Euclid's Elements

The Elements (Ancient Greek: Στοιχεῖα Stoicheia) is a mathematical

treatise consisting of 13 books attributed to the ancient Greek Elements
mathematician Euclid in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt c. 300 BC. It
is a collection of definitions, postulates, propositions (theorems and
constructions), and mathematical proofs of the propositions. The
books cover plane and solid Euclidean geometry, elementary
number theory, and incommensurable lines. Elements is the oldest
extant large-scale deductive treatment of mathematics. It has proven
instrumental in the development of logic and modern science, and its
logical rigor was not surpassed until the 19th century.

Euclid's Elements has been referred to as the most successful[a][b]

and influential[c] textbook ever written. It was one of the very
earliest mathematical works to be printed after the invention of the
printing press and has been estimated to be second only to the Bible
in the number of editions published since the first printing in
1482,[1] with the number reaching well over one thousand.[d] For
centuries, when the quadrivium was included in the curriculum of all
university students, knowledge of at least part of Euclid's Elements
was required of all students. Not until the 20th century, by which
time its content was universally taught through other school The frontispiece of Sir Henry
textbooks, did it cease to be considered something all educated Billingsley's first English version of
people had read. Euclid's Elements, 1570
Author Euclid
Geometry emerged as an indispensable part of the Language Ancient Greek
standard education of the English gentleman in the Subject Euclidean geometry,
eighteenth century; by the Victorian period it was also
elementary number
becoming an important part of the education of artisans,
theory,
children at Board Schools, colonial subjects and, to a
rather lesser degree, women. ... The standard textbook incommensurable
for this purpose was none other than Euclid's The lines
Elements. [2] Genre Mathematics
Publication c. 300 BC
date
Pages 13 books
Contents
History
Basis in earlier work
Transmission of the text
Influence
In modern mathematics
Contents
Euclid's method and style of presentation
Criticism
Apocrypha
Editions
Translations
Currently in print
Free versions
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links

History

Basis in earlier work

Scholars believe that the Elements is largely a compilation of

propositions based on books by earlier Greek mathematicians.[4]

Proclus (412–485 AD), a Greek mathematician who lived around

seven centuries after Euclid, wrote in his commentary on the
A fragment of Euclid's Elements on
Elements: "Euclid, who put together the Elements, collecting many part of the Oxyrhynchus papyri
of Eudoxus' theorems, perfecting many of Theaetetus', and also
bringing to irrefragable demonstration the things which were only
somewhat loosely proved by his predecessors".

Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BC) was probably the source for most of
books I and II, Hippocrates of Chios (c. 470–410 BC, not the better
known Hippocrates of Kos) for book III, and Eudoxus of Cnidus (c.
408–355 BC) for book V, while books IV, VI, XI, and XII probably
came from other Pythagorean or Athenian mathematicians.[5] The
Elements may have been based on an earlier textbook by
Hippocrates of Chios, who also may have originated the use of
letters to refer to figures.[6]

Transmission of the text

In the fourth century AD, Theon of Alexandria produced an edition An illumination from a manuscript
of Euclid which was so widely used that it became the only based on Adelard of Bath's
translation of the Elements, c. 1309–
surviving source until François Peyrard's 1808 discovery at the
1316; Adelard's is the oldest
Vatican of a manuscript not derived from Theon's. This manuscript,
surviving translation of the Elements
the Heiberg manuscript, is from a Byzantine workshop around 900
into Latin, done in the 12th-century
and is the basis of modern editions.[7] Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 29 is a work and translated from Arabic.[3]
tiny fragment of an even older manuscript, but only contains the
statement of one proposition.
Although known to, for instance, Cicero, no record exists of the text having been translated into Latin prior
to Boethius in the fifth or sixth century.[3] The Arabs received the Elements from the Byzantines around
760; this version was translated into Arabic under Harun al Rashid c. 800.[3] The Byzantine scholar Arethas
commissioned the copying of one of the extant Greek manuscripts of Euclid in the late ninth century.[8]
Although known in Byzantium, the Elements was lost to Western Europe until about 1120, when the English
monk Adelard of Bath translated it into Latin from an Arabic translation.[e]

The first printed edition appeared in 1482 (based on Campanus of

Novara's 1260 edition),[10] and since then it has been translated into
many languages and published in about a thousand different
editions. Theon's Greek edition was recovered in 1533. In 1570,
John Dee provided a widely respected "Mathematical Preface",
along with copious notes and supplementary material, to the first
English edition by Henry Billingsley.

