Machinability of Engineering Materials: Hongyu Zheng and Kui Liu Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Singapore

Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-4976-7_2-1
# Springer-Verlag London 2013
Machinability of Engineering Materials

Hongyu Zheng* and Kui Liu
Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Singapore
Abstract
There are thousands of materials available for engineering applications. Machinability is an indica-
tor of one engineering material how easy or difficult to be machined using a cutting tool to achieve an
acceptable surface finish, which could be considered as a material property. Engineers are often
challenged to find ways to improve machinability without harming material performance, which are
much focused on the machining efficiency and productivity. However, unlike most material
properties, machinability cannot be simplified into a unique work material property, but rather
considering as a resultant property of the machining system which is mainly affected by work
material’s physical properties, heat treatment processes, and work-hardening behavior, as well as
cutting tool materials, tool geometry, machining operation type, cutting conditions, and cutting
fluids. When assessing a material machinability, all other aspects of the machining system must
be considered concurrently. An understanding of the interactions between tool and work materials at
the tool–work interface would benefit to machining behavior and machinability. Tool material
and cutting speed perhaps are the two most important parameters for engineering material
machinability assessments. Materials with good machinability require little power to cut, can be
cut quickly, easily obtain a good surface finish, and do not wear the cutting tool fast. Engineering
materials could be developed with improved machinability or more uniform machinability
through microstructure modification and chemical components adjustment. Advance developed
tool materials with high thermal hardness and wear resistance would improve the material
machinability.
Introduction
Engineering Materials
There are thousands of materials available for engineering applications. Based on the atomic
bonding forces of a particular material, all engineering materials can be grouped into four classes:
metallic, ceramic, polymeric, and composite which is created by a combination of different
materials. Within each of four classes, materials can be further organized into groups based on
their chemical composition or certain physical or mechanical properties. Below is a list of four
general groups of materials and their distinctive properties.
(A) Metals and alloys – inorganic materials compounded one or more metallic elements, including
ferrous metals and alloys (iron, carbon steel, stainless steel, tool steel, and steel alloy) and
nonferrous metals and alloys (aluminum, copper, brass, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and
superalloys):
*Email: [email protected]
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• Usually having crystalline structure

• High thermal and electrical conductivity
• High strength and elastic modulus
• Good ductility and toughness
• Strengthened by alloying and heat treatment
• Corrosion resistant
(B) Ceramics and glasses – inorganic materials consisted of both metallic and nonmetallic elements
bonded together, including glass, carbide, glass ceramic, and graphite:
• High melting point

• High chemical stability
• High hardness and thermal strength
• Brittleness
• Low electrical conductivity
(C) Polymers – organic materials consisted of long molecular chains or networks containing carbon,
including thermoplastic, thermosetting plastic, and elastomer:
• Low density and low rigidity

• Low electrical conductivity
• Good strength-to-weight ratio
• Corrosion resistance, but does not apply to high temperature
• Good compatibility with human tissue
(D) Composites – consisted of two or more above distinct materials together, including metal-
matrix composite, ceramic matrix composite, and fiber reinforcement composite:
• Consisting a matrix and a reinforcement

• Combining the best properties of each component material
Definition of Machinability
The term “machinability” is a property of a material which governs the ease or difficulty with which
the material can be machined, achieving an acceptable surface finish using a cutting tool. Materials
with good machinability require little power to cut, can be cut quickly, easily obtain a good surface
finish, and do not wear the cutting tool fast. Such materials are said to be free machining. Thus, all
engineering materials machined may be classified as (Shaw 1983):
1. Easy-machining materials (aluminum and copper alloys)

2. Ordinary wrought steels and cast irons
3. Difficult-to-machine materials
Manufacturing and production engineers are often challenged to find ways to improve machin-
ability without harming material performance, which are much focused on the machining efficiency
and productivity. However, unlike most material properties, machinability cannot be simplified into
a unique work material property which is not a commonly accepted parameter used for its
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measurement of machining performance, but rather considering as a resultant property of the

machining system which is mainly affected by work material’s physical properties such as micro-
structure, grain size, heat treatment, chemical composition, fabrication, hardness, yield strength,
tensile strength, Young’s modulus, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and work hardening.
Other factors also affecting material machinability include cutting tool materials, tool geometry,
machining operation type, cutting conditions, and cutting fluids, as well as machine tool, fixture,
and jig.
Machinability Criteria
There are many factors affecting material machinability, but no widely accepted way to quantify
it. The basic machinability of a material is a function of its (Shaw 1983):
• Chemistry
• Structure
• Compatibility with tool materials
The basic machining characteristics of all engineering materials are quite different due to the
differences in their chemical and physical properties. Such a wide variety of engineering materials
will also have different machinability depending upon machining conditions and tool materials used.
As the machinability is more like a resultant property of the machining system, to assess one
material’s machining performance, i.e., machinability, may utilize one or more of the following
criteria (Trent and Wright 2000):
1. Tool life – is the measurement of how long a tool lasts when cutting a material. The Taylor
equation for tool life expectancy provides a good approximation:
V cT n ¼ C (1)
where Vc is cutting speed,

T is tool life, and
n and C are constants found by experimentation or published data; they are properties of tool
material, workpiece, and feed rate.
2. Martial removal rate (MMR) – is the volume of material removed by the cutting tool per unit time.
For milling process, the material removal rate of the process can be obtained by
RMR ¼ nfd (2)
where RMR is material removal rate,

v is cutting speed,
f is feed rate, and
d is depth of cut.
3. Machined surface finish – also known as surface texture, is a characteristic of a surface including,
surface roughness, and waviness. One of the most effective surface roughness measurement,
commonly adopted in general engineering practice, is known as arithmetic mean value Ra, an
arithmetic average of the absolute values as following:
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1Xn
Ra ¼ jyi j (3)
n
where Ra is arithmetic mean surface roughness.
It gives a good general description of the height variations in the machined surfaces.The
surface profile contains n equally spaced points along the trace, and is the vertical distance from
the mean line to the point. Height is assumed to be positive above the mean line, and negative
below the mean line.
4. Cutting forces – required for a tool to cut through a material directly related to the power
consumed. Therefore, tool forces are often given in units of specific cutting energy, Ps, i.e.,
energy required to remove unit volume of material:
Ps ¼ F=fd (4)
where F is cutting force.

5. Cutting power – is the power consumed by the machine tool during machining operations to
remove the unwanted material from the workpiece material in the form of chips, which can be
expressed as
Pm ¼ Fn (5)
where Pm is cutting power.

6. Chip formation – chips formed and flowed along rake face around the cutting tool and chip shapes
influenced by work materials, machining operation type, cutting tool geometry, and cutting
conditions. Normally, there are three basic types of chip formed during machining processes:
continuous, discontinuous, and continuous with built-up edge (BUE). For some extreme cases,
types of chips formed may change from continuous to continuous with BUE and further to
discontinuous even cutting of the same work material with the same cutting tool just by changing
its cutting parameters.
A material may have good machinability by one criterion, but poor by another. Also, relative
machinability may change when a different type of machining operation is being carried out, for
example, turning versus milling, or the tool material used being changed. Due to many factors
involved, it is best to state the comparison when two materials are compared to their
machinability.
Material Property Effects on Machinability

The best machinability can be achieved in a material if there is:
• Not too high ductility

• No high work (strain) hardening
• Not too much abrasiveness
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It is not easy to define the material machinability without the help of the original material’s
properties. But certain trends can be found for certain materials.
Hardness
Hardness is closely related to strength. It is the ability of a material to resist a localized deformation
from indentation, scratching, penetration bending, abrasion, and wear. Alloying techniques and heat
treatment would help to achieve high resistance to the localized deformation, i.e., high hardness
achieved after alloying or heat treatment. It is measured on special hardness testers by measuring the
resistance of the material against penetration of an indent or of special shape under a given load.
Hardness measurements are widely used for material quality control because they are fast and
considered to be nondestructive tests. The different scales of hardness are Brinell hardness,
Rockwell hardness, Vickers hardness, etc. Hardness can be an indicator of material machinability,
but hardness alone is not consistent as a measure of material machinability.
The material’s machinability varies with its microstructure and hardness (Finn 1989). A work
material having a low hardness and low work-hardening rate produces small cutting forces and low
contact pressure at the tool–chip interface, consequently causing a low temperature rising at the
cutting region, hence, shows a good machinability. Low hardness values make a material easier to
machine. However, low hardness is a disadvantage if it is associated with high ductility.
Apparently, a material is chosen for a particular application primarily due to its properties and
functions, and generally, its machining performance is becoming a secondary factor in this selection.
Hardness is changed in accordance with its microstructure. Therefore, control of work material
microstructure is particularly important as it is one property which can be influenced by the material
manufacturer, to some extent. Hard particles like carbides and nitrides are undesirable for materials
as they are the cause to a faster abrasive tool wear. If a slight degradation of material properties
would not much affecting on its application, choosing an easy-to-machine material will benefit to the
reducing of machining cost.
Yield Strength
Stress is a resistance against the internal force acting within a deformable object. Quantitatively, it is
a measure of the average force per unit area of a plane within the object on which internal forces act.
These internal forces arise as a reaction to external loads applied to the object. Normal stress s is on
a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the object, which can be calculated using the
following equation:
P
s¼ (6)
A
where P is external applied load and
A is original cross-sectional area.
A strain is a normalized measurement of the deformation representing the displacement between
particles in the object relative to a reference length. Normal strain e in the longitudinal direction is the
total deformation divided by the original length of the object, which can be calculated using the
following equation:
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a σ b
σ
σU
Rupture
σY
E
E
Yield Strain-hardening Necking

ε
0 0.2% ε
Fig. 1 Stress–strain curve showing a typical yield behavior for engineering materials. (a) Ferrous alloys. (b) Nonferrous
alloys
a
b c
Opening Mode Sliding Mode Tearing Mode
Fig. 2 Three possible modes of crack extension in materials
d
e¼ (7)
L
where d is change in the object’s length and
L is original object length.
As shown in Fig. 1, the stress s is shown as a function of strain e and the initial portion of the
stress–strain curve for the most materials used in engineering structures is a straight line. That is, for
stress–strain curve straight line portion, the stress s is directly proportional to the strain e, of which
this relationship is known as Hooke’s law in terms of continuum mechanics and was first recorded by
Robert Hooke, an English mathematician, in 1678. Therefore, for an object subjected to a uniaxial
load, its strain e is linearly proportional to its tensile stress s by a constant factor E; hence,
s ¼ Ee (8)
where E is elastic modulus.

