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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS A LECTURE NOTES BY Mahesh Lohith K. S.

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 C OMMUNICATION S YSTEMS
A L ECTURE N OTES BY

M AHESH L OHITH K. S., A SSISTANT P ROFESSOR . M ARATHA M ANDAL E NGINEERING C OLLEGE .

1 Introduction
The process of transmitting and receiving meaningful information or intelligence is termed as commu-
nication. Electronic communication involves converting speech or intelligence into electrical signals using
transducers. The signals are processed and transmitted. Receiver located kilometers away from the transmit-
ter receives these signals. The receiver processes the received signals and finally drives the transducer which
converts the processed signals into speech or intelligence. Transducers are the devices which convert energy
from mechanical to electrical and vice-versa. Radio commnication (Transmission and reception) is one of the
effective communication system.

2 Modulation and Demodulation

The transmission of information and reception of meaningful information can be successfully achieved
with the help of two processes. The two processes are
1. Modulation
2. Demodulation

Modulation : Modulation is the process of combining the low-frequency audio waves with a very-high
frequency radio waves. The low-frequency wave is called Modulating Wave. The very-high frequency radio
wave which carries the low frequency audio wave information is called a Carrier Wave. The resultant wave
obtained is called Modulated Carrier.

Demodulation : Demodulation involves recovering the low-frequency audio wave from the Modulated
Carrier Wave. This process is performed at the receiving end. It is the reverse process of modulation.

Carrier Wave : Carrier wave is a high frequency radio wave produced using radio-frequency oscillators.
The radio frequency ranges from 3kHz to 300GHz. In radio transmission, Carrier waves in the radio frequency
range from hundreds of kHz to few MHz are preferred.

3 Need for Modulation

Audio frequency signals are low-frequency signals.There are disadvantages in transmitting the unmodulated
low frequency signals during communication. They are

1. Low frequency signals cannot propagate over long distances. They are short range signals
2. If there are many transmissions of low frequency signals directly without modulation they interfere and
the information at the receiving end will not be clear.
3. The antenna length required for the transmission of audio-frequency signals is around 75 m which is
practically very large.

1
Department of Applied Science 10ELN15/25 - Part B - Unit 7 - Communication Systems

Thus a low frequency signal cannot be transmitted effectively and efficiently without modulation. Hence
radio frequency carrier waves are modulated by low frequency signals and are transmitted to reach longer
distances. Even the antenna size required for the transmission of the radio frequency waves is of reasonable
size.

4 Types of Modulation
The High frequency radio carrier waves are the sinusoidal waves and are represented by the equation

ec = Ec Sin(ωc t + φ) (1)

ec = Ec Sin(2πfc t + φ) (2)
here Ec is the amplitude of the carrier wave, fc is the frequency of the carrier wave and φ is the phase of
the carrier wave.

Based on the change in characteristic property of the carrier wave when combined with the low frequency
audio signals, the modulation is classified into three types.
Amplitude Modulation : In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the radio-frequency (RF) carrier wave
is varied by low frequency audio signals( AF) without affecting the frequency and phase of the carrier
wave.
Frequency Modulation : If the frequency of the radio frequency carrier wave is varied by low frequency
audio signals then the modulation is called Frequency Modulation. In frequency modulation the ampli-
tude and phase of the carrier wave remain unchanged.
Phase Modulation : During the phase modulation the information signal modifies the phase of the carrier
without affecting the other two parameters.
The amplitude modulation and frequency modulation are graphically shown in figure 1.

5 Amplitude Modulation
The information is converted into audio frequency (AF) signal is called modulating signal. The amplitude
of the RF carrier wave is varied proportionately with the instantaneous amplitude of the AF signal to obtain
the modulated carrier wave. The fluctuations in the amplitude of the carrier wave depends on the amplitude
of the AF signal. It is obvious that the frequency and the phase of the carrier waves remain unchanged. For
the sake of understating and simplicity the modulating AF signal is chosen to be a sinusoidal wave. The
Modulating wave, the Carrier wave and the Modulated waves are graphically shown in the figure 1.

