NRMT 2270, Photogrammetry/Remote Sensing

Lecture 5

Relief displacement. Parallax. Monoscopic and

stereoscopic height measurement. Photo Project.
Soft-copy Photogrammetry.

Tomislav Sapic
GIS Technologist
Faculty of Natural Resources Management
Lakehead University
Geometry of a Vertical Aerial Frame Photograph and the Terrain It Represents

Source: Jensen (2007).

 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Frame Photography
Relief displacement is
the shift or
displacement in the
photographic position
of an image caused by
the relief of the object
(Wolf 1974) and the
perspective projection
based on which images
are captured by lens
cameras.
The amount of relief displacement, d, is:
• directly proportional to the difference in elevation, h, between
the top of the object whose image is displaced and the local
datum.
• directly proportional to the radial distance, r between the top of
the displaced image and the principal point.
• inversely proportional to the altitude, H, of the camera above the
local datum.
h d

H r Source: Jensen (2007).
Relief Displacement Based Height Measurement on Vertical Frame Photos

Source: Jensen (2007).

 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Frame Photography

Relief displacement causes straight roads, fence lines, etc., on rolling ground
to appear crooked on a vertical photograph.

Not corrected (not Corrected

orthorectified) (orthorectified)
photo photo
Relief Displacement on a Vertical Frame Photography and Film
Strip (Linear Scanner Camera)

Analog or digital aerial camera Digital aerial (linear scanner) camera

Line of
flight

Courtesy of Earth Data

Flight

Sensor

L
Relief (radial)
displacement in a
frame vertical aerial
photo

Relief displacement
direction
 Relief Displacement in a Linear Scanner Vertical Aerial Photo
Relief displacement
direction

Backward

Nadir

Direction of flight

Forward

From: http://www.photogrammetry.ethz.ch/summerschool/pdf/03_Gruen_Pateraki_DAC.pdf
 Height Measurement Based on Shadow Length

Source: Jensen (2007).

•The Sun’s elevation angle, a, above the local horizon can be

determined using a solar ephemeris table. This requires knowing
the longitude and latitude of the site, the acquisition date, and
time of day.
 Height Measurement Based on Shadow Length

•Alternatively, heights can be measured first

determining the tan a based on a shadow of an
object with a known height.

Example:
The height of the bottom building, h, is known to
be 172.75 ft. It casts a shadow that measures 0.241
in on the photo. The photo scale is measured to be
1:5,957, which means that the ground distance of
the shadow, L, is 119.65 ft. That means that:
h
tan a   172.75  1.44
L 119.65
tana can now be used with other objects after
their shadow lengths are measured. For example,
the top building , having a shadow of 59.1 ft on the
ground, has the height of:

h  Ltan a  59.1'1.44  85.10'

Source: Jensen (2007).
 Parallax on Stereo Photos

• “Parallax is the apparent Greater p. L2

displacement in the position of an Smaller p.
object, with respect to a frame of
reference, caused by a shift in the
position of observation.” (Wolf 1974). L1
• Objects closer to the position of
observation (camera, eyes) have a
greater parallax and object further
away, smaller.
• By using geometry and triangulation,
one can use parallax to determine the
distance to various objects.
• Utilization of the parallax effect to
measure distances has been used in
other disciplines as well, such as
astronomy.
• On stereo photos, parallax can be
used to measure heights of objects.
Source: Wolf (1974).
 Parallax on Stereo Photos

• L2 and L1 photos
superpositioned
through their
pa = xa – xa’ principal points.

pb = xb – xb’ • a change in position, along

or parallel to the flightline, of
an image of an object from
pa > pb one photo to the next caused
Point A is higher by the plane motion is called
than point B. x-parallax.
Source: Jensen (2007).
 Parallax on Stereo Photos

• On stereo photos parallax is created by

the movement of the plane along the
flight line.
• The flight line becomes the x-axis in the
measurements of the parallax. The
parallax on stereo photos, used for
stereo viewing and parallax based
measurements is also called x-parallax.
• Stereo photos need to be aligned along
the flight line and at a proper baseline
Source: Wolf (1974).
distance for a proper stereo viewing.
• So called y-parallax is created when the
photos are not aligned along the flight
line. Viewing photos in stereo with an
existent y-parallax causes eye strain and
should be avoided.
 Height Measurement on Stereo Photos by Using Parallax

ho  (H  h) dp
(P  dp)
ho – the height of the object
H-h – the altitude of the aircraft above ground level (AGL).
P – the absolute stereoscopic parallax (the air base is usually used for P).
dp – the differential parallax.

