:
1. Understand employee behavior: one of the drivers of individual behavior is needs which is how
motivation is generated. So manager must have an idea of needs and its creation, which help
him/her to understand employees’ behavior.
2. Productivity improvement: Productivity deals with maximization of output with minimum
input.This are only possible when, the performance of an individual is effective and efficient.
Since, motivation generates higher effort towards work, which can be helpful in productivity
improvement.
3. Quality improvement: Motivated employees always look for better way of doing job. Which can
minimize the wastage and helpful in improving quality. Besides, because of their best effort,
TQM can be achieved in an organization.
4. Employee retention: Employees like to remain in an organization only when his/her needs are
fulfilled from their work-life. Effective manager always tries to fulfill those needs and create
friendly environment and provide opportunity of self development, which, further enhances
employee retention.
5. Creativity promotion: Motivated employees are creative and innovative. Environmental changes
are easily accepted and adapted by them, which facilitates organizational and industrial
development. So, motivation has importance in any organization.

Types of motivation
a. Extrinsic motivation: It is external in nature, money related and is provided by management to
employees. E.g. pay, incentive, benefits etc. Usually, extrinsic motivation is short-term.
b. Intrinsic motivation: It is job related motivation. It is a sense of satisfaction on job. It can be
achieved through job enrichment, participation, and management by objectives.

Positive and Negative Motivation:

a. Positive Motivation: It is the reward based motivation which tires to create willingness to perform
better. It improves performance, increase mutual cooperation and develops trust between
employees and management. Positive motivation may take the form of monetary, nonmonetary or
both. Examples Monetary Incentive:- pay increment, cash reward, bonus payment, leave with
pay, profit sharing scheme, retirement benefit and Non monetary Incentive:- promotion,
participation in decision-making ,recognition, autonomy or freedom to work, challenging work.
b. Negative Motivation: Negative motivation means the act of forcing employees to work by means
of threat and punishment. It involves disciplinary actions. Examples: Monetary: - fines, penalties,
pay cut, Non-monetary:- demotion, threat of dismissal from job, transfer to remote areas, and
group rejection. Since, this is not good practice. However, sometimes manager may be compelled
to use this technique with a view to prevent them from undesirable behavior.

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Motivation Theories:

Early Theories Contemproary Theories

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Mc Clelland’s Three needs Theory
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Herzberg’s Two factor Theory J.S Adam’s Equity Theory
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory

1. Early Theories

A. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow): Maslow hypothesized that within every
human being, there exists a hierarchy of five needs.
a. Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs.
b. Safety: Security and protection from physical and emotional harms.
c. Social: Affection, belongingness, acceptance and friendship.
d. Esteem: Internal factor such as self respect, autonomy and achievement and external
factors such as status, recognition and attention.
e. Self- actualization: Drive to become what one is capable of becoming: includes growth,
achieving one’s potential and self fulfillment.

Higher Order Needs

Self actualization needs

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs Lower Order Needs

Physiological Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy Needs

Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders.
i. Lower order needs: The needs that are satisfied externally and lower order needs, such
physiological needs, and safety needs.
ii. Higher order needs: The needs that are satisfied internally, such as social, esteem and
self-actualization needs.

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B. .Herzberg’s Two factor Theory ( Motivation –Hygiene theory)(Friderick Herzberg)

{According to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from
those that lead to job dissatisfaction.}
Psychologist Friderick Herzberg proposed the two factor theory believing that an
individual’s relation to work in basic and one’s attitude toward work can very well
determine success or failure. This theory has emphasized the role of two set of factors.
a. Hygiene factors (maintenance factors/job context): This factors results in
dissatisfaction when they are not present but this do not necessarily motivated
employees. E.g. Salary, job security, working condition, status, company procedure,
technical supervision interpersonal relation among superior, peer and subordinates.
b. Motivating factors (job content): This factor satisfies the employee’s needs for self
actualization. E.g. achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, the work
itself, the possibility of the personal growth.( it is the outcome of the job)

Satisfaction –no satisfaction

Dissatisfaction –no dissatisfaction.
What the person want from their job?
What situation they felt good and bad about the job?

C. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:

Douglas McGregor invented the Theory X and Theory Y, also known as “hard guy, soft guy”
approaches of managing people in the organization. It states that, people’s commitment to work in
organization is influenced by assumptions managers make about people. One set of assumption is
called theory X, which describes employees with relatively negative view. And another set of
assumption is called theory Y, which describe employees positively.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X (Traditional View) Theory Y (Contemporary View)

1. The average person dislikes work inherently.1. The average person does not inherently
dislike work but depending on condition
may find work to be satisfying or
punishment.
2. The average person will avoid work if he or 2. People will exercise self-direction and self-
she can. control to achieve organizational objectives
under certain conditions.

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3. Most people must be coerced, controlled or 3. People will seek to attain their firm’s
threatened with punishment to get them to objectives if there are sufficient rewards
work toward the achievement of provided.
organizational goals.
4. The average person prefers to direct to avoid 4. Under proper conditions the average
responsibility. individual will seek responsibility.
5. The average individual has relatively little 5. The capacity to use imagination and
ambition and wants security above all. originality is widely found in the people.

2. Contemporary Theories:

A. McClelland Three Needs Theory (David McClelland): This theory divides human needs
in following category:
i. Need for Power: A need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on
others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life.
ii. Need for affiliation: A need that concerns individual’s need to establish and maintain
warm, close, intimate relationship with others.
iii. Need for achievement: A need that concerns individual’s issues of excellence,
competition, challenging goals, persistence and overcoming difficulties. It is the
extent to which people want to perform challenging or difficult tasks on a high level.
• McClelland asserted (stated) that, a person’s needs are influence by their cultural
background and life experiences.
• A person’s motivation and effectiveness can be increased through an environment,
which provides them with their ideal mix of each of three needs.
• Needs can be created and changed through training and education program.
B. Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom): This theory states that, an individual behavior is
deriving by the expectation of desired outcome from the activities s/he perform. It
assumes that, each individual are rational and s/he takes decision with full conscience.
In other words, Expectancy Theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way
based on the expectation that the act will followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables or relationship.
They are:
i. Expectancy or effort-performance linkage (E---- P): It is the probability perceived
by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level
of performance.
ii. Instrumentality or performance-reward linkage (P----O): It is the degree to which
the individual believes that performing at a particular level is instrumental
(means) in attaining the desired outcome.
iii. Valance or attractiveness of reward (V): It is the importance that the individual
places on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job.
Valance considers both the goals and needs of the individual.

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The key factor of expectancy theory is, understanding an individual’s goal and the
linkage between effort and performance, between performance and rewards and finally,
between rewards and individual goal satisfaction. It emphasis on reward and the
individual’s perception on reward, that, determine the degree of motivation.
The conclusions of this theory are:
• No universal principle for explaining what motivates an individual.
• An individual should know about, what behavior is expected from his/her by an
organization and how s/he is evaluated.
• An individual’s perception on reward and goal drive his/her performance not the
reward itself.

Individual effort Individual performance Organizational reward Individual goals

C. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer ): This theory tries to overcome the problem of Maslow’s
Theory. According to this theory there are three categories of human needs hey are:
i. Existence needs: It is related to physiological and safety needs of human beings.
E.g. food, shelter, safe working environment etc (basic requirement for existence)
ii. Related needs: It is related to human desire to satisfy interpersonal relationship.
These types of needs can be fulfilled by interacting with other people, creating
relations, interpersonal safety etc.
iii. Growth needs: It is related to achieve growth and development while working in
organization.

