Perfection Preser Ved: UV Disinfection - Application Information

PHI2472 MidAtlaNW.
qxd 12/12/03 11:32 AM Page 3
UV Disinfection - Application Information
Perfection Preserved
b y t h e p u r e s t o f l i g h t
PHI2472 MidAtlaNW.qxd 12/12/03 11:32 AM Page 4
www.uvdisinfection.philips.com
CONTENTS
PREFACE 1
1. MICRO-ORGANISMS General 3
1.1 Bacteria and bacterial spores 3
1.1.1 Bacteria 3
1.1.2 Bacterial spores 4
1.2 Moulds and yeasts 4
1.2.1 Moulds 4
1.2.2 Yeasts 5
1.3 Viruses 5
2. ULTRAVIOLET General 7
RADIATION 2.1 Generation and characteristics of 8
short-wave UV radiation
2.2 Germicidal action 10
3. DISINFECTION BY General 13
MEANS OF 3.1 Air disinfection 14
ULTRAVIOLET 3.1.1 Ceiling-mounted TUV lamps 14
LAMPS 3.1.2 TUV lamps for upper-air irradiation 15
using upward facing reflectors
3.1.3 TUV lamps for irradiation of the floor 16
zone using downward facing reflectors
3.1.4 TUV lamps in air ducts 16
3.1.5 TUV lamps in stand alone units 18
3.2 Surface disinfection 19
3.3 Liquid disinfection 20
4. APPLICATIONS General 23
4.1 Air disinfection 23
4.2 Cooling coils 25
4.3 Water purification 25
4.3.1 Residential drinking water 26
4.3.2 Industrial (municipal) drinking water 28
4.3.3 Waste water 29
4.3.4 Water coolers, dispensers 29
4.3.5 Cooling towers 30
4.3.6 Semiconductors process water 30
4.3.7 Spas and swimming pools 31
4.4 Reduction of algae in fish ponds 31
4.5 Aquariums 32
4.6 Philips germicidal lamps and 33
their application
5. LAMP DATA General 35

5.1 UV irradiance values 35
5.2 Influence of temperature on UV output 36
5.3 Lamp life 36
6. REFERENCES 37
P R E FAC E
Pollution of the macro and micro environment

has caused concerns for decades and in
recent times the macro consequences have
been subjected to agreed international
protocols, aimed at reducing pollution.
Additionally, national and international laws
now exist to limit the existence of
micro-organisms, par ticularly those which
affect human, animal and bird health in the
environment and the food chain. A
consequence of this concern has been that
pollution reduction is now an industr y,
covering areas such as changing Whilst UV-C can be used as the exclusive
technologies to reduce primar y and solution in some applications, it is often
consequential pollution and chemical, used in tandem with other techniques. It
biological and physical cleaning. Included follows that a single technology solution
in these techniques is disinfection using approach is unlikely to be ideal. It also
ultraviolet C radiation (UV-C), which follows that since UV-C is so simple and
has the benefits of being both energy effective, it is perhaps wise to
efficient and arguably the most energy consider this option first.
effective technology.
Philips Lighting has been closely
UV-C disinfection has a long and associated with progress in this field by
honourable histor y in cleaning room air. developing, manufacturing and marketing
However, growth in other applications lamps generating UV-C and continues to
such as high tech volume liquid treatment research new lamp configurations. This
and domestic ponds has expanded brochure is the four th sur vey of
growth, whilst surface treatment of food information to be aimed at production
has been used to extend shelf life in and technical staff in organisations where
supermarkets, resulting in less waste food micro-organisms present problems.
and lower stockholdings.
1
Micro-organisms such as bacteria, moulds, of free radicals, which are often highly labile and
yeast’s and protozoa can be destroyed or which can react together to produce an inert
removed by physical, biological and end product. For disinfecting these effects are
chemical methods. UV-C works using a produced by wavelengths below 320nm,
photolytic effect whereby the radiation with the optimum effect occurring at
destroys or inactivates the microorganism around 260nm. The phenomenon whereby
so that it can no longer multiply. micro-organisms can be disfigured or
destroyed is independent of host state (fluid or
For DNA it does this by causing adjacent solid) and indeed pH or temperature, the
thymine bases to form a chemical bond thus important feature of the action is that radiation
creating a dimer and if sufficient of these are can reach the organism; this means that a
created DNA cannot replicate. Some bacterium shadowed by another or by a
micro-organisms can repair themselves by particle will escape attack. Unlike other
absorbing UV-A. In other cases UV-C (and techniques, UV-C photolysis rarely produces
indeed UV-A or UV-B) can cause bond potentially dangerous by-products.
splitting in a molecule resulting in the creation
2
1. Micro-organisms
GENERAL
Micro-organisms are primitive forms of life.

Their small dimensions not only constituted
the original reason for classifying them
separately from animals and plants but are
also relevant to their morphology, the
activity and flexibility of their metabolism
and their ecological distribution. They
include protozoa, bacteria and moulds. Fig 2. Some examples of bacteria varieties.
of the ability to cell divide. Sterilization

Cellular death in the case of micro-organisms means that all micro-organisms are killed.
refers to the loss of the ability to grow and
to multiply, or in practical terms, to the loss Pasteurization or the use of preservatives
lead to reduction of the total amount of
Nuclear Material
micro-organisms. Disinfection may be
achieved through moist heat, dr y heat,
filtration, chemical agents and UV radiation.
1.1 BACTERIA AND BACTERIAL SPORES

1.1.1 BACTERIA
Bacteria is the name given to a large group
of organisms, which can be both uni and
multicellular ; they have a simple nuclear
mass, and multiply rapidly by simple fission.
The structure of typical bacterial cell is
shown in Fig. 1 and examples of their shapes
are given in Fig. 2.
Bacteria occur in air, water, soil, rotting

Inclusion granules
Cytoplasmic membrane
organic material, animals and plants.
Capsule Cell wall Saprophytic forms (those living on decaying
Fimbriae Flagellum
organic matter) are more numerous than
Fig 1. The main components of a typical bacterial cell. parasitic forms; the latter include both
3
animal and plant pathogens. A few species of

bacteria are autotrophic, i.e. able to build up
food materials from simple substances.
1.1.2 BACTERIAL SPORES

Bacterial spores are resistant to extreme
conditions, such as high temperatures and
dryness; for instance some bacterial spores, Fig 4. Mould culture, as seen through the microscope, showing the fungus
mycelium with spores forming as beads at the extremities. These spores
can stand a temperature of 120ºC without detach as the result of the formation of further spores pushing from
behind. In the photograph many spores have already become detached
losing their capability for germination. and begun to move away freely.
Viable spores of bacillus subtilis have

Amongst the diseases caused by moulds, the
been found in ear th that has been dry
most frequent are fungal infections of the
for hundreds of years, thus demonstrating
skin and diseases of the mucous
their ability to survive under extremely
membranes.
unfavourable conditions.
1.2 MOULDS AND YEASTS Cer tain kinds of mould form antibiotic
substances; these have given rise to the
highly impor tant antibiotics industr y.
Penicillin and streptomycin are early
a b examples. A mould (see figs. 4 and 5)
consists of a mycelium and special
structures, (sprorangia and conidiophores,
c for example), which result in the formation
d
Fig 3. Brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) in various Cegatative cells

in growth Clone of
stages of development: a. Various forms b. Yeast cell with vegetative cells
phase
spores c.Yeast spores d.Yeast spores after germination.
Typical
vegetative cell
1.2.1 MOULDS Vegetative phase
Germination Beginning of
The variety of moulds is immense and they of spore beginning spore formation
of vegetative cell Spore phase Production of spore
are found everywhere. Many are saprophytic, phase
Stimilus in Sporangium
Mature dormant cell
causing food spoilage resulting in enormous
damage; some are pathogenic (parasitic). Fig 5. ‘Life cycle’ of spore formers.
4
of spores. In a favourable environment, a is the enzymatic transformation of

mould spore germinates and a mesh of fine the par ticular organic substrate, for
filaments (hyphae) is formed. The filaments instance the alcoholic fermentation of
together form the mycelium, which takes carbohydrates. Some yeasts are pathogenic.
up food and water from the surface on
which the spore has germinated. Spores, 1.3 VIRUSES
and the manner, in which they are formed, Viruses are a group of biological structures
play a considerable par t in the with extremely small dimensions (Fig. 8)
classification of moulds. which are obligatory parasitic. Viruses are so
small that bacterial filters do not retain
1.2.2 YEASTS them, neither do they precipitate in normal
Yeasts are unicellular moulds. They differ centrifuges. They can be observed by using
from the other moulds in the way that an electron microscope (Fig. 7). Viruses are
they propagate. Yeasts (Fig. 3) multiply by unable to grow and multiply by division, they
means of budding or sprouting. A selection can only grow in living cells, so by their
of yeasts are used in various industries, the multiplication they kill the host cell. The
most impor tant of these being those where
fermentation produces wine, beer, vinegar
and bread. The action of fermentation
H
DNA
P
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9
1 micro meter (µm)