Hooke’s law only holds for some materials under certain loading conditions, which is only valid
for it throughout its elastic range, i.e., for stresses below yield strength.
Yield stress is an indicator of the stress level where the material begins to deform plastically. This
stress level point is called as yield point where some fraction of the deformation will be permanent
and nonreversible, and the material no longer returns to its original shape and size after the applied
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stress release. However, not all material has a well-defined yield point. In the absence of a distinct
yield point, a 0.2 % offset is used to obtain an approximate yield point. Figure 1 is a stress–strain
curve showing typical yield behavior for nonferrous alloys: (a) ferrous alloys and (b) nonferrous
alloys.
In general, material hardness and yield strength are related. A material with high yield strength
requires a high level of force to initiate chip formation in a machining process. Materials with
relatively high strengths will be more difficult to machine and will reduce tool life. The same as
hardness, a work material having low yield strength produces small cutting forces and low contact
pressure at the tool–chip interface, consequently causing a low temperature rising at the cutting
region, hence, shows a good machinability too.
Fracture Toughness
Fracture mechanics is one field of mechanics concerned with the study of crack propagation in
materials, which was developed during World War I by an English aeronautical engineer,
A.A. Griffith, to explain the failure of brittle materials. Fracture is a separation of an object or a
material into two, or more, pieces under the action of stress. Rather than focusing on the crack-tip
stresses directly, Griffith employed an energy-balance approach that has become one of the most
famous developments in material science, which can be used to calculate the driving force on a crack
and characterize the material’s resistance to fracture.
Fracture toughness is one of the most important material properties for all actually designed
applications, which is an indicator of the stress amount required to propagate preexisting defects as
there is no perfect material in the nature. All materials more or less contain some flaws which may
have appeared as cracks, voids, metallurgical impurity, twins, segregations, dislocations, disconti-
nuities, or some combination thereof.
It has been shown that the two most important defects affecting the material failure are cracks and
dislocations (Ewalds and Wanhill 1986). Usually, there are three possible modes of crack propaga-
tion generally identified by the subscripts I, II, and III as shown in Fig. 2: mode I also called the
opening mode, mode II usually called the sliding mode, and mode III also referred to as the tearing
mode. In practice, among these three modes, the most applicable is the opening mode (mode I).
Crack propagation in materials has been the subject of many researches in the field of linear elastic
fracture mechanics and fatigue being well documented.
Irwin found that if the size of the plastic zone around a crack is small compared to the size of the
crack, the energy required to grow the crack will not be critically dependent on the state of stress at
the crack tip. He showed that for an opening mode crack (mode I), the strain energy release rate G for
crack growth and the stress intensity factor KI are relevant, which can be expressed using the
following stress field equations (Irwin 1957):
8 2
> K
< I for plane stress
G ¼ GI ¼ E (9)
>
: 1 n ÞK I
ð 2 2
for plane strain
E
where G is strain energy release rate or energy dissipation,
GI is strain energy release rate for a mode I crack (opening mode),
n is Poisson’s ratio, and
KI is stress intensity factor in mode I.
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W
q
2a
Fig. 3 A plate of finite width subjected to uniform stress
An internal through crack of length 2a is situated in a plate of finite width W and is subjected to
a stress s at the boundary as shown in Fig. 3. The stress intensity factor KI is expressed as
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
K I ¼ Y s pa (10)
where Y is a geometric factor and

a is half crack length.
Irwin also showed that the strain energy release rate of a planar crack in a linear elastic object can
be expressed in terms of the mode I, mode II (sliding mode), and mode III (tearing mode) stress
intensity factors for the most general loading conditions.
As a property parameter of work materials, fracture toughness KC expresses the ability of
a material to resist the growth of a preexisting crack or flaw. The stresses at the tip of a crack are
much larger than that in the uncracked materials. It is widely accepted that the stress intensity factor
KI and fracture toughness KC largely affect crack propagations for materials (Kendall 1976). The
fracture toughness KC is expressed as
8 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
< rEG C ffi for plane stress
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
KC ¼ EGC (11)
: for plane strain
1 n2
where GC is critical energy release rate.

If GI GC, this is the criterion for which the crack will begin to propagate. Irwin modified
Griffith’s solids theory by using stress intensity factor KI replacing strain energy release rate GI and
fracture toughness KC replacing surface weakness energy GC. Thus, when the stress intensity factor
KI reaches a critical level of fracture toughness KC, i.e., KI KC, the crack propagates and then
fracture occurs. Low fracture toughness contributes to easy crack propagation which results in
reduction in the difficulty of producing broken chips. Hence, a low fracture toughness value makes
a material easier to machine, showing a good machinability.
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Tensile strength
Strength and Ductility

Yield
strength
Ductility
Temperature
Fig. 4 Effect of temperature on material’s strength and ductility
Ceramic
High-alloy steel
Hardness
High C
steel
Low C steel
250 500
Temperature, °C
Fig. 5 Effect of temperature on material’s hardness
Temperature Effects on Machinability

The power consumed in metal cutting is largely converted into heat around the cutting region. High
temperatures are generated in the region of the cutting edge, which have a controlling influence on
the rate of tool wear and on the friction between the chip and tool (Boothroyd and Knight 1989).
Temperature rise at the tool–work interface, varied with the composition of the work material, is
directly affecting the cutting tool performance and significantly influences in limiting the rates of
metal removal when cutting iron, steel, and other metals and alloys of high melting point. Temper-
ature distribution at the tool–work interface was determined by changes in microhardness or
microstructure in the heat-affected regions of work material.
During the orthogonal cutting of mild steel, the mean share zone temperature ys increases slightly
with increasing cutting speed and then tends to become constant. Since the temperature rise (ym) at
the tool rake owning to friction heat in the secondary deformation zone increases rapidly with the
increasing cutting speed, as a result, the maximum tool–work interface temperature (ym + ys)
increases rapidly with the increasing cutting speed too (Boothroyd and Knight 1989). For example,
the maximum tool–work interface temperature can reach as high as 1,000 C when rough cutting of
steel.
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σ1 σ2 σ3 T1 T2 T3
T3 σ3
Temperature
T2 σ2
Stress
T1 σ1
Strain Strain
Fig. 6 Effects of temperature on material stress and strain
The high cutting temperature has a controlling influence on the work material mechanical
properties as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. Figure 4 shows the effect of temperature on material’s strength
and ductility, and Fig. 5 shows the effect of temperature on the material’s hardness of different
engineering materials. Normally, most material tensile strength and yield strength will decrease with
the increasing temperature. For example, yield stress (YS) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of
steel with 75 % ferrite, 15 % bainite, and 10 % retained austenite in volume decrease with an
increasing temperature. There exists a temperature region (120–400 C) where a reduction of
strength with increasing temperature is retarded or even slightly increased (Akbarpour 2007).
Ductility or elongation of most engineering materials will increase with the increasing tempera-
ture. But increasing temperature will cause material hardness decreasing. Experimental results of
tensile stress–strain curves obtained at temperatures of 260 C and 480 C for aluminum alloy 7000
T4 applying a constant strain rate of 103 s1 showed that the lower temperature specimen
underwent a moderately ductile failure with regions of both strain hardening and necking before
the final sudden fracture, of which elastic modulus is 63 GPa, 0.2 % yield strength is 180 MPa, and
ultimate strength is 233 MPa. The higher temperature specimen experienced a highly ductile failure
with no sudden fracture, of which elastic modulus is 37 GPa, 0.2 % yield strength is 68 MPa, and
ultimate strength is 73 MPa (Codrington et al. 2009).
Figure 6 shows the typical effects of temperature on stress and strain for aluminum alloy 7075-T6:
(a) strain obtained under three constant stresses heated rapidly at widely different temperature rates
and (b) stress–strain curve at three different temperatures with a constant strain rate. The slant
portions of the curves give mainly the effects of thermal expansion. The sharp downward turn at the
right of each curve gives the effects of viscosity.
Overall, when machining of whatever materials like metals, polymers, composites, or ceramics,
there always is accompanying with a temperature rising in the cutting region. For example, when
rough cutting mild steel, the temperature rising in the cutting region can reach as high as more than
1,000 C. Definitely, such high temperature rising will change the work material mechanical
properties such as microhardness, tensile strength, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility,
and strain–stress status and frequently, material microstructure changing also happens. As a result,
work material machinability will be changed accordingly, which would be a compound result of all
kinds of effects including work material mechanical and thermal properties, microstructure, as well
as cutting tool thermal behavior.
Figure 7 shows a schematic diagram of suitable cutting speed including normal machining and
high-speed machining for different work materials, which indicates the differences of machinability
for different work materials from the cutting speed aspect. For example, cutting with a speed of
200 m/min is considered as a normal machining for fiber-reinforced plastics, aluminum, bronze, and
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Nickel-Base Alloys
Titanium
Steel
HSM Range
Cast Iron Transition Range
Normal Range
Bronze, Brass
Aluminium
Fiber Reinforced
Plastics
10 100 1000 10000
Cutting Speed [m/min]
Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of suitable cutting speed for different materials
brass, but it is considered as a high-speed machining for titanium alloys and nickel alloys. That is,
tool wear is very fast when cutting superalloys like titanium and nickel alloys even though the
cutting speed is considered a relatively low cutting speed for aluminum and copper. Therefore, to the
two extreme cases, superalloys including titanium alloys and nickel alloys are classified as difficult-
to-machine materials, and materials like aluminum and copper alloys are classified as easy-
machining materials.
There are great achievements on development of cutting tools in the past few decades, including
coated carbides, ceramics, cermets, cubic boron nitride (CBN), and polycrystalline diamond (PCD),
which have been used to improve the machining performance of cast irons, steels, and nickel alloys.
The trends to develop novel cutting tools should consider the following technical aspects, especially
for machining of titanium alloys which currently is not much successful (Ezugwu and Wang 1997):
1. High thermal hardness against high stresses involved