The following conditions need to be satisfied:

 the vertical aerial photos have ≤ 3⁰ tilt;
 the adjacent photos are exposed from almost exactly the same altitude above ground level;
 the principal points (PPs) of both photographs lie at approximately the same elevation above
ground level.
 the base of the objects of interest are at approximately the same elevation as that of the
principal points.
 Height Measurement on Stereo Photos by Using X-
Parallax

Two out of several ways of doing it:

 Measuring distances from target points to the point

of reference on separate photos belonging to a
stereopair.
Monoscopic
Measuring distances between target points on a
stereopair’s photos fixed and aligned along the flight
line.

Using a parallax bar. Stereoscopic

 X-Parallax Based Height Measurement on Separate Photos
dp
Parallax for the top of ho  ( H  h) 
the building: ( P  dp)
Pa = xa-xa’ = -3.82’’ –(-
0.270’’) = -3.55’’
=|3.55’’|
Parallax for the bottom
of the building:
Pb = xb-xb’ = -3.606’’ –(-
0.267’’) = -3.339’’
=|3.339’’|

dp = Pa – Pb
= 3.55’’ –
3.339’’ =
0.211’’

P = (A-base 4.5
+ A-base 4.4)/2
=
(3.39’’+3.41’’)
/2= 3.4’’
Source: Jensen (2007).
X-Parallax Based Height
Measurement on
Separate Photos

 Close-up of
measurement on actual
photos.

Source: Jensen (2007).

X-Parallax Based Height Measurement on Separate Photos

ho  (H  h) dp
(P  dp) The actual
height of the
building used in
ho  2978.5' 0.211''
174' the example is
(3.4''0.211'') 172’.

Known from
the flight
 X-Parallax Based Height Measurement on Separate, Fixed Photos

 Stereo photos need to be

properly positioned for stereo
viewing (usually done under a
mirror stereoscope).

pb = xb – (- x’b)

pb = D - db
Source: Wolf (1974).
 Parallax on Stereo Photos
• In humans and many other animals,
parallax allows seeing the viewing field
depth and perspective.

Exact shape images of the

real objects can be drawn on
a transparent medium and
the perception of depth can
be preserved even when the
real objects are removed.

• Objects that are closer to the eyes (i.e.

‘higher’ on a photo in a photogrammetry
analogy) are closer to each other on the
transparent medium (plane).
• Objects ‘rise’ as their images are
moved closer to each other on the plane.
Meaning, their parallax becomes larger.
Source: Wolf (1974).
 Height Measurement Using a Parallax Bar

• The principle of floating mark.

• Two half marks ‘fused’ into one make a
floating mark.
• By moving the half marks, the floating
mark appears to move vertically and
can be landed on the objects on the
photos.
• The effect is the same as if the half
marks existed on the terrain.
• If the half marks are moved closer
together, the floating mark appears to
rise, and vice versa.
• Half marks are found on the parallax
bar, along with a micrometer measurer.

Source: Wolf (1974).

• measuring parallax with a parallax bar

Source: Wolf (1974).

pa – parallax for point a

pa = xa – x’a = D – (K – ra) = (D – K) + ra

The term D – K is C -- the parallax constant for the setup.

pa = C + ra
Ground x, y, and z
coordinates can be
calculated by u using a
paralax.

hA = H – Bf/pa

XA = B * xa/pa

YA = B * ya/pa

Source: Wolf (1974).

 Y Parallax
• Y parallax causes eyestrain.
• There are different causes of Y parallax.
• In stereo viewing a common cause of Y parallax is when corresponding images fail to lie along a line parallel
to the flight line.
Photos properly oriented – no y parallax

Source: Wolf (1974)

Photos with y parallax
Improper orientation Variation in
of the photos Photo tilt flying height
 Aerial Photography Project Planning

• Stereo aerial photos are usually taken as part of a stereo coverage of an area.

