C LIENT GU IDE TO

DIGI TAL ORTHO-

ISSUE 5
P HOTOGRAPHY
JUNE 2019
©TSA
Endorsed by: The Survey Association’s Client Guides are primarily
aimed at other professionals such as engineers,
architects, planners and clients in general. They are not
intended to go ‘in depth’ into practical issues but to act
as a basic guide on a particular topic and, in particular,
on procedures which may govern how a particular
aspect of the survey is carried out.

Introduction
Digital orthophotography is the method of combining the image characteristics of
an aerial photograph with the geometric quality of a map. Traditionally, orthophotos
were captured with an analogue camera mounted in a fixed-wing aircraft or helicopter.
The photography was then scanned to produce digital images. The process is now
more streamlined as most new imagery is captured directly with digital cameras,
removing the scanning procedure from the production workflow. Orthophotos can
also be generated from terrestrial photography, mobile capture systems and satellite
images in the same way.
 What are Orthophotos?
An orthophotograph, as displayed in Figure 1, is a single or series of aerial photographic
images in which displacements caused by scale, terrain or surface relief and camera
orientation have been removed. Orthophotos have the high visual information content
and familiarity of a photograph but contain the geometric qualities of a map and can be
used in a multitude of GIS and mapping applications.

Figure 1: Orthophotos can be presented as hard copy or as digital image data and can have
True colour 25cm
contours, grid information or other map details overlaid. They can be used for
resolution orthophoto
interpretation, measurement, quality assurance or as a data layer within a GIS system.

Orthophotos can be generated from satellite imagery with the newer generation of very
high resolution satellites offering imagery at 30 to 50cm ground sample distance (GSD).
Some aerial survey cameras can also capture imagery with a near infra-red channel
(NIR) such as the Vexcel UltraCamX system which can be used to create colour infra-red
orthophotos, as shown on the next page in Figure 2.

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 Small unmanned aircraft (SUA) or drones are equally adept at capturing imagery
for orthophoto production and are being increasingly used for smaller areas at very
high resolution. In addition to traditional vertical photography, orthophotos can also
be produced from terrestrial imagery of, for example, the facades of buildings for
conservation or planning purposes. These can be from static tripod photography or
from vehicle mounted mobile mapping systems.

Figure 2: Data Collection

Colour infrared
orthophoto
Photography suitable for ortho-rectification can be captured by any camera so long as
there is sufficient overlap between the images for matching and there is information
available to calibrate the lens used. The range spans custom built-satellite sensors, large
format mapping cameras on dedicated aircraft to cover large areas, medium format
and 35mm cameras on SUAs for smaller areas and all types of hand held cameras for
terrestrial projects. The latter even includes mobile phone cameras especially when
used in conjunction with the newer automated software suites.

At the large scale production end of the spectrum (for national mapping and major
infrastructure projects) the cameras are very sophisticated sensors with multi-lens
configurations (panchromatic, colour and near infra-red), gyro-stabilisation, multi-axis
motion compensation, accurate Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) receivers
and Inertial Navigational Systems (INS). An example of this type of camera is the Leica
DMCIII 390 megapixel camera – see figure 3. As each image is located and orientated
very precisely orthophoto mosaics can be created with a minimal amount of ground
control.

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 Figure 3: Satellites can also produce imagery suitable for the generation of orthophotos. There is
An example of the range of cameras
now a selection of very high resolution optical satellites in orbit such as the Airbus DS
available for orthophotography from
left to right: Airbus DS Pleiades Pleiades (see Figure 3) which can capture imagery at resolutions of 50cm and the Digital
50cm GSD satellite system, Globe WV3 at resolutions of 30cm. This imagery can be processed in the same way as
Leica DMCIII 390 megapixel camera,
traditionally captured aerial imagery.
Canon 5DS 50mp DSLR and the
Samsung Galaxy S10+ smartphone.
Medium format cameras accompany LiDAR sensors to provide imagery for orthophotos
produced from the point clouds. They can also be installed on professional SUAs
but the majority of cameras in this field tend to be 35mm DSLRs, high end mirrorless
cameras, compact cameras or derivatives that are integrated into the design of the SUA.
This is particularly the case with DJI SUAs and, due to their lower cost, have allowed
access to many more users and broadened the market.

Medium format, 35mm, compact and mobile phone cameras are all used for the
production of orthophotos from ground based imagery. They can be used, for example,
to represent building elevations or archaeological investigations.

The huge repository of archived film imagery can also be used. To avoid any additional
distortion these images should be scanned by a geometrically and radiometrically
precise photogrammetric scanner.

Data Processing
The digital images are subject to the photogrammetric process using either a
photogrammetric workstation (in commercial mapping organisations) or a high
end personal computer (PC) using the more recent semi-automated multi-image
software suites. The latter tend to be used by smaller survey companies, universities,
environmentalists, architects, archaeologists, etc. Many of these are the end users of the
information and apply further analysis based on their specific expertise.

