Chapter 3 Memory

From
Nand to Tetris
Building a Modern Computer from First Principles
Chapter 3
Memory
These slides support chapter 3 of the book
The Elements of Computing Systems
By Noam Nisan and Shimon Schocken
MIT Press
Nand to Tetris / www.nand2tetris.org / Chapter 3 / Copyright © Noam Nisan and Shimon Schocken Slide 1
Chapter 3: Memory
• Time matters
• Sequential logic
• Flip Flops
• Memory units
• Counters
• Project 3 overview
Time-independent logic
• So far we ignored the issue of time
• The chip’s inputs were just “sitting there” – fixed and unchanging
• The chip’s output was a pure function of the current inputs,
and did not depend on anything that happened previously
• The output was computed “instantaneously”
• This style of gate logic is sometimes called:
q time-independent logic
q combinational logic.
Hello, time
Abstraction issues:
example:
• The hardware must support x = 17
maintaining “state”
example:
• The hardware must support for i = 0 … 99:
computations over time sum = sum + a[i]
Implementation issues:
• The hardware must handle the
physical time delays associated
with calculating and moving
data from one chip to another.
Physical time / clock time
physical
Arrow of time:
time:
Continuous
1
clock:
0
Discrete time:
State changes occur
only when advancing
time: 1 2 3 4 5 ... from one time unit to
another
Chip behavior over time (example)
physical
Arrow of time:
time:
Continuous
1
clock:
0
Discrete time:
State changes occur
only when advancing
another
in: 1
(example) 0
out: 1
(Not in) 0
(example)
• Desired / idealized behavior of the

in and out signals
• That’s how we want the hardware to
handle time-dependent behavior
physical
Arrow of time:
time:
Continuous
1
clock:
0
Discrete time:
State changes occur
only when advancing
another
in: 1
(example) 0
out: 1
(Not in) 0
(example)
actual behavior of the

in and out signals, due
to physical time delays
physical
Arrow of time:
time:
Continuous
1
clock:
0
Discrete time:
State changes occur
only when advancing
another
in: 1
(example) 0
out: 1
(Not in) 0
(example)
Time delays Clock cycle

• propagation delays • designed to neutralize the time delays
• computation delays • cycle length: slightly longer than the time delays
physical
Arrow of time:
time:
Continuous
1
clock:
0
Discrete time:
State changes occur
only when advancing
another
in: 1
(example) 0
out: 1
(Not in) 0
(example)
Not: an example of a combinational chip:

• The gate reacts “immediately” to the inputs
• Well, not really, but the clock’s behavior creates this effect.
Combinational logic / sequential logic
Combinational logic:
The output is a pure function

of the present input only
Sequential logic:
The output depends on:

• the present input (optionally)
• the history of the input
• (creates a memory effect).
Flip-Flop
in DFF out
out(t) = in(t - 1)
The simplest state-keeping gate:

• 1-bit input, 1-bit output
• The gate outputs its previous input: out(t) = in(t - 1)
• Implementation: a gate that can flip between two stable states:
“remembering 0”, or “remembering 1”
• Gates that feature this behavior are called data flip-flops.
Flip-Flop
in DFF out
out(t) = in(t - 1)
time: 1 2 3 4 5 ...
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
Flip-Flop
in DFF out
out(t) = in(t - 1)
time: 1 2 3 4 5 ...
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
Flip-Flop
in DFF out
The triangle icon indicates that the gate is:

out(t) = in(t - 1) • clocked / sequential
• connected to a clock input
• designed to maintains state
time: 1 2 3 4 5 ...
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
DFF implementation notes
A DFF bi-state architecture can be built from Nand gates:
• step 1: create an input-output loop,
achieving a combinational (un-clocked) flip-flop
• step 2: isolate across time steps using a “master-slave” architecture
• The resulting implementation is elegant, but conceptually confusing
Technical note
The implementation described above is impossible in our hardware simulator, since:
• The supplied simulator does not permit combinational loops
• A cycle in hardware connections is allowed only if the cycle passes through a
sequential (“clocked”) gate
Implementing sequential chips