2. Good thermal conductivity to minimize cutting temperature gradients and thermal shock
3. Good chemical inertness to depress the tendency to react with titanium
4. Toughness and fatigue resistance to withstand the chip segmentation process
5. High compressive, tensile, and shear strength
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

Aluminum is a silver white metal element with chemical symbol Al and atomic number 13.
Aluminum is remarkable for the metal’s low density of 2.70 g/cm3 and for its ability to resist
corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminum is the third most abundant element and
the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust. Majority applications of aluminum and its alloys are
made of structural components, which are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in other
areas of transportation due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, where lightweight or corrosion
resistance is required. Due to low density, excellent recycling potential, and continuously improve-
ment of mechanical properties by metallurgists, the demand of aluminum and its alloys in all the
industries especially in transport industry is increasing. However, pure aluminum is too soft for such
applications, and it does not have the high tensile strength that is needed for aerospace and
transportation industries.
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Generally, the microconstituents present in aluminum alloys significantly influence the machining
characteristics. Nonabrasive constituents have a beneficial effect while insoluble abrasive constit-
uents demonstrate a detrimental effect on tool life and machined surface quality. In fact, aluminum
and aluminum alloys are considered as the family of materials offering the highest levels of
machinability, as compared to other families of lightweight metals such as titanium and magnesium
alloys. In general, they belong to the most machinable materials in small-to-medium volume
production and mass production, which can be machined relatively easily.
As the melting temperature of aluminum (around 659 C) and aluminum alloys is relatively low,
consequently, the machining temperatures are generally low and never being high enough to damage
the cutting tools’ microstructure such as high-speed steel tools and carbide tools. High cutting speed
can be used up to 600 m/min when carbide tools are being used and 300 m/min for high-speed steel
tools. Cutting speed can be achieved as high as 5,000 m/min when using polycrystalline diamond
(PCD) tools. Tool wear occurs generally in the form of flank wear when machining of aluminum and
aluminum alloys. Good tool life can be obtained as long as 20 km when PCD or single crystalline
diamond tools being used.
Pure Aluminum
For commercial pure aluminum like many other pure metals, in spite of the lower share strength, the
cutting forces are generated higher than those for aluminum alloys particularly at low cutting speeds
due to a very strong adhesion between the cutting tool and work material. The contact length on the
rake face tool–chip interface is very long, and no built-up edge (BUE) is present when machining of
commercial pure aluminum. Long and ductile chips are formed regardless of the cutting tool
geometry used. High tendency of aluminum to adhere to cutting tools produces a high risk leading
to tool breakage during machining of commercial pure aluminum.
As the chips formed during machining of commercial pure aluminum are continuous, strong, and
not readily broken, it always clogs the flutes and spaces between teeth or accumulates and coils at the
tool tip for single-point cutting. Therefore, the cutting tool needs to be sharp and have large positive
rake angle with a chip breaker, and sometimes, specially designed cutting tools are required for
cutting of aluminum.
Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum alloys are the alloys in which aluminum (Al) is the predominant elements. Typically, the
technically alloying elements used for aluminum alloys are silicon, magnesium, manganese, zinc,
and copper, targeting to improve fluidity, strength, ductility, castability, work hardening,
etc. Aluminum alloys can be broadly categorized as the cast alloys and wrought alloys. Wrought
aluminum alloys are generally divided into the heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable groups.
Wrought alloys account for about 85 % of aluminum use and are mainly made for the forming
products, for example, rolled plates, foils, and extrusions. The most important cast alloys are Al–Si
alloys, where the high levels of silicon (4.0–13 %) contribute to give good casting characteristics.
It is well known that chemical composition, structural defects, and alloying elements have
significant effects on the machinability of aluminum alloys. High levels of magnesium
(Mg) increase the cutting forces while maintaining the same level of hardness, and a low percentage
of copper (Cu) in aluminum alloys decreases the cutting force (Tash et al. 2006). Alloys containing
more than 10 % Si are the most difficult to machine because hard particles of free silicon cause rapid
tool wear. The presence of hard silicon particles in the alloys decreases machinability due to
accelerated abrasive wear of carbide tools and chipping of PCD tools, which typically are limited
to low cutting speeds both for carbide and PCD tools. When dry cutting aluminum alloys, the major
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Table 1 Classification of copper and its alloys

Alloy group Main alloying element
Copper alloys No deliberate alloying additions
Brasses Zinc (Zn)
Bronzes Tin (Sn)
Silicon bronzes Silicon (Si), Zinc (Zn)
Aluminum coppers Aluminum(Al), Iron (Fe)
Beryllium coppers Beryllium (Be), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni)
Copper-nickels Nickel (Ni)
problems encountered are the BUE generated at low cutting speeds and sticking at high cutting
speeds, hence, the need for special tool geometries. Different heat treatment methods can be used to
improve the machinability of aluminum alloys, which increase hardness and reduce the built-up
edge (BUE) tendency during machining processes. Heat treatment of Al 6061, especially aging,
influences the cutting forces only at low cutting speeds, but the influence is negligible at high cutting
speeds because of the low temperature rising found in the cutting region.
Copper, Brass, and Copper Alloys

Copper is a reddish orange color metal element with chemical symbol Cu and atomic number
29, which is a comparatively heavy metal with a density of 8.98 g/cm3. It is soft and malleable and
a highly ductile metal with a face-centered cubic structure, but it has a high melting point of
1,083 C. Copper is one of the earliest metals known by human and have been used for thousands
of years. The attractive properties which made copper very wide applications are good corrosion
resistance, attractive color, excellent workability, and the best electrical and thermal conductivity of
any commercially available metals. Today, more than 50 % of the copper produced is used in
electrical and electronic applications.
Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal component. Typically, the main
alloying elements used for copper alloys are zinc, tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel. There are as
many as 400 different copper and copper alloys loosely grouped into the categories: copper, brasses,
bronzes, nickel copper, copper–nickel–zinc (nickel silver), leaded copper, and special alloys. Table 1
lists the principal alloying element for most common types used in modern industry.
Copper and Copper Alloys

Pure copper is ductile and weak but can be strengthened by alloying, mechanical working, and in
a small number of cases, precipitation hardening. The same behavior as pure aluminum, pure copper
is difficult to machine because of the high friction forces between the chips and cutting tool. In
general, copper alloys have a good machinability because the temperature rising generated by shear
in the cutting zone is not high enough to make a very serious effect on the tool life and cutting
performance. The copper and its alloys can be classified into three groups based on their machining
characteristics (Mills and Redford 1983):
• Free-machining alloys
• Difficult-to-machine alloys
• Intermediate-machining alloys
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Both carbide and high-speed steel tools could be used for machining of copper and its alloys. No
built-up edge (BUE) occurs when cutting high-conductivity copper. Tool wear occurs generally in
the form of flank wear or crater wear or both when machining of copper and its alloys. Good tool life
can be obtained as long as 10 km when PCD or single crystalline diamond tools are being used.
Cutting forces are very high particularly at low cutting speed. The machinability of copper and its
alloys are often based on the type of chips formed rather than tool life because they have only
moderate shear strength. The machining behavior of copper is somehow improved by cold working
and alloying.
Brass
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, and zinc content can be up to 43 %, which has higher
malleability than bronze or zinc. The relatively low melting point of brass (900–940 C, depending
on composition) and its flow characteristics make it relatively easy to cast. Today almost 90 % of all
brasses are recycled. By varying the proportions of zinc and copper, its properties can be changed. If
zinc content is less than 35 %, the brass will be solidified in a single-phase microstructure, a-brass.
A higher zinc concentration produces a two-phase microstructure, i.e., a-b brass.
When cutting a-brass, the cutting forces are lower. There is a great reduction of cutting forces
when cutting a-b brass. Greater b phase in brass, lower cutting force. For brasses containing
between 62 % and 65 % copper, lead additions up to 3 % give a continuous improvement in
machining characteristics. Due to the lower cutting forces and machine power consumption in
cutting of both a-brass and a-b brass, together with slow tool wear rate, brasses are classified as
easy-machining materials, i.e., high machinability.
Oxygen-Free Copper
High purity copper is produced by electrolytic refining. Oxygen-free copper (OFC) generally refers
to a group of wrought high-conductivity copper alloys that have been electrolytically refined to
reduce the level of oxygen to 0.001 % or below. For industrial applications, oxygen-free copper is
valued more for its chemical purity than its electrical conductivity. Oxygen-free copper is often used
as the work material for optical components due to its material properties and favorable diamond
machinability because optical grade surfaces can be achieved with single-point diamond cutting.
When cutting of oxygen-free copper, the cutting force varieties are very sensitive to the grain
orientation and the transition of the cutting tool across grain boundaries of the alloys.
Copper-Nickels
Copper-nickel or cupronickel is an alloy of copper containing nickel and other strength elements,
which is highly ductile and single a phase microstructure alloy as copper and nickel are mutually
soluble in the solid state over all ranges of compositions. The two most popular copper-rich alloys
contain 10 % and 30 % nickel, which have excellent resistance to seawater corrosion. The corrosion
resistance of copper-nickel alloys is due to a protective film formed when in contacted with seawater.
As a result, copper-nickels are used for many marine hardware and seawater system.
The machining properties of copper-nickel alloys are similar to many other high-strength copper-
based alloys such as aluminum bronze and phosphor bronzes. When machining copper-nickel
alloys, continuous chips are formed with no segmentation over the all cutting speed range. The
workpiece materials are strongly bonded to the cutting tools over the whole contact areas for both
high-speed steel and carbide tools. The cutting forces are very high at the low cutting speed. When
increasing the cutting speed, cutting forces dropped rapidly. No built-up edge (BUE) is formed at
low cutting speed. Flank wear and crater wear happen when cutting with high-speed steel tools.
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Beryllium Copper
Beryllium copper, also called as copper beryllium, is a copper alloy with beryllium content around
0.5–3 % and other alloying elements, which can be age-hardenable and heat-treated to improve its
strength. The nonmagnetic and non-sparking beryllium copper alloys with high strength and good
electrical and thermal conductivity are used to make tools for the safe utilization in environments
where there are explosive vapors and gases, such as on oil rigs. Meanwhile, they can be used to make
springs, electronic connectors, bearings, molds, and corrosion-resistant hardware.
All beryllium copper alloys are readily machinable using conventional machining processes with
either high-speed steel or carbide tools. Because of the machining characteristics of beryllium
copper alloys, cutting tool life is excellent. In general, tool wear is proportional to speed, feed
rate, and depth of cut. Inhalation of airborne beryllium may cause a serious lung disorder in
susceptible individuals, as beryllium compounds are toxic and cumulative poisons. That is why
there is a great safety concern on handling and machining beryllium copper alloys. In fact, as
finished parts, beryllium copper presents no known health hazard.
Iron, Steel, and Steel Alloys