Fig 6.
Relative shapes and sizes of some types of viruses.
1. Smallpox virus 5. Influenza virus
Abbreviations: 6. Insect polyhedral virus
DNA = virus DNA 7. Adeno virus
P = elliptical protein body 8. Polyema virus
H = enveloping layers 9. Poliomyelitis virus
Fig 7. One of the types of influenza virus as seen enlarged
2. Mumps virus
3600 times by means of an electron microscope. This virus
3. Herpes virus
occurs in the form of filaments and globules having a
4.Tobacco mosaic virus
diameter of approximately 0.1mm.
5
same process can take place in adjacent
Rickettsia
Protozoa
Bacteria
Viruses
cells and eventually whole cellular
Algae
Fungi
complexes can be destroyed. Tissue Serveral Myxbolus Crenotrix
meiosis up to 70000 polyspora
damage is a way of recognising the Kelp and
Fucus
Paramecium
125-350
up to 10000
presence of a virus. 100
Viruses have been identified as the Dryoptesis

filix mas
(Spores)
causative agent of disease in humans, 50-60
animals, plants and bacteria themselves Barbula

tallax
Spirillum
voltens
(Spores)12 13-14
(bacteriophage). In human beings they are 10
Aspergillus
niger
the cause of diseases such as chickenpox, (Spores)
4-5
Chlorella Micros- Mucor Bacillius
mumps, measles, war ts, poliomyelitis, the 3-7 porida 3-4 michei 3-6 stearother-
mophilus Rickettsia
Penicillium (Spores) rickettsi
common cold and influenza (Fig. 6). duponti 1-1,2x1,5-2,2 (Rocky Mt
(Spores) 3-5 Spotted
Leishmania Clostridium fever)
donovani tetani 0,6x1,2
1-4 (Spores)
In animals, foot-and-mouth disease, 1,0
1x1,5
Rickettsia
Staphylococ- prowazakii
Newcastle disease and fowl pest are cus aureus
0,8-1,0
Typhus
fever 0,3x0,5
Coxiella
amongst the diseases caused by viruses. Bacillus
burnetii
(Q fever)
globiqii 0,25-1,0
(Spores)
Psittacosis
0,6-0,9x1,0-1,5
0,40
Plants are also subject to many mosaic Escherichia
coli
Smallpox
0,20-0,25
0,5x1,0-3,0
diseases caused by viruses. An interesting 0,1 Rabies
Serratia 0,10-0,15
marcescens
case is that of ‘parrot’ tulips. Formerly 0,5x1,0
Influenza
0,07-0,08
Thiobacillus Tobacco
these were regarded as a separate variety, thermophilus
(Spores)
Mosaic
virus 0,042
0,5x0,9
because of their feather y looking petals Poliomey-
litis 0,025-
0,080
and their combinations and patterns of Foot and
Mouth
0,008-0,012
colour. It has now been shown that the 0,01
colour pattern and shape of the petals

results from a virus, which has no
destructive effect on the tulip itself, or its
reproductive powers. The attractive
0,001
colours and patterns of the petals are the Dimensions in µm 1µm=0,001 mm
symptoms of the ‘disease’.

Fig 8. Relative sizes of different types of micro-organisms.
6
2. Ultraviolet radiation
GENERAL
Ultraviolet is that par t of electromagnetic

Permissible Ultraviolet Exposures
radiation bounded by the lower wavelength
Duration of exposure Effective irradiance
extreme of the visible spectrum and the per day Eeff (µW/cm2)
8 hours 0.2
upper end of the X-ray radiation band. The 4 hours 0.4
spectral range of ultraviolet radiation is, by 2 hours 0.8
1 hour 1.7
definition between 100 and 400nm 30 mins. 3.3
15 mins. 6.6
(1nm=10-9m) and is invisible to human 10 mins. 10
5 mins. 20
eyes. Using the CIE classification the UV
1 min 100
spectrum is subdivided into three bands:
Table 1. Permissible 254 nm Ultraviolet exposures,
according to ACGIH.
UV-A (long-wave) from 315 to 400 nm

UV-B (medium-wave) from 280 to 315 nm A strong germicidal effect is provided by the
radiation in the shor t-wave UV-C band. In
UV-C (short-wave) from 100 to 280 nm
addition erythema (reddening of the skin)
In reality many photobiologists often speak and conjunctivitis (inflammation of the
of skin effects from the weighted effect of mucous membranes of the eye) can, also be
wavelength above and below 320 nm, hence caused by this form of radiation. Because of
offering an alternative definition. this, when germicidal, ultraviolet-radiating
lamps are used, it is impor tant to design
systems to exclude UV-C leakage and so
1000000
avoid these effects.
100000
Self evidently people should avoid exposure

TLV (J/m2)
10000
to UV-C. For tunately this is relatively simple,
because it is absorbed by most products,
1000
and even standard flat glass absorbs all
100 UV-C. Exceptions are quar tz and PTFE.
Again for tuitously, UV-C is mostly
10 absorbed by dead skin, so er ythema can be
150 200 250 300 350 400
Wavelength (nm) limited. In addition UV-C does not

penetrate to the eye’s lens; never theless,
Fig 9. Ultraviolet radiation Threshold Limited Values (TLV)
according to ACGIH 1999-2000 (Ref 1).
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2.1 GENERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS

1.00
OF SHORT-WAVE UV RADIATION
0.80
The most efficient source for generating
Relative effectiveness
UV-C is the low-pressure mercury discharge

0.60
lamp, where on average 35% of input watts
0.40
is conver ted to UV-C watts. The radiation is
0.20 generated almost exclusively at 254 nm. viz.
0.00
at 85% of the maximum germicidal effect
220 240 260 280 300 320
Wavelength (nm) (Fig. 10). Philips’ low-pressure TUV lamps
IES (ref.2) E. coli (ref.10) Absorption DNA (ref. 11)
have an envelope of special glass that filters
out ozone-forming radiation, in this case the
Fig 10. Germicidal action spectrum.
185 nm mercur y line. The spectral
conjunctivitis can occur and though transmission of this glass is shown in Fig. 11
temporar y, it is extremely painful; the same and the spectral power distribution of these
is true of er ythemal effects. TUV lamps is given in Fig. 12
Where exposure to UV-C radiation For various Philips germicidal TUV lamps the
occurs, care should be taken not to exceed electrical and mechanical proper ties are
the threshold level norm. Fig. 9 shows identical to their lighting equivalents.
these values for most of the CIE UV
spectrum. In practical terms, table 1 gives
1.00
the American Congress of Governmental

0.80
and Industrial Hygienist’s (ACGIH) UV
Transmission
Threshold Limit Effective Irradiance Values 0.60
for human exposure related to time.

