UDo - FGI

Structure and Manufacturing

Properties of Metals
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Physical and Mechanical Properties

of Metals Are Influenced by:
• Atomic bonding
• Atomic structure
• Chemical composition of material
(pure metal or alloy?)
• Impurities and defects
• Size and surface conditions
(cracks, jagged edges, ect.)
• Environment
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Atomic Bond Types (for Solids)

• Primary bonds
- Covalent bond: electron sharing (valence sharing)
<Ex> polymers
- Metallic bond: electron “cloud” Electron cloud:
Electrostatic attractive forces between
→ Good electrical properties the delocalized electrons, called conduction
electrons, gathered in an electron cloud and
<Ex> all metals the positively charged metal ions

- Ionic bond: between metallic and nonmetallic elements

<Ex> NaCl

Metallic bond
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Atomic Bond Types (for Solids)

• Secondary bonds
- van der Waals bond
- Hydrogen bond
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The Crystal Structure of Metals

• When metals solidify, the atoms arrange themselves in orderly
configurations called crystals (or grains).
• Arrangement of atoms in the crystal is called crystalline structure.
(“Crystalline”: regular; periodic; 3D arrangement of atoms over
long distances (“long-range order”) → lattice
“Amorphous”: lacks long-range order
• Smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice
structure of a particular metal is known as a unit cell.
(“Unit cell”: basic building block of crystalline metals; the smallest
group of atoms with lattice structure; ~ 1A between atoms)
• Crystal structures modified by adding atoms of another metal or
metals is known as alloying.
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The Crystal Structure of Metals

• 3 basic patterns of atomic arrangement in metal:

Body-centered cubic (bcc) Face-centered cubic (fcc) Hexagonal close packed (hcp)
Strong, reasonably ductile Ductile Brittle
(Tungsten (W), titanium (Ti), (Fe 912~1394C, aluminum (Al), (Zinc (Zn), beryllium (Be),
iron (Fe) < 912C, > 1394C) Copper (Cu), gold (Au), silver (Ag) magnesium (Mg))
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Deformation and Strength

of Single Crystals
• Crystal undergoes elastic deformation then plastic
(permanent) deformation.
• 2 basic mechanisms during plastic deformation:
a. Slip ➔ one plane of atoms slip over an adjacent
plane under shear stress
b. Twinning ➔ portion of the crystal forms a mirror
image of itself across the plane of twinning
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Deformation and Strength

of Single Crystals
2x
• Shear stress at a displacement x is  =  max sin
b

2x
• For small values of x /, b  =  max
b

From Hooke’s law,  = G = G 

x
•
a
Gb
• Hence,  max =
2a

G
• Assume b  a,  max =
2
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Slip Systems
• Direction of slip is known as a slip system.
• Different number of potential slip systems:
✓ bcc crystals ➔ 48 possible slip systems, high slip
✓ fcc crystals ➔12 slip systems, moderate slip
✓ hcp crystal ➔ 3 slip systems, low slip
“Slip”:
Deformation mechanism in which one plane of atoms
slip over an adjacent plane under shear stress
“Slip system”:
A combination of preferred crystallographic directions
and planes along which slip is most likely to occur
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Ideal Tensile Strength of Metals

• When the tensile stress reaches the atomic bonds, it is

known as the ideal tensile strength.
• From the graph, we have
E  max 
 max = Work =
2a 

• Combining these equations,

E
 max =
a
E
• Substitute appropriate values,  max 
10
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Imperfections
• Discrepancy in actual strength is explained in terms of
imperfections in the crystal structure.
• Imperfections and defects are categorized as:
a) Point defects
- Voids / vacancies
- Interstitials
b) Dislocations (line defects)
c) Grain boundaries
d) Cracks
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Dislocations
• Crystalline imperfection around which some of the
atoms are mis-aligned
• Plastic deformation mechanism
• “Plastic deformation” (on a macroscale):
the net movement of a large number of atoms in
response to an applied stress; interatomic bonds are
ruptured and reformed
• Dislocations do not move with the same degree of ease
on all crystallographic planes of atoms in all
crystallographic directions (➔ “slip systems”)
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Slip systems
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Edge Dislocation
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Slip systems
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Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)

• Increase in the shear stress and overall strength of the

metal is known as strain or work hardening.

• This also increases the metal’s strength.

• Degree of strain hardening is indicated by strain-

hardening exponent n.
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Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)

• The phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes

harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed
• The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on
the ability of dislocations to move (or their mobility)
• Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a
material harder and stronger
• Dislocations become entangled and interfere with each
other and are impeded by barriers (grain boundaries,
impurities, and inclusions) → carpet analogy
• Used to strengthen metals
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Grains and Grain Boundaries

• Number and size of the grains developed in metal

depend on the rate of nucleation.
• Various stages during solidification of molten metal:
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Grains and Grain Boundaries

• Surfaces that separate the individual grains are called

grain boundaries.

• Each grain consists of single crystal

or polycrystalline aggregate.