Thus it could be summarized as below

• The amplitude fluctuations in the modulated carrier depends on the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
• The frequency with which these fluctuations occur depends on the frequency of the AF signal.

5.1 Modulation Index (MI) and Percent Modulation (m)

The extent to which the AF wave modulates the RF carrier is expressed in terms of MI. The degree to which
the AF wave modulates carrier is called Modulation Index (MI). It is defined as the ratio of amplitude of the
AF wave to the amplitude of the RF wave. The percentage modulation (m) is MI expressed in percentage.
Em
MI = (3)
Ec
m = M I × 100% (4)

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Department of Applied Science 10ELN15/25 - Part B - Unit 7 - Communication Systems

Figure 1: Amplitude and Frequency Modulation

Modulation Index (MI) could be expressed in terms of the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the
modulated RF carrier wave. If Ecmax and Ecmin are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modu-
lated carrier wave then the MI is given by
Ecmax − Ecmin
MI = (5)
Ecmax + Ecmin

5.2 Mathematical Analysis of Amplitude Modulation

The information in the form of AF signal is assumed to be sinusoidal and of single frequency, for the sake of
study and simplicity. It is represented by the equation
em = Em Sin(ωm t) (6)
em = Em Sin(2πfm t) (7)
here Em is the amplitude of the AF wave and fm is frequency of the AF wave. From equation 1 the equation
for the RF carrier is given by
ec = Ec Sin(ωc t) (8)
here Ec is the amplitude of the carrier wave and fc is the frequency of the carrier wave As per the definition of
the amplitude modulation the amplitude of the RF carrier wave is changed as per the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating AF wave. Hence the amplitude of the modulated carrier wave is given by
emc = Ec + Em Sin(ωm t) (9)
Thus the equation for the Amplitude Modulated Carrier Wave could be written as
e = (Ec + Em Sin(ωm t))Sin(ωc t) (10)

e = (Ec Sin(ωc t) + Em Sin(ωc t)Sin(ωm t)) (11)

1
From Trigonometry, We know that SinA.SinB = 2 [Cos(A − B) + Cos(A + B)]

ML, Maratha Mandal Engineering College, Belgaum - 591 113 3

Department of Applied Science 10ELN15/25 - Part B - Unit 7 - Communication Systems

Hence equation 11 becomes

Em
e = Ec Sin(ωc t) + [Cos(ωc − ωm )t − Cos(ωc + ωm )t] (12)
2
Em
e = Ec Sin2πfc t + [Cos2π(fc − fm )t − Cos2π(fc + fm )t] (13)
2
Em Em
e = Ec Sin(ωc t) + Cos2π(fc − fm )t − Cos2π(fc + fm )t (14)
2 2

5.3 Frequency Spectrum - Single frequency AF wave Modulating the RF carrier

The resulting equation 14 represents the amplitude modulated carrier wave obtained after modulation of
carrier wave in the equation 1 which is modulated by a single frequency AF signal. The amplitude modulated
RF carrier wave consists of three frequency components. They are given by

Carrier Frequency Component : Indicated by the first term of equation (14) which is of frequency fc and
amplitude equal to Ec .
Lower Side Frequency : Indicated by the Second term of the equation (14) which is of frequency fc − fm
having amplitude E2m .
Upper Side Frequency : Indicated by the Second term of the equation (14) which is of frequency fc + fm
having amplitude E2m

The frequency spectrum is as shown in the figure 2.

Figure 2: Frequency Spectrum

5.4 Frequency Spectrum - Upper and Lower Side Bands

If the RF carrier described by the equation 1 is modulated by a modulating AF signal having the range of
frequencies from fmmin to fmmax , then the frequency spectrum of the amplitude modulated carrier consists
of the following components.