0.40
At this time it is wor th noting that radiation
0.20
at wavelengths below 240 nm forms ozone
(O3 ) from oxygen in air. Ozone is toxic and 0.00
150 200 250 300 350 400
highly reactive; hence precautions have to be Wavelength (nm)
taken to avoid exposure to humans and PH 300 TUV glass Window glass
fused quartz
cer tain materials
Fig 11. Special transmission of glasses (1mm).
8
This allows them to be operated in decreasing the temperature can increase the
the same way i.e. using an electronic or germicidal output. This is met in "High
magnetic ballast/starter circuit. Output" lamps viz. lamps with higher
As with all low-pressure lamps, there is a wattage than normal for their linear
relationship between lamp operating dimension. (Fig. 29)
temperature and output. In low- pressure
lamps the resonance line at 254 nm is
strongest at a cer tain mercur y vapour
Power
pressure in the discharge tube. This pressure
is determined by the operating temperature
and optimises at a tube wall temperature of
40ºC, corresponding with an ambient
temperature of about 25ºC. For example, a
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
TUV lamp operating in still air at +10ºC will Wavelength (nm)
Effective Germicidal Total power

produce about 80 per cent of the UV-C
radiated at +25ºC (See Chapter 5.2, Fig 28). Fig 13. Relative spectral power distrubution of HOK and
HTK lamps. In light blue: Effective Germicidal.
It should also be recognised that lamp output
is affected by air currents (forced or natural) A second type of UV source is the medium-
across the lamp, the so called chill factor. pressure mercury lamp, here the higher
The reader should note that, for some pressure excites more energy levels
lamps, increasing the air flow and/or producing more spectral lines and a
continuum (recombined radiation) (Fig. 13). It
should be noted that the quartz envelope
transmits below 240 nm so ozone can be
Power
formed from air. The advantages of medium-

pressure sources are:
• High power density
• High power, resulting in fewer lamps
than low pressure types being used in the
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Wavelength (nm)
same application.
• Less sensitivity to environment temperature.
Fig 12. Relative spectral power distribution of TUV
lamps In green :Effective germicidal.
The lamps should be operated so that the wall
9
reductions on either side. Low-pressure

1
lamps have their main emission at 254 nm

where the action on DNA is 85% of the
0.1
peak value and 80% on the IES curve. For
wavelengths below 235 nm the germicidal
0.01
action is not specified, but it is reasonable
survival Nt/No
to assume that it follows the DNA

0.001
absorption curve.
0.0001
Micro-organisms effective resistance to
UV radiation varies considerably. Moreover,
0.00001
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 the environment of the par ticular
2
Dose (J/m )
microorganism greatly influences the
k = 0.1 k = 0.3 k = 0.01 k = 0.003 k = 0.001
radiation dose needed for its destruction.
Fig 14. Survival of micro-organisms depending on dose and Water, for instance, may absorb a par t of the
rate constant k. effective radiation depending on the
temperature lies between 600 and 900ºC and concentration of contaminants in it. Iron
the pinch does not exceed 350ºC. These lamps salts in solution ware well known inhibitors.
can be dimmed, as can low pressure lamps. Iron ions absorb the UV radiation.
The sur vival of micro-organisms when
2.2 GERMICIDAL ACTION exposed to UV radiation is given by the
The UV radiation emitted by a source is approximation:
expressed in watts (W) and the irradiation
Nt/N0 = exp. (-kEefft)…..........…….1
density is expressed in watts per square
Hence ln Nt/N0 = -kEefft.................2
metre (W/m2). For germicidal action dose is
impor tant. The dose is the irradiation • Nt is the number of germs at time t
density multiplied by the time (t) in seconds • N0 is the number of germs before exposure
and expressed in joules per square metre • k is a rate constant depending on
(J/m2). (1 joule is 1W.second). the species
• Eeff is the effective irradiance in W/m2
From Fig. 10 it can be seen that germicidal The product Eefft is called the effective dose
action is maximised at 265 nm with Heff and is expressed in W.s/m2 of J/m2.
10
It follows that for 90% kill equation 2 becomes for viruses and bacteria, to 2.10 -3 for mould
spores and 8.10 -4 for algae. Using the
2.303 = kHeff.
equations above, Fig. 14 showing survivals or
Some k value indications are given in table 2, kill % versus dose, can be generated.
where they can be seen to vary from 0.2 m2/J
Bacteria Dose k Yeasts Dose k
Bacillus anthracis 45.2 0.051 Bakers’ yeast 39 0.060

B. megatherium sp. (spores) 27.3 0.084 Brewers’ yeast 33 0.070
B. megatherium sp. (veg.) 13.0 0.178 Common yeast cake 60 0.038
B. parathyphosus 32.0 0.072 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 60 0.038
B. suptilis 71.0 0.032 Saccharomyces ellipsoideus 60 0.038
B. suptilis spores 120.0 0.019 Saccharomyces sp. 80 0.029
Campylobacter jejuni 11.0 0.209
Clostridium tetani 120.0 0.019 Mould spores
Corynebacterium diphteriae 33.7 0.069
Dysentery bacilli 22.0 0.105 Aspergillus flavus 600 0.003
Eberthella typhosa 21.4 0.108 Aspergillus glaucus 440 0.004
Escherichia coli 30.0 0.077 Aspergillus niger 1320 0.0014
Klebsiella terrifani 26.0 0.089 Mucor racemosus A 170 0.013
Legionella pneumophila 9.0 0.256 Mucor racemosus B 170 0.013
Micrococcus candidus 60.5 0.038 Oospora lactis 50 0.046
Micrococcus sphaeroides 100.0 0.023 Penicillium digitatum 440 0.004
Mycobacterium tuberculosis 60.0 0.038 Penicillium expansum 130 0.018
Neisseria catarrhalis 44.0 0.053 Penicillium roqueforti 130 0.018
Phytomonas tumefaciens 44.0 0.053 Rhizopus nigricans 1110 0.002
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 55.0 0.042
Pseudomonas fluorescens 35.0 0.065 Virus
Proteus vulgaris 26.4 0.086
Salmonella enteritidis 40.0 0.058 Hepatitis A 73 0.032
Salmonella paratyphi 32.0 0.072 Influenza virus 36 0.064
Salmonella typhimurium 80.0 0.029 MS-2 Coliphase 186 0.012
Sarcina lutea 197.0 0.012 Polio virus 58 0.040
Seratia marcescens 24.2 0.095 Rotavirus 81 0.028
Shigella paradysenteriae 16.3 0.141
Shigella sonnei 30.0 0.077 Protozoa
Spirillum rubrum 44.0 0.053
Staphylococcus albus 18.4 0.126 Cryptosporidium parvum 25 0.092
Staphylococcus aureus 26.0 0.086 Giardia lamblia 11 0.209
Streptococcus faecalis 44.0 0.052
Streptococcus hemoluticus 21.6 0.106 Algae
Streptococcus lactus 61.5 0.037
Streptococcus viridans 20.0 0.115 Blue Green 3000 0.0008
S.entertidis 40.0 0.057 Chlorella vulgaris 120 0.019
Vibrio chlolerae (V.comma) 35.0 0.066
Yersinia enterocolitica 11.0 0.209
Table 2. Doses for 10% survival under 254 nm radiation (J/m2) and rate constant k (m2/J), Ref 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
11
12
3. Disinfection by means of
Ultraviolet Lamps
GENERAL
In practice, germicidal applications and design However, some notable success has been
factors are governed by three main factors: achieved in applications where, despite a
disadvantageous absorption, "thin film" or
A. THE EFFECTIVE DOSE (Heff) closed circuit (recycling the product) design
Effective dose is the product of time and techniques have provided effective solutions.
effective irradiance (the irradiance that
makes a germicidal contribution). However, C. LAMPS
dose is severely limited by its ability to Five Philips ranges of lamps are available for
penetrate a medium. Penetration is disinfection purposes:
controlled by the absorption co-efficient; for • Classic T5 and T8 TUV lamps
solids total absorption takes place in the • High output TUV lamps
surface; for water, depending on the purity, • PL-S and PL-L twin-tube compact
several 10s of cm. or as little as a few TUV lamps
microns can be penetrated before 90% • and the newest addition: XPT amalgam
absorption takes place. “Very High Output” germicidal lamps in T6
and T10 diameters.
B. THE POSSIBLE HAZARDOUS EFFECTS All of these are based on low-pressure
OF SUCH RADIATION mercury technology. Increasing the lamp
Germicidal radiation can produce current of low-pressure lamps produces
conjunctivitis and er ythema, therefore higher outputs for lamps of the same length;
people should not be exposed to it at levels but at the cost of UV efficiency
more than the maximum exposure given in (UV watts/input watts); this is due to higher
Fig. 9. It follows that this needs to be taken self-absorption levels, and temperature
into consideration when designing influences. The application of mercur y
disinfection equipments. amalgams, rather than pure mercury, in the
lamps corrects for the latter.
Germicidal applications can be and are used for • HOK lamps, which are of the medium-
all three states of matter, viz. gases (air), liquids pressure mercur y type, mainly
(mainly water) and solids (surfaces) with characterised by a much higher UV-C
greatest technical success in those applications output than low pressure options, but
where the absorption coefficient is smallest. at much lower efficacies.
13
The choice of the lamp type depends on the However, it should be remembered
specific application. In most cases the low- that disinfected air is not, in itself,
pressure types are the most attractive. This a disinfecting agent.
is because germicidal lamps are highly
efficient in destroying micro-organisms, Presently, there are five basic methods of
hence there is limited need for high wattage air disinfection using ultraviolet lamps viz:
lamps. For water disinfection, low and a. Ceiling or wall mounted TUV lamps
medium-pressure are both used, although b. TUV lamps (in upwards-facing reflectors)
the choice is not necessarily based on UV-C for upper-air irradiation.
efficacy. Initial total systems costs, including c. TUV lamps (in downwards-facing
metalwork and space limitations, can be the reflectors) for irradiation of the floor
driving factor rather than efficacy. zone (often in combination with b.).
d. TUV lamps in air ducts sometimes in
3.1 AIR DISINFECTION (Ref.12,13) combination with special dust filters.
Good results are obtained with this form e. TUV lamps, incorporated in stand-alone
of disinfection because air has a low air cleaners with a simple filter.
absorption coefficient and hence allows
UV-C to attack micro-organisms present. In 3.1.1 CEILING-MOUNTED TUV LAMPS
addition, two other beneficial conditions This method is used in those cases where
are generally present, viz. random either the interior is unoccupied or where it
movements allowing bacteria etc. to is possible for the occupants to take
provide favourable molecular orientations protective measures against radiation. These
for attack and high chances of "closed protective measures entail covering the:
circuit" conditions, that is second, third and
Face: glass spectacles, closefitting
more recycle oppor tunities. From this, it is
goggles or plastic face visors.
evident that air disinfection is an impor tant
Hands: gloves (for long exposure,
application for UV radiation.
special plastic is preferable
to rubber)
Even in the simplest system (natural circulation)
Head and neck: head cover
there is an appreciable reduction in the
number of airborne organisms in a room.Thus Note:
the danger of airborne infection, a factor in Normal glasses and plastics can be used to give protection,
because they transmit little or no UV-C; some exceptions
many illnesses, is considerably reduced. are special UV glasses, quar tz and cer tain PTFEs
14
3.1.2 TUV LAMPS FOR UPPER-AIR