Copies of the Greek text still exist, some of which can be found in
the Vatican Library and the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The
Euclidis – Elementorum libri XV
manuscripts available are of variable quality, and invariably
Paris, Hieronymum de Marnef &
incomplete. By careful analysis of the translations and originals,
Guillaume Cavelat, 1573 (second
hypotheses have been made about the contents of the original text edition after the 1557 ed.); in 8:350,
(copies of which are no longer available). (2)pp. THOMAS–STANFORD, Early
Editions of Euclid's Elements, n°32.
Ancient texts which refer to the Elements itself, and to other Mentioned in T.L. Heath's translation.
mathematical theories that were current at the time it was written, Private collection Hector Zenil.
are also important in this process. Such analyses are conducted by J.
L. Heiberg and Sir Thomas Little Heath in their editions of the text.

Also of importance are the scholia, or annotations to the text. These additions, which often distinguished
themselves from the main text (depending on the manuscript), gradually accumulated over time as opinions
varied upon what was worthy of explanation or further study.

Influence
The Elements is still considered a masterpiece in the application of
logic to mathematics. In historical context, it has proven enormously
influential in many areas of science. Scientists Nicolaus Copernicus,
Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Sir Isaac Newton were all
influenced by the Elements, and applied their knowledge of it to
their work. Mathematicians and philosophers, such as Thomas
Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, Alfred North Whitehead, and Bertrand
Russell, have attempted to create their own foundational "Elements"
for their respective disciplines, by adopting the axiomatized
deductive structures that Euclid's work introduced. A page with marginalia from the first
printed edition of Elements, printed
The austere beauty of Euclidean geometry has been seen by many in by Erhard Ratdolt in 1482
western culture as a glimpse of an otherworldly system of perfection
and certainty. Abraham Lincoln kept a copy of Euclid in his
saddlebag, and studied it late at night by lamplight; he related that he said to himself, "You never can make a
lawyer if you do not understand what demonstrate means; and I left my situation in Springfield, went home
to my father's house, and stayed there till I could give any proposition in the six books of Euclid at
sight".[11] Edna St. Vincent Millay wrote in her sonnet "Euclid alone has looked on Beauty bare", "O
blinding hour, O holy, terrible day, When first the shaft into his vision shone Of light anatomized!". Albert
Einstein recalled a copy of the Elements and a magnetic compass as two gifts that had a great influence on
him as a boy, referring to the Euclid as the "holy little geometry book".[12][13]

The success of the Elements is due primarily to its logical presentation of most of the mathematical
knowledge available to Euclid. Much of the material is not original to him, although many of the proofs are
his. However, Euclid's systematic development of his subject, from a small set of axioms to deep results, and
the consistency of his approach throughout the Elements, encouraged its use as a textbook for about 2,000
years. The Elements still influences modern geometry books. Furthermore its logical, axiomatic approach
and rigorous proofs remain the cornerstone of mathematics.

In modern mathematics

One of the most notable influences of Euclid on modern mathematics is the discussion of the parallel
postulate. In Book I, Euclid lists five postulates, the fifth of which stipulates

If a line segment intersects two straight lines forming two interior angles on the same side that
sum to less than two right angles, then the two lines, if extended indefinitely, meet on that side
on which the angles sum to less than two right angles.

This postulate plagued mathematicians for centuries due to its

apparent complexity compared to the other four postulates.
Many attempts were made to prove the fifth postulate based
on the other four, but they never succeeded. Eventually in
1829, mathematician Nikolai Lobachevsky published a The different versions of the parallel
description of acute geometry (or hyperbolic geometry), a postulate result in different geometries.
geometry which assumed a different form of the parallel
postulate. It is in fact possible to create a valid geometry
without the fifth postulate entirely, or with different versions of the fifth postulate (elliptic geometry). If one
takes the fifth postulate as a given, the result is Euclidean geometry.