• Single grain is anisotropic and

polycrystalline metal is isotropic.
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Grain Size

• Grain size influences the mechanical properties of

metals.
• Large grain ➔ low strength and hardness,
high ductility, poor surface finish
• The yield strength, Y, is related to grain size by the Hall-
Petch equation.

Yi = basic yield stress

−1/ 2
Y = Yi + kd k = constant
d = grain diameter
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Grain Size

• Grain size is measured by counting the number of grains

in a given area.
• Grain-size number, n, is related to the number of grains,
N, as follows:

N = 2 n −1
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Influence of Grain Boundaries

• Grain boundaries influence strength, ductility of metals
and strain hardening.
• Plastic deformation takes place through grain-boundary
sliding.
• Creep mechanism results from grain-boundary sliding.
• Grain-boundary embrittlement:
A normally ductile and strong metal
cracks under very low stresses when
brought into close atomic contact
with certain low-melting-point
metals (grain boundary weakening).
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Plastic Deformation of
Polycrystalline Metals
• During plastic deformation, mass continuity in grain
boundaries is maintained.
• The grains would become elongated in one direction
and contract in the other.
• Two types of anisotropy in metals:
1. Preferred orientation
2. Mechanical fibering
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Recovery, Recrystallization,
and Grain Growth
• The temperature range and the time required depend
on the material.
• 3 events take place during the heating:
✓ Recovery
- Number of mobile
dislocations reduced.
✓ Recrystallization
- New equi-axed grains form,
replacing older grains.
✓ Grain growth
- Grains grow bigger.
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Cold, Warm, and Hot Working

• When plastic deformation takes place above the

recrystallization temperature, it is called hot working;
vice versa, it is known as cold working.
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Failure and Fracture

• 2 types of failure:
1. Fracture
2. Buckling

• 2 categories of fracture is ductile and brittle.

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Ductile fracture
• Ductile fracture is where plastic deformation which
precedes failure of the part.
• It takes place along planes on which the shear stress is a
maximum.
• The surface shows a fibrous pattern with dimples.
• In a tension-test specimen, fracture begins at the centre
of the necked region.
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Ductile fracture
Effects of inclusions:
• Influence on ductile fracture and formability of
materials.
• Consist of impurities of various kinds and second-phase
particles.
• Two factors that affect void formation:
1. Strength of the bond between inclusion and matrix
2. Hardness of the inclusion
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Ductile fracture
Transition temperature:
• Metals undergo a sharp change in ductility to toughness
through transition temperature.
• Abrupt changes in shape and surface notches occur.
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Ductile fracture
Transition temperature
• Metals undergo a sharp change in ductility to toughness
through transition temperature.
• Abrupt changes in shape and surface notches occurs.

Strain aging
• Strain aging is where carbon atoms in steels segregate
to dislocations and increase resistance to dislocation
movement.
• Increase strength and reduce ductility.
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Brittle fracture
• Brittle fracture occurs with little plastic deformation
before separation of the material.
• In tension, brittle fracture takes place along a cleavage
plane.

Defects
• Scratches, flaws or internal cracks.
1

Crack length
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Brittle fracture
• Cracks subjected to stresses in 3 modes of direction:
Mode I ➔ tensile stress perpendicular to the crack.
Modes II and III ➔ shear stresses in 2 directions.

Fatigue fracture
• Minute external / internal cracks
develop at defects in the material.
• Fracture surface in fatigue is term by
beach marks.
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Brittle fracture
Fatigue fracture
• Fatigue life is influenced by method of
preparation of its surfaces.

• Fatigue strength improved by:

1. Compressive residual stresses on surfaces
2. Heat treatment
3. Fine surface finish
4. Selecting appropriate materials free from significant
inclusions, voids, and impurities
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Brittle fracture
Stress-corrosion cracking
• Ductile metal can fail by stress-corrosion cracking.
• Susceptibility of metals depends on:
a) the material
b) the presence and magnitude of tensile residual
stresses
c) the environment
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Physical Properties

• Properties of particular interest in manufacturing are:

✓ density
✓ melting point
✓ specific heat
✓ thermal conductivity and expansion
✓ electrical and magnetic properties
✓ resistance to oxidation and corrosion
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Density
• Density depends on weight, radius and packing of the
atoms.
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Melting point

• Depends on the energy required to separate the atoms.

• Recrystallization temperature is related to its melting
point operations, such as annealing and heat treating.
• The higher the melting point, more difficult the operation.
• Melting points are also related to the rate of material
removal and tool wear.
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Specific heat

• Specific heat is the energy required to raise the

temperature of a unit mass of a material by one degree.
• High temperature will affect the product quality by:
a) affecting surface finish and dimensional accuracy
b) causing tool and die wear
c) resulting in metallurgical changes in the material
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Thermal conductivity

• Thermal conductivity indicates the rate at which heat

flows within and through the material.