IRRADIATION USING UPWARD
FACING REFLECTORS
This method of disinfection can be used
to combat bacteria and moulds; it also has
the advantage that it can be used in
occupied interiors without the occupants
using protective clothing. The lamps
should be mounted in suitable reflectors
and aimed to emit no radiation below Fig 15.Various principles of air disinfections
a. Ceiling mounted lamps.
the horizontal.
The reflectors should be mounted more

than 2.10m above the floor, the lower air is
thus entirely free of any direct ultraviolet
radiation. Air above the 2.10m level
maintains a low germ level, because it is
subject to direct UV-C radiation.
Free convection of air without forced

ventilation causes air movements of about b. Upwards facing reflectors.
1.5 - 8 m3 per minute, thus producing exchanges

between the upper treated and lower
untreated parts of the room. The process
reduces air contamination to fractions of that
before the TUV lamps were activated. As an
indication for general applications in a simple
room, or enclosure, it is advisable to install an
effective UV-C level of:
0.15 W/m3 c. Downwards facing reflectors.
15
3.1.3 TUV LAMPS FOR IRRADIATION

OF THE FLOOR ZONE USING
DOWNWARD FACING REFLECTORS
This method is for use in those cases
where it is impor tant that the entire
room air, even at floor level is rendered as
sanitar y as possible. In this case, lamps
supplementing those irradiating the upper
air should be fitted in downward-aimed
reflectors at about 60 cm above the floor.
Fig 16. Basic arrangement of TUV lamps in an air duct for
room disinfection.
In methods 3.1.1, 3.1.2 and 3.1.3 person
detector s/systems can be used to bacteria; most moulds have higher
deactivate TUV lamps, if necessar y. resistances to ultraviolet, so the air flow rate is
not likely to allow a sufficient dwell time to
3.1.4 TUV LAMPS IN AIR DUCTS produce a high enough effective dose.
In this method, all the conditioned air is • Dust filters should be installed to prevent
subjected to radiation prior to entry. The the lamps from becoming soiled
injected air can be disinfected to a specified and hence seriously reducing their
killing level, depending upon the number effective emission.
of lamps installed and the dwell time, • The number of lamps required in an air-
that is the time spent in the effective killing disinfecting chamber in an air duct system
region of the lamp(s); by definition this is dependent on the required degree of
takes the dimensions of the air duct disinfection, the airflow rate , the ambient
into consideration. temperature, the humidity of the air and
Such systems have a controlled flow rate the UV-reflecting proper ties of the
and their performance can be predicted chamber walls.
theoretically. The advantage of disinfecting air prior to it
Cer tain aspects should be borne in mind, entering a room is that there is then no limit
however to the maximum permitted radiation dose,
• These installations are only suitable for since humans are totally shielded.
16
Designing duct systems needs to account for as already expressed on page 10:
practical issues, such as large temperature
and humidity variations caused by exterior Nt/N0 = exp(-keefft)
weather variations, if only because air is
often drawn from outside, then released The rate constant defines the sensitivity of a
into a room after a single pass over the microorganism to UV radiation and is unique to
lamps. Recycling par t of the air will allow each microbial species. Few airborne rate
multiple passes, hence improving system constants are known with absolute cer tainty.
efficiency. In water based systems, Escherichia coli are
often used as test organism. It is however
Lining the UV lamps section with aluminium, not an airborne pathogen. For aero-
also increases efficiency.The lamps and the wall solization tests, often the innocuous Serratia
of the duct should be easily accessible to marcescens is used.
permit regular cleaning and easy maintenance,
another reason for a modular design. POINTS TO REMEMBER WHEN
Micro-organisms exposed to UV, experience CONSTRUCTING TUV LAMP
a normal exponential decrease in population, INSTALLATIONS IN AIR DUCTS:
• The surface of the chamber walls should
have a high reflectance to UV 254 nm, for
example by using anodised aluminium
100 a sheet (reflectance 60-90 per cent).
b
80 • The lamps should be so arranged that
Reflection (%)
60 c there are no ‘shadow’ areas.

d
40 • Lamps should be mounted perpendicular
f
20 to the direction of the airflow.
e
0
250 300 350 400 450 • Lamps and the inner (reflecting) walls of
(nm) the chamber should be cleaned frequently
using a soft cloth.
Fig 17. Metal surfaces. • Lamps should be changed after the nominal
a. Evaporated aluminium d. Nickel
b. Aluminium foil e. Silver
lifetime; an elapsed time meter will help.
c. Chromium f. Stainless steel • An external pilot light should be used to
indicate that the lamps are functioning.
17
REFLECTANCE OF VARIOUS 3.1.5 TUV LAMPS IN STAND-ALONE UNITS