Iron is a lustrous silvery gray color metal element with chemical symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It
has a density of 7.874 g/cm3 and a high melting point of 1,358 C. Its microstructure is body-
centered cubic (a iron) at room temperature and transforming to face-centered cubic (g iron) just
above 900 C. Iron has relatively low shear strength but high ductility with poor machinability. Iron
alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. Steel basically is an alloy of iron with up to about
1.5 % carbon.
Cast Irons
Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing 2.0–4.5 % carbon (C). Silicon (Si) is another main alloying
element for cast iron, with the amount ranging from 1.0 % to 3.0 %. The high carbon content of cast
irons leads to a reduction of melting temperature compared with steels. With relatively low melting
point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability, resistance to deformation, and wear resis-
tance, cast irons have become a popular engineering material widely used in different industries for
making pipes, cylinders, machine tool beds, and automotive parts.
Historically, the first classification of cast iron was based on its fracture: white iron and gray iron.
With the advent of metallography, cast irons can be classified most exactly based on microstructural
features. Here are the most common cited classifications used today:
• White iron – a microstructure containing cementite phase, Fe3C

• Gray iron – flake graphite in a matrix of ferrite, pearlite, or austenite
• Nodular iron (also called ductile cast iron) – spheroidal graphite in a matrix of pearlite, ferrite,
bainite, or martensite
• Malleable iron – a white iron being heat-treated at about 900 C to improve ductility
Cast iron’s properties are changed by adding various alloying elements. The majority of engi-
neering cast irons are of the ferritic or pearlitic types.
Cast irons show a wide range of machining behavior which depends upon composition and
microstructure. Overall, cast iron has a good machinability: high material removal rate, low tool
wear rate, relatively small cutting forces, small fragment chips formed, and low power consumption.
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Because the chips formed are not continuous, the length of contact on the rake face is very short.
When cutting cast irons with carbide or high-speed steel tools, a built-up edge is formed and a very
good tool life can be achieved even at high cutting speeds. Ceramic tools have been developed and
utilized for machining cast irons mainly in mass production. Somewhat, machining of cast irons is
a dirty and dusty operation as it throws a fine graphite spray into the air.
Carbon Steels
Steels vary greatly in chemical content and microstructure. The main interstitial alloying constituent
for carbon steel is carbon. Generally, steels are classified according to their carbon content:
• Low carbon steel, with less than 0.3 % carbon

• Medium carbon steel, carbon content between 0.3 % and 0.8 %
• High carbon steel, carbon content above 0.8 % and below 1.5 %
Alloying elements in steel such as carbon, manganese, and chromium increase its strength. As the
carbon content increases, steel can be harder and stronger through heat treatment, but being less
ductile. This influences the cutting stresses and cutting temperature generated. Cutting force is
reduced by the addition of alloying elements. Low carbon steels have low hardness and high
ductility with the tendency forming built-up edge (BUE) adhered to the cutting tool strongly,
which leads to reducing tool life and poor surface finish. Its machining behavior can be improved
by increasing strength and reducing ductility through cold-drawing. Higher carbon content
improves the machinability in such a way that hardness is increased moderately and ductility
decreased.
High-speed steel and carbide tools have been used to cut off a very high percentage of carbon
steels. Using high-speed steel tools to machine steels with hardness higher than 300 HV is very
difficult. Carbide tools can be used to cut steels with higher hardness. But when the hardness exceeds
500 HV, carbide tool life becomes very short and permissible cutting speeds are very low. To cut
hardened steels, the cutting tools must retain their hardness and yield strength at the elevated cutting
temperatures. Ceramic tools can be used to cut steels with hardness of 600–650 HV. Using cubic
boron nitride (CBN) tools can machine fully hardened steels with large material removal rate and
long tool life. But CBN tool costs also very high. Therefore, it is not surprising that the engineering
industries always request for continuous improvement of steel’s machinability while maintaining the
mechanical properties to ensure its performance.
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels, also called corrosion-resistant steels, are iron-based alloys containing 10.50 % or
more chromium (Cr). These steels achieve their “stainless” characteristics as a result of the invisible
and adherent, chromium-rich oxide film that forms the material’s surface. Stainless steels can be
broadly divided into five groups by the dominant room temperature microstructure: austenitic,
ferritic, martensitic, precipitation hardening, and duplex types. Over the past few decades, stainless
steels have been widely used in a variety of applications such as chemical, petroleum, nuclear power,
marine, transportation, hospitals, dairies, food industry, etc. Austenitic alloys are the most widely
used one among all stainless steels in both cryogenic environment and elevated temperatures due to
easy fabrication and corrosion resistance.
Stainless steels are considered to be more difficult to machine than carbon steels due to high
tensile strength, high ductility, high work-hardening rate, low thermal conductivity, and abrasive
character, which lead to higher tool wear rate, difficulties with chip breakability, and poor surface
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finish. Austenitic stainless steels are strongly work hardening. A built-up edge is formed during
cutting of austenitic stainless steels even in a relatively lower cutting speed than cutting of carbon
steels. They bond very strongly to the cutting steel, and chips often remain stuck to the tool, causing
the tool fragment once the chip broke away. Typically, austenitic stainless steels are more difficult to
machine than ferritic and martensitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless steel is similar to austenitic
stainless steel but harder to machine due to its high annealed strength. Generally, TiN–TiCN-coated
carbides are recommended for machining of stainless steels using lower cutting speeds and material
removal rates than carbon steels, larger depth of cut than work-hardening layer thickness, and flush
coolant.
Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Titanium is a silver color metal element with chemical symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It has a low
density of 4.506 g/cm3 and a high melting point of 1,668 C. The two most useful properties of
titanium are corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-density ratio against any metals.
Titanium is 30 % stronger than steel but nearly 43 % lighter and 60 % heavier than aluminum but
twice as strong. Titanium has a relatively low thermal expansion coefficient and fairly hardness
although not as hard as some heat-treated steel, is nonmagnetic, does not exhibit a ductile-brittle
transition, and has a good biocompatibility and a poor conductor of heat and electricity. However,
oxygen and nitrogen are absorbed by titanium rapidly at the temperatures above 500 C, which leads
to potential embrittlement problems.
Titanium can exist in a close-packed hexagonal structure, i.e., a-phase, at room temperature, and
change to body-centered cubic structure, i.e., b-phase, at 883 C. Alloying elements in titanium
alloying tend to stabilize either a-phase below the transformation temperature of 883 C or allotrope
b-phase above the transformation temperature of 883 C. Generally, according to their crystal
structures at room temperature, titanium alloys are classified into four groups: a-alloy, near
a-alloy, b-alloy, and a + b alloy. The principal alloying element in titanium a-alloys is aluminum,
and titanium a-b alloys are normally containing more than two elements including aluminum,
copper, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium, and zirconium. The most widely used titanium a + b alloy
is Ti-6Al-4 V, which contains 10–50 % b-phase in volume.
Titanium alloys have excellent mechanical and exploitation properties such as high strength-to-
density ratio, high corrosion resistance, high fatigue and cracking resistance, and ability to withstand
moderately high temperatures without creeping, which have been widely used in aerospace indus-
tries as structural materials for supersonic aircraft and spacecraft and non-aerospace sections such as
military, automotive, and sporting goods. Due to being biocompatible, nontoxic, and not rejected by
the human body, titanium alloys are also very popular in medical applications including surgical
implements and implants like joint replacement which can last up to 20 years.
Titanium alloys are classified as difficult-to-machine materials due to their poor machining
behavior, which are attributed to their unique physical, chemical, and mechanical properties:
• Very low thermal conductivity (one-sixth of steel), causing the most heat generated concentrated
on the cutting edge and tool rake face, which results in high temperature gradients at the tool–chip
interface.
• Relatively low modulus of elasticity, tending to move away from the cutting point, which can lead
to distortion and chattering during machining.
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• Tendency of a strong alloying or reacting chemically with oxygen, nitrogen, and materials in the
cutting tools at elevated cutting temperatures, causing galling, welding, smearing and abrasive
wear along with rapid destruction of the cutting tool.
• Relatively small contact area on the cutting tool rake face, resulting in very high contact pressure
compared with the relatively high strength, raising the cutting temperature and increasing
temperature gradient at a much localized portion of the cutting tool. The combination of high
contact pressure and maximum cutting temperature rising very close to the cutting edge results in
rapid tool breakdown.
• Retaining its strength and hardness at elevated temperatures. Very high mechanical stresses occur
in the immediate vicinity of cutting edge when machining titanium, contributing to cutting
tool wear.
Obviously, titanium and its alloys should be machined at lower cutting speed than those steels
having similar hardness. The cutting forces are only slightly higher than those needed to machine
steels, but their metallurgical characteristics make somewhat more difficult to be machined than
steels with equivalent hardness. The combination of titanium’s poor thermal conductivity, low
elastic modulus, small cutting contact area, strong alloying tendency, and chemical reactivity with
cutting tools is a detriment to tool life and metal removal rate.
Pure Titanium
Commercial pure titanium is available in the market in a range of grades depending on oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbon. Its hardness and strength increases and ductility decreases when the content of
the abovementioned elements is increased. Historically, titanium has been perceived as a difficult-to-
machine material. Along with wide applications in many industries, experience and knowledge
accumulated, titanium can now be machined no more difficult than stainless steel 316. High-speed
steels are widely used for machining of titanium because of their flexibility and lower cost than
cemented carbides. Titanium chips are continuous but typically segmented. The main problem of
machining titanium is short tool life. As cutting speed is increased, cutting tool life is dramatically
decreased.
Slender components tend to deflect under the cutting contact pressure causing chatter, tool
rubbing, and hence tolerance problems. Rigidity of the entire machining system is consequently
very important. Generally, titanium machining behavior can be improved through decreasing
temperatures generated at the tool face and cutting edge by considering the following aspects:
• Use sharp tools and positive cutting edges. However, complete tool failure occurs rather quickly
after a small initial amount of wear takes place.
• Use low cutting speeds. Tool tip temperatures are affected more by cutting speed than by other
cutting variables.
• Apply high feed rates. Cutting temperature is not much affected by feed rate compared to cutting
speed.
• Use flush coolant. Cutting fluids used require special consideration due to having chlorine ions
may cause stress-corrosion cracking.
Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V, the most common titanium a + b alloy, is predominately used in the aerospace industries
as airframes and engine components, accounting for over 45 % of the total titanium production. Its
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Table 2 Ti-6Al-4V alloy chemical compositions