• The supplied simulator features a built-in DFF gate
• Sequential chips are implemented by using built-in DFF chip parts.
Sequential chips
Sequential chips are capable of:
• maintaining state, and, optionally, state(t) = f (state(t-1), input(t))
• acting on the state, and on the current inputs
Example: DFF
• The DFF state: the value of the input from the previous time unit
• The simplest, most elementary sequential chip
Example: RAM
• The RAM state: the current values of all its registers
• given some address (input), the RAM emits the value of the selected register
Implementation note
• All combinational chips are constructed from Nand gates
• All sequential chips are constructed from DFF gates, and combinational chips.
Sequential chips
state(t) = f (state(t-1), input(t))
Implementation note
• All combinational chips are constructed from Nand gates
• All sequential chips are constructed from DFF gates, and combinational chips.
Sequential chip: 1-bit register
load
load load
in
in Bit out
out in Bit Bit ... Bit out
w w
ifif load( t) then

load(t-1) out(
then t + 1) = in(t)
out(t)=in(t-1) if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)
else out(t + 1) = out(t)
else out(t)=out(t-1) else out(t)=out(t-1)
binary cell (Bit) w-bit register

• Designed to “remember”, or “store”, a single bit
• More accurately:
q Stores a bit until...
q Instructed to load, and store, another bit.
1-bit register
load load
in Bit out in Bit Bit ... Bit out

w w
ifif load( t) then

load(t-1) out(
then t + 1) = in(t)

time: 1 2 3 4 5
load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
1-bit register
load load

w w
ifif load( t) then

load(t-1) out(
then t + 1) = in(t)

time: 1 2 3 4 5
load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
1-bit register
load load

w w
ifif load( t) then

load(t-1) out(
then t + 1) = in(t)

time: 1 2 3 4 5
load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
Resulting behavior:
(example) 0 Stores and emits a
value, until instructed
1 to load (and store) a
out:
new value
0
1-bit register implementation – first attempt
in out
out
in
DFF
1-bit register implementation
load
in
in
out out
out
MUX
DFF DFF 1
t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

t(t) = in(t-1) ? time: 1else out(t)=out(t-1)
2 3 4 5
nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
load
1
in
in 1
out 1 ? out
out
MUX
DFF ? DFF 1

2 3 4 5

load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
load
1
in
in 1
out 1 ? out
out
MUX
DFF ? DFF 1

2 3 4 5

load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
load
0
in
in 0
out 1 1 out
out
MUX
DFF 1 DFF 1

2 3 4 5

load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
load
0
in
in 0
out 1 1 out
out
MUX
DFF 1 DFF 1

2 3 4 5

load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
load
1
in
in 0
out 0 1 out
out
MUX
DFF 1 DFF 1

2 3 4 5

load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
load
0
in
in 0
out 0 0 out
out
MUX
DFF 0 DFF 0

2 3 4 5

load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
(example) 0
1
out:
0
load
0
in
in 0
out 0 0 out
out
MUX
DFF 0 DFF 0

2 3 4 5

load: 1
(example) 0
in: 1
Resulting behavior:
(example) 0 Stores and emits a
value, until instructed
1 to load (and store) a
out: new value
0
Chapter 3: Memory
• Time matters
• Flip Flops
• Memory units
• Counters
Memory units
We’ll describe (and build) a progression of memory units:
• 1-bit register:
• Designed to store a single bit
• Multi-bit register:
• Designed to store an w-bit value (in Hack, w = 16)
• Random Access Memory (RAM):

• Designed to store n addressable w-bit values,
each having a unique index, or address, ranging from 0 to n-1.
Multi-bit register (also known as “register”)
(multi-bit register)
Word width (w):
• 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit, …
• We will focus on 16-bit registers, without loss of generality.
Register: abstraction
(multi-bit register)
To read a Register: Result:

out emits the Register’s state
probe out
Result:
To set Register = v q The Register’s state becomes v;
set in = v q From the next cycle onward,
out emits v
set load = 1
Register: implementation
(multi-bit register) (1-bit register)