As contrast to Maslow, this theory states that:

i. An individual may have both higher order and lower order needs at the same time.
ii. Maslow states that only unfulfilled needs are the prime motivator, however,
Aldefer states that, if a person continuously fails to satisfy hi/her higher needs,
s/he might return to satisfy lower order needs (i.e. there will be frustration –
regression process sin the satisfaction of needs.)
iii. Needs will not follow the rigid hierarchy as Maslow stated in his theory.
D. Equity Theory (J. Stacy Adams): The term “equity “is related to the concept of fairness
and equitable treatment compared with others who behaves in same way. Equity Theory
proposes that, employees compare what they get form a job situation (outcomes) in
relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio
with the inputs-outcomes ratio of relevant others. If an employee perceives his/her ratio
to be equitable in comparison to those of relevant others, s/he perceives that his/her
situation is fair. However if the ratio is inequitable, s/he views himself/herself as under-
rewarded or over-rewarded.

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When inequities occur, employees attempt to do something about it and as per the equity
theory they may do the followings:
i. Distort either their own or others’ inputs or outcomes.
ii. Behave in some way to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes.
iii. Behave in some way to change their own inputs or outcomes.
iv. Choose a different comparison person.
v. Quit their jobs.

The referent with who an individual compare are:

i. The “person” category includes other individuals with similar jobs in the same
organization. It also includes friends, neighbor or professional associates.
ii. The “system” category includes organizational pay policies and procedures and
the administration of the system.
iii. The “self” category refers to inputs-outputs outcomes ratio that is unique to the
individual. It reflects post personal experiences and contacts and is influence by
criteria such as post jobs or family commitment.

Perceived ratio comparison Employee assessment

a. Outcome A/ Inputs A < Outcome B/Input B Inequity (under-reward )
b. Outcome A/Inputs A = Outcome B/ Input B Equity
c. Outcome A/ Input A > Outcome B/ Input B Inequity (over-reward)
When employees perceive inequity, they will act to correct the situation. The result might be
lower or higher productivity improved or reduced quality, increased absenteeism or voluntary
resignation.
Frustration (to cause stress or panic):
Frustration is an obstruction or blocking to goal-attainment (oriented) behavior. This is the result
of intra-personal conflict rather than external conflict. When a motivated drive is constrained by
barriers before it reaches to desired goal, the situation of frustration arises.
A Model of Frustration

Goal/Incentive
Need (Deficiency) Drive (Deficiency with direction) (Reduction of
drive &fulfillment
Barrier
of deficiencies
Frustration

Defense Mechanism

Aggression Withdrawal Fixation Compromis

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Barriers
a. Overt: It is external. Money, resources, other interferences.
b. Covert: It is internal. Restlessness, low patience, tolerance, higher expectation, hesitation,
inferiority complex.

Defense mechanisms:
a. Aggression: It is an unpleasant action such as reaction physically by attacking the
barrier. An angry employee ay break tools and equipments may hurt his/her boss by
behaving roughly etc.
b. Withdrawal: It is giving up or quitting. Such situation arises when the individual fails to
achieve his/her goal for a long time.
c. Fixation: In this situation, an individual continuously try to achieve the goal, even though
there is less possibility of achieving the goal.
d. Compromise: The situation where an individual choose a different way or substitute his
old goal by new one.

There are the different defense mechanisms that an individual shows in frustration. So
manager should carefully diagnose frustration to take action at right time.
Job Satisfaction
It is defined as the employee’s attitude towards the job. These attitudes are shape by pay,
supervisory style and age factors.
According to Newstrom and Davis, “Job satisfaction is a set of favorable or unfavorable
feelings with which employees view their work.”
Thus job satisfaction is an intrinsic realization in which an individual value his/her job
components and situation.
The job satisfaction level is determined by the differences between job’s expectations and
actual job conditions.
Factors related to job satisfaction:
i. Pay: -can fulfill and individual basic needs. Equitable and fair (provision of fringe
benefits like allowance, insurance, transportation)
ii. Job : -components/ physical or intellectual- autonomy/opportunities to use own skills-
making decision-job load
iii. Promotion: provision of promotion
iv. Work group: relation between peers, support from colleagues.
v. Working conditions: clean and safe/physical comfort etc.

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