Contents
Book 1 contains 5 postulates (including the famous parallel postulate) and 5 common notions,
and covers important topics of plane geometry such as the Pythagorean theorem, equality of
angles and areas, parallelism, the sum of the angles in a triangle, and the construction of
various geometric figures.
Book 2 contains a number of lemmas concerning the equality of rectangles and squares,
sometimes referred to as "geometric algebra", and concludes with a construction of the golden
ratio and a way of constructing a square equal in area to any rectilineal plane figure.
Book 3 deals with circles and their properties: finding the center, inscribed angles, tangents,
the power of a point, Thales' theorem.
Book 4 constructs the incircle and circumcircle of a triangle, as well as regular polygons with 4,
5, 6, and 15 sides.
Book 5, on proportions of magnitudes, gives the highly sophisticated theory of proportion
probably developed by Eudoxus, and proves properties such as "alternation" (if a : b :: c : d,
then a : c :: b : d).
Book 6 applies proportions to plane geometry, especially the construction and recognition of
similar figures.
 Book 7 deals with elementary number theory: divisibility, prime numbers and their relation to
composite numbers, Euclid's algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor, finding the
least common multiple.
Book 8 deals with the construction and existence of geometric sequences of integers.
Book 9 applies the results of the preceding two books and gives the infinitude of prime
numbers and the construction of all even perfect numbers.
Book 10 proves the irrationality of the square roots of non-square integers (e.g. ) and
classifies the square roots of incommensurable lines into thirteen disjoint categories. Euclid
here introduces the term "irrational", which has a different meaning than the modern concept of
irrational numbers. He also gives a formula to produce Pythagorean triples.[14]
Book 11 generalizes the results of book 6 to solid figures: perpendicularity, parallelism,
volumes and similarity of parallelepipeds.
Book 12 studies the volumes of cones, pyramids, and cylinders in detail by using the method
of exhaustion, a precursor to integration, and shows, for example, that the volume of a cone is
a third of the volume of the corresponding cylinder. It concludes by showing that the volume of
a sphere is proportional to the cube of its radius (in modern language) by approximating its
volume by a union of many pyramids.
Book 13 constructs the five regular Platonic solids inscribed in a sphere and compares the
ratios of their edges to the radius of the sphere.

Summary Contents of Euclid's Elements

Book I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII Totals
Definitions 23 2 11 7 18 4 22 - - 16 28 - - 131
Postulates 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
Common Notions 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
Propositions 48 14 37 16 25 33 39 27 36 115 39 18 18 465

Euclid's method and style of presentation

Euclid's axiomatic approach and constructive methods • "To draw a straight line from any point to any point."
were widely influential. • "To describe a circle with any center and distance."

Many of Euclid's propositions were constructive, Euclid, Elements, Book I, Postulates 1 & 3.[15]
demonstrating the existence of some figure by
detailing the steps he used to construct the object
using a compass and straightedge. His constructive
approach appears even in his geometry's postulates, as the first and third postulates stating the existence of a
line and circle are constructive. Instead of stating that lines and circles exist per his prior definitions, he
states that it is possible to 'construct' a line and circle. It also appears that, for him to use a figure in one of
his proofs, he needs to construct it in an earlier proposition. For example, he proves the Pythagorean
theorem by first inscribing a square on the sides of a right triangle, but only after constructing a square on a
given line one proposition earlier.[16]

As was common in ancient mathematical texts, when a proposition needed proof in several different cases,
Euclid often proved only one of them (often the most difficult), leaving the others to the reader. Later editors
such as Theon often interpolated their own proofs of these cases.
Euclid's presentation was limited by the mathematical ideas and
notations in common currency in his era, and this causes the
treatment to seem awkward to the modern reader in some places. For
example, there was no notion of an angle greater than two right
angles,[17] the number 1 was sometimes treated separately from
other positive integers, and as multiplication was treated
geometrically he did not use the product of more than 3 different
numbers. The geometrical treatment of number theory may have
been because the alternative would have been the extremely
awkward Alexandrian system of numerals.[18]

The presentation of each result is given in a stylized form, which, An animation showing how Euclid
although not invented by Euclid, is recognized as typically classical. constructed a hexagon (Book IV,
It has six different parts: First is the 'enunciation', which states the Proposition 15). Every two-
result in general terms (i.e., the statement of the proposition). Then dimensional figure in the Elements
comes the 'setting-out', which gives the figure and denotes particular can be constructed using only a
geometrical objects by letters. Next comes the 'definition' or compass and straightedge.[15]
'specification', which restates the enunciation in terms of the
particular figure. Then the 'construction' or 'machinery' follows.
Here, the original figure is extended to forward the proof. Then, the
'proof' itself follows. Finally, the 'conclusion' connects the proof to
the enunciation by stating the specific conclusions drawn in the
proof, in the general terms of the enunciation.[19]

