South Africa – A pathfinder in earth

leakage protection
Originally published in “Elektron” January 1992 It is only, to a lesser degree, that understanding
prevails in regard to the dramatic reduction of
potential fire hazards in premises that have been
In this article, the historical development of Earth
fitted with sensitive earth leakage protection.
Leakage Protection is traced. Special attention is
given to the South African contribution, not only in
With hundreds of millions of these devices now in
the development of the world’s first sensitive earth
operation across the globe, in recognition of the
leakage relay, but in the production of the world’s
undisputed benefits to life preservation in the face of
first Standard Specification covering these devices.
both shock hazard and electrical fire hazard, the time
The potential cost saving advantages through
has come to take stock of the untapped benefits that
relaxation of regulatory requirements in an
can be derived from this technology—particularly in
environment that includes shock and fire hazard
the developing areas of the world.
protection equipment are indicated.
South Africa, once again, is poised to add to its
impressive list of ‘firsts” in the science and
application of earth leakage protection.

The urgent requirement, in this mixed economy, to

bring electricity into the homes of millions of people,
with financial resources severely depleted by
decades of international sanctions, presents a
unique opportunity to explore the untapped benefits
of these devices in providing more affordable
electricity to the masses.

Historical background
The question regarding the possibility of the dangers
Original magnetic amplifier type earth leakage unit circa 1957
of electric current to human beings was raised by
experimenters, who in the 1 8th century already
It is surprising that after more than three decades, in
carried out tests with electrostatic machines. Serious
the country that introduced ‘people protection” to the
research on the physiological effects of electric
world, the arguments in favour of and opposed to
current on living systems followed, the first fatal
sensitive earth leakage protection still prevail.
electrical accidents became known during the
second half of the 19th century. It was not however,
During the intervening three decades, the benefits of
until the 1930’s that clear goals were set in
this superior protection system have not only been
Germany, for a successful technique for the
recognised globally, but widely introduced,
protective measures against electrical accidents.
particularly in developed areas.
The first extensive measurements of fibrillation
thresholds in animal tests were carried out by an
Following the South African lead back in 1974, more
American team in 1936. Growing interest in the
and more countries, in recognition of the need for
subject resulted in much work being done in both the
such devices to become an integral part of their ever
USA and in Austria during the 1950s and continuing
expanding electricity distribution systems, are
through the 1970s. This work contributed to our
tending, in some form or other, to require the
understanding today of the effects of electrical
mandatory installation of sensitive earth leakage 1’6
current on the human body.
circuit breakers.
Earth Leakage Protection
Not unexpectedly, it has been in the market driven
The earliest form of earth leakage circuit breaker
economies of the Western World, where most
(ELCB) was the voltage operated type which was
research investigation has resulted in the advanced
developed in the UK during the 1 930’s. Such
technology that has made possible the wide scale
breakers were intended to give protection against
introduction of these sophisticated devices at cost
shock risk by detecting fault voltages, rather than to
levels that have become much more affordable.
give protection against fire risk by detecting leaking
2
currents. The limitations of voltage operated earth
Largely influenced by the highly sensational issues
leakage circuit breakers soon become recognised,
of the effects of electricity on the human body, most
but their widespread use, particularly in the UK and
publicity and media coverage relating to earth
some continental countries, as well as Australia,
leakage circuit breakers has, quite naturally,
continued for several decades.
concentrated on shock hazard protection and the
related life saving capabilities of these devices.
Whilst the techniques of current balance earth The problem of the design and application of some
leakage protection had been recognised for some form of protection against the hazard of fatal electric
years, it was not until the mid-1950’s that so called shock occurring accidentally on the 525 volt
“sensitive” current balance devices were produced in electrical distribution networks in the South African
West Germany. These “sensitive” devices had underground gold mining industry had received
tripping sensitivities of 3 Amps down to 300 considerable attention during the 1950’s. This
3
milliAmps. prompted K A H Adams to present his paper in April
1957, describing and comparing the various systems
Parallel developments in France and Austria resulted available for this purpose.
in extensive installations during the 1 960’s, of core
balance earth leakage circuit breakers having The tendency at that time was to use current
sensitivities of 500 mA and 300 mA, with 100 mA operated earth leakage protection systems having
devices appearing in Austria. It was not until the sensitivities of the order of 10 Amperes, with the limit
latter half of the 1960’s that 30 mA sensitive devices of sensitivity at that time believed to be 5 Amps.
started to make their appearance in France and
Germany. Sensitive earth leakage protection
In recognition of the need to develop more sensitive
current operated earth leakage devices, FWJ
Electrical Industries, after experimenting with current
transformer operated relays, ultimately, in 1956,
produced a 250 mA sensitive device employing a
cold cathode gas discharge tube, triggered from a
core balance transformer via a simple electronic
network.