1-bit
Register
A w-bit register can be created from an array of w 1-bit registers.
Register chip in action
Run the clock
Inspect the
register’s output
Set in to 17
Inspect the
register’s contents
For the demo, we use a built-in

16-bit register from the Hack chipset,
named Dregister, or simply D.
Run the clock
Inspect the
register’s output
Inspect the
Run the clock
Inspect the
register’s output
Set in to 17
Set load to 1
Inspect the
Run the clock
Inspect the
register’s output
Inspect the
Memory units
We’ll describe (and build) a progression of memory units:
• 1-bit register:
• Multi-bit register:
• Random Access Memory (RAM)

•
RAM
Architecture:
A sequence of n addressable registers,
with addresses 0 to n-1
Address width:
k = log2n
Word width:
No impact on the RAM logic
(Hack computer: w = 16]
RAM: abstraction
At any given point of time:

q one register in the RAM is selected
q all the other registers are irrelevant
To read Register i :
Result:
set address = i out emits the value of Register i
probe out
RAM: abstraction
At any given point of time:

q one register in the RAM is selected
q all the other registers are irrelevant
To set Register i to v :
Result:
set address = i
• The state of Register i becomes v
set in = v
• From the next cycle onward, out emits v
set load = 1
RAM: abstraction
Why “Random Access Memory”?

Irrespective of the RAM size (n),
every randomly selected register can be accessed “instantaneously”,
at more or less the same time.
A family of 16-bit RAM chips
chip name n k
RAM8 8 3
RAM64 64 6
RAM512 512 9
RAM4K 4096 12
RAM16K 16384 14
Why these particular RAM chips?

Because that’s what we need for building the Hack computer.
RAM chip in action
HW Simulator
RAM chip demo
Chapter 3: Memory
• Time matters
• Flip Flops
• Memory units
• Counters
Where counters come to play
• The computer must keep track of which instruction should be fetched and executed
next
• This control mechanism can be realized by a register called Program Counter
• The PC contains the address of the instruction that will be fetched and executed next
• The PC is designed to support three possible control operations:
q Reset: fetch the first instruction PC = 0
q Next: fetch the next instruction PC++
q Goto: fetch instruction n PC = n
Program Counter
/**
* A 16-bit counter with load and reset control bits.
* if reset(t) out(t+1) = 0
* else if load(t) out(t+1) = in(t)
* else if inc(t) out(t+1) = out(t) + 1 (integer addition)
* else out(t+1) = out(t)
*/
CHIP PC {
IN in[16],load,inc,reset;
OUT out[16];
PARTS:
// Put your code here:
}
Counter chip in action
HW Simulator
PC chip demo
Chapter 3: Memory
• Time matters
• Flip Flops
• Memory units
• Counters
Project 3
Given:
q All the chips built in Projects 1 and 2
q Flip-Flop (built-in DFF gate)
Goal: Build the following chips:
q Bit
q Register
q RAM8 A family of sequential chips, from
q RAM64 a 1-bit register to a 16K RAM unit.
q RAM512
q RAM4K
q RAM16K
q PC
1-bit register
Bit.hdl
/**
* 1-bit register:
* If load(t) then out(t+1) = in(t)
* else out(t+1) = out(t))
*/ Implementation tip:
CHIP Bit {
Can be built from a DFF
IN in, load; and a multiplexor.
OUT out;
PARTS:
}
16-bit Register
Register.hdl
/**
* 16-bit register:
* If load(t) then out(t+1) = in(t)
* else out(t+1) = out(t))
*/ Implementation tip:
CHIP Register { Can be built from an array
IN in[16], load;
OUT out[16]; of sixteen 1-bit registers.
PARTS:
}
8-Register RAM
RAM8.hdl
/*
* Let M stand for the state of the
* register selected by address.
* if load(t) then {M=in(t), out(t+1)=M}
* else out(t+1)=M
*/
CHIP RAM8 {
IN in[16], load, address[3];
OUT out[16];
PARTS:
}
Implementation tips:
q Feed the in value to all the registers, simultaneously
q Use mux / demux chips to select the register specified by address.
Project 3
Given:
q Flip-Flop (DFF gate)

