International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences: Raúl Castro, Ren e G Omez, Matthew Pierce, Juan Canales
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences: Raúl Castro, Ren e G Omez, Matthew Pierce, Juan Canales
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences: Raúl Castro, Ren e G Omez, Matthew Pierce, Juan Canales
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Usually in block and panel caving mines, when the caving connects to the surface, monitoring of vertical stresses
Caving mining over production drifts is minimal due to the low probability of seismic events. However, when the stresses over
Granular material the production level are related to an overburden by fragmented rock, the draw policies highly influence induced
Gravity flow
stress. In this context, we present an experimental set up using a laboratory-scale model to identify the role of
Induced stresses
Stress
draw strategy on induced vertical stresses in a block-caving layout. Here, three draw strategies are studied:
Rock isolated draw, panel caving draw, and block caving draw. Results show that induced vertical stresses can vary
between 0.3 and 2.8 times their initial vertical value and are highly influenced by both the distance from the
extraction front and the dimension of draw and non-draw areas. These findings provide useful information to
support the system design in block caving or panel caving methods to decrease induced vertical stresses related to
draw and define rules of extraction in an effort to avoid problems related to the maximum stress that can be
expected on production-level pillars.
* Corresponding author. Laboratorio de Block Caving, Advanced Mining Technology Center, Universidad de Chile, Chile.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Castro).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2020.104237
Received 13 March 2019; Received in revised form 29 January 2020; Accepted 30 January 2020
Available online 5 February 2020
1365-1609/© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
approaches have been used to define k such as, 24 operations are subjected to greater depths such as El Teniente and
Chuquicamata’s Underground Project in Chile, the Deep Ore Zone and
k¼1 senðφÞ (2)
Deep Mill Level Zone in Indonesia, Resolution Copper and the Hender
Where φ is the material internal friction angle, the relation φ > φw has son mine in the United States and Cadia East in Australia.
been reported.23–25 Other approaches to define k are presented in Eqs.
(3) and (4), 2. Experimental methodology
k¼
1 senðφÞ
(3) Here a physical model for studying the vertical stress behaviour
1 þ senðφÞ under flow conditions was constructed representing different draw
strategies used in block and panel caving.
Eq. (3) is defined as an Active case, when σh < σv and Eq. (4) is
defined as a Passive case, when σ h > σv 26
2.1. Similitude analysis
1 þ senðφÞ
k¼ (4)
1 senðφÞ The focus of this work is to quantify stresses on granular material for
Walker 22
introduces in Eq. (5) a general relation for k using the block caving applications using laboratory-scale experiments. For this
Mohr-Coulomb circle considering that horizontal and vertical stresses reason, the geometric similitude is kept constant both in the physical
are not necessarily the principal stresses. model and the granular material with a length scale factor, λl , of 1:200.
Furthermore, following conditions of similitude, cohesionless material is
1 sen2 ðφÞ used to study stresses on granular material 35 to avoid adhesive forces
k¼ (5)
1 þ sen2 ðφÞ such as Van der Wall’s forces, liquid bridges and electrostatic effect at
laboratory scale. Then the material used must be dry and include frag
The equations above were developed in physical models to quantify
ment sizes larger than 0.06 mm.40 On the other hand, the gravity, bulk
the magnitudes and distribution of stresses in static and dynamic con
density and residual friction angle scale factors are the same in the
ditions.21–31 Eqs. (2), (3) and (5) have shown good correlation under
model as at mine scale, respectively λg ¼ λρ ¼ λφ ¼ 1. Then, the scale of
static conditions. In dynamic conditions, different results have been
stresses is equal to the length scale factor, λσ ¼ λl . This geometrical scale
reported for k and μ parameters in physical and numerical models,
24,32–34 considered (length scale, λl ¼ 1/200) ensures representation of the
mainly as a function of the granular material’s height. However,
induced stress phenomena. According to the scaling laws,35 the simili
granular materials used in these studies (e.g. bean, corn, sand, wheat,
tude’s parameters are shown in Table 1. Here physical variables are
barley and coke) are different from material found in the mining envi
based on the length scale used.
ronment, where wide particle size distributions, high strength, major
The following assumptions and simplifications were made to study
internal friction angles and angular fragment shapes are common. Few
the stress behaviour in block caving through physical modelling: (1) It is
physical models emulating mining conditions have been developed.35–37
assumed that the rock mass has caved to surface, forces in the system are
When granular material is under flow, at least two main zones the
due to the material’s weight, and in-situ stresses are not present. (2) The
movement zone and the stagnant zone – can be identified. In the
granular flow occurs in a 3D environment. (3) The rock breakage
movement zone (or draw zone), porosity increases and vertical stresses
mechanism related to secondary fragmentation is not considered. (4)
decrease due to flow, while in the stagnant zone (or non-draw zone)
The geometries of the flow zones in the physical model are comparable
vertical stresses increase. Experimental measures have shown that
as long as the materials have equal friction angles and particle shapes.