The importance of this development was quickly

recognised and these devices rapidly received wide
acceptance throughout the gold mining fraternity.

A A Middlecote in his 1957 paper “Earth Leakage”

concluded that “the soundest method of protection is
by sensitive current balance relays”.

People protection
Current operated earth leakage protection was
introduced into the South African gold mining
industry, primarily to introduce some form of
protection against fatal shock.

The studies of several researchers, including Dalziel

6
in the USA indicated however, that a current
sensitivity of at least one order of magnitude better
Modern earth leakage protection circuit breaker
than the 250 mA devices being introduced into the
mines would be necessary to realise meaningful
The South African situation
“people protection”.
The foundations for earth leakage protection were
Reliable, solid-state electronic components had not
laid by individual investigations, starting with L H L
4 yet become commercially available in the mid
Badham whose paper “Neutral Earthing and Earth
1950’s. (The transistor was first reported as a
Leakage Protection” was published in the
laboratory curiosity that came out of the Bell
Transactions of the South African Institute of
research laboratories in 1948).
Electrical Engineers in March 1940. This was
followed up in a paper titled “Earth Leakage
5 Though expensive and cumbersome, magnetic
Protection” by C A Martin in the SAIEE Transactions
amplifier technologies were used by FWJ Electrical
of June 1950.
Industries to produce the world’s first high sensitivity
current balance earth leakage protection device,
The work of Badham and Martin contributed largely
having a tripping sensitivity of 20 mA.
to the “Code of Practice for Earth Leakage
Protection for Mines for AC Circuits up to 660 Volts”,
Following the unfortunate electrocution of a housewife
that was drawn up by the Prevention of Accidents
who came into contact with a faulty standing lamp
Committee of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines and
whilst polishing the floor, the owners of the mining
Published by the SAIEE in 1953.
property house commissioned FWJ Electrical French Standards covering high sensitivity core
Industries to accelerate their developments of these balance earth leakage circuit breakers appeared at
devices. the end of 1970 and into 1971 . These included: UTE
60 —1930 (general rules); NF C61 — 140; and NF
These were first installed in the mining village of C6i — 141; together with a practical installation
Stilfontein in the Western Transvaal in 1957. By guide UTE 15 —126.
1958, 400 houses in Stilfontein had been fitted with
these devices under a General Mining Corporation Across the Atlantic, in the USA, standardisation of
contract. these devices (known as Ground Fault Circuit
Interrupters), after incorporation into the 1962
The importance of this development was recognised National Electric Code for swimming pool equipment,
by Heinemann Electric, South Africa, who introduced was only completed at the end of 1972 when UL943
a solid state electronically operated “people followed the Standard for ground-fault relaying and
protection” device during the early 1960’s, to be sensing equipment (UL1053) that had been
followed by voltage independent devices later that published earlier that year.
decade.
The IEC in the meantime, had concentrated their
For more than a decade, South Africa led the world efforts on “The effects of current passing through the
in the production and application of high sensitivity human body”. These results finally appeared in IEC
core balance earth leakage protection devices, and Publication 479 of 1974. The first IEC product
was the first country in the world to require standard covering these high sensitivity devices was
mandatory installation of earth leakage circuit published in 1 983 as Publication 755, titled “General
breakers to all 220/250 Volt socket outlets. Requirements for Residual Current Operated
Protective Devices”.
It is only in relatively recent times, that the massive
resources of the Western world have matched and in IEC 1008-1 , after many years of work by Committee
some cases, surpassed these early South African TC23E, was published in 1990, with IEC 1009 due
developments. for publication shortly.

Standards and specifications IEC Committee 17B is currently completing work on

One of the earliest Standard Specifications covering Appendix B to Standard 947-2 which will cover
Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers, applied only to requirements for core balance earth leakage
voltage operated devices, and appeared as British protection incorporated into industrial type circuit
Standard BS 842 of 1939. This was subsequently breakers.
revised in 1965, taking into account the relevant
requirements of European Standard CEE.18. The Australian Standard AS3190 was first published
in 1974 with this original document being modelled
Preliminary discussions on a draft European on the South African Standard. Several revisions,
Standard for current operated earth leakage circuit including requirements peculiar to Australia, have
breakers started in 1962, and formed the basis for since been published.
the corresponding British Standard “Current
Operated Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers” The South African scene
As a consequence of the 1957 introduction into the
This British Standard BS 4293 finally appeared in South African market of 20 milliamp sensitive current
1968, with CEE Specification CEE.27 only being balance earth leakage protection devices, work was
published in October 1974. started in the early 1960’s by the South African
Bureau of Standards on a National Standard.
During the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, the CEE
work and consequently the British Standard, The document published in 1964— SABS 767,
concentrated on sensitivities of the order of 500 mA proved to be the world’s first product standard
to 1000 mA without specifically precluding the use of covering Core Balance Earth Leakage Protection
higher sensitivity devices, which were finally Devices, in a market that was already accepting
recognised in the 1983 revision of BS 4293. these devices in large numbers.