• Alloying elements with difference in thermal

conductivities will have effect on thermal conductivity
of alloys.
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Thermal expansion

• Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is inversely

proportional to the melting point of the material.
• Thermal stresses result from expansion and contraction
of components.
• Thermal stresses may also be caused by anisotropy of
thermal expansion of the material.
• Thermal fatigue results from thermal cycling.
• Thermal shock is the development of cracks after a
single thermal cycle.
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Electrical and magnetic properties

• Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well the

material conducts electric current.
• Electrical resistivity is the inverse of conductivity, and
materials with high resistivity are known as insulators.
• Superconductivity is where zero electrical resistivity
occurs below a critical temperature.
• Piezoelectric effect is a reversible interaction between
an elastic strain and an electric field used in making
transducers.
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Resistance to corrosion

• Corrosion is the deterioration of metals and ceramics

while degradation is a term used in plastics.
• Corrosion can occur over an entire surface or in a
localized area, such as in pitting.
• Stress-corrosion cracking is the effect of a corrosive
environment.
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General Properties and Applications

of Ferrous Alloys
• Ferrous alloys are useful metals in terms of mechanical,
physical and chemical properties.
• Alloys contain iron (Fe) as the base metal.
• Carbon steels are least expensive of all metals, while
stainless steels are costly.
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Nomenclature for AISI/SAE Steels

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Carbon and alloy steels

• Composition and processing are controlled in a manner that is

suitable for different applications.
• Several elements are added to steels for:
✓ Hardenability
✓ Strength
✓ Hardness
✓ Toughness
✓ Wear resistance
✓ Workability
✓ Weldability
✓ Machinability
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Carbon and alloy steels

Carbon steels
• Classified as low-, medium- and high-carbon steels:
1. Low-carbon steel or mild steel (< 0.30% C)
bolts, nuts, sheets and plates
2. Medium-carbon steel (0.30 ~ 0.60% C)
machinery, automotive and agricultural equipment
3. High-carbon steel (> 0.60% C)
springs, cutlery, cable
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Carbon and alloy steels

Alloy steels
• Steels containing significant amounts of alloying
elements.
• Structural-grade alloy steels used for construction
industries due to high strength.
• Other alloy steels are used for its strength, hardness,
resistance to creep and fatigue, and toughness.
• It may heat treated to obtain the desired properties.
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Carbon and alloy steels

High-strength, low-alloy steels

• Improved strength-to-weight ratio.
• Used in automobile bodies to reduce weight and in
agricultural equipment.
• Some examples are:
1. Dual-phase steels
2. Micro-alloyed steels
3. Nano-alloyed steels
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Stainless steels
• Characterized by their corrosion resistance, high
strength and ductility, and high chromium content.
• Stainless as a film of chromium oxide (“passivation”)
protects the metal from corrosion.
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Stainless steels

• Five types of stainless steels:

1. Austenitic steels
2. Ferritic steels
3. Martensitic steels
4. Precipitation-hardening (PH) steels
5. Duplex-structure steels
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Tool and die steels

• Designed for high strength, impact toughness, and wear
resistance at a range of temperatures.
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General Properties and Applications

of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys

• More expensive than ferrous metals

• Examples of applications are:
a) aluminium for aircraft bodies
b) copper wire
c) titanium for jet-engine turbine blades
d) tantalum for rocket engines
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Aluminium and aluminium alloys

• Factors for material selection are:

1. High strength to weight ratio
2. Resistance to corrosion
3. High thermal and electrical conductivity
4. Ease of machinability
5. Non-magnetic
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Aluminium alloy ID codes

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Aluminium alloy ID codes

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Magnesium and magnesium alloys

• Magnesium (Mg) is the lightest metal.

• Alloys are used in structural and non-structural
applications.
• Typical uses of magnesium alloys are aircraft and missile
components.
• Also has good vibration-damping characteristics.
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Copper and copper alloys

• Copper alloys have electrical and mechanical properties,

corrosion resistance, thermal conductivity and wear
resistance.
• Applications are electronic components, springs and
heat exchangers.
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc (Cu:Zn = 70:30).
• Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin (Cu:Sn = 88:12).
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Nickel and nickel alloys

• Nickel (Ni) has strength, toughness, and corrosion
resistance to metals.
• Used in stainless steels and nickel-base alloys.
• Alloys are used for high temperature applications, such
as jet-engine components and rockets.
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Superalloys
• Superalloys are high-temperature alloys use in jet
engines, gas turbines and reciprocating engines.
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Titanium and titanium alloys

• Titanium (Ti) is expensive, has high strength-
to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance.
• Used as components for aircrafts, jet-engines,
racing-cars and marine crafts.
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Refractory metals

• Refractory metals have a high melting point and retain

their strength at elevated temperatures.

• Applications are electronics, nuclear power and

chemical industries.

• Molybdenum, columbium, tungsten, and tantalum are

referred to as refractory metal.
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Other nonferrous metals

1. Beryllium
2. Zirconium
3. Low-melting-point metals:
- Lead
- Zinc
- Tin
4. Precious metals:
- Gold
- Silver
- Platinum
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Special metals and alloys

1. Shape-memory alloys
2. Amorphous alloys
3. Nanomaterials
4. Metal foams
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