No indication is given of the method of reasoning that led to the

result, although the Data does provide instruction about how to
approach the types of problems encountered in the first four books
Codex Vaticanus 190
of the Elements.[5] Some scholars have tried to find fault in Euclid's
use of figures in his proofs, accusing him of writing proofs that
depended on the specific figures drawn rather than the general
underlying logic, especially concerning Proposition II of Book I. However, Euclid's original proof of this
proposition, is general, valid, and does not depend on the figure used as an example to illustrate one given
configuration.[20]

Criticism
Euclid's list of axioms in the Elements was not exhaustive, but represented the principles that were the most
important. His proofs often invoke axiomatic notions which were not originally presented in his list of
axioms. Later editors have interpolated Euclid's implicit axiomatic assumptions in the list of formal
axioms.[21]

For example, in the first construction of Book 1, Euclid used a premise that was neither postulated nor
proved: that two circles with centers at the distance of their radius will intersect in two points.[22] Later, in
the fourth construction, he used superposition (moving the triangles on top of each other) to prove that if
two sides and their angles are equal, then they are congruent; during these considerations he uses some
properties of superposition, but these properties are not described explicitly in the treatise. If superposition is
to be considered a valid method of geometric proof, all of geometry would be full of such proofs. For
example, propositions I.1 – I.3 can be proved trivially by using superposition.[23]

Mathematician and historian W. W. Rouse Ball put the criticisms in perspective, remarking that "the fact that
for two thousand years [the Elements] was the usual text-book on the subject raises a strong presumption
that it is not unsuitable for that purpose."[17]
Apocrypha
It was not uncommon in ancient time to attribute to celebrated authors works that were not written by them.
It is by these means that the apocryphal books XIV and XV of the Elements were sometimes included in the
collection.[24] The spurious Book XIV was probably written by Hypsicles on the basis of a treatise by
Apollonius. The book continues Euclid's comparison of regular solids inscribed in spheres, with the chief
result being that the ratio of the surfaces of the dodecahedron and icosahedron inscribed in the same sphere
is the same as the ratio of their volumes, the ratio being

The spurious Book XV was probably written, at least in part, by Isidore of Miletus. This book covers topics
such as counting the number of edges and solid angles in the regular solids, and finding the measure of
dihedral angles of faces that meet at an edge.[f]

Editions
1460s, Regiomontanus (incomplete)
1482, Erhard Ratdolt (Venice), first printed edition[25]
1533, editio princeps by Simon Grynäus
1557, by Jean Magnien and Pierre de Montdoré, reviewed
by Stephanus Gracilis (only propositions, no full proofs,
includes original Greek and the Latin translation)
1572, Commandinus Latin edition
1574, Christoph Clavius