MATERIALS TO UV 254 NM Recently this method has gained commercial
The graphs shown across give the spectral favour by meeting a growing need for a
reflectance of various metals (Fig. 17) and better indoor air quality.
organic substances (Fig. 18) to radiation of Closed stand- alone devices are safe, simple
different wavelengths. These graphs and flexible. In essence the units consist of
demonstrate the impor tance of determining TUV lamps, mostly PL-L types driven by high
a material’s 254 nm reflectance. As can be frequency ballasts, mounted inside a "light
seen, high reflectance to visible radiation is trap" container. The unit incorporates a fan
not consistent with high reflectance to that firstly draws air across a filter, then
shor t-wave ultraviolet radiation. across the lamp(s). Single and multiple lamp
options can be built into a small outer using
either single or double-ended lamp options.
100
80
For maximum design flexibility, PL-L and PL-S
Reflection (%)
a
60 lamps offer the best solutions, because their
40 b dimensions are compact, so reducing unit
c
20
d
size and because their single ended
0
200 300 400 500 600
configuration allows more mounting options.
(nm)
The units have the benefits of por tability

Fig 18. Organic substances
a. Bleached cotton c. Linen and hence more mounting positions viz. wall,
b. White paper d. White wool
floor or ceiling mounted in either
Materials with a high reflectance to 254 nm permanent or temporary options. A feature
are used to construct reflectors for both of their design is that cleaning and lamp and
direct and upper-air irradiation. Material with filter replacement is easy.
a low reflectance to 254 nm are used where Additionally their por tability can be used to
ultraviolet radiation has to be absorbed after produce immediate results. Variation in
performing its function. UV-C dose can be achieved both by varying
This latter is necessary to avoid the the number of lamps and their wattage (see
consequences resulting from the unwanted also dimming below). As an example, it is
254 nm reflections, so ceilings and walls should possible to use the same physical design
be treated with a low reflectance material for dimensions for PL-L lamps with a nominal
people comfort and safety factors. wattage range between 18 and 95W “HO”,
18
Material Reflectance % 3.2 SURFACE DISINFECTION

Aluminium:untreated surface 40-60 Surface disinfection generally requires
treated surface 60-89
Sputtered on glass 75-85 high-intensity shor t-wave ultraviolet
‘ALZAK’ – treated aluminium 65-75 radiation. Mostly this means TUV lamps are
‘DURALUMIN’ 16
Stainless steel/Tin plate 25-30 mounted close to the surface requiring
Chromium plating 39
Various white oil paints 3-10
to be kept free from infection or to
Various white water paints 10-35 be disinfected.
Aluminium paint 40-75
Zinc oxide paint 4-5
Black enamel 5
White baked enamel 5-10
The success of surface disinfection
White plastering 40-60 depends largely on the surface irregularity
New plaster 55-60
Magnesium oxide 75-88 of the material to be disinfected, because
Calcium carbonate 70-80
UV radiation can only inactivate those
Linen 17
Bleached wool 4 micro-organisms that it hits with a
Bleached cotton 30
Wallpapers: ivory 31 sufficient dose. Thus disinfection can only
white 21-31 be successful if the entire surface is
red printed 31
ivory printed 26 exposed to UV radiation. Micro-organisms
brown printed 18
White notepaper 25 sitting in "holes" in a surface are not likely
Table 3. Reflectance of various materials to UV-254 nm

be overcome by reflections from the hole
radiation. walls, as can be deduced from the
in single and multi lamp variants. reflectances shown in table 3.
Commercial products are known for as
few as 1 x PL-L 18W and as many as In practice, solid surfaces, granular material
4 x PL-L 95W HO lamps inside the same and packaging (whether plastic, glass, metal,
container, giving a unit capable of producing cardboard, foil, etc.) are disinfected or
a 25-fold difference in effective dose. maintained germ-free by means of intensive,
PL-L lamps are more flexible; they have direct irradiation. Additionally, disinfected
readily available and competitively priced material can be kept largely germ-fee
electronic regulating (dimming) ballasts to throughout its fur ther processing by
var y UV output in a simple reliable fashion. irradiating the air along its path.
Ballasts can be single, double and in the
case of 18W, four lamp versions. This adds
to the flexibility of por table units.
19
3.3 LIQUID DISINFECTION

Germicidal energy radiation is capable of
penetrating liquids with varying degrees of
efficiency. From a treatment view, liquids can be
regarded as similar to air so the further the UV
radiation is able to penetrate the liquid, the
more efficient is its action. The degree of
efficiency thus greatly depends on the liquid
and more particularly its absorption coefficient
at 254 nm (table 4). As an example, natural
Fig 19. UV “cascade” surface disinfection of spices.
water’s transparency to 254 nm may vary by as
much as a factor of 10 or more from place to exponentially according to the for mula
place. Polluted industrial water often needs
purification followed by disinfection; here UV-C E = E 0.e-α(x)
is growing with many thousands of systems in E 0 incident intensity
use in North America and Europe, each with a E intensity at depth (x)
multitude of lamps. Often UV radiation may α absorption coefficient
supplement or replace conventional
chlorination measures (see later). Liquids with a high α can only be disinfected
UV-C has advantages over chlorinating when they are exposed as thin films. A rough
techniques, because it produces far fewer indication to estimate penetration depth is
noxious by-products and is it unaffected by the 1/α, at this depth the irradiation level will
pH of the water or its temperature.The reader have fallen to 1/e or to 37%.
should note that the latter comment refers to To overcome wall effects where liquids are
the radiation, not to the lamp, or its notoriously static, turbulence or rigorous
environment as described earlier. stirring is necessary for better disinfection,
Micro-organisms are far more difficult to agitation helps orientate micro-organisms
kill in humid air, or in a liquid environment, hidden behind par ticles.
than in dr y air. This is because they limit
transmission of 254 nm radiation. Iron salts (as well as other inorganic salts) and
In more quantitative terms liquids suspended matter in liquids will decrease the
decrease the germicidal intensity effectiveness of germicidal radiation.
20
Additionally, it is feasible that organic

12
compounds, in par ticular, those susceptible
Quantity of disinfected water per hour
V in m3/h
10
to bond fissure under UV radiation, can
for one TUV 30 W lamp

8
change the texture and taste of the liquid 6
being treated. 4
Hence experimentation is needed. In 0

0 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25
round terms the effective depth of Absorption coeffecient,
penetration for a 90% kill may thus var y Fig 20. Volume of disinfected water V as a function
from 3m for distilled water, down to 12cm of the absorption coefficient α (for distilled water
α = 0.007-0.01/cm, for drinking water α = 0.02-0.1/cm)
for normal drinking water and even less in with respect to different degrees of disinfection
(in terms of Escherichia coli).
wines and syr ups (2.5mm) See table 4.
2. A quar tz tube (with high transmittance
The penetration depths cause more special at 254 nm) transpor ting liquid surrounded
techniques to be applied to allow 254 nm by a cluster of lamps in reflectors or by
radiation to penetrate sufficiently, these an integral reflector TUV lamp e.g.
include generating "thin films" and or slow TUV115W VHO-R.
speed presentation to the radiation, so 3. Irradiation by means of lamps installed in
that a sufficient dose can be applied. reflectors or integral reflector TUV lamps
e.g. TUV115W VHO-R mounted above
If an UV lamp has to be immersed in a the surface of the liquid.
liquid, it should be enclosed in a quar tz or
Liquid
UV-C transparent PTFE sleeve.
Wine, red 30
Installations for disinfecting liquids may have
Wine, white 10
the following forms: Beer 10-20
Syrup, clear 2-5
1. One or more lamps enclosed in a quartz Syrup, dark 20-50
container or one of similar material (with a Milk 300
Distilled water 0.007-0.01
high transmittance at 254 nm), which is Drinking water 0.02-0.1
surrounded by the liquid to be disinfected. A Table 4. Absorption coefficient (α) of various liquids to
UV-254 nm per cm depth.
multiple of such configurations can be used
inside one outer container.
21
22
4 Applications
GENERAL
The main application areas for UV

germicidal lamps may be briefly classified
below, although there are many other areas,
where the lamps may be employed for
various purposes.
• Air disinfection
• HVAC cooling coils
• Residential drinking water
• Industrial drinking water
• Process water (beverages)
• Waste water
• Semiconductor and IC manufacture
• Pools, spas, aquaria, fish ponds.
4.1 AIR DISINFECTION