Chemical elements (%) Content
Aluminum (Al) 5.5–6.75 %
Vanadium(V) 3.5–4.5 %
Iron (Fe) <0.25 %
Hydrogen (H) <0.015 %
Titanium (Ti) Balance
Table 3 Ti-6Al-4 V alloy mechanical properties

Mechanical properties Values
Density 4.42 g/cm3
Melting point 1,650 C
Hardness 340–360 HV
Ultimate tensile strength 895–1,035 MPa
0.2 % Yield strength 825–965 MPa
Elongation 8–10 %
Thermal conductivity 7.3–7.5 W/m K
Elasticity modulus 110 GPa
chemical compositions are listed in the following Table 2 and the mechanical properties of
Ti-6Al-4V are listed in Table 3.
When machining of titanium alloys, the heat-affected zone is much smaller and much closer to the
cutting edge because of the thinner chips produced due to a short contact length. A large proportion
about 80 % of heat generated during the machining of Ti-6Al-4V is conducted into the cutting tool
because it cannot be transferred into fast-flowing chips due to a low thermal conductivity, which
causes high tool-tip temperatures up to about 1,100 C (Ezugwu and Wang 1997). Titanium is an
extremely reactive metal and has a strong chemical reactivity with almost all chemical elements
within the cutting tools. Fine particles of titanium can be ignited and burnt. The chips have
a tendency to pressure weld to cutting tools, causing severe dissolution–diffusion wear at elevated
cutting temperature. Notching, flank wear, crater wear, chipping, and catastrophic failure are the
prominent failure modes for machining of Ti-6Al-4V. However, the use of flood coolant in most
machining operations can eliminate this danger to a large extent. Using through spindle coolant
directed to the cutting edges would improve cutting tool life and could even utilize a high cutting
speed.
Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Nickel is a silvery white lustrous metal element with chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28. Its
melting point is 1,454 C, lower than iron of 1,535 C. It is hard and ductile with a face-centered
cubic structure and does not undertake any transformation in its basic crystal structure up to its
melting point. The metallurgy of nickel alloys is complex. Pure nickel can be alloyed with copper,
chromium, iron, titanium, molybdenum, aluminum, niobium, and tungsten. Solid solution-
strengthened alloys including those containing copper and chromium demonstrated excellent
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corrosion resistance to seawater, hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids, and alkalis. Alloying elements are
added to import high temperature strength through three basic mechanisms:
• Solid solution strengthening (Cr, W)

• Precipitation strengthening through formation of stable intermetallic compounds (Al, Ti, Nb)
• Precipitation strengthening and high temperature oxidation resistance (Ta)
Nickel-based alloys, such as commercially available grades Inconel, Incoloy, Nimonic, Rene, and
K-Monel, are generally known to be difficult-to-machine materials because of their high hardness,
high strength at high temperature, strong affinity to react with tool materials, and low thermal
conductivity. When machining nickel and nickel alloys, the maximum temperature rising occurs at
the cutting tool tip, rather than on the rake face and a distance away from the cutting edge for steel
cutting. No relatively cool region at the cutting tool edge is presented when cutting nickel and nickel
alloys. High temperature generated tends to deform the main cutting edge and may result in rapid
collapse of the cutting tool. That is another reason why nickel and nickel alloys are classified as
difficult-to-machine materials.
Pure Nickel
Compared with nickel alloys, commercial pure nickel has high electrical and thermal conductivity
and also has a poor machinability in terms of the almost all machinability criteria. Cutting forces are
higher compared to cutting pure iron and copper. Contact length on the tool rake face is very large.
No built-up edge is formed during cutting of pure nickel. High temperature rising at the chip
formation zone results in a high tool wear rate. Tool failure is caused by rapid flank wear and cutting
edge deformation at relatively low cutting speed. Tool life is relatively short and the maximum
material removal rate is low.
Compared with high-speed steel tools, carbide tools have a high compressive strength at high
temperature, which can be used for cutting nickel and its alloys at a much high speed. Its tool wear is
mainly on flank face by diffusion wear and deformation wear, rather than crater wear. However,
carbide tools are not recommended for cutting of pure nickel generally. Because there is very strong
bonding between nickel chips and tool faces, causing tearing and damages once the chips are
removed.
Inconel 718
Inconel refers to a family of austenitic nickel–chromium-based superalloys. They are corrosion- and
oxidation-resistant materials well suited for service in extreme environments subjected to pressure
and heat. Inconel 718 is a precipitation-hardenable nickel–chromium alloy and an extremely
difficult-to-machine material – largely due to its higher yield strength compared and
age-hardened. Its chemical compositions are listed in the following Table 4.
The mechanical properties of Inconel 718 are listed in Table 5. The key features of Inconel
718 include:
• High resistant to chloride and sulfide stress corrosion cracking

• High strength in the aged condition
• Good corrosion resistance
Inconel is a difficult-to-machine material due to the high work-hardening rate and the presence of
hard abrasive particles such as titanium carbide, niobium carbide, and Ni3AlTi phase. After the first
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Table 4 Inconel 718 chemical compositions

Chemical elements (%) Minimum Maximum
Nickel (Ni) 50.0 55.0
Chromium (Cr) 17.0 21.0
Iron (Fe) – Balance
Niobium + Tantalum (Nb + Ta) 4.75 5.5
Molybdenum (Mo) 2.8 3.3
Aluminum (Al) 0.65 1.15
Cobalt (Co) – 1.0
Copper (Cu) 0.2 0.8
Manganese (Mn) – 0.35
Titanium (Ti) – 0.3
Silicon (Si) – 0.3
Table 5 Inconel 718 mechanical properties

Density 8.19 g/cm3
Melting point 1,260–1,336 C
Hardness 30–40 HRC
Ultimate tensile strength 150 ksi
0.2 % Yield strength 120–140 ksi
Elongation 20 %
Thermal conductivity 11.4 W/m K
Elasticity modulus 29 106 psi
machining pass, work hardening tends to plastically deform either the workpiece or the tool on
subsequent passes. For this reason, age-hardened Inconel 718 are machined using an aggressive but
slow cutting with a hard tool, minimizing the number of cutting passes required. It is usual to use low
cutting speed to reduce tool wear rate. If the feed rate is too slow, the tool is continuously cutting
through the work-hardened layer generated by the previous cutting passes. If the feeding is too fast,
the cutting forces acting on the cutting tool could be too large causing catastrophic failure. Inconel
718 also retains its strength at elevated temperatures which results in high cutting forces even at
a high cutting speed due to high temperatures generated. The usual turning speeds for Inconel 718 is
20–35 m/min, and the feed rate is chosen in the range of 0.18–0.25 mm using uncoated carbides
K10/K20. Alternatives to carbides for turning are non-oxide ceramics and polycrystalline cubic
boron nitride (PCBN). When using PCBN tools, the speed used for cutting of Inconel 718 can be
higher, up to 300–600 m/min.
Polymers
A polymer is a chemical compound or compound mixture consisting of large macromolecules
composed of many repeating structural units created through a process of polymerization. These
molecules are covalently bonded chains of atoms. Unless they are cross-linked, the macromolecules
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Table 6 Mechanical properties of PMMA

