Reference : 1. Shetty M.S, “Concrete Technology – Theory and practice”, S. Chand and Co. , 2005 2. Santhakumar A.R, “Concrete Technology”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. MODULE-II LECTURE - 7 Reference : 1. Shetty M.S, “Concrete Technology – Theory and practice”, S. Chand and Co. , 2005 2. Santhakumar A.R, “Concrete Technology”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. VISUAL INSPECTION • Involves looking for and analysing cracks, spalling and other structural defects without digging into or scratching the surface • Check list: Information collected should include the following: • Details of owner and the occupants • Type of structure • Dimensions • Interconnection of elements (wall to wall, wall to roof etc.) • Material information (type of bricks, mortar, plastering etc) • Orientation w.r.t. north • Orientation and alignment w.r.t. polluting agencies • Climatic condition prevailing and wind direction • Signs of deterioration • Age of building • Details of maintenance and previous repairs undertaken • Reference system used to record details using visual examination VISUAL INSPECTION Tools include building drawings, Layout plan, Camera, Binoculars, Magnifying Glass, Flash light, Measuring tapes
Portable video inspection
unit with zoom allows inspection of large tanks and vessels, railroad tank cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or tight areas, such as air ducts, reactors, pipelines. VISUAL INSPECTION GENERAL PROCEDURE • Before inspection, engineer should have relevant structural drawings, plans and elevations • Documents such as technical specifications, reports of previous tests conducted, construction records, details of materials used, methods and dates of construction etc. • Survey should be carried out systematically and should cover details of defects present, current and past use of structure, condition of adjacent structures and environmental conditions. • All defects must be identified, the degree classified and where ever possible, the causes identified. • The distribution and extent of defects need to be clearly recognized. VISUAL INSPECTION DEFECTS THAT NEED TO BE RECORDED: 1. Cracking • Cracks may be minor as due to shrinkage or may be major as due to overloading • Only cracks wider that acceptable limit need to be considered • Types of cracks: • Dormant • Active • Fine • Medium • Wide • Surface cracks VISUAL INSPECTION DEFECTS THAT NEED TO BE RECORDED: 2. Spalling • Delamination of the concrete surface • Can be due to internal stress or external loads: • Corrosion of embedded steel can also cause spalling • Freeze and thaw of entrapped water • Chemical reactions, efflorescence and repeated wetting and drying in coastal areas VISUAL INSPECTION DEFECTS THAT NEED TO BE RECORDED: 3. Staining • Caused by absorption of water which contains minerals/ salts which result in leaching • Efflorescence is major cause of staining • It disfigures the building surfaces and can weaken members VISUAL INSPECTION DEFECTS THAT NEED TO BE RECORDED: 4. Moisture problem • Moisture (due to rain or humidity) cause wetness and encourage fungal growth • Can wet insulation and cause reduction in quality and performance of concrete elements • Causes efflorescence • In RCC walls subjected to moisture penetration, rust staining may occur in localized zones. VISUAL INSPECTION DEFECTS THAT NEED TO BE RECORDED: 5. Construction and design defects • Defects due to incorrect wall thickness • Out of plumb of walls • Failure to connect intersecting walls and columns • Lack of joints • Defective joints • Plugged weep holes • Misalignment of joints • Inadequate diaphragm stiffness for distributing lateral shear • Poor layout that cause excessive torsion • Excessive out of plain deflection • Use of poor quality concrete MODULE-II LECTURE - 8 Reference : 1. Shetty M.S, “Concrete Technology – Theory and practice”, S. Chand and Co. , 2005 2. Santhakumar A.R, “Concrete Technology”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST (NDT) • Internal characteristics of solid structures can be examined without permanently affecting the structure.
• Can be performed on metals, plastics, ceramics, composites
and coatings in order to detect cracks, internal voids, surface cavities, delamination, incomplete defective welds and any type of flaw that could lead to premature failure.
• Concrete is not loaded to failure, therefore the strength
inferred or estimated cannot be expected to yield absolute value of strength. DELIVERABLES OF NDT
Elastic Density Strength Modulus
Reinforcement Quality of location workmanship
Surface Cracks and Surface
Hardness voids absorption COMMONLY USED NDT TECHNIQUES Technique Capabilities Limitations Macroscopic surface Small flaws are difficult to detect, no Visual Inspection flaws subsurface flaws. Not applicable to larger structures; no Microscopy Small surface flaws subsurface flaws. Smallest defect detectable is 2% of the Radiography Subsurface flaws thickness; radiation protection. No Subsurface flaws not for porous materials No subsurface flaws not for porous Dye penetrate Surface flaws materials Ultrasonic Subsurface flaws Material must be good conductor of sound. Surface / near surface Limited subsurface capability, only for Magnetic Particle and layer flaws ferromagnetic materials. Eddy Current Surface and near surface Difficult to interpret in some applications; flaws only for metals. Acoustic Can analyse entire Difficult to interpret, expensive equipment. emission structure TYPES OF NDT 1 Rebound Hammer 2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Meter 3 Pull Out 4 Core cutter 5 Covermeter 6 X ray computed tomography 7 Electric resistivity test MODULE-II LECTURE – 9 ACL Reference : 1. Shetty M.S, “Concrete Technology – Theory and practice”, S. Chand and Co. , 2005 2. Santhakumar A.R, “Concrete Technology”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. REBOUND HAMMER • It is a quick method for assessing the quality of concrete based on surface hardness indicated by the Rebound number. • The rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against which its mass strikes.
• A higher rebound value indicates the
higher strength / surface hardness of concrete. • When the plunger of the rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the Spring-controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such a rebound depends upon the surface hardness of the concrete. REBOUND HAMMER • The rebound value is read from a graduated scale and is designated as the rebound number or rebound index. • The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on the body of the hammer. REBOUND HAMMER REBOUND HAMMER REBOUND HAMMER ADVANTAGES
• Simple to use. No special experience is needed to conduct
the test. • Establishes uniformity of properties. • Equipment is inexpensive and is readily available. • A wide variety of concrete test hammers is available with an operational range of M10 to M70. • For rehabilitation of old Monuments.. REBOUND HAMMER LIMITATIONS
• Results are affected by:
• Smoothness of surface under test • Size, shape and rigidity of specimen • Age of specimen • Surface and internal moisture condition of the concrete • Types of coarse aggregate • Types of cement • Type of mould • Carbonation of concrete surface MODULE-II LECTURE - 10 Reference : 1. Shetty M.S, “Concrete Technology – Theory and practice”, S. Chand and Co. , 2005 2. Santhakumar A.R, “Concrete Technology”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. PULSE VELOCITY TEST
Pulse Velocity Test
Mechanical Ultrasonic PULSE VELOCITY TEST OBJECTIVES • Homogeneity of the concrete
• Presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections
• Changes in the structure of the concrete with time
• Quality of concrete related to standard requirement
• Quality of one element of concrete in relation with another
• Value of elastic modulus of the concrete
ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST • This is based on the principle that the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through any material depends upon the density and elastic properties of the material.
• Involves measurement of velocity of
electronic pulse passing through
concrete from a transmitting
transducer and a receiving transducer.
ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST APPARATUS: • Electric pulse generator
• A pair of transducers
• Amplifier
• An electronic timing device
ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST There are three possible ways of measuring pulse velocity. i) Direct transmission ii) Semi direct transmission iii) Indirect transmission (surface probing) ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST PROCEDURE: • Determine the most suitable test points on the material and measure path length L • After traversing a known path L, in concrete, the vibration pulse is converted to electric signal by a transducer held in contact with other surface of concrete • An electronic timing circuit measures transit time T • Ultrasonic pulse velocity = L/T ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST • Condition of concrete based on pulse velocity
Pulse Velocity (km/s) Quality of concrete
> 4.5 Excellent
3.5 – 4.5 Good
3 – 3.5 Medium
<3 Poor ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST LIMITATIONS: • Any variation of concrete temperature between 5°C and 30°C does not affect pulse velocity. At temperature between 30°C and 60°C, pulse velocity decreases by 5%. Below freezing temperature, free water within concrete freezes and increases pulse velocity by 2%. • Increase in moisture content increases pulse velocity. • Pulse velocity in RCC is higher than in plain concrete of same composition. This is due to high pulse velocity of 1.2 – 1.9 times through steel. • When concrete is subjected to stress which is high for the quality of concrete, pulse velocity may be reduced due to development of micro cracks. ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST FACTORS AFFECTING MEASUREMENT: • Smoothness of contact surface under test
• Influence of path length on pulse velocity
• Temperature of concrete
• Moisture condition of concrete
• Presence of reinforcing steel
ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST APPLICATIONS: • Measurement of concrete uniformity
• Detection of cracks and honeycombing
• Measurement of layer thickness
• Measurement of elastic modulus
• Strength development monitoring
MODULE-II LECTURE - 11 Reference : 1. Shetty M.S, “Concrete Technology – Theory and practice”, S. Chand and Co. , 2005 2. Santhakumar A.R, “Concrete Technology”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. WINDSOR PROBE TEST PRINCIPLE: • Under standard condition, penetration depth is inversely proportional to compressive strength of concrete, but the relation depends on hardness of aggregate.
• The frictional resistance of probe and energy absorbed
by cracking of concrete are neglected. WINDSOR PROBE TEST EQUIPMENTS: • Gun powder actuated driver • Hardened alloy steel probes • Loaded cartridges • Depth gauge
SPECIFICATIONS: • Diameter of probe : 6.3mm • Length of probe: 79.5mm • Velocity of cartridge : 180m/s WINDSOR PROBE TEST PROCEDURE: • A gun powder actuated driver is used to fire a hardened alloy probe into the concrete. • The exposed length of the probe is measured by the depth gauge • Tables relating the exposed length of probe with compressive strength of concrete have been established, depending on hardness of aggregate. WINDSOR PROBE TEST • Penetration of the probe causes the concrete to fracture within a cone shaped zone below the surface with cracks propagating upto the surface
• Further penetration below the zone is
resisted by compression of adjacent material WINDSOR PROBE TEST ADVANTAGES: • The test is relatively quick and the result is achieved immediately, provided an appropriate correlation curve is available. • The probe is simple to operate, requires less maintenance except cleaning the barrel and is not sensitive to operator technique. • Access is only needed to one surface. • The correlation with concrete strength is affected by a relatively small number of variables. • The test result is likely to represent the concrete at a depth of from 25 mm to 75 mm from the surface rather than just the property of the surface layer as in the Schmidt rebound test. WINDSOR PROBE TEST LIMITATIONS: • The minimum acceptance distance from a test location to any edges of the concrete member between two test locations is of the order of 150 mm to 200 mm.
• The minimum thickness of the member, which can be
tested, is about 3 times the expected depth of probe penetration.
• The distance from reinforcement can also have an effect on
the depth of probe penetration especially when the distance is less than about 100 mm. WINDSOR PROBE TEST LIMITATIONS: • The test is limited to < 40 MPa and if two different powder levels are used in an investigation to accommodate a larger range of concrete strengths, the correlation procedure becomes complicated.
• The test leaves an 8 mm hole in the concrete where the
probe retreated and, in older concrete, the area around the point of penetration is heavily fractured.
• On an exposed face the probes have to be removed and the
damaged area repaired. MODULE-II LECTURE - 12 Reference : 1. Shettey M.S, “Concrete Technology – Theory and practice”, S. Chand and Co. , 2005 2. Santhakumar A.R, “Concrete Technology”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. PULL OUT TEST • Method Involves the measurement of the force to pull out a specifically shaped steel road or some similar device from a concrete surface. • Two types: Cast in method and drilled hole method • Value of test depends upon the ability to relate pull out force to concrete strength. • Relation between pull out and concrete strength is relatively unaffected by mix characteristics and curing history. PULL OUT TEST EQUIPMENTS: • A pullout insert, a loading system, and a load-measuring system
• For post-installed inserts, additional equipment includes a
core drill, a grinding wheel to prepare a flat bearing surface, a milling tool to undercut a groove to engage the insert, and an expansion tool to expand the insert into the groove. PULL OUT TEST CAST-IN METHOD: • Method Consist of incorporating the pull out assembly in the formwork at the time of concreting. • Cast-in-place inserts shall be made of metal that does not react with cement. The insert shall consist of a cylindrical head and a shaft to fix embedment depth that is attached firmly to the center of the head • The assembly is pulled out hydraulically against a circular bearing ring. • A cone of concrete is pulled out with assembly and the force required to achieve this is translated to compressive strength by the equation PULL OUT TEST CAST IN METHOD (CONTD..): PULL OUT TEST CAST IN METHOD (CONTD..): PULL OUT TEST CAST IN METHOD (CONTD..): • Pull out strength, fp=P/A where P is pulling force and A is failure surface area
d1 d 2 4h 2 d1 d 2 1 A 2 2
4 d1 = Larger diameter of pulled out concrete cone frustum ie. internal diameter of bearing ring d2 = Diameter of pull-out insert head h = Distance from insert head to the surface MODULE-II LECTURE - 13 Reference : 1. Shettey M.S, “Concrete Technology – Theory and practice”, S. Chand and Co. , 2005 2. Santhakumar A.R, “Concrete Technology”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. CRACK DETECTION TECHNIQUES ACOUSTIC EMISSION METHOD • AE provides information about – origin of discontinuity and development of the flaw as component is further loaded
• Passive NDT method
• Crack growth due to hydrogen embrittlement, fatigue, stress
corrosion, and creep can be detected and located
• High-pressure leaks can also be detected and isolated
CRACK DETECTION TECHNIQUES ACOUSTIC EMISSION METHOD (cont…) • Discontinuities in components release energy as the component is subjected to mechanical loading or stress
• This energy travels as high frequency stress waves
• These waves received using sensors that converts energy to
voltage
• Characterization of received signal according to source location,
intensity and frequency CRACK DETECTION TECHNIQUES ACOUSTIC EMISSION METHOD (cont…) CRACK DETECTION TECHNIQUES PULSE- ECHO METHOD • Used for locating- voids, cracks and zones of deterioration
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy
and the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy (an echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time,
which provides the inspector information about the size and the location of features that reflect the sound. CRACK DETECTION TECHNIQUES PULSE- ECHO METHOD CRACK DETECTION TECHNIQUES PULSE- ECHO METHOD Digital display showing signal generated from sound reflecting off back surface.
Digital display showing the
presence of a reflector midway through material, with lower amplitude back surface reflector. THANKYOU !
