Chapter 21

Pressure Surge
This Chapter contains a brief explanation of the phenomenon of pressure
surge in pipelines and discusses the ways in which it can be prevented.
.
21.1 INTRODUCTION

A pressure surge is generated in a pipeline system when there is an abrupt change in

the rate of flow of liquid in the line. In tanker operations it is most likely to occur as
a result of one of the following during loading:

 Closure of an automatic shut down valve.

 Slamming shut of a shore non-return valve.
 Slamming shut of a butterfly type valve.
 Rapid closure of a power operated valve.

If the pressure surge in the pipeline results in pressure stresses or displacement

stresses in excess of the strength of the piping or its components, there may be a
rupture leading to an extensive spill of oil.

21.2 GENERATION OF PRESSURE SURGE

When a pump is used to convey liquid from a feed tank down a pipeline and through
a valve into a receiving tank, the pressure at any point in the system while the liquid
is flowing has three components:

Pressure on the surface of the liquid in the feed tank. In a tank with its
ullage space communicating to atmosphere this pressure is that of the
atmosphere.

Hydrostatic pressure at the point in the system in question.

Pressure generated by the pump. This is highest at the pump outlet,

decreasing commensurately with friction along the line downstream of
the pump and through the valve to the receiving tank.
Of these three components, the first two can be considered constant during pressure
surge and need not be considered in the following description, although they are
always present and have a contributory effect on the total pressure.

Rapid closure of the valve superimposes a transient pressure upon all three
components, owing to the sudden conversion of the kinetic energy of the moving
liquid into strain energy by compression of the fluid and expansion of the pipe wall.
To illustrate the sequence of events the simplest hypothetical case will be
considered, i.e. when the valve closure is instantaneous, there is no expansion of the
pipe wall, and dissipation due to friction between the fluid and the pipe wall is
ignored. This case gives rise to the highest pressures in the system.

When the valve closes, the liquid immediately upstream of the valve is brought to
rest instantaneously.
This causes its pressure to rise by an amount P In any consistent set of units:
P = wav
where: w is the mass density of the liquid.
a is the velocity of sound in the liquid.
v is the change in linear velocity of the liquid i.e. from its linear flow rate
before closure.

The cessation of flow of liquid is propagated back up the pipeline at the speed of
sound in the fluid, and as each part of the liquid comes to rest its pressure is
increased by the amount P Therefore a steep pressure front of height P travels up the
pipeline at the speed of sound; this disturbance is known as a pressure surge.

Upstream of the surge, the liquid is still moving forward and still has the pressure
distribution applied to it by the pump. Behind it the liquid is stationary and its
pressure has been increased at all points by the constant amount P There is still a
pressure gradient downstream of the surge but a continuous series of pressure
adjustments takes place in this part of the pipeline which ultimately result in a
uniform pressure throughout the stationary liquid. These pressure adjustments also
travel through the liquid at the speed of sound.

When the surge reaches the pump the pressure at the pump outlet (ignoring the
atmospheric and hydrostatic components) becomes the sum of the surge pressure P
and the output pressure of the pump at zero throughput (assuming no reversal of
flow), since flow through the pump has ceased. The process of pressure equalization
continues downstream of the pump. Again taking the hypothetical worst case, if the
pressure is not relieved in any way, the final result is a pressure wave that oscillates
throughout the length of the piping system. The maximum magnitude of the
pressure wave is the sum of P and the pump outlet pressure at zero throughput. The
final pressure adjustment to achieve this condition leaves the pump as soon as the
original surge arrives at the pump and travels down to the valve at the speed of
sound. One pressure wave cycle therefore takes a time 2L/a from the instant of
valve closure, where L is the length of the line and a is the speed of sound in the
liquid. This time interval is known as the pipeline period.

In this simplified description, therefore, the liquid at any point in the line experiences
an abrupt increase in pressure by an amount P followed by a slower, but still rapid,
further increase until the pressure reaches the sum of P and the pump outlet pressure
at zero throughput.

In practical circumstances the valve closure is not instantaneous and there is thus
some relief of the surge pressure through the valve while it is closing. The results
are that the magnitude of the pressure surge is less than in the hypothetical case, and
the pressure front is less steep.

At the upstream end of the line some pressure relief may occur through the pump
and this would also serve to lessen the maximum pressure reached. If the effective
closure time of the valve is several times greater than the pipeline period, pressure
relief through the valve and the pump is extensive and a hazardous situation is
unlikely to arise.

Downstream of the valve an analogous process is initiated when the valve closes,
except that as the liquid is brought to rest there is a fall of pressure, which travels
downstream at the velocity of sound. However, the pressure drop is often relieved
by gas evolution from the liquid so that serious results may not occur immediately,
although the subsequent collapse of the gas bubbles may generate shock waves
similar to those upstream of the valve.