Indoor air is trapped, often re-circulated and
always full of contaminants such as bacteria,
viruses, moulds, mildew, pollen, smoke and
toxic gasses from building materials.
Increasing levels of such contaminants act
as triggering mechanisms for a variation
of diseases of which asthma is the
most prominent.
For offices and in industrial environments, so

called HEPA (High Efficiency Par ticulate Air)
filters are installed in HVAC ductwork. Very
fine fibres, pressed together, form a structure for indoor air quality has lead to new
with openings, too small for most par ticulate measures. Application of UV in air ducts for
contaminants. Such filters are effective, but ventilation, heating and cooling purposes has
always will give rise to considerable drop in proven to provide adequate protection
air pressure. In recent days, growing concern against airborne pathogens.
23
operation rooms and similar areas should be

protected against the risk of infection in
personnel and patient populations, if
possible at a reasonable cost!
Common traditional disease controlling
methods in hospitals are:
• Ventilation: dilution of potentially
contaminated air with uncontaminated air
• Negative pressure isolation rooms
• HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filtration
UV germicidal irradiation provides a potent,

cost effective solution to upgrade protection
against infection. (Ref. 12,13)
Especially, upper-air disinfection has proven to be
For domestic use some very different basic very effective to supplement existing controls
types can be considered: for TB and other airborne diseases (Ref. 8).
• Fiber mesh filters, generally designed for Many disease-causing organisms circulate on air
a par ticle size of 25 microns or larger. currents in "droplet nuclei", 1 to 5 micron in
• Activated carbon filters, which will size, that are expelled with a cough, sneeze
neutralize some gasses, smoke and odours. or even with speech. These droplet nuclei
• Electronic air cleaners, which charge particles can be inhaled, spreading infections.
such as dust, pollen and hair.The charged It is estimated that up to 99% of airborne
materials are attracted by a series of opposite pathogens are destroyed with adequate air
polarity charged metal plates. circulation and UV exposure.
• Ozone and ion generators
• UV light, the only treatment, truly lethal
to micro-organisms
With patients and visitors bringing in

pathogens that cause diseases such as
tuberculosis, wards, clinics, waiting and
24
4.2 COOLING COILS UV installations are suitable for industrial,

Air conditioner cooling coils are almost commercial and residential markets.
always wet and dusty and thus can serve as
an ideal breeding ground for moulds, a known The quality of the water has an impor tant
allergen. Coil irradiation with UV drastically effect on the performance of UV systems.
reduces or prohibits growth of moulds. At the The common factors that have to be
same time heat exchange efficiency is considered are iron, hardness, the total
improved and pressure drops decrease. As concentration of suspended solids and the
the coils are constantly irradiated, only a ultraviolet transmittance. Various organic
modest UV irradiance is required. and inorganic compounds can absorb UV.
4.3 WATER PURIFICATION (Ref. 7,14) When there is uncer tainty about what may
A wide variety of micro-organisms in the water be present in the water, the UV
can cause disease, especially for young and senior transmittance should be tested. Most
people, who may have weaker immune systems. dr inking water supplies have UV ’
UV light provides disinfection without the tr ansmittances between 85% and 95%.
addition of chemicals that can produce
harmful by-products and add unpleasant Separate treatment technologies often are
taste to water. Additional benefits include required to improve the water quality
easy installation, low maintenance and before disinfection:
minimal space requirements. • Sediment filters, to remove par ticles that
"shadow" microbes or absorb UV
UV has the ability to inactivate bacteria, • Carbon filters, which remove organic
viruses and protozoa. Each type of organism compounds and undesirable odours.
requires a specific dose for inactivation. • Water softeners to reduce hardness.
Viruses require higher doses than bacteria
and protozoa. Understanding the organisms UV is often used in conjunction with Reverse
to be neutralised will help to determine to Osmosis (RO) applications. Disinfection
size of the UV system that will be required. prior to the RO systems increases the
For example, to kill 99,9% of E.coli, a UV dose durability of the RO membrane by reducing
of 90 J/m 2 or 9 mW.sec/cm 2 is required. the accumulation of bacterial biofilms.
25
The reactor of a UV disinfection device must Most manufacturers offer electronic power
be designed to ensure that all microbes supplies, that are more efficient (up to 10%)
receive sufficient exposure of the UV. and operate at lower temperatures. Such
ballasts normally withstand wide fluctuations
Most manufacturers of UV equipment use in supply voltage, still providing a consistent
low-pressure mercury lamps. High output current to the lamps.
(HO) versions are rapidly becoming popular.
High capacity drinking water and waste Factors, that should be considered, when,
water systems feature medium pressure choosing the right size of UV equipment, in
mercury technology. order, to achieve the desired disinfection
objectives are peak flow rate, the required
The temperature of the lamp surface is one dose and the UV transmittance of the water.
of the most critical factors for UV reactor
design. The UV efficiency of the lamp (UV Theoretical calculations should be validated by
output per consumed electrical Wattage) bioassay tests, for a variety of conditions that
strongly depends on the bulb temperature. include flow rates and variable water quality.
(See Fig.28)
4.3.1 RESIDENTIAL DRINKING WATER
The diameter of the protective quar tz Classic Point of Use (POU) / or Point-of-
sleeve should be carefully adapted to the Entr y (POE) UV disinfection systems
specific power of the lamp (Watts per unit consist of a low-pressure mercur y UV
of arc length), as well as temperature and lamp, protected against the water by a
velocity of the water flow. quar tz sleeve, centred into a stainless
steel reactor vessel.
As the lamp ages, the UV output declines
due to solarization of the lamp (glass or The UV output is monitored by an
quar tz) envelope. The quoted dose for a appropriate UV sensor, providing visual or
specific unit is the minimum dose that will be audible indicators of the UV lamp status.
delivered at the end of the lamp’s life. To improve taste and odour of the water
POU systems are often used in conjunction
with an active carbon filter.
26
The new ANSI/NSF Standard 55 (Ultraviolet

Microbiological Water Treatment Systems) Electrical connection
Outlet
establishes the minimum requirements a Ballast and starter

housing
manufacturer will need to become cer tified
for a Class A or B UV system. TUV-lamp
Quartz protective
sleeve
Class A POU/POE devices are designed to

Outer cylinder
disinfect micro-organisms, including bacteria

and viruses, from contaminated water to a
Cleaning wiper
safe level. Waste water is specifically
excluded from being used as feed-water. As
Inlet
of March 2002 the UV system has to
produce a UV dose of 40 mJ/cm2.
Fig 22. Basic sketch of TUV lamp operated
water-disinfecting unit for general use.
Class A devices are required to have a UV

sensor, alarming when the proper dose is
not reaching the water.
Class B POU systems are designed for

supplemental bacterial treatment of treated
and disinfected public drinking water. Such
devices are not intended for disinfection of
microbiologically unsafe water. The systems
are capable of delivering a UV dose of at
least 16 mJ/cm2 at 70% of the normal UV
output or alarm setpoint.
The 2002 version of Standard 55 clarifies all
requirements for component cer tification.
For instance, a 15-minute hydrostatic
pressure test is needed.
Fig 21. POU residential drinking water
UV Disinfection device.
27
4.3.2 INDUSTRIAL (MUNICIPAL)

DRINKING WATER
Disinfection of drinking water by UV light is a
well-established technology in Europe. Hundreds
of European public water suppliers have by now
incorporated UV disinfection.The driving force in
Europe was to inactivate bacteria and viruses, but
avoid use of chlorine. Recent studies regarding
potential negative health effects of disinfection by-
products have led to a critical view on chlorine.
Fig 23. UV drinking water plant 405.000 m3 per day,

A few fatal waterborne outbreaks of Tollyaytti (Russia)
cryptosporidiosis in North America have Recent studies have verified that UV can
proven the fact that existing disinfection and achieve significant inactivation of
filtration technologies could not guarantee to cr yptosporidium at ver y modest doses.
eliminate cryptosporidium oocysts from the Exposures as low as 10 m J /cm2 will
water. result in a more than 4- log reduction
of concentration.
Cryptosporidium parvum is a human
pathogen, capable of causing diarrhoeal The effectiveness of UV for cryptosporidium
infections, sometimes even leading to death. removal, together with stricter limits on
The organism can be shed as an disinfection by-products will pave the way for
environmentally resistant form (oocyst) and UV disinfection in North America.
persists for months. Due to their high UV efficiency, low-pressure
high-output lamps will certainly find their way
Cryptosporidium is almost completely resistant in many municipal UV drinking water facilities.
against chlorine. Ozone can be effective, but However, as space always will be a problem, the
the water quality and temperature play a high intensity medium pressure lamps will be
significant role. Its small size makes it difficult to favourite, especially when existing drinking
remove by standard filter techniques. water plants have to be upgraded with a
UV extension.
28
world rely on UV disinfection these days.