Density 1.18 g/cm3
Melting point 160 C
Glass transition temperature (Tg) 105 C
Ultimate tensile strength 30 MPa
Young’s modulus 2.2 GPa
Elongation 1.4 %
Thermal conductivity 0.18 W/m K
interact with another by weak secondary bonds and entanglement. The mechanical properties and
thermal behavior of polymers are influenced by several factors, including the composition and
structure of the macromolecular chains and their molecular weight. Compared with metals, poly-
mers have much lower strengths and modules, low density, poor thermal and electric conductivities,
good corrosion resistance, and mould ability, but they can be deformed to a great extent before
failure happened.
Another common name of many synthetic polymers is plastic, suitable for shaping and molding.
Industrial polymers are broadly grouped into three categories: thermoplastics, thermosets, and
elastomers. Thermoplastics are the polymers that do not undergo chemical change in their compo-
sition when heated, where the cycle of heating to soft and cooling to firm can be repeated.
Thermosets can be softened and formed to the shape once when heated, but solidified permanently
when cooled down to room temperature. That is, the thermosetting process is irreversible. Elasto-
mers are polymers with viscoelasticity, generally having low Young’s modulus and high yield
strength compared with others. Polymers have been widely used in almost everywhere, such as
different industries, sports, medicine, consumer service, etc.
PMMA
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) is a strong transparent thermoplastic, often used as a lightweight
or shatter-resistant alternative to glass and sometimes called as acrylic glass. Its density is around
1.18 g/cm3, which is less than half of glass. It also has good impact strength, higher than glass.
PMMA of 3 mm thickness can transmit up to 92 % of visible light and give about 4 % reflection from
each of its surfaces on the refractive index of 1.4914 at 587.6 nm. Its molecular formula is
(C5O2H8)n. The mechanical properties of PMMA are listed in Table 6. PMMA is a versatile material
and has been used in a wide range of fields and applications. PMMA is an economic alternative to
polycarbonate (PC) when extreme strength is not necessary.
PMMA has the highest surface hardness among all common thermoplastics. The scratch resis-
tance can compare to the metal aluminum and brass. Overall, PMMA has a fairly good machinabil-
ity, which can be machined using standard cutting tools. Both cutting speed and feed rate have to be
moderately high. At moderate high speed, heating is minimal and so there is no softening of the
workpiece. Too high feed rate causes work material chipping and cracking. Too high cutting speed
makes work material soften and poor surface finish generated. Uncoated carbide and high-speed
steel tools with a good cooling are recommended for cutting of PMMA as less heat generated using
the sharp edges, i.e., small cutting edge radius. Large burrs are formed when increasing depth of cut.
PMMA is less ductile, and hence the burr generation is less formed as compared with PC. Up-cut
mode generated less burr formation for most cutting conditions as compared to down-cut mode.
Surface finish could be improved when small depth of cut and low feed rate was implemented. As
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Table 7 Mechanical properties of PC

Density 1.20–1.22 g/cm3
Melting point 155 C
Glass transition temperature (Tg) 147 C
Ultimate tensile strength 55–75 MPa
Young’s modulus 2.0–2.4 GPa
Elongation 80–150 %
Thermal conductivity 0.19–0.22 W/m K
there is a material spring back after cutting load released, geometrical control may be a potential
issue for very precise machined PMMA parts (Ampara et al. 2012).
PC
Polycarbonates (PC), known by the trademarked names Lexan, Makrolon, Makroclear, and others,
are a particular group of thermoplastics. They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. PC is
a transparent material with a high impact resistance, high stiffness, good dimension stability, and
good electrical properties. Because of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications. The
mechanical properties of PC are listed in Table 7. Its repeating chemical structure unit is showed as
below:
CH3 O
C O C O ð12Þ
CH3 n
Like PMMA, PC has a fairly good machinability, which can be machined by standard cutting
tools. Both cutting speed and feed rate cannot be too high. Because workpiece chipping and cracking
occur when cutting with very high feed rate; and work material is softened to produce poor surface
finish when cutting with very high speed. To minimize the heat generation during the cutting, it is
recommended to use a good cooling and sharp cutter like high-speed steel and uncoated carbide
tools. PC is more ductile as compared to PMMA, and hence more burrs were formed along the edge
of machined feature of PC compared to PMMA particularly at large depth of cut. Relative large burrs
are formed when increasing depth of cut even at the same feed rate. While at low feed rate and large
depth of cut, rubbing and compression of material take place instead of cutting, and this generates
more burr. Additionally, cutting modes play a role on the amount of burr formation. Up-cut mode
generated less burr formation for most cutting conditions as compared to down-cut mode (Ampara
et al. 2012).
Brittle Materials
Brittle material is a group of materials of which there is little or no plastic deformation when
subjected to stress before failure. Therefore, a non-ductile material is considered to be a brittle
material. Usually the tensile strength of brittle materials is only a fraction of their compressive
strength. Brittle materials include most ceramics and glasses and even some polymers. Brittle
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Diamond tool
f
dc = Critical chip thickness

Uncut shoulder
Microfracture damage zone
Surface damage depth

yc
Ze Cut surface plane

Tool center Damage transition line
Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of ductile to brittle transition for cutting of brittle materials
materials have been widely used in the different areas of the industries due to their unique physical,
chemical, optical, and mechanical properties. Unfortunately, brittle materials are very difficult to be
machined and often fractured during machining process.
All brittle materials will undergo a transition from brittle machining regime to ductile machining
regime if the machining in feed rate is made small enough. Figure 8 is a schematic diagram of ductile
to brittle transition model for cutting of brittle materials, which shows a projection of the cutting tool,
perpendicular to the cutting direction where f is the feed rate, yc is the average surface damage depth,
and Ze is the distance from the tool center to the fracture-pit transition on the uncut shoulder. When
the depth of cut used for cutting of brittle materials is less than the critical chip thickness or critical
undeformed chip thickness, ductile regime machining behavior will be achieved. Otherwise, brittle
regime machining will be obtained when the depth of cut is larger than the critical chip thickness or
critical undeformed chip thickness (Liu et al. 2007a).
According to the Griffith fracture propagation criterion, a critical depth-of-indentation of brittle
materials can be predicted using the following expression (Ewalds and Wanhill 1986):
2
E Kc
dc ¼ u (13)
H H
where dc is critical depth for indentation or critical undeformed chip thickness for ductile regime
machining, E is elastic modulus, H is material hardness, KC is fracture toughness, and u is brittle-to-
ductile transition factor of the individual material, depending upon the material properties. Equa-
tion 13 indicates that in cutting of brittle materials, there is a critical value of undeformed chip
thickness or depth of cut, below which the chip formation will be in ductile mode. Otherwise, the
chip formation is in brittle mode. The critical value can be predicted as it is a function of work
material hardness, elastic modulus and fracture toughness, which would vary with the elevated
temperature in the cutting region.
Glasses
Glass is an inorganic material supercooled from the molten state to a rigid condition without
crystallizing (or amorphous). It is typically very brittle and very weak in tension but quite strong
in compression, having excellent properties such as optically transparent, good corrosion resistance,
temperature stability, nonporous, various reflective indices homogeneity, high hardness, and dura-
bility. It has been widely used in optomechatronic systems, laboratory application, wafer, semicon-
ductor components, optical lenses, windows of buildings, artwork, etc. (Liu et al. 2005). The most
Page 24 of 34
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Table 8 Main mechanical properties of single-crystal silicon