✓ q Bit
✓ q Register
✓ q RAM8
q RAM64
q RAM512
q RAM4K
Our next task
q RAM16K
q PC
RAM8, RAM64, … RAM16K
RAM512
RAM64
RAM8 Same technique

can be used to
implement RAM4K
… and RAM16K
Implementation tips
• A RAM unit can be built by grouping smaller RAM-parts together
• Think about the RAM’s address input as consisting of two fields:
– one field can be used to select a RAM-part;
– the other field can be used to select a register within that RAM-part
• Use mux/demux logic to effect this addressing scheme.
Project 3
Given:
q Flip-Flop (DFF gate)

✓ q Bit
✓ q Register
✓ q RAM8
✓ q RAM64
✓ q RAM512
✓ q RAM4K
✓ q RAM16K
q PC
Program Counter
Implementation tip:
Can be built from a register,
an incrementor, and some
logic gates.
/**
* A 16-bit counter with load, inc, and reset control bits.
*
* if reset(t) out(t+1)=0 // resetting: counter = 0
* else if load(t) out(t+1)=in(t) // setting counter = value
* else if inc(t) out(t+1)=out(t)+1 // incrementing: counter++
* else out(t+1)=out(t) // counter does not change
*/
CHIP PC {
IN in[16], load, inc, reset;
OUT out[16];
PARTS:
// Implementation comes here.
}
Project 3 resources
www.nand2tetris.org
All the necessary project 3

files are available in:
nand2tetris / projects / 03
More resources
• HDL Survival Guide
• Hardware Simulator Tutorial
• nand2tetris Q&A forum
All available in: www.nand2tetris.org
Best practice advice
• Try to implement the chips in the given order
• If you don’t implement some of the chips required in project 3, you can
still use them as chip-parts in other chips. Just rename the given stub-
files; this will cause the simulator to use the built-in versions of these
chips
• You can invent new, “helper chips”; however, this is not required: you
can build any chip using previously-built chips only
• Strive to use as few chip-parts as possible.
• You will have to use chips from Projects 1 and 2
• Best practice: use their built-in versions
• For technical reasons, the HDL files of this project are organized in two
directories named a and b
• This directory structure should remain as is.
Chapter 3: Memory
• Time matters
• Flip Flops
• Memory units
• Counters
From Nand to Tetris
Building a Modern Computer from First Principles
Chapter 3
Memory
These slides support chapter 3 of the book
The Elements of Computing Systems
By Noam Nisan and Shimon Schocken
MIT Press

Chapter 3 Memory

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From

• Desired / idealized behavior of the

actual behavior of the

Time delays Clock cycle

Not: an example of a combinational chip:

The output is a pure function

The output depends on:

The simplest state-keeping gate:

The triangle icon indicates that the gate is:

Implementing sequential chips

ifif load( t) then

binary cell (Bit) w-bit register

in Bit out in Bit Bit ... Bit out

ifif load( t) then

binary cell (Bit) w-bit register

in Bit out in Bit Bit ... Bit out

ifif load( t) then

binary cell (Bit) w-bit register

in Bit out in Bit Bit ... Bit out

ifif load( t) then

binary cell (Bit) w-bit register

t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

t(t) = out(t-1) ? if load(t-1) then out(t)=in(t-1)

nvalid design 1-bit register (Bit)

We’ll describe (and build) a progression of memory units:

• Random Access Memory (RAM):

Word width (w):

• 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit, …

• We will focus on 16-bit registers, without loss of generality.

To read a Register: Result:

(multi-bit register) (1-bit register)

A w-bit register can be created from an array of w 1-bit registers.

For the demo, we use a built-in

We’ll describe (and build) a progression of memory units:

• Random Access Memory (RAM)

At any given point of time:

At any given point of time:

Why “Random Access Memory”?

Why these particular RAM chips?

RAM chip demo

q Reset: fetch the first instruction PC = 0

q Next: fetch the next instruction PC++

q Goto: fetch instruction n PC = n

q Flip-Flop (built-in DFF gate)

Goal: Build the following chips:

q Flip-Flop (DFF gate)

Goal: Build the following chips: