Embryo

An embryo is an early stage of

development of a multicellular organism.
In general, in organisms that reproduce
sexually, embryonic development refers to
the portion of the life cycle that begins just
after fertilization and continues through
the formation of body structures, such as
tissues and organs. Each embryo starts
development as a zygote, a single cell
resulting from the fusion of gametes (i.e.
fertilization of a female egg cell by a male
sperm cell). In the first stages of
embryonic development, a single-celled
zygote undergoes many rapid cell
divisions, called cleavage, to form a
blastula, which looks similar to a ball of
cells. Next, the cells in a blastula-stage
embryo start rearranging themselves into
layers in a process called gastrulation.
These layers will each give rise to different
parts of the developing multicellular
organism, such as the nervous system,
connective tissue, and organs.
 Embryo

A male human embryo, seven weeks old

or nine weeks' gestational age

Identifiers

MeSH D004622

TE E1.0.2.6.4.0.8

Anatomical terminology
A newly developing human is typically
referred to as an embryo until the ninth
week after conception (see human
embryogenesis), when it is then referred to
as a fetus. In other multicellular
organisms, the word “embryo” can be used
more broadly to any early developmental
or life cycle stage prior to birth or hatching.

Etymology
First attested in English in the mid-14c., the
word embryon derives from Medieval Latin
embryo, itself from Greek ἔμβρυον
(embruon), lit. "young one",[1] which is the
neuter of ἔμβρυος (embruos), lit. "growing
in",[2] from ἐν (en), "in"[3] and βρύω (bruō),
"swell, be full";[4] the proper Latinized form
of the Greek term would be embryum.

Development

Animal embryos …
Play media

Embryonic development of salamander, circa the

1920s

Embryos (and one tadpole) of the wrinkled frog (Rana

rugosa)
In animals, fertilization begins the process
of embryonic development with the
creation of a zygote, a single cell resulting
from the fusion of gametes (e.g. egg and
sperm).[5] The development of a zygote
into a multicellular embryo proceeds
through a series of recognizable stages,
often divided into cleavage, blastula,
gastrulation, and organogenesis.[6]

Cleavage is the period of rapid mitotic cell

divisions that occur after fertilization.
During cleavage, the overall size of the
embryo does not change, but the size of
individual cells decrease rapidly as they
divide to increase the total number of
cells.[7] Cleavage results in a blastula.[6]

Depending on the species, a blastula stage

embryo can appear as a ball of cells on
top of yolk, or as a hollow sphere of cells
surrounding a middle cavity.[8] The
embryo's cells continue to divide and
increase in number, while molecules within
the cells such as RNAs and proteins
actively promote key developmental
processes such as gene expression, cell
fate specification, and polarity.[9]

Gastrulation is the next phase of

embryonic development, and involves the
development of two or more layers of cells
(germinal layers). Animals that form two
layers (such as Cnidaria) are called
diploblastic, and those that form three
(most other animals, from flatworms to
humans) are called triploblastic. During
gastrulation of triploblastic animals, the
three germinal layers that form are called
the ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm.[8] All tissues and organs of a
mature animal can trace their origin back
to one of these layers.[10] For example, the
ectoderm will give rise to the skin
epidermis and the nervous system,[11] the
mesoderm will give rise to the vascular
system, muscles, bone, and connective
tissues,[12] and the endoderm will give rise
to organs of the digestive system and
epithelium of the digestive system and
respiratory system.[13][14] Many visible
changes in embryonic structure happen
throughout gastrulation as the cells that
make up the different germ layers migrate
and cause the previously round embryo to
fold or invaginate into a cup-like
appearance.[8]

Past gastrulation, an embryo continues to

develop into a mature multicellular
organism by forming structures necessary
for life outside of the womb or egg. As the
name suggests, organogenesis is the
stage of embryonic development when
organs form. During organogenesis,
molecular and cellular interactions prompt
certain populations of cells from the
different germ layers to differentiate into
organ-specific cell types.[15] For example,
in neurogenesis, a subpopulation of cells
from the ectoderm segregate from other
cells and further specialize to become the
brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nerves.[16]

The embryonic period varies from species

to species. In human development, the
term fetus is used instead of embryo after
the ninth week after conception,[17]
whereas in zebrafish, embryonic
development is considered finished when
a bone called the cleithrum becomes
visible.[18] In animals that hatch from an
egg, such as birds, a young animal is
typically no longer referred to as an
embryo once it has hatched. In vivaparous
animals (animals whose offspring spend
at least some time developing within a
parent's body), the offspring is typically
referred to as an embryo while inside of
the parent, and is no longer considered an
embryo after birth or exit from the parent.
However, the extent of development and
growth accomplished while inside of an
egg or parent varies significantly from
species to species, so much so that the
processes that take place after hatching
or birth in one species may take place well
before those events in another. Therefore,
according to one textbook, it is common
for scientists interpret the scope of
embryology broadly as the study of the
development of animals.[8]
Plant embryos …