The required UV dose levels depend on the
upstream processes, and range, taking into
account flow rates and UV transmittance of
the water, between 50 and 100 m J /cm2.
4.3.4. WATER COOLERS, DISPENSERS

Water vending machines store and dispense
water that is non-chlorinated. The machines
must be licensed by local health service
depar tments. One of the requirements
Fig 24. Waste water system.
for the license is that the vending machine
4.3.3. WASTE WATER is equipped with a disinfection unit to
Chlorine has been used to disinfect waste reduce the number of bacteria and other
water for over a century. However, while micro-organisms.
chlorine is very effective, it is also associated
with environmental problems and health Bottled water cooler s, which also
effects. Chlorination by-products in waste dispense non-chlorinated water, are not
water effluents are toxic to aquatic required to contain a disinfection unit.
organisms, living in surface waters. Chlorine
gas is hazardous to human beings. However, without an active disinfection
system, also bottled water cooler reservoirs
UV irradiance has proven to be an are subject to biofilm growth. Such biofilms
environmentally responsible, convenient act like a breeding place for bacteria,
and cost-effective way to disinfect public protected by the gel-like substance. Bacteria
waste water discharges. UV disinfection is contamination, regardless of whether it is
much safer than waste water systems that non-harmful or even beneficial, is not a
rely on chlorine gas, as it eliminates quality to be associated with drinking water.
transpor t and handling of large quantities To avoid biofilm growth often simple UV
of this hazardous chemical. More than reactors are being introduced.
2000 waste water installations all over the
29
ultrapure water, used for this application.

Ultraviolet light represents a powerful
technology that has been successfully
introduced in the production of ultrapure
water for semiconductor, pharmaceutical,
cosmetics and healthcare industries. Its
powerful energies can be applied, not only
for disinfection, but also TOC reduction and
destruction of ozone and chlorine.
Two different UV wavelengths are

4.3.5 COOLING TOWERS
employed, 254 nm and 185 nm. The 254 nm
Cooling towers and re-circulating loops are
energy is used for disinfection. It can also
often dir ty, warm and rich in bio-nutrients.
destroy residual ozone, present in the water.
They are perfect breeding places for
The 185 nm radiation decomposes the
micro-organisms.
organic molecules. It carries more energy
than the 254 nm and is able to generate
Chemical compounds, like chlorine or
hydroxyl free radicals from water molecules.
ozone, are fed into the system in regular
These hydroxyl radicals are responsible for
intervals, to control the rate of biological
oxidizing the organics to carbon dioxide and
growth. UV will substantially decrease the
water molecules.
costs of disinfection, without any safety or
environmental issues.
185 nm radiating lamps are made of special
quar tz, with high transmittance for the lower
4.3.6 SEMICONDUCTORS wavelengths. Typical dosage requirements
PROCESS WATER range from 100 to 500 mJ/cm2. Philips XPT
Organic compounds, present in the rinse water, amalgam lamps in a 185 nm version, but also
can affect production yields and product quality HOK and HTK medium pressure lamps can
in the semiconductor industry.The total organic provide excellent solutions.
carbon (TOC) contamination level is specified
to be less than one part per billion (ppb) for
30
4.3.7 SPAS AND SWIMMING POOLS

TUV lamps are used to supplement the
E
traditional methods of water treatment.
Importantly, with UV-C as a supplement, S
H
chlorination methods need less chlorine for the F P
same result. This is welcome both for those
with allergies and those with a distaste for
chlorine. The reason that UV-C is not suitable
for sole use is that swimming pool water
circulation has to take into consideration solids,
inorganic compounds, hence filtration and Fig 25. Schematic representation of a water purification
system for a private swimming pool E=U.V. radiator
chemical processes are also needed. A standard F=filter H=heating P=pump S=fresh water supply.
technique is to circulate part of the water

through a continuous flow UVC device, thus If algae are to be destroyed or their growth
creating a partial closed loop system; this in inhibited, either a high dose of UV 254 nm
tandem with the chlorinator produces effective radiation is needed or a long irradiation time.
disinfection. It can lower the chlorine dose up These conditions can be met relatively easily
to 50%. by creating a closed loop system whereby the
water is presented to the UV-C source a
4.4 REDUCTION OF ALGAE IN number of times per day. The lamp is encased
FISH PONDS in a quartz tube. In practice, it has been found
Fishponds owners are often troubled by that, for instance, a TUV PL-S 5W lamp in
phototrophic micro-organisms. These are series with a filter can keep a 4.5K litre (1,000
typical water organisms widely distributed in UK gallons) pond clear. For larger pond or
both fresh and salt water. Phototrophic bacteria pool volumes higher output lamps are needed
contain photosynthetic pigment and hence on a pro rata scale. The process is thought to
they are strongly coloured and appear as dense be that algae are split, recombine to form
suspensions of either green, olive, purple-violet, larger molecular chains, which can be removed
red, salmon or brown. Seasonal effects may by the filter, or are so large that they sink to
lead to massive growth (‘flowering of the the bottom of the pond.
water’) as light helps chlorophyll synthesis.
31
4.5. AQUARIUMS time across the lamp, so helping both

Aquariums present two problems: one is bacteria kill rate and algae agglomeration.
that they become swamped with algae; the Using UV-C in ponds and aquariums is also
second is that parasites may cause fish beneficial because it can destroy parasites
diseases. Both can occur in either freshwater introduced by new fish; the latter can be
or marine aquariums; warm water provides catastrophic in many cases. UV-C treatment
an excellent condition for micro-organisms provides an effective solution par ticularly for
and the lighting features used also promotes suspended zoospores. Multiplication does
algae growth. The same system as used for not take place and aquariums can be free of
ponds is advocated, using no more than a parasites within a very shor t time. Even
TUV PL-S 5W lamp for a private aquarium. affected fish soon cease to display symptoms
A low pump speed will create a long dwell of morbidity.
32
4.6 PHILIPS GERMICIDAL LAMPS

AND THEIR APPLICATION
UV DISINFECTION TUV TUV TUV TUV TUV TUV T5 LP Amalgam HOK/HTK/HTQ

T5 T8 T12 T5 PL-S PL-L 185nm1 TUV XPT
mini (+R) (+HO)
(+HO)
Water
Domestic water • • •
Ultra pure water • • • •
Waste water • • •
Process water •
Industrial drinking water • • •
Fish ponds • • • •
Aquaria • •
Swimming pool •
Agricultural recycling • • •
Air
Space/upper air • • • •
Forced air/airco • • • • •
Cooling coils • •
Dish dryer etc. •
Surfaces
Food processing • •
Packaging • • •
1. Not in current range
33
34
5.Lamp Data
GENERAL
For a complete survey, see separate calculations and measurements, Philips

product data brochures.
Technical Library, MacMillan and Co Ltd, 1971.
TUV PLS 9W
For a large distance to the lamp we get:
ϕ ..................(α >> I)........(2)
10
9
E= ––––––
8
7 π2.a2
6
5
4 At shor ter distances the irradiance is
3
2 propor tional to
1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Fig 30. Distance in cm ϕ