• To accomplish the stereo coverage a flight plan needs to be created and

executed.

• A flight plan usually contains two items:

o A flight map – shows where the photos are to be taken.
o Specifications – list specific camera and film/sensor requirements,
scale, flying height, end lap, side lap, tilt and crab tolerances, etc.
 Aerial Photography Project Planning

• End and Side Laps are overlaps between neighbouring photos either along a flightline (End
Lap) or between flightlines (Side Lap).

End Lap Side Lap

Source: Jensen (2007).

 End Lap

Source: Wolf (1974).

PE  (G  B ) 100
G
PE – percent end lap per photo
G – distance of ground coverage per a photo along the axis parallel to the flight
direction.
B – air base distance, i.e., distance between exposure stations.

To avoid possible gaps, aerial photos are normally taken with about 60 % end
lap.
 Side Lap

Source: Wolf (1974).

PS  (G W ) 100
G
PS – percent side lap per photo
G – distance of ground coverage per a photo along the axis perpendicular to the flight
direction.
W – spacing between adjacent flight lines.

To avoid possible gaps, aerial photos are normally taken with about 30 % side
lap.
Flying planes are never constantly in a same position regarding the three axes defining the 3D
space. This then changes the relative positions between the aerial photos as well

Source: Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flight_dynamics_with_text.png
Author: ZeroOne
Causes of Gaps Between Aerial Photos

 Drift

 Crab

 Tilt

 Flying height variations

 Terrain variations
 Causes of Gaps Between Aerial Photos
 Drift
Failure to fly along planned flight lines. Often caused by high winds.
Excessive drifts are the most common cause for gaps in photo
coverage; when this happens, re-flights are necessary (Wolf 1974).
Crab
 Crab
Deviation in the aircraft’s
actual travel direction from its
direction of heading (Wolf
1974).

Source: Wolf (1974).

 Causes of Gaps Between Aerial Photos

 Tilt (Pitch)

Source: Wolf (1974).

 Causes of Gaps Between Aerial Photos

 Flying Height Variations

Source: Wolf (1974).

 Causes of Gaps Between Aerial Photos

 Terrain Variations

Source: Wolf (1974).

 Pitch, roll, and yaw movements of the plane also become evident when
aerial photos are assembled into a mosaic.

Source: Jensen (2007).

 En example of an aerial photo flight project and the resulting photo
alignment.
 Time, Season, Direction, Weather
• Aerial photos should be taken when the sun is between 30 and 50 degrees above
the horizon.

• > 30 deg to avoid underexposure due to low illumination and long shadows that
obscure the terrain (although, shadows are also desirable when it comes to, e.g.,
identifying tree species).

• < 50 deg to avoid so called hotspots – unusually bright areas.

• Photos are almost never taken while the snow is on the ground.

• Can be taken leaf-on (for easier tree species identification) or leaf-off (for greater
visibility of the ground features).

• Photos can be flown in any direction.

• Windy and humid days should be avoided to ensure stable flying and to avoid
atmospheric scattering of light in humid conditions, respectively.
 Soft-copy Photogrammetry
• Contemporary photogrammetry is mainly practiced as soft-copy photogrammetry.

• Soft-copy means that a digital image is analyzed, not a hard copy image.

• The first photogrammetric soft-copy system was developed in the early 1980s, by James
Case.

• Soft-copy photogrammetry includes:

o Processing of digital aerial imagery

o Stereo-viewing of digital aerial imagery in a coordinate

related to the surface of the Earth (e.g., UTM)

Stereo aerial
o *Measuring above-terrain heights, deriving digital imagery required.

elevation/surface models (DEMs/DSMs)

It can be done with individual or stereo
o Producing orthophotos and ortho mosaics
imagery, in mono or in stereo.
From orthophotos or from stereo photos
o Extracting planimetric features while viewing them in stereo.
*In certain circumstances above-terrain height measurements can be done on mono imagery as well – rarely practised.
• In order to use
photos as true spatial
representations of the
real-world, geometric
relations need to be
established between
the camera’s , photo’s
and real-world’s
coordinate systems.

Source: Jensen (2007)

• In stereo
photogrammetry
geometric relations
need to be established
between the adjacent
photos as well.

Source: Wolf (1974)

• Three aspects are fundamental to (soft-copy) photogrammetry:

 Interior orientation

 Exterior orientation

 Aerial triangulation
 Interior Orientation
• The procedure whereby the geometric characteristics of an aerial
photograph are mathematically related to the geometric characteristics
(including deformities) of the camera system that took the photograph.

• The relationship is established between the camera internal coordinate

system and the image pixel coordinate system.

• The information on the camera system is usually found in the camera

calibration report, created when the camera was produced or recalibrated.

• Typical information required for interior orientation that is available in the

camera calibration report includes:

 x,y location of the principal point (e.g., x,y = 0,0)

 x,y location of all fiducial marks (analog cameras)
 lens focal length
 lens distortion
 Radial distortion
 Tangential distortion (considered negligible)

Source: ERDAS (2009)

 Interior Orientation
• The relation between
the geometry of the
camera systems and the
aerial photograph is
calculated and fixed in
digital aerial cameras,
there are no fiducial
marks involved and no
need to manually
establish this relation.

• It is manually established
between chemical film-based
aerial photos and aerial
cameras by using fiducial
marks.

•Fiducial marks are recorded

on the chemical film by the
camera at the moment of
exposure.

Source: Jensen (2007)

 Exterior Orientation
• Relates image (photo) coordinates to real-world (exterior) map coordinates.

• Reference real-world points are called Ground Control Points (GCP) and their position is
expressed in the X, Y, Z coordinates in a chosen map coordinate system.

• All aerial photographs are somewhat tilted and this tilt has to be calculated in the model to be
able to derive useful measurements from aerial photos.

• There are six elements of exterior orientation that express the spatial location and angular
orientation of a tilted photograph:

 XL, YL, ZL – the three dimensional coordinates of the aircraft (camera) at the moment of
the exposure, expressed in a ground coordinate system.
 Omega, phi, and kappa (ω, φ, κ) – roll, pitch, and yaw of the aircraft (camera) at the
moment of exposure.

• All the methods developed to determine these six parameters require identification and X, Y, Z
coordinates of at least 3 Ground Control Points on the photo.

• The GCP points need to form a triangle on the photo, they cannot lie in a straight line.
Exterior Orientation
 Exterior Orientation
• Ideally, GCPs are marked on the ground and precisely measured (e.g. with GPS), but another
method of obtaining their location is by using Geographic Information System layers which share
identifiable points with the aerial photo (a particular point can be located on both sources).

• In addition to GCP points, pass

(tie) points – identifiable on
multiple photos and with
unknown real-world coordinates
– can be used as well.

• Exterior orientation can also be

directly derived when GPS and
Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
are onboard (e.g., ADS camera
system).

• IMU is an electronic device that

detects changes in pitch, roll and
yaw in the aircraft and, by
extension, the camera.

Source: Jensen (2007)

 Ground Control Points (GCPs)
• Preferred configuration of GCPs. If possible there should be at least one GCP on every
third image of a block to calculate the exterior orientation parameters for each photo.

• When working with one photo only, at least three GCPs are needed to calculate the
exterior orientation parameters for it.

Source: ERDAS (2009)

 Tie Points

• A point that can be recognized on multiple overlapping photos but whose ground
coordinates are not known before the block triangulation.

• Ground coordinates for tie points are computed during the block triangulation.

• Tie points can be determined manually and automatically.

• Manual determination in block images typically involves nine points in each image.
References:
ERDAS. 2009. LPS Project Manager.
http://classes.engr.oregonstate.edu/cce/fall2012/cce201-
001/Photogrammetry/LPS_PM_classinstructions.pdf . Viewed March 2014.
Gehrke, S., Morin, K., Downey, M., Boehrer, N., and Fuchs, T. 2010. Semi-global matching: An
alternative to LIDAR for DSM generation. In Proceedings of the 2010 Canadian
Geomatics Conference and Symposium of Commission I.
Jensen., J. R. 2007. Remote Sensing of the Environment: An Earth Resource Perspective.
Pearson Prentice Hall.
Mikhail M., J. S. Bethel, J. and C. McGlone. 2001. Introduction to Modern Photogrammetry.
John Wiley & Sons.
Wolf, P. R. 1974. Elements of Photogrammetry. McGraw-Hill, Inc.