21.3 ASSESSMENT OF PRESSURE SURGES

21.3.1 Effective Closure Time of the Valve

In order to determine whether a serious pressure surge is likely to occur in a

pipeline system the first step is to compare the time taken by the valve to close
with the pipeline period.
The effective closure time, i.e. the period during which the rate of flow is in fact
decreasing rapidly, is usually significantly less than the total time of movement of
the valve spindle. It depends upon the design of the valve, which determines the
relationship between valve port area and spindle Position. Substantial flow reduction
is usually achieved only during the closure of the last quarter or less of the valve port
area.
If the effective valve closure time is less than, or equal to, the pipeline period, the
system is liable to serious pressure surges. Surges of reduced, but still significant,
magnitude can be expected when the effective valve closure time is greater than the
pipeline period, but they become negligible when the effective valve closure period
is several times greater than the pipeline period.

21.3.2 Derivation of Total Pressure in the System

In the normal type of ship/shore system handling petroleum liquids, where the shore
tank communicates to the atmosphere, the maximum pressure applied across the pipe
wall at any point during a pressure surge is the sum of the hydrostatic pressure, the
output pressure of the pump at zero throughput and the surge pressure. The first two
of these pressures are usually known.

If the effective valve closure time is less than or equal to the pipeline period, the
value of the surge pressure used in determining the total pressure during the surge
should be P, derived as indicated in Section 21.2. If it is somewhat greater than the
pipeline period, a smaller value can be used in place of P and, as already indicated,
the surge pressure becomes negligible if the effective valve closure time is several
times greater than the pipeline period.

21.3.3 Overall System Design

In this Chapter the simple case of a single pipeline has been considered. In practice
the design of a more complex system may need to be taken into account. For
example, the combined effects of valves in parallel or in series have to be examined.
In some cases the surge effect may be, increased; this can occur with two lines in
parallel if closure of the valve in one line increases the flow in the other line before
this line in its turn is shut down. On the other hand, correct operation of valves in
series in a line can minimize surge pressure.

Transient pressures produce forces in the piping system which can result in large
piping displacements, pipe rupture, support failure, and damage to machinery and
other connected equipment. Therefore the structural response of the piping system to
fluid induced loads resulting from fluid pressures and momenta must be considered
in the design. In addition restraints are usually required to avoid damage ensuing
from large movements of the piping itself. An important consideration in the
selection of the restraints is the fact that the piping often consists of long runs of
straight pipe which will expand considerably under thermal loads. The restraints
must both allow this thermal expansion and absorb the surge forces without
overstressing the pipe.
 21.4 REDUCTION OF PRESSURE SURGE HAZARD

21.4.1 General Precautions

If as a result of the calculations summarized in Section 21.3 it is found that the

potential total pressure exceeds or is close to the strength of any part of the pipeline
system it is advisable to obtain expert advice.

Where manually operated valves are used, good operating procedures should avoid
pressure surge problems. It is important that a value at the end of a long pipeline
should not be closed suddenly against the flow; all changes in valve settings should
be made slowly.

Where motorized valves are installed, several steps can be taken to alleviate the
problem:

Reduce the linear flow rate, i.e. the rate of transfer of cargo, to a value,
which makes the likely surge pressure tolerable.

Increase the effective valve closure time. In very general terms total
closure times should be of the order of 30 seconds, and preferably
more. Valve closure rates should be steady and reproducible,
although this may be difficult to achieve if spring return valves or
actuators are needed to ensure that valves fail safe to the closed
position. A more uniform reduction of flow may be achieved by
careful attention to valve port design, or by the use of a valve actuator
which gives a very slow rate of closure over, say, the final 15% of the
port closure.

Use a pressure relief system, surge tanks or similar devices to absorb

the effects of the surge sufficiently quickly.

21.4.2 Limitation of Flow Rate to Avoid the Risk of a Damaging Pressure Surge

In the operational context, pipeline length and, very often, valve closure times are
fixed and the only practical precaution against the consequences of an inadvertent
rapid closure, e.g. during topping off, is to limit the linear flow rate of the oil to a
maximum value V max. This flow rate is related to the maximum tolerable surge
pressure P max by the equation:

P MAX
 WAV MAX
(see Section 21.2)
If the internal diameter of the pipeline is d, the corresponding maximum tolerable
volumetric flow rate Q max is given by:

d 2 
Q max

4 V max

4 wa d P
2
max

With sufficient accuracy,

a, the velocity of sound in petroleum, is 1300 meters/second
w, the density of oils, is 850 kilograms/cubic meter so that, approximately,
where Q max is in cubic meters/second, d in meters and P max in Newton/square

Q max
 7.1 10
7
d P
2
max

meter.

In two alternative sets of units:

Q 2
 0.025 d P max
max

where Q max is in cubic meters/hour, d in meters and P max in kilograms force/square

meter; or
2

Q d P
2
 0.16 d P max
max
max 6

where Q max is in cubic meters/hour, d in inches and P max. in kilograms force/square

centimeter.