The scale and tilt variations between images are removed by relating the position and
orientation of the photographs to a set of ground control points. The displacements
within each image are caused by lens distortion and terrain relief and are corrected
by calibrating the camera and producing a detailed surface model respectively. Each
digital image can then be rectified to an orthogonal projection by processing each pixel
individually.

The creation of the surface model is a critical part of the process. In an urban
environment the positions of the buildings need to be located precisely and their
apparent lean due to the perspective effect of an image has to be corrected. This
requires a model that not only defines the topographic surface precisely but also has
to include the man-made structures accurately. If the surface model is of an insufficient
density it may have to be supplemented by break-lines that more accurately define
abrupt changes in elevation at the edges of buildings, bridges, overpasses, etc. This
means that every pixel is analysed and adjusted for position according to its height
above a chosen datum. The apparent lean of buildings obscures a part of the ground
and after correction to the vertical there is an empty space. The software is now
sophisticated enough to consult overlapping images and provide the pixel information

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 to fill the gaps. It is obvious, therefore, that in an urban environment, there must be
considerable overlap between successive images in a run and between adjacent
flightlines. For open country or small scale work (where building relief is less critical)
the normal forward overlap for standard mapping photography is 60% and 25% for
the overlap between runs. In an urban environment the overlaps are increased to 80%
and 50-60% respectively. The latter overlap specification is also used for orthophotos
produced by the newer multi-image software where large overlaps are critical to the
automated algorithms.

The block of corrected images, all at the same scale and orientation, are merged and
blended by analysing colour, contrast and brightness variation to produce a seamless
mosaic covering the area of interest. The mosaic is output at a consistent GSD
throughout, commensurate with the resolution of the original imagery. For example,
the individual images in a block of aerial photography may have a range in GSD of 3
to 5cm due to camera tilt, the height above ground and the terrain relief but the ortho-
rectified mosaic will be delivered at a uniform GSD of, say, 5cm. These functions are
normally performed on a digital photogrammetric workstation but orthophotos are now
frequently produced by the more automated multi-image software on standard PCs and
laptops.

For large areas the final mosaic is often cut into manageable tiles that may correspond
to the national coordinate system or to an existing vector map layout. Also, for this
reason, the images can be delivered as data pyramids where successively lower
Figure 4:
DTM and orthophoto
resolution images are stored in the image file. This speeds up the display of the
(courtesy Historic England) orthophoto by accessing only the layer appropriate to the scale on the screen.

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 Accuracy and Resolution
It is essential that the users of orthophotography, particularly those with a non-
photogrammetric background, distinguish between accuracy and resolution. A product
that is quoted as a 25cm orthophoto may refer to either the GSD of the image or the
positional accuracy.

The resolution (GSD) is purely the size of each pixel in the orthophoto. It would normally
be the same size or slightly larger than the GSD of the original photography. If it is
less then interpolation will be required and the orthophoto will appear blurred when
magnified at 1:1 on screen. It is also important to note that if the size of the smallest
object of interest is, say, 50cm then the GSD should be half this (25cm) or better
as a rule of thumb. This should be communicated to the photogrammetrist via the
specification as it is a significant parameter when designing the project.

The accuracy is a function of the whole photogrammetric process which includes image
alignment (aerial triangulation), the camera calibration, the quality of the ground control
and the quality of the digital terrain model. The accuracy, therefore, may be poorer than
the resolution.

It is important to note that a digital terrain model (DTM) may be very accurate at
each point of, say, a 5m grid but as it will need to interpolate many heights for pixels
at a 25cm spacing errors will appear. A low density DTM will fail to identify sufficient
changes in relief to accurately correct the height displacement caused by those changes
and this may be quite noticeable at seamlines. For this reason denser DTMs are
produced to more closely conform to the GSD. An orthophoto can also be produced
from a triangular meshed surface. This provides a complete interpolation of the ground
with the size of the triangles varying according to the complexity of the surfaces. It can
also be improved with the addition of breaklines to define abrupt changes of slope
or vertical edges. An example of a DTM and its associated orthophoto can be seen in
Figure 4.

For an orthophoto project to be successful it is essential that the following information is

known or produced:

• The GSD of the original digital or scanned photography

• If the imagery was scanned what was the medium used – transparencies or
prints. This has a bearing on the quality of the orthophoto

• Camera calibration data

• Ground control information

• Orientation and rectification data

• The source, quality and density of the DTM used to rectify the imagery

For projects using multi-image software (such as Metashape, Pix4DMapper,

ContextCapture, Photomodeler or Reality Capture) the data at each stage is normally
produced as part of the workflow. It is important, therefore, that a comprehensive
report is delivered with the final orthophoto so that the parameters employed and the
accuracies achieved can be consulted by the client.

Typical GSDs for various orthophotos are as follows:

• Large national mapping or infrastructure projects – 10 to 25cm

• Engineering projects from conventional aircraft or SUAs – 4 to 10cm

• Low level SUA projects for local area analyses – 1 to 4cm

• Terrestrial architectural projects – 2 to 10mm

If in doubt, a TSA member company would be pleased to advise on this subject.