Translations
1505, Bartolomeo Zamberti (Latin)
1543, Niccolò Tartaglia (Italian)
1557, Jean Magnien and Pierre de Montdoré, reviewed by
Stephanus Gracilis (Greek to Latin)
1558, Johann Scheubel (German)
1562, Jacob Kündig (German) The Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (left)
and the Chinese mathematician Xu
1562, Wilhelm Holtzmann (German)
Guangqi (right) published the
1564–1566, Pierre Forcadel de Béziers (French) Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements
1570, Henry Billingsley (English) (幾何原本) in 1607.
1572, Commandinus (Latin)
1575, Commandinus (Italian)
1576, Rodrigo de Zamorano (Spanish)
1594, Typographia Medicea (edition of the Arabic translation of The Recension of Euclid's
"Elements"[26]
1604, Jean Errard de Bar-le-Duc (French)
1606, Jan Pieterszoon Dou (Dutch)
1607, Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi (Chinese)
1613, Pietro Cataldi (Italian)
1615, Denis Henrion (French)
1617, Frans van Schooten (Dutch)
1637, L. Carduchi (Spanish)
1639, Pierre Hérigone (French)
1651, Heinrich Hoffmann (German)
1651, Thomas Rudd (English)
1660, Isaac Barrow (English)
1661, John Leeke and Geo. Serle (English)
1663, Domenico Magni (Italian from Latin)
1672, Claude François Milliet Dechales (French)
1680, Vitale Giordano (Italian)
1685, William Halifax (English)
1689, Jacob Knesa (Spanish)
1690, Vincenzo Viviani (Italian)
1694, Ant. Ernst Burkh v. Pirckenstein (German)
1695, C. J. Vooght (Dutch)
1697, Samuel Reyher (German)
1702, Hendrik Coets (Dutch)
1705, Charles Scarborough (English)
1708, John Keill (English)
1714, Chr. Schessler (German)
1714, W. Whiston (English)
Proof of the Pythagorean theorem in
1720s, Jagannatha Samrat (Sanskrit, based on the Arabic Byrne's The Elements of Euclid and
translation of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi)[27] published in colored version in 1847.
1731, Guido Grandi (abbreviation to Italian)
1738, Ivan Satarov (Russian from French)
1744, Mårten Strömer (Swedish)
1749, Dechales (Italian)
1745, Ernest Gottlieb Ziegenbalg (Danish)
1752, Leonardo Ximenes (Italian)
1756, Robert Simson (English)
1763, Pubo Steenstra (Dutch)
1768, Angelo Brunelli (Portuguese)
1773, 1781, J. F. Lorenz (German)
1780, Baruch Schick of Shklov (Hebrew)[28]
1781, 1788 James Williamson (English)
1781, William Austin (English)
1789, Pr. Suvoroff nad Yos. Nikitin (Russian from Greek)
1795, John Playfair (English)
1803, H.C. Linderup (Danish)
1804, François Peyrard (French). Peyrard discovered in 1808 the Vaticanus Graecus 190,
which enables him to provide a first definitive version in 1814–1818
1807, Józef Czech (Polish based on Greek, Latin and English editions)
1807, J. K. F. Hauff (German)
1818, Vincenzo Flauti (Italian)
 1820, Benjamin of Lesbos (Modern Greek)
1826, George Phillips (English)
1828, Joh. Josh and Ign. Hoffmann (German)
1828, Dionysius Lardner (English)
1833, E. S. Unger (German)
1833, Thomas Perronet Thompson (English)
1836, H. Falk (Swedish)
1844, 1845, 1859, P. R. Bråkenhjelm (Swedish)
1850, F. A. A. Lundgren (Swedish)
1850, H. A. Witt and M. E. Areskong (Swedish)
1862, Isaac Todhunter (English)
1865, Sámuel Brassai (Hungarian)
1873, Masakuni Yamada (Japanese)
1880, Vachtchenko-Zakhartchenko (Russian)
1897, Thyra Eibe (Danish)
1901, Max Simon (German)
1907, František Servít (Czech)[29]
1908, Thomas Little Heath (English)
1939, R. Catesby Taliaferro (English)
1999, Maja Hudoletnjak Grgić (Book I-VI) (Croatian)[30]
2009, Irineu Bicudo (Brazilian Portuguese)
2019, Ali Sinan Sertöz (Turkish)[31]

Currently in print
Euclid's Elements – All thirteen books complete in one volume, Based on Heath's translation,
Green Lion Press ISBN 1-888009-18-7.
The Elements: Books I–XIII – Complete and Unabridged, (2006) Translated by Sir Thomas
Heath, Barnes & Noble ISBN 0-7607-6312-7.
The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements, translation and commentaries by Heath, Thomas L.
(1956) in three volumes. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60088-2 (vol. 1), ISBN 0-486-60089-
0 (vol. 2), ISBN 0-486-60090-4 (vol. 3)

Free versions
Euclid's Elements Redux, Volume 1, contains books I–III, based on John Casey's
translation.[32]
Euclid's Elements Redux, Volume 2, contains books IV–VIII, based on John Casey's
translation.[32]