Density 2.329 g/cm3
Ultimate tensile strength 350 MPa
Young’s modulus 150 GPa
Thermal conductivity 148 W/m K
familiar type of glass is soda lime glass composed of about 75 % silica (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O),
and lime calcium oxide (CaO).
As glass is hard and brittle, it is very difficult to be cut and often be fractured during machining.
Commonly used machining methods for glass are abrasive processes with either fixed abrasive like
grinding and loose abrasive like abrasive jet machining and ultrasonic machining, where super hard
particles like diamond, CBN, alumina and silicon carbide are used as the abrasive grit. In nature, they
are brittle machining mode to remove the material by fracturing and crack propagation, such that the
machined surface is not as good as for industrial application. Subsequently, polishing method is
introduced to remove those damaged layer containing fine cracks to improve the workpiece final
surface finish. Again, the abrasive type used for polishing can be diamond and CBN grit. However,
the material removal rate for those machining methods is very small and particularly polishing is
extremely time-consuming.
Ductile mode machining of brittle materials has attracted a lot of interests from both engineers and
academics, because a crack-free surface can be obtained and subsequent polishing is no longer
necessary. As early in 1975, improvement in precision diamond grinding mechanism allowed the
first reproducible evidence of grinding ductility in brittle glass workpiece (Huerta and Malkin 1976).
Ultraprecision cutting has carried out to investigate the cutting performance of ZKN7 glass and soda
lime glass. Ductile mode cutting of ZKN7 glass has been achieved with single-crystal diamond tool
when depth of cut is less than 600 nm (Fang and Chen 2000). Ductile mode cutting of sod lime glass
has been achieved with polycrystalline diamond tool when depth of cut is less than 1 μm (Liu
et al. 2005). However, this small critical undeformed chip thickness is a bottleneck for the industrial
application of ductile regime machining. Ultrasonic vibration-assisted ultraprecision machining
method was invented in 1992 to improve glass material ductile cutting performance by applying
an ultrasonic vibration on a single-crystal diamond tool along the cutting velocity direction
(Moriwaki et al. 1992). In both the conventional cutting and ultrasonic vibration-assisted cutting,
the machined grooves formed from ductile mode to brittle mode along with the depth of cut
increasing and exceeding a critical value. Ultrasonic vibration could improve the ductile cutting
performance of glass up to 1.4 μm critical depth of cut, compared with the critical depth of cut
200 nm obtained in the conventional cutting. Studies on ductile mode cutting explore innovated
ways continuously to cut glasses using a convention CNC machine tool with TiAlN-coated carbide
end mill (Arefin et al. 2007).
Silicon
Silicon is a tetravalent metalloid element with chemical symbol Si and atomic number 14, having
a low density of 2.329 g/cm3 and a high melting point of 1,414 C (see Table 8). Single-crystal
silicon or monocrystalline silicon is the base and most important technological material of the
electronic industry. Silicon reigns supreme as a semiconductor material mainly because of its ease of
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manufacturing. Single-crystal silicon is not only a dominant substrate material for the fabrication of
micro electro and micro mechanical components but also an important infrared optical material.
Silicon wafers are fabricated from the single-crystal silicon ingot through slicing, edge grinding,
finishing, lapping, and polishing. After integrity circuit (IC) fabrication, back thinning and dicing of
wafers into devices are the subsequent fabrication processes. Actually, all those wafer fabrication
processes are basically grinding or abrasive processes. The main problems of these grinding
processes are the subsurface damage and cracks. The average thickness of the wafer subsurface
damage layer is more than 6 μm even after fine grinding (Liu et al. 2009). It is obviously too costly
and time-consuming to remove the subsurface damaged layer by the subsequent heave chemical–-
mechanical polishing (CMP) process.
Tremendous affords have been made on ductile regime grinding and ductile mode cutting of
single-crystal silicon wafers, targeting to achieve less subsurface damage so as to speed up the whole
silicon wafer fabrication processes. Nanometric cutting has been carried out to investigate the ductile
cutting performance of single-crystal silicon wafers using an ultraprecision lathe with single-crystal
diamond tools of different cutting edge radii. There is an upper bound of the tool cutting edge radius
for ductile mode chip formation in cutting of silicon. Cutting with tool edge radius larger than the
upper bound would not be in a ductile mode (Arefin et al. 2007). There is a critical undeformed chip
thickness for a given tool with the tool cutting edge smaller than the upper bound, beyond which the
chip formation changes from ductile mode to brittle mode. The ductile-brittle transition of chip
formation varies with the tool cutting edge radius. The larger the cutting edge radius, the larger the
critical undeformed chip thickness for the ductile-brittle transition in the chip formation (Liu
et al. 2007b). Ductile cutting of silicon can be achieved when the cutting edge radius does not
exceed the upper bound value and the undeformed chip thickness is less than the critical value.
Cutting mode is mainly determined by tool edge radius and undeformed chip thickness used, which
has a significant effect on the Ra values of surface roughness for the machined workpiece. The
machined silicon wafer surfaces achieved by ductile cutting were free of micro cracks and fracture
(Liu et al. 2009).
Ceramics
Ceramics represent a broad range of inorganic and nonmetallic materials, typically oxides, borides,
carbides, and nitrides; have ionic and covalent bond character and extremely high melting point,
>2,000 C, that are commonly electrical and thermal insulators; and are composed of more than one
element. Ceramics are generally brittle, porous forms and weak in tension, but in particular, they can
be very hard and wear resistance once fully dense forms made, being excellent cutting and grinding
materials for metals. Fully dense ceramics can be very efficient thermal conductors, but porous
ceramics can be very efficient heat insulators. Thus, ceramics are a class of important materials
useful in both traditional and advanced applications. Commercial and engineering ceramics include
alumina (Al2O3), silica, silicates, silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC), silicon nitride
(Si3N4), sialons, zirconia (ZrO2), etc. Many ceramics are chemically very inert, strong, and light,
making very suitable for biomedical implants. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine,
electrical, and electronics industries. They are generally very strong and brittle, such that they are
very difficult to be cut or machined. Grinding, polishing, ultrasonic machining, laser machining, and
water jet machining are the commonly used machining methods for ceramics applications.
Tungsten carbide (WC) is an inorganic chemical compound, often simply called carbide and also
called cemented carbide, hard metal, or tungsten-carbide cobalt, containing equal parts of tungsten
and carbon atoms. It is a metal matrix composite where tungsten carbide particles are the aggregate
and metallic cobalt serves as the matrix. Table 9 lists its main mechanical properties. Tungsten
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Table 9 Main mechanical properties of tungsten carbide

Density 15.63 g/cm3
Vickers hardness 13.7–14.7 GPa
Transverse rupture strength 2,150 MPa
Young’s modulus 530 GPa
Specific heat capacity 39.8 J/mol k
Poisson’s ratio 0.24
Thermal conductivity 110 W/m K
carbide has a prosperous future for the sake of its excellent properties such as high hardness, high
wear resistance, and good toughness. It has been widely used in the industry for cutting tools,
moulds and dies, and other devices. Manufacturers use tungsten carbide as the main material in some
high-speed drill bits, as it can resist high temperatures and is extremely hard.
When grooving of tungsten carbide using a CNC lathe with CBN tools, there is a transition from
ductile mode cutting to brittle mode cutting as the depth of cut continuously increased. Here, the
critical depth of cut for grooving of tungsten carbide is 4.8 μm. When the depth of cut was smaller
than this critical value, the chip formation was in ductile mode. Otherwise, when the depth of cut
increased in exceeding the critical value, the mode of chip formation changed from ductile to brittle
(Liu and Li 2001). The tool wear occurs mainly at the tool flank in cutting of tungsten carbide, which
is dominated by diffusion wear, adhesion wear, and abrasion wear. The higher the cutting speed, the
larger the tool wear VBmax and the shorter the tool life. The cutting forces increase gradually with the
increase of the cutting distance and the tool flank wear. However, the machined workpiece surface
roughness shows no significant change with the progress of the tool flank wear (Liu et al. 2003). But
the material removal rate in ductile mode cutting of tungsten carbide using conventional machining
methods remains very small and not efficient. Ultrasonic vibration-assisted cutting has been used to
improve the ductile cutting performance of tungsten carbide. In comparison with conventional
grooving of tungsten carbide, the critical depth of cut for the transition from ductile to brittle in
ultrasonic vibration assisted grooving is around 16 μm, several times larger than that in conventional
grooving (Liu et al. 2004).
Composites
Composite materials, often shortened to composites, are engineered or naturally occurring materials
composed of two or more distinct phases: matrix phase and dispersed phase, with significantly
different physical or chemical properties from those of any constituent materials. The primary phase
is called matrix with a continuous character, which is usually more ductile and less hard phase. It
holds the dispersed phase and shares a load with it. The second phase is called dispersed phase
embedded in the matrix phase in a discontinuous form. Dispersed phase is usually stronger than the
matrix phase and thus sometimes called it reinforcing phase.
In general, according to dispersion phase, composites can be segmented into three types: fiber
reinforced, particle reinforced, and dispersion strengthened. According to the matrix phase, com-
posites can be classified into three groups: metal matrix composite (MMC), ceramic matrix
composite (CMC), and polymer matrix composite (PMC). Commonly, composites have superior
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high strength-to-weight ratio and resistance to corrosion and fatigue. The machinability of compos-
ites is very much diverse based upon the matrix materials and reinforcement materials.
Metal Matrix Composites

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composed of a metallic matrix and a dispersed ceramic or
metallic phase, which may be classified by the morphology of matrix reinforcement as dispersion
strengthened, particle reinforced or fibre reinforced. Typically, the metal matrix materials of MMCs
are aluminum, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper, and titanium, while the reinforcement materials are
oxides, carbides, and graphites. The most widely used MMCs are based on aluminum as a matrix,
reinforced with particulate silicon carbide (SiC), which is relatively cheap and has a low density. The
stiffness of aluminum may thus be increased by more than 50 % in particulate composites. Their
high strength and stiffness make them being particular attractive materials for aerospace structures.
MMCs can be machined using conventional techniques such as turning, drilling, milling, and
grinding, and nonconventional machining methods including electro-discharge machining (EDM),
electro-chemical machining (ECM), laser machining, and abrasive jet machining. But most com-
monly used tools are diamond-based cutting tools such as polycrystalline diamond tooling (PCD),
and CVD diamond-coated tools due to ceramic particles caused abrasion wear and adhesion wear,
although cubic boron nitride (CBN), alumina, silicon carbide, and tungsten carbide tools are also
used. Built-up edge occurs when cutting of MMCs especially at low cutting speed. The tool life
decreases while the surface finish slightly improved with an increase in cutting speed, since the
cutting temperature increases with the cutting speed. The excessive tool wear and damage associated
with machining of long-fiber-reinforced MMCs result in the process being uneconomical (Davim
2012). In general, aluminum MMCs reinforced with alumina are more difficult to machine than
SiC-reinforced aluminum MMCs.
Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded fibers of other
ceramic material (dispersed phase) to overcome the major disadvantages of conventional technical
ceramics, namely, brittle failure and low fracture toughness, and limited thermal shock resistance.
CMCs have attractive high temperature properties, but many are brittle. Therefore, their applications
are mainly in fields requiring reliability at high temperatures and resistance to corrosion and wear,
such as cutting tools, wear-resistant parts, aerospace engine parts, and military parts, as well as
energy-related components. They are generally very difficult to be cut or machined due to high
hardness at elevated temperatures. Grinding, polishing, electro-discharge machining (EDM), ultra-
sonic machining, laser machining, and water jet machining are the commonly used machining
methods for CMCs applications.
The inherent challenge in machining of CMCs is the excessive tool wear and subsequent
subsurface damage. Increasing the particle volume fraction results in fast tool wear and subsequently
affected the surface finish of the machined workpiece. A higher tool wear is a result of the increased
hard ceramic particle volume fraction in CMCs. PCD tools are the most preferred, while carbide
tools are preferred over ceramic tools. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut have a similar effect
on tool life and surface finish in machining of CMCs compared to those in machining of metals
although some differences are noticeable due to the ceramic particles. In case of using carbide tools,
a low cutting speed and a high feed rate are utilized to maximize the tool life (Dandekar and Shin
2012).
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Polymer Matrix Composite

Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are composed of a matrix from thermoset or thermoplastic and
embedded glass, carbon, steel, or Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase), characterized by the morphology
of the reinforcement: filler strengthened or fiber reinforced. They comprise a thermoset matrix,
which is reinforced with fibers or whiskers of a material of very high tensile strength. PMCs
reinforced by long fibers are an important class of materials in advanced structural applications
due to their lightweight, high modulus and high specific strength. The use of PMCs is very diverse
and far reaching almost all industry sectors with an application ranging from commercial aircraft to
sporting goods.
However, because of their anisotropic and heterogeneous nature, PMCs are difficult to machine.
They contain strong and very abrasive fibers held together by a relatively weak and brittle matrix,
being more prone to damage during machining than conventional metals (Campbell 2006). Car-
bides, coated carbides, PCD, and diamond abrasive tools are commonly used for machining of
PMCs. The actual depth of cut are very different from nominal depth of cut in cutting of PMCs,
because a part of PMCs is pushed away from the cutting tool during machining and sprang back
partially after the cutting load released. Machined composite surfaces often contain mechanical
damages such as delamination, fiber pullout, fiber fuzzing, matrix de-cohesion, matrix chipping,
cracking, and fiber dislodgements, as well as thermal damage and chemical damage. Debonding and
fiber breakage can also take place easily. Due to the much lower thermal conductivity of the fibers
(especially glass and aramid), heat buildup can occur rapidly and degrade the matrix, resulting in
matrix cracking and even delamination. That is why it is important to minimize forces and heat
generation during machining of PMCs. Generally high cutting speeds, low feed rates, and small
depths of cuts are used to minimize damage (Davim 2009). Other machining methods such as laser
machining and abrasive jet machining are also commonly used for PMC applications.
Machining Economics
Production costs and production rates create a crucial interest to the all manufacturing engineers.
Metal cutting economics is to a great extent about making the best use of production resources
(Boothroyd and Knight 1989). The variables affecting the economics of a machining operation are
numerous which include the tool material, raw material, over head investment, machine tool
capacity, operating skill, and the cutting conditions.
Basic Terms
In the following discussion, two terms related to machining economics are defined as:
1. Production cost: total average cost to perform the machining operation on a component using one
machine
2. Production time: average time taken to produce one component
Manufacturing is a complex system and usually no single machining operation can complete
a component fabrication. A high efficiency or production rate would probably mean low production
cost. But these two facts must be taken into account separately, because the machining conditions
providing maximum production rate may be the conditions giving minimum production cost. In
practice, the optimum machining conditions can rarely be achieved due to some constraints:
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• Tool and work material variability

• Range of speeds, power, feed, and stability of machines
• Inadequate machine tools
• Finish, surface integrity, and dimensional accuracy required
• Insufficient cost data
The problem is to adjust the machine consistent with constraints so that production can be carried
out as close to optimum machining conditions as possible. And also optimum conditions for one
machining operation may not be the optimum conditions for a complete manufacturing system.
Machining Performance Criteria

In general, a component manufacturing will involve several machining operations using a variety of
machine tools, and most machine tools are used for more than one type of component. Thus, the
actual economic optimum for any machining operation must consider other processes which will be
performed on that component. The manufacturing company is more interested in the overall profit
rather than the individual machining operations and single component in a given period.
The economic criteria normally considered for practical machining operations to choose cutting
speeds, feeds, tool geometry, tool and work materials, cutting fluids, and machine tools are:
• Minimum cost: increasing the batch size always reduces the cost of production and the economic
batch size for the appreciate machine is depended on both the cutting conditions and work–tool
machinability.
• Maximum production: increasing the batch size increases the maximum production rate.
• Maximum profit rate (maximum efficiency): the optimum conditions for maximum profits lies
close to the minimum-cost conditions.
An estimation of cost factors is important as it would affect the optimum machining conditions
selected. The calculating methods for those costs could vary from different manufacturing systems
to different components. Basic elements of cost estimation applicable to most cases can be expressed
as
C pr ¼ C m þ C t þ C s þ C n (14)
where Cpr is the average cost per piece, Cm is the machining cost, Ct is tooling cost, Cs is tool-
changing cost, and Cn is nonproductive or idling cost.
Figure 9 shows the qualitative plots on the effect of cutting speeds on manufacturing costs. Details
of the manufacturing costs are:
1. Machining cost is direct labor and machine cost with overhead for machining of one component,
including operator wage rate and benefits, depreciation rate of machine tool, machine overhead
like machine servicing and maintenance cost, power consumption, etc. The machining time is
determined by the types of machining operations and cutting conditions used. As shown in
Fig. 9a, increasing cutting speed will decrease the machining cost as the machining time is less.
2. Tooling cost is the cost of cutting tools and regrinding of regrindable tools, etc., for machining of
one component. As shown in Fig. 9b, increasing cutting speed will also increase the tooling cost
as the tool wear is fast and more cutting tools are needed to machine the component.
Page 30 of 34
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-4976-7_2-1
a b
2
Machining cost
Tooling cost
1
Cutting speed Cutting speed

Machining cost Tooling cost
c d
Tool changing cost
Idling cost
3 4
Cutting speed Cutting speed

Tool changing cost Non-productive cost
Fig. 9 Effect of cutting speed on manufacturing costs
3. Tool changing cost is the cost incurred for removing the worn tool from the machine tool, placing
a new tool and setting the new tool in the proper position for machining of one component. As
shown in Fig. 9c, increasing cutting speed will also increase the tool changing cost as more
cutting tools used need more tool changing times.
4. Nonproductive or idling cost is the cost not directly associated with manufacturing operations,
including the cost of loading and unloading component, the idling time cost, and other
non-cutting time costs not included in the total cost per component. As shown in Fig. 9d,
increasing cutting speed will not change the nonproductive or idling cost as this cost incurred
for running the company is not associated with the manufacturing operations, regardless of job
type, batch, and volume. Figure 10 shows the qualitative plots on the effect of cutting speed on
total manufacturing cost. Note that there is an optimum machining speed for manufacturing cost.
The cutting speed close to the optimum condition is known as the high-efficiency machining
range.
Other factors may limit the selection of optimum machining conditions including maximum
machining power and maximum machining force as
Cutting_Power ¼ cnf a ab (15)
and
F ¼ kf a ab (16)
where c, k, a, and b are constants, f is feed rate, v is cutting speed, and a is depth of cut. All those
Page 31 of 34
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-4976-7_2-1
Total cost
Cost
3
Speed for Cutting speed

minimum cost
Fig. 10 Effect of cutting speed on total manufacturing cost
cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut selection must not exceed the available cutting power and
machining force.
Summary
In this chapter, machinability has been introduced to indicate one engineering material how easy or
difficult it is by machining to achieve an acceptable surface finish. Machinability could be consid-
ered as a material property, but not a unique property. When assessing a material machinability, all
other aspects of the machining system must be considered concurrently. An understanding of the
interactions between tool and work materials at the tool–work interface would benefit to machining
behavior and machinability. Tool material and cutting speed perhaps are the two most important
parameters for engineering material machinability assessments. Engineering materials could be
developed with improved machinability or more uniform machinability through microstructure
modification and chemical components adjustment, making it easy to machine and achieving low
tool wear rate, improved chip formation, and reduced cutting forces. Advance developed tool
materials with high thermal hardness and wear resistance would improve the material machinability.
References
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Index Terms:
Aluminium 12
Brittle materials 24
Ceramics 27
Composites 29
Copper 15
Ductile mode machining 25
Fracture toughness 8
Glasses 25
Hardnessis 5
Iron 17
Machinability 31
Machining economics 32
Material removal rate 3
Nickel 21
Polymer 22
Silicon 26
Steel 17
Titanium 19
Tungsten carbide 26
Yield strength 7
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Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Machinability of Engineering Materials

• Usually having crystalline structure

• High melting point

• Low density and low rigidity

• Consisting a matrix and a reinforcement

1. Easy-machining materials (aluminum and copper alloys)

measurement of machining performance, but rather considering as a resultant property of the

where Vc is cutting speed,

RMR ¼ nfd (2)

where RMR is material removal rate,

where F is cutting force.

where Pm is cutting power.

Material Property Effects on Machinability

• Not too high ductility

Yield Strain-hardening Necking

Opening Mode Sliding Mode Tearing Mode

Fig. 2 Three possible modes of crack extension in materials

where E is elastic modulus.

Fig. 3 A plate of ﬁnite width subjected to uniform stress

where Y is a geometric factor and

where GC is critical energy release rate.

Strength and Ductility

Fig. 4 Effect of temperature on material’s strength and ductility

Fig. 5 Effect of temperature on material’s hardness

Temperature Effects on Machinability

Fig. 6 Effects of temperature on material stress and strain

Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of suitable cutting speed for different materials

1. High thermal hardness against high stresses involved

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

Table 1 Classification of copper and its alloys

Copper, Brass, and Copper Alloys

Copper and Copper Alloys

Iron, Steel, and Steel Alloys

• White iron – a microstructure containing cementite phase, Fe3C

• Low carbon steel, with less than 0.3 % carbon

Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Table 2 Ti-6Al-4V alloy chemical compositions

Table 3 Ti-6Al-4 V alloy mechanical properties

Nickel and Nickel Alloys

• Solid solution strengthening (Cr, W)

• High resistant to chloride and sulﬁde stress corrosion cracking

Table 4 Inconel 718 chemical compositions

Table 5 Inconel 718 mechanical properties

Table 6 Mechanical properties of PMMA

Table 7 Mechanical properties of PC

dc = Critical chip thickness

Microfracture damage zone

Surface damage depth

Ze Cut surface plane

Table 8 Main mechanical properties of single-crystal silicon

Table 9 Main mechanical properties of tungsten carbide

Metal Matrix Composites

Ceramic Matrix Composites

Polymer Matrix Composite

• Tool and work material variability

Machining Performance Criteria

Cutting speed Cutting speed

Cutting speed Cutting speed