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 Figure 5:
Orthophoto and
mapping layer

Figure 5:
Orthophoto and
mapping layer

Uses of Orthophotos
Orthophotos can be used in a variety of applications from backdrop layers in GIS
systems to being used to create other products such as mapping derived from
interpretation of the orthophotos. Below is a list of uses for orthophotos:

• Photogrammetric mapping (see Figure 5)

• Interpretation for GIS

• Urban planning

• Asset management

• Vegetation and land use mapping

• Change detection

• Route planning

• Building conservation and analysis

• Archaeology

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 Tendering Considerations
When procuring orthophotography the following information should be provided to
the tenderer:

• The purpose of the survey

• The specification including any special requests

• A plan with the survey area outlined

• The expected accuracy of the deliverable products

• Information on the survey environment and conditions, for example,

health and safety issues, access arrangements or security problems

• Deliverable data formats

Tender Returns
A company experienced in the production of orthophotography can usually submit
a proposal efficiently and as a client you should insist on the following details to be
included in the quotation, as a minimum:

• A start date for the survey

• Delivery dates for the final data and any interim products

• The survey company’s terms and conditions

• A method statement and risk assessment to understand the procedures the

company uses during the course of the project

• A provision for a weekly progress report to allow for any changes in the
programme and potential resource re-allocation.

The process of commissioning and successfully completing an orthophotographic

survey is straightforward if the guidelines above are followed. One key element is to use
a survey company that has experience with this type of work and is a member of TSA.

Please contact The Survey Association on +44 1636 642840 or visit the website
www.tsa-uk.org.uk to locate an established survey firm.

Summary
Orthophotography is useful both as an end product for further analysis by specialists
and as a base for photogrammetric mapping. It is important to understand how they are
to be used and what accuracies are required for the derived end products. The online
resource, Google Earth shows how the creation and use of digital orthophotos has
developed and become common place in the last decade or so.

The process of commissioning and successfully completing an orthophotographic

survey is straightforward if the guidelines above are followed. One key element is to use
a survey company that has experience with this type of work and is a member of TSA.

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 Glossary of Terms

TERM EXPLANATION

DTM Digital Terrain Model. A model representing the bare earth

surface either by a grid of points or a triangular mesh. A digital
surface model (DSM) also includes man made features and trees.

GIS Geographic Information System. A visual map based system

that includes an associated database of the content attributes.

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System. The combined satellite

based navigation systems that provide global coverage.

GSD Ground Sample Distance or the size of a pixel at true scale.

INS Inertial Navigation System. A system that can track position

and orientation of a sensor used in conjunction with GNSS
on board aircraft.

LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging is an optical remote sensing

technology that can measure the distance and reflectivity of
an object. Using a pulsed laser, they typically collect hundreds
of thousands of points per second forming a point cloud
representation of the ground.

NIR Near Infrared, a non-visible portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum just beyond visible red light, particularly useful if
vegetation health is of interest.

SUA Small Unmanned Aircraft. They are sometimes known as

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), Unmanned Aerial Systems
(UAS), Remotely Operate Airborne Systems (RPAS) and drones.

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 The Survey Association
Formed in 1979 as The UK Land and Hydrographic Association, TSA is now established
as the representative organisation for UK private surveying firms. The Association’s
aims are:

> To provide a vehicle for members to act effectively together on agreed
courses of action

> To promote the interests of the profession to all those who determine the
economic and social conditions in which the industry operates

> To identify and represent the views of the industry.

Using a TSA member

By using a TSA member you can be assured that your project will get off to the best
possible start. Whatever the size of project, you can be certain that TSA member
companies are expert in the provision and management of spatially related data on
which to base your concept, design and construction.

Professional attention from a TSA surveyor will reduce risk, repetition, possibly save
you money and will ensure that your project receives the best possible attention.

TSA Contact Details

If you would like any more information about the TSA or its members or about other
Information leaflets then please contact Rachel Tyrrell at:

The Survey Association

Northgate Business Centre, 38 Northgate,
Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire NG24 1EZ

Tel: 01636 642 840

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.tsa-uk.org.uk

TSA Disclaimer
Whilst The Survey Association (TSA) makes every attempt to ensure the accuracy and
reliability of the information contained in this publication, this information should not be
relied upon as a substitute for formal advice from the originating bodies or services of
TSA members. You should not assume that this publication is error-free or that it will be
suitable for the particular purpose which you have in mind when using it. TSA assumes
no responsibility for errors or omissions in this publication or other documents which are
referenced by or linked to this publication.

In no event shall TSA and its employees and agents be liable for any special, incidental,
indirect or consequential damages of any kind, or any damages whatsoever, including,
without limitation, those resulting from loss of use, data or profits, whether or not
advised of the possibility of damage, and on any liability, arising out of or in connection
with the use or performance of this publication or other documents which are
referenced by or linked to this publication.

Document Revision History

Issue 1 August 2008 Original document
Issue 2 September 2014 Revised version
Issue 3 May 2015 TSA disclaimer added
Issue 4 January 2016 Text amendments
Issue 5 June 2019 Minor review

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