References

Notes
a. Wilson 2006, p. 278 states, "Euclid's Elements subsequently became the basis of all
mathematical education, not only in the Roman and Byzantine periods, but right down to the
 mid-20th century, and it could be argued that it is the most successful textbook ever written."
b. Boyer 1991, p. 100 notes, "As teachers at the school he called a band of leading scholars,
among whom was the author of the most fabulously successful mathematics textbook ever
written – the Elements (Stoichia) of Euclid".
c. Boyer 1991, p. 119 notes, "The Elements of Euclid not only was the earliest major Greek
mathematical work to come down to us, but also the most influential textbook of all times.
[...]The first printed versions of the Elements appeared at Venice in 1482, one of the very
earliest of mathematical books to be set in type; it has been estimated that since then at least
a thousand editions have been published. Perhaps no book other than the Bible can boast so
many editions, and certainly no mathematical work has had an influence comparable with that
of Euclid's Elements".
d. Bunt, Jones & Bedient 1988, p. 142 state, "the Elements became known to Western Europe
via the Arabs and the Moors. There, the Elements became the foundation of mathematical
education. More than 1000 editions of the Elements are known. In all probability, it is, next to
the Bible, the most widely spread book in the civilization of the Western world."
e. One older work claims Adelard disguised himself as a Muslim student to obtain a copy in
Muslim Córdoba.[9] However, more recent biographical work has turned up no clear
documentation that Adelard ever went to Muslim-ruled Spain, although he spent time in
Norman-ruled Sicily and Crusader-ruled Antioch, both of which had Arabic-speaking
populations. Charles Burnett, Adelard of Bath: Conversations with his Nephew (Cambridge,
1999); Charles Burnett, Adelard of Bath (University of London, 1987).
f. Boyer 1991, pp. 118–119 writes, "In ancient times it was not uncommon to attribute to a
celebrated author works that were not by him; thus, some versions of Euclid's Elements
include a fourteenth and even a fifteenth book, both shown by later scholars to be apocryphal.
The so-called Book XIV continues Euclid's comparison of the regular solids inscribed in a
sphere, the chief results being that the ratio of the surfaces of the dodecahedron and
icosahedron inscribed in the same sphere is the same as the ratio of their volumes, the ratio
being that of the edge of the cube to the edge of the icosahedron, that is, . It
is thought that this book may have been composed by Hypsicles on the basis of a treatise
(now lost) by Apollonius comparing the dodecahedron and icosahedron. [...] The spurious
Book XV, which is inferior, is thought to have been (at least in part) the work of Isidore of
Miletus (fl. ca. A.D. 532), architect of the cathedral of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) at
Constantinople. This book also deals with the regular solids, counting the number of edges
and solid angles in the solids, and finding the measures of the dihedral angles of faces
meeting at an edge.

Citations
1. Boyer 1991, p. 100.
2. Dodgson & Hagar 2009, p. xxviii.
3. Russell 2013, p. 177.
4. Waerden 1975, p. 197.
5. Ball 1908, p. 54.
6. Ball 1908, p. 38.
7. The Earliest Surviving Manuscript Closest to Euclid's Original Text (Circa 850) (http://historyofi
nformation.com/expanded.php?id=2749); an image (http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/
exhibit/d-mathematics/Greek_math.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200912200425
13/http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/d-mathematics/Greek_math.html) 2009-
12-20 at the Wayback Machine of one page
8. Reynolds & Wilson 1991, p. 57.
 9. Ball 1908, p. 165.
10. Busard 2005, p. 1.
11. Ketcham 1901.
12. Herschbach, Dudley. "Einstein as a Student" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090226002142/htt
p://www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf) (PDF). Department of Chemistry
and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. p. 3. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-02-26.: about
Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for six years.
13. Prindle, Joseph. "Albert Einstein - Young Einstein" (http://www.alberteinsteinsite.com/einsteiny
oung.html). www.alberteinsteinsite.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201706100419
42/http://www.alberteinsteinsite.com/einsteinyoung.html) from the original on 10 June 2017.
Retrieved 29 April 2018.
14. Joyce, D. E. (June 1997), "Book X, Proposition XXIX" (https://mathcs.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/
elements/bookX/propX29.html), Euclid's Elements, Clark University
15. Hartshorne 2000, p. 18.
16. Hartshorne 2000, pp. 18–20.
17. Ball 1908, p. 55.
18. Ball 1908, pp. 54 58, 127.
19. Heath 1963, p. 216.
20. Toussaint 1993, pp. 12–23.
21. Heath 1956a, p. 62.
22. Heath 1956a, p. 242.
23. Heath 1956a, p. 249.
24. Boyer 1991, pp. 118-119.
25. Alexanderson & Greenwalt 2012, p. 163
26. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 1594.
27. Sarma 1997, pp. 460-461.
28. "JNUL Digitized Book Repository" (https://archive.today/20090622080437/http://aleph500.huji.
ac.il/nnl/dig/books/bk001139706.html). huji.ac.il. 22 June 2009. Archived from the original (htt
p://aleph500.huji.ac.il/nnl/dig/books/bk001139706.html) on 22 June 2009. Retrieved 29 April
2018.
29. Servít 1907.
30. Euklid 1999.
31. Sertöz 2019.
32. Callahan & Casey 2015.