stresses can be transferred from the movement zone to the stagnant zone
The influence of friction in the model’s container walls is discussed in
during flow.35 Then, induced vertical stresses over the production drift
section 2.2.
depend on the movement of gravity flow zones. In the same way, Lorig 38
postulated that stresses in the isolated movement zone (IMZ) tend to be
lower than in surrounding stagnant material. This may occur because 2.2. Physical model
stresses are transferred through shear forces acting on boundaries be
tween flow and stagnant material. Furthermore, it was concluded in The physical model represents a section of a mine operated by Block
Ref. 39 that the mean magnitude of forces acting inside the IMZ is in or Panel caving with the following dimensions: 140 m length, 46 m
dependent of the column height and weight. width and 480 m column height (see Fig. 1). The scale was chosen to
Pierce 39 proposed applying the tributary area theory to determine represent a high column height where vertical stress at the bottom
would be significant. In the production level, we selected El Teniente’s
the mean vertical stresses in the stagnant zone, σSZv , as:
30 m � 15 m layout.
Pn MZ
σv;0 AT i¼1 σ v;i Ai The mine section corresponds to three production drifts and nine
σ SZ
v ¼ (6)
Asz extraction drifts, which represent a total of 36 drawpoints (Fig. 2 and
Fig. 3-a). Fig. 2 shows the dimensions of the production level in the
Where σ v;0 is the mean vertical stress before draw (initial condition, Pa), physical model. Fine material was glued on the crown pillar over the
AT is total area (m2), σ MZ
v;i is the mean vertical stress of the movement
production drifts to represent the rock friction over pillars and the flow
zone i calculated using Eq. (1) and Eq. (3) (Pa), Ai is the area of the zones’ geometries, simulating 3D drawbells.
movement zone i (m2) and Asz is the area of the stagnant zone (m2).
Areas are where the caved material is placed in a plan view. Table 1
In caving mines, the draw is different in each case. For example, Scale factors based on length scale.
block caving extracts material in a different way than panel caving. Variable Factor Scale factor Value
Information on the influence of different kinds of draw on induced
Length λL λL 0.005
vertical overloads on the production level is, thus, generally lacking. Area λA λ2L 0.000025
Then, the objective of this investigation is to use laboratory-scale ex Volume λV λ3L 0.000000125
periments to quantify the role of draw strategy on induced vertical Time λT λ0.5
L 0.0707
Weight λ3L 0.000000125
stresses over pillars located in the production levels to define draw λW
Stress λS λL 0.005
policies that minimize induced stress in critical areas. In particular, Friction angle λø 1 1
nowadays a number of active or planned block and panel caving Density λρ 1 1
2
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
The walls of the physical model as shown in Fig. 3-b were made of �0.039 kPa (8 g), a length of 11.5 cm and an area of 20 cm2. The po
plexiglass. The plexiglass allows movement zones to be observed in the sition of load cells over the crown pillar depends on the purpose of the
model. This material also increased vertical stress compared with hori experiment. Thus, load cell location is shown with the results for each
zontal stress because of the low friction between plexiglass and granular test in Section 3 (Figs. 6, 9, 12 and 15).
material. For minor frictions, shear forces decrease between the model
wall and granular material, then more weight is transferred to the bot 2.3. Model media
tom (increasing vertical stress estimated there). For example, we can
calculate a vertical stress of 1.35 MPa applying Eq. (1), considering a Tests used crushed sulphide ore with a high aspect ratio (sphericity
depth of 500 m, an internal friction angle of 39� , a hydraulic radius of 0.58 and roundness 0.25, Cho et al.41 methodology), which is repre
16.9 m, a bulk density of 1.4 t/m3 and a wall friction angle of 25� . If we sentative of caved rock. The particle size distribution was obtained by
considered a higher friction angle, like the internal friction angle of 39� , scaling (1:200) the primary fragmentation curve expected for Chuqui
a hydraulic radius 74% higher gives us the same vertical stress. For this camata Underground Block caving project (see Fig. 4). The ore charac
reason, in this study vertical stress results, σ v, will be analysed as a teristics are shown in Table 2.
function of their initial value, σv,0, using the ratio σv/σ v,0. Sulphide ore corresponds to a biotite and amphibole granitoid,
Up to six load cells were located within the model over the crown showing metallic mineralization of pyrite, chalcopyrite and bornite.
pillar for vertical stress measurements. Each load cell has a precision of Potasic and propilitic alteration can be seen in the rock samples and
3
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
Fig. 3. (a) Sector studied in experiments and main structures, plan view (b) Physical model of plexiglass used in laboratory.
Fig. 4. Fragment size distribution curve used in experiments scaled from a real Block-caving size distribution curve.