The inside of a Ginkgo seed, showing the embryo

Flowering plants (angiosperms) create

embryos after the fertilization of a haploid
ovule by pollen. The DNA from the ovule
and pollen combine to form a diploid,
single-cell zygote that will develop into an
embryo.[19] The zygote, which will divide
multiple times as it progresses throughout
embryonic development, is one part of a
seed. Other seed components include the
endosperm, which is tissue rich in nutrients
that will help support the growing plant
embryo, and the seed coat, which is a
protective outer covering. The first cell
division of a zygote is asymmetric,
resulting in an embryo with one small cell
(the apical cell) and one large cell (the
basal cell).[20] The small, apical cell will
eventually give rise to most of the
structures of the mature plant, such as the
stem, leaves, and roots.[21] The larger
basal cell will give rise to the suspensor,
which connects the embryo to the
endosperm so that nutrients can pass
between them.[20] The plant embryo cells
continue to divide and progress through
developmental stages named for their
general appearance: globular, heart, and
torpedo. In the globular stage, three basic
tissue types (dermal, ground, and
vascular) can be recognized.[20] The
dermal tissue will give rise to the
epidermis or outer covering of a plant,[22]
ground tissue will give rise to inner plant
material that functions in photosynthesis,
resource storage, and physical support,[23]
and vascular tissue will give rise to
connective tissue like the xylem and
phloem that transport fluid, nutrients, and
minerals throughout the plant.[24] In heart
stage, one or two cotyledons (embryonic
leaves) will form. Meristems (centers of
stem cell activity) develop during the
torpedo stage, and will eventually produce
many of the mature tissues of the adult
plant throughout its life.[20] At the end of
embryonic growth, the seed will usually go
dormant until germination.[25] Once the
embryo begins to germinate (grow out
from the seed) and forms its first true leaf,
it is called a seedling or plantlet.[26]

Plants that produce spores instead of

seeds, like bryophytes and ferns, also
produce embryos. In these plants, the
embryo begins its existence attached to
the inside of the archegonium on a
parental gametophyte from which the egg
cell was generated.[27] The inner wall of
the archegonium lies in close contact with
the "foot" of the developing embryo; this
"foot" consists of a bulbous mass of cells
at the base of the embryo which may
receive nutrition from its parent
gametophyte.[28] The structure and
development of the rest of the embryo
varies by group of plants.[29]

Since all land plants create embryos, they

are collectively referred to as
embryophytes (or by their scientific name,
Embryophyta). This, along with other
characteristics, distinguishes land plants
from other types of plants, such as algae,
which do not produce embryos.[30]

Research and technology

Biological processes …

Embryos from numerous plant and animal

species are studied in biological research
laboratories across the world to learn
about topics such as stem cells,[31]
evolution and development,[32] cell
division,[33] and gene expression.[34]
Examples of scientific discoveries made
while studying embryos that were awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
include the Spemann-Mangold organizer, a
group of cells originally discovered in
amphibian embryos that give rise to neural
tissues,[35] and genes that give rise to body
segments discovered in Drosophila fly
embryos by Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
and Eric Wieschaus.[36]
Assisted reproductive technology …

Creating and/or manipulating embryos via

assisted reproductive technology (ART) is
used for addressing fertility concerns in
humans and other animals, and for
selective breeding in agricultural species.
Between the years 1987 - 2015, ART
techniques including in vitro fertilization
(IVF) were responsible for an estimated 1
million human births in the United States
alone.[37] Other clinical technologies
include preimplantation genetic diagnosis
(PGD), which can identify certain serious
genetic abnormalities, such as aneuploidy,
prior to selecting embryos for use in
IVF.[38] Some have proposed (or even
attempted - see He Jiankui affair) genetic
editing of human embryos via CRISPR-
Cas9 as a potential avenue for preventing
disease;[39] however, this has been met
with widespread condemnation from the
scientific community.[40][41]

ART techniques are also used to improve

the profitability of agricultural animal
species such as cows and pigs by
enabling selective breeding for desired
traits and/or to increase numbers of
offspring.[42] For example, when allowed to
breed naturally, cows typically produce one
calf per year, whereas IVF increases
offspring yield to 9-12 calves per year.[43]
IVF and other ART techniques, including
cloning via interspecies somatic cell
nuclear transfer (iSCNT),[44] are also used
in attempts to increase the numbers of
endangered or vulnerable species, such as
Northern white rhinos,[45] cheetahs,[46] and
sturgeons.[47]

Cryoconservation of plant and

animal biodiversity
…

Cryoconservation of genetic resources

involves collecting and storing the
reproductive materials, such as embryos,
seeds, or gametes, from animal or plant
species at low temperatures in order to
preserve them for future use.[48] Some
large-scale animal species
cryoconservation efforts include "frozen
zoos" in various places around the world,
including in the UK's Frozen Ark,[49] the
Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian
Wildlife (BCEAW) in the United Arab
Emirates,[50] and the San Diego Zoo
Institute for Conservation in the United
States.[51][52] As of 2018, there were
approximately 1,700 seed banks used to
store and protect plant biodiversity,
particularly in the event of mass extinction
or other global emergencies.[53] The
Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway
maintains the largest collection of plant
reproductive tissue, with more than a
million samples stored at -18 °C.[54]

Fossilized embryos
Fossilized animal embryos are known from
the Precambrian, and are found in great
numbers during the Cambrian period. Even
fossilized dinosaur embryos have been
discovered.[55]

See also
 Human embryonic development
Plant embryogenesis
Pregnancy
Prenatal development
In vitro fertilisation
Proembryo
Miscarriage
Abortion

Notes
1. ἔμβρυον Archived 2013-05-31 at the
Wayback Machine, Henry George