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Alexanderson, Gerald L.; Greenwalt, William S. Ball, Walter William Rouse (1908). A Short
(2012), "About the cover: Billingsley's Account of the History of Mathematics (h
Euclid in English", Bulletin (New Series) ttps://books.google.com/books?id=W6h
of the American Mathematical Society, QjGHzcAcC) (4th ed.). Dover
49 (1): 163–167 Publications.
Artmann, Benno: Euclid – The Creation of Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "Euclid of Alexandria". A
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External links
 Multilingual edition of Elementa in the Bibliotheca Polyglotta (https://www2.hf.uio.no/polyglotta/i
ndex.php?page=volume&vid=67)
Euclid (1997) [c. 300 BC]. David E. Joyce (ed.). "Elements" (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/ja
va/elements/toc.html). Retrieved 2006-08-30. In HTML with Java-based interactive figures.
Richard Fitzpatrick's bilingual edition (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/Books/Euclid/Elements.pdf)
(freely downloadable PDF, typeset in a two-column format with the original Greek beside a
modern English translation; also available in print as ISBN 978-0-615-17984-1)
Heath's English translation (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Euc.+1) (HTML,
without the figures, public domain) (accessed February 4, 2010)
Heath's English translation and commentary, with the figures (Google Books): vol. 1 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=UhgPAAAAIAAJ), vol. 2 (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=lxkPAAAAIAAJ), vol. 3 (https://books.google.com/books?id=xhkPAAAAIAAJ), vol. 3 c. 2
(https://books.google.com/books?id=KHMDAAAAYAAJ)
Oliver Byrne's 1847 edition (http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/byrne.html) (also hosted at
archive.org (https://archive.org/details/firstsixbooksofe00eucl))– an unusual version by Oliver
Byrne who used color rather than labels such as ABC (scanned page images, public domain)
Web adapted version of Byrne’s Euclid (https://www.c82.net/euclid/#books) designed by
Nicholas Rougeux
The First Six Books of the Elements (http://gutenberg.org/ebooks/21076) by John Casey and
Euclid scanned by Project Gutenberg.
Reading Euclid (http://mysite.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/nugreek/contents.htm) – a course in how
to read Euclid in the original Greek, with English translations and commentaries (HTML with
figures)
Sir Thomas More's manuscript (https://web.archive.org/web/20040807095930/http://www.colu
mbia.edu/acis/textarchive/rare/24.html)
Latin translation (https://web.archive.org/web/20040807101503/http://www.columbia.edu/acis/t
extarchive/rare/6.html) by Aethelhard of Bath
Euclid Elements – The original Greek text (http://www.physics.ntua.gr/~mourmouras/euclid/ind
ex.html) Greek HTML
Clay Mathematics Institute Historical Archive – The thirteen books of Euclid's Elements (http://
www.claymath.org/euclids-elements) copied by Stephen the Clerk for Arethas of Patras, in
Constantinople in 888 AD
Kitāb Taḥrīr uṣūl li-Ūqlīdis (http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/13079270) Arabic translation of
the thirteen books of Euclid's Elements by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī. Published by Medici Oriental
Press(also, Typographia Medicea). Facsimile hosted by Islamic Heritage Project (http://ocp.hu
l.harvard.edu/ihp/).
Euclid's Elements Redux (https://archive.org/details/euclid-elements-redux_201809), an open
textbook based on the Elements
1607 Chinese translations (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%E5%B9%BE%E4%BD%9
5%E5%8E%9F%E6%9C%AC) reprinted as part of Siku Quanshu, or "Complete Library of the
Four Treasuries."

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