Carrier Frequency Component : Indicated by the first term of equation (14) which is of frequency fc and
amplitude equal to Ec .
Em
Lower Side Band : Consisting of frequencies in the range fc − fmmin to fc − fmmax having amplitude 2 .
Em
Upper Side Band : Consisting of frequencies in the range fc + fmmin to fc + fmmax having amplitude 2 .

The frequency Spectrum of modulated carrier wave is as shown in the figure 3.

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Department of Applied Science 10ELN15/25 - Part B - Unit 7 - Communication Systems

Figure 3: Frequency Band Spectrum

5.5 Power Relations in Amplitude Modulation

The power of a wave radiated out through an antenna is proportional to the amplitude of the wave. The three
components of the modulated RF carrier wave in the equation 14 have the amplitudes as shown below
1. Amplitude of the original carrier Ec
Em mEc
2. Amplitude of the Lower side band 2 or 2
Em mEc
3. Amplitude of the Upper side band 2 or 2

The total transmitted power is given by

PT = PC + PSB (15)
PT = PC + PLSB + PU SB (16)
Here
PSB = PLSB + PU SB (17)
The Carrier Power is given by
PC ∝ Ec 2 = KEc 2 (18)
Similarly the power of the sidebands are given by

Em 2
PLSB = K (19)
4
and
Em 2
PU SB = K (20)
4
Hence the total power associated with the side bands is given by
2
Em 2 Em 2 [mEc ] m2
PSB = 2 × K =K =K = PC (21)
4 2 2 2
Hence
2
[mEc ] m2
PT = PC + PSB = KEc 2 + K = PC [1 + ] (22)
2 2
Power of carrier and sidebands in terms of total power are give by the equations
2
PC = [ ]PT (23)
2 + m2
and
m2
PSB = PC (24)
2

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Department of Applied Science 10ELN15/25 - Part B - Unit 7 - Communication Systems

m2 2
PSB = [ ]PT (25)
2 2 + m2
m2
PSB = [ ]PT (26)
2 + m2
Thus the power expressions for the side bands in terms of the total power is given by
1 m2
PLSB = PLSB = [ ]PT (27)
2 2 + m2

6 Frequency Modulation
Process of Frequency Modulation : Unlike amplitude modulation, in frequency modulation the frequency
of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the input AF signal. The frequency modulation is as shown
in the figure 1. The process of frequency modulation could be summarized as
1. The amount of change in frequency is determined by the amplitude of modulating AF signal.
2. The rate at which the deviation or change in frequency occurs depends on the frequency of the modu-
lating AF signal.
Thus the information is carried as variation in the frequency of the carrier.

With reference to the figure 1 it can be observed that frequency of the modulated carrier increases as
signal amplitude increases and the frequency of the modulated carrier decreases as the AF signal amplitude
decreases. The frequency of the modulated carrier is highest when the amplitude of the modulating AF signal
is positive maximum and the frequency of the modulated carrier is lowest when the amplitude of the AF signal
is negative maximum. Thus the maximum and minimum frequency variation occurs in accordance with the
modulating AF signal and hence the rate of this change is determined by the frequency of the modulating AF
signal.

Frequency Deviation,Carrier Swing & Modulation Index : The frequency of the unmodulated carrier
used in frequency modulation is called Resting frequency or Center frequency and is denoted by f0 . When the
AF signal is combined with the RF carrier wave, the frequency of the carrier changes between maximum and
minimum from its resting frequency. The shift in the frequency in the higher or lower side is called frequency
deviation and is denoted by ∆f . The carrier swing is defined in-terms of frequency deviation as below
CarrierSwing = 2 × ∆f (28)

The modulation index in case of frequency modulation is defined as the ratio of frequency deviation to
modulating frequency.
∆f
mf = (29)
fm

7 Radio Communication Systems

A typical radio communication system from a broadcasting station consists of a transmitter. The broadcast-
ing station is allocated with a unique RF carrier wave along with a well defined channel width. The transmitter
transmits the modulated carrier into space through an antenna. These wave propagate through space. Else
where in a remote location there exists a receiver which receives the modulated carrier through the receiving
antenna with the help of a tuning circuit. The receiver demodulates the modulated carrier and converts it into
speech or intelligence. A block diagram of a typical radio system consisting a transmitter and receiver is as
shown in the figure 4.