4
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
Fig. 5. Plan views (a) Block caving strategy: in blocks 1, 2 and 3 the extraction begins at different periods. Each block should be drawn uniformly. (b) Panel caving
strategy: in panels 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 the extraction begins consecutively. Panels have different extraction percentages; greater percentages are in the first panels.
Table 3
Experimental set-up of gravity flow draw strategies.
Test Name Objective Procedure
5
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
2, 18.3 � 3.7 kPa in Test 3 and the initial vertical stresses based on Eq.
(1) is 18.7 kPa. Here the mean vertical stress is based on the material
characteristics defined in Table 2 and assuming k ¼ 0.37. The initial
vertical stress ranges are expected for physical measurement of granular
material due to arching, as reported by other studies.31,35–37
In test 1, various drawpoints were opened based on the panel caving plan. Experiments here show a mass flow zone (interactive draw be
strategy defined in section 2.4. Extraction drifts were drawn one by one tween drawpoints under extraction). The extraction drifts (ED) were
from right to left (Fig. 9-a), in accordance with a common production added from ED1 to ED7, between 27.1 and 47.7 kg ore was drawn from
ED1 to ED5, between 47.7 and 67.5 kg ore was drawn from ED3 to ED6,
and between 67.5 and 78.2 kg ore was drawn from ED3 to ED7.
Fig. 9-b shows the locations of the six load cells. This distribution
allows vertical stress measurements in draw and non-draw zones during
extraction. Here, the addition of extraction drifts caused the formation
of an unmoved zone in front of the extraction front. Fig. 10 shows the
test’s evolution, in which the width of the non-draw zone (defined by
Wr) continuously decreases while new EDs begin extraction. Induced
vertical stress in a non-draw zone will necessarily increase if its area is
decreased, as observed in Fig. 11.
Fig. 11 illustrates results for all load cells. The stress measurements
show overloads in the non-draw zone (also known as stagnant zone) and
Fig. 7. Isolated movement zone geometry evolution. under-loads in the draw zone (movement zone). Stresses recorded by
6
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
Fig. 10. Test 1 draw evolution during Panel caving draw strategy.
cell 1 (Fig. 11-a) decreased rapidly when extraction started because this
cell was below the flow zone, 0.30 σv,0. When 40–50 kg of ore was
extracted, drawpoints of ED 1 and 2 were closed, this increased the
induced vertical stress to 1.36 σv,0. Load cell 2 showed similar behaviour
with stress variations between 0.26 σv,0 below the flow, increasing to
0.54 σv,0 when EDs were closed. Load cell 3 was located in the stagnant
zone at the beginning of extraction. The vertical stresses showed no
change in value until drawpoints near (ED4) were extracted; at which
point, induced vertical stress decreased to 0.26 σv,0 (Fig. 11-a). Vertical
stresses on load cells 4, 5 and 6, located initially in the stagnant zone
away from drawpoints under extraction, continuously increased due to
Fig. 12. (a) Block caving draw strategy configuration with high non-draw zone
(front view) and (b) Load cell location over crown pillar.
the extraction (Fig. 11-b). In these cells, vertical stresses increased even
though the mass in the model was continuously decreasing. Then, ver
tical stress on load cell 4 decreased to 0.36 σv,0 when the load cell was
Fig. 11. Induced vertical stresses by mass drawn (a) Results from Load cells 1, below the flow zone at the end of the test. In this test, load cell 6 reached
2 and 3 and (b) Results from load cells 4, 5 and 6. Here, σv: vertical stress, σv,0: the maximum value observed of 1.77 σ v,0.
initial vertical stress.
7
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
In tests 2 and 3, ore was extracted from the drawpoints in the outer
areas at the same time. For those drawpoints located in the middle of the
model, ore was not extracted until the end of the tests.
Fig. 13. Test 2 draw evolution in Block caving draw strategy (60 m).
8
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
Fig. 15. (a) Block caving draw strategy configuration with high non-draw zone
(front view) and (b) Load cell location over crown pillar.
Load cells 1, 2, 4 and 5 were placed below the flow zone and all these
cells showed a decrease in their stresses. The induced vertical stress of
these cells decreased by around 45% from their original values. When
extraction drift 5 was opened, the other extraction drifts were closed,
and induced vertical stress in these cells increased from 0.8 to 1.4 σ v,0.
4. Discussion
Fig. 17. Induced vertical stresses by mass drawn on load cells 1 to 5. Here, σv:
This study quantified the effect of key variables on induced vertical
vertical stress, σv,0: initial vertical stress.
Fig. 16. Test 3 draw evolution in Block caving draw strategy (30 m).
9
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
Fig. 19. Induced-vertical stresses over stagnant zone relative to total area.
10
R. Castro et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 127 (2020) 104237
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