E= –––––– .... (α < 0.5 I)....(3)
TUV PLL 36W 2π.a.l
160
140
120 For a variety of low-pressure mercury TUV

100
80
lamps, the irradiance values at 1 metre
60 distance are expressed below.
40
20
0 µW/cm2
0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TUV 4W T5 9
Fig 31. Distance in cm
TUV 6W T5 14.5
TUV 8W T5 21
Fig 26 and 27. Demonstrate the variation of UV irradiance TUV 10W T5 22.5
with the distance to the lamps.
TUV 11W T5 21.5
TUV 15W T5 48
5.1 UV IRRADIANCE VALUES. TUV 16W T5 33
TUV 25W T8 69
The irradiance E on a small surface in point TUV 30W T8 100
TUV 36W T8 145
P on a distance a from an ideal linear 55W HO T8 150
TUV
radiation source AB of length 1 amounts to: TUV 75W HO T8 220
TUV 115W VHO T12 330
l TUV 240W XPT 800
A B
TUV 270W XPT 920
TUV PL-S 5W 9.5
a TUV PL-S 9W 22
α TUV PL-S 11W 32
TUV PL-L 18W 55
TUV PL-L 35W HO 105
TUV PL-L 36W 120
TUV PL-L 55W 160
P
TUV PL-L 95W HO 300
ϕ 36 T5 140
E= –––––– (2α + sin α) TUV
64 T5 240
TUV
2.π2.l.a TUV 36T5 HO 240
TUV 64T5 HO 460
ϕ is the total radiation flux (in W). This
Table 6. Irradiance values TUV lamps at a distance of
formula is taken from: H. Keitz, Light 1.00 meters.
35
5.2 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON 5.3 LAMP LIFE

UV OUTPUT The life of low-pressure mercury lamps
The UV efficiency of low-pressure lamps is (TUV) depends on:
directly related to the (saturated) mercury - electrode geometry
pressure. This pressure depends on the lowest - lamp current
temperature spot on the lamp. - noble-gas filling
- switching frequency
Optimum UV efficiency is achieved when this - ambient temperature
temperature is approximately 40ºC, see Fig 28. - circuitry
Moving air has a strong impact on the tube wall The choice of ballast should match
temperature.The cooling effects of air streams the application.
(and lower ambient temperatures) can be
compensated by over-powering the lamps. Fig. Electronic preheat type of ballasts
29 shows this effect, comparing standard TUV provide the best conditions for a long
PL-L 36W lamps with "High Output" 60W lamp life, especially when lamps are
versions, having the same dimensions. switched frequently.
100
90
80
Frequent on/off switching will significantly
Relative Efficiency /%
70
60 influence the lamp life.

50
40
30
20
10
0 180
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Bulb wall temperature /ºC
140
Fig 28.Temperature Dependence of Mercury Lamp.
Percentage of rated life
100
300
250
60
200
150 20
100
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 30 10 3 1 0,3 0,1 0,03
air velocity (ft. per min.) Number of switchings per 3 hours

70ºF / 21ºC TUV PL-L 36W TUV PL-L 60W
Fig 29. UV vs Windchill Factor. Fig 30. Lamp life.
36
6. References
1. Threshold Limit Values, ACGIH, 1999-2000
2. IES Lighting Handbook, Application Volume, 1987, 14-19
3. Legan, LW. UV Disinfection Chambers, Water and Sewage Works R56-R61
4. Groocock, NH, Disinfection of Drinking Water by UV Light. J. Inst. Water Engineers and
Scientists 38(2) 163-172, 1984
5. Antopol, SC. Susceptibility of Legionella pneumophila to UV Radiation. Applied

and Environmental Microbiology 38, 347-348. 1979
6. Wilson, B. Coliphage MS-2 as UV Water Disinfection Efficacy Test. Surrogate for Bacterial and
Viral Pathogens (AWWA/WQT conference 1992)
7. Wolfe, RL. Ultraviolet Disinfection of Potable Water: Current Technology and Research.
Environmental Sci.Technology 24 (6), 768-773, 1990
8. Brickner, PW: Vincent R.L., First, M, Nardell E., Murray M., Kaufman W.; The application of
Ultraviolet Germicidal radiation to Control Transmission of Airborne Disease, Public Health
Reports / March-April 2003,VH118
9. Abboud N., Water Conditioning and purification, June 2002. P. 38-39
10. Biological Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation. W. Harm, Cambridge University Press, 1980
11. Jagger. J. Introduction to Research in Ultraviolet Photobiology, Prentice Hall, 1967
12. Grun, L and Pitz, N.Zbl. Batt. Hyg., vol. B 159, 50-60, 1974
13. Menzies, D.; Popa, J.; Hanley, J. A.; Rand,T.; Milton, D. K.; Lancet 2003; 362, p. 1785-1791.
14. H. Martiny. Desinfektion von Wasser mit UV Strahlen.Techn. Univ. Berlin. 1991
Photographs by courtesy of:

• Lumalier, Memphis USA (www.lumalier.com)
• LIT Technology, Moscow Russia (www.lit-uv.com)
• Technilamp UV+IR, Southdal S.A. ([email protected])
• Trojan Technologies, London Ontario, Canada (www.trojanuv.com)
• Eureka Forbes, Bangalore India (www.aquaguardworld.com)
• GLA,The Netherlands (www.gla-uvc.nl)
37
Notes:
38
Notes:
39
Data subject to change 01/04

Printed in The Netherlands
3222 635 43401

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UV Disinfection - Application Information

5. LAMP DATA General 35

Pollution of the macro and micro environment

Micro-organisms are primitive forms of life.

of the ability to cell divide. Sterilization

1.1 BACTERIA AND BACTERIAL SPORES

Bacteria occur in air, water, soil, rotting

animal and plant pathogens. A few species of

1.1.2 BACTERIAL SPORES

Viable spores of bacillus subtilis have

Fig 3. Brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) in various Cegatative cells

of spores. In a favourable environment, a is the enzymatic transformation of

1 micro meter (µm)

same process can take place in adjacent

presence of a virus. 100

Viruses have been identified as the Dryoptesis

animals, plants and bacteria themselves Barbula

colour pattern and shape of the petals

symptoms of the ‘disease’.

Ultraviolet is that par t of electromagnetic

UV-A (long-wave) from 315 to 400 nm

Self evidently people should avoid exposure

Wavelength (nm) limited. In addition UV-C does not

2.1 GENERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS

UV-C is the low-pressure mercury discharge

the American Congress of Governmental

Threshold Limit Effective Irradiance Values 0.60

for human exposure related to time.

TUV lamp operating in still air at +10ºC will Wavelength (nm)

Effective Germicidal Total power

formed from air. The advantages of medium-

reductions on either side. Low-pressure

lamps have their main emission at 254 nm

to assume that it follows the DNA

Bacteria Dose k Yeasts Dose k

Bacillus anthracis 45.2 0.051 Bakers’ yeast 39 0.060

3.1.2 TUV LAMPS FOR UPPER-AIR

The reflectors should be mounted more

Free convection of air without forced

1.5 - 8 m3 per minute, thus producing exchanges

0.15 W/m3 c. Downwards facing reflectors.

3.1.3 TUV LAMPS FOR IRRADIATION

60 c there are no ‘shadow’ areas.

REFLECTANCE OF VARIOUS 3.1.5 TUV LAMPS IN STAND-ALONE UNITS

The units have the benefits of por tability

Material Reflectance % 3.2 SURFACE DISINFECTION

Table 3. Reflectance of various materials to UV-254 nm

3.3 LIQUID DISINFECTION

Additionally, it is feasible that organic

Quantity of disinfected water per hour

for one TUV 30 W lamp

Hence experimentation is needed. In 0

The main application areas for UV

4.1 AIR DISINFECTION

For offices and in industrial environments, so

operation rooms and similar areas should be

UV germicidal irradiation provides a potent,