Transmission : The radio transmitter consists of a transducer which converts speech or intelligence into
audio frequency electrical signals. These amplified AF signals modulate the radio frequency carrier. The
modulator performs the task of modulation. The modulated RF carrier is then amplified and transmitted
through an antenna.

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Department of Applied Science 10ELN15/25 - Part B - Unit 7 - Communication Systems

Figure 4: Radio Communication System - Transmission and Reception

Reception :

The radio receiver consists of an antenna connected to a tuning circuit. The received modulated RF carrier is
amplified and then passed through the demodulator to extract the AF signals. The AF signal is then amplified
and fed to transducer which converts it into speech or intelligence.

8 Hetrodyning
Necessity of heterodyning : Superheterodyne AM receiver works on the principle of heterodyning action.
The necessity of heterodyning action is due to the following reasons.
1. It is difficult to design a RF amplifier with high gain and high band width.

2. It is relatively easier to design a high gain IF amplifier having uniform gain over a narrow band of
comparatively lower intermediate frequencies (IF).
3. Hence it is necessary to convert the Radio frequencies to Intermediate Frequencies for efficient pro-
cessing.

Heterodyning Action : Heterodyning action is a process of combining two ac signals of different frequen-
cies in-order to obtain signals of new frequencies. A circuit called mixer or converter is used for heterodyning
two signals. If f1 and f2 are the two frequencies combined, then heterodyning results in two components
1. The sum component with frequency f1 + f2 which is filtered out using a bandpass filter.

2. The difference component with frequency f1 ∼ f2 is retained and processed.

In case of superheterodyne receiver the RF carrier fc is heterodyned with a higher RF local signal fs (From
Local Oscillator or BFO) so that the output difference component ( fs − fc ) is always of frequency 455kHz.

9 Superheterodyne AM Receiver :
The block diagram of the superheterodyne receiver is as shown in the figure 5.

RF Tuning and Amplification : The modulated RF waves travel through space and reach the antenna of
the superheterodyne receiver in situated in a remote location. The receiver is attached to a tuning amplifier
circuit which receives and amplifies the modulated RF carrier.

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 Department of Applied Science 10ELN15/25 - Part B - Unit 7 - Communication Systems

Heterodyning using Mixer : The output of the tuning circuit is fed to the mixer which combines modulated
RF with a high frequency RF signals generated by a local oscillator (BFO - Beat Frequency Oscillator)
to produce modulated IF signals. To maintain the constant frequency of IF signals output by the mixer at
455kHz, principle of ganged tuning is used. The ganged tuning is a process in which the tuning circuit and
the local oscillator are connected to ganged capacitor circuit. The change in the capacitance of the ganged
capacitor will keep the tuned frequency and the local oscillator frequency such that the output of the mixer is
of frequency 455kHz.

IF amplification : The output of the mixer is fed to the IF amplifier which amplifies the modulated IF
signal and increases its amplitude without modifying its waveform.

Demodulation : The amplified IF signal from the IF amplifier is input to the demodulator (Detector). The
demodulator consists of a diode circuit which will eliminate the negative portion of the signal. Thus only
positive portion of the modulated IF signal is output and fed to the next stage of AF amplification. Thus the
demodulator converts the modulated IF into AF signal.

AF amplification : The output of the demodulator is fed to AF amplification stage. In this stage the AF
signal is amplified.

Transduction : The amplified AF signal is input to the transducer which is a speaker. Speaker converts the
AF signal into speech or intelligence. The process of conversion is called transduction.

Waveforms : The output waveform at the each stage of the superheterodyne receiver is as shown in the
figure 6. Thus the reception of modulated RF carrier by superheterodyne receiver and converting the same
into speech or intelligence is explained.

Figure 5: Super-Heterodyne Receiver

Figure 6: Super-Heterodyne Receiver Waveforms

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