A reference to protection by current operated core Mandatory requirements in South Africa

balance earth leakage protection devices was A March 1974 amendment to the Standard
included in German National Standards during the Regulations for the wiring of premises (“The Blue
late 1950’s, with the first VDE Specification that Book”) provided in regulation 226(B) for the
covered 30 mA sensitive devices appearing in the installation of an earth leakage protection device in
mid 1960’s, although 30 mA sensitive devices were addition to any other mandatory requirements.
not manufactured in Germany before 1966.
Regulation 226(F) of that same amendment required The sensitivity levels used in industry and mining
as from September 1974, the mandatory installation applications vary widely, but the de facto final circuit
of automatic earth leakage protection on all lighting protection sensitivity used in the South African
and socket outlet circuits. mining industry is 250 mA. The 250 mA tripping
sensitivity level found its origins way back in the
The 1981 release of SABS 0142 — The Code of 1950’s when investigations in South African gold
Practice for the Wiring of Premises, which mines suggested a worst case earth return bond
superceded “The Blue Book” recognised that impedance of 100 ohms. This value, when coupled
mandatory installation of these devices should, for to what was considered to be a safe touch voltage of
other safety reasons, not include lighting circuits. 25 Volts, resulted in the 250 mA value.

1972 and 1973 directives from the Rand and OFS Technological Developments
undertaking of the Electricity Supply Commission
required, in the intervening period, sensitive current Protection through earthing
balance earth leakage units complying with SABS
767, to be installed to cover the “whole installation” The importance of protective earthing on low voltage
in domestic and rural installations, as well as on electrical distribution systems, has been recognised
each separate distribution board for flats, shops and for over half a century. Technological developments
offices and every sub-distribution board in factories. during the intervening period have not, other than in
some special application areas, resulted in any
Other countries change in this philosophy.
The 16th edition of the lEE Wiring Rules for the UK
makes provision for what they call “Residual Current What has changed however, lies with the
Devices” but has mandatory requirements only in assumption that overcurrent devices would always
dangerous areas. be operated by earth fault currents flowing through
the earth return path. The major problem has always
On the other hand, the 1990 edition of the National been that the magnitude of the earth fault current
Electric Code in the United States, has extended the was, for a variety of reasons far lower than the
mandatory requirement for installation of what they theoretically anticipated levels.
call “GFCI’s” on all socket outlets in bathrooms,
garages and those located outdoors, as well as in The advent of the moulded case circuit breaker,
kitchens whose outlets are within 1,8 m of a sink. yielding far closer protection than earlier fusible
devices, went a long way to improving this situation.
In addition, there are a host of similar requirements The problem however, remained primarily with
for hotel and motel bathrooms and special locations unpredictable and sometimes relatively high, earth
such as pools, spas, crawl places, marinas, return resistance paths.
boathouses, construction sites, snow melting and
deicing equipment, commercial garage workshops In low rainfall countries such as South Africa, this
etc. latter problem became only too obvious.

Other countries to introduce the mandatory Voltage operated earth leakage circuit breakers
installation of core balance earth leakage circuit
breakers in recent times include Australia and As their name implied, these devices were intended
France as well as selective obligatory installation to provide protection by inserting in the supply, a
requirements in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. circuit breaker, with an operating coil which would
trip the breaker when the leakage current or voltage
Sensitivity levels rise, due to leakage current, exceeded a
predetermined safe value.
The intensive investigations into the impedance of
the human body and the effect of electrical currents These devices were particularly prone to damage by
on the human body, continued over several decades surge voltages such as those caused by lightning.
into the 1980’s, finally culminating in an agreement Furthermore, operation could be impaired by
for the basic tripping sensitivity level for these extraneous parallel earths.
devices to ensure personnel protection.
Whilst reasonably good shock risk protection was
The level chosen was 30 milliamps, with a tolerance provided, these devices provided little protection
of +0,-5O % being applied. This resulted in a tripping against fire risk. Voltage operated earth leakage
sensitivity range of 15 mA through 30 mA. circuit breakers are no longer manufactured or used.

It is interesting to compare the close agreement of Current operated earth leakage protection devices
these values with the original South African choice of The earliest current operated earth leakage
20 mA +/- 25 % (i.e. 15 mA through 25 mA) that was protection devices utilised the residual currents from
established way back in 1957 and confirmed in parallel connected current transformers to operate a
SABS 767 of 1964. (Later revised to 30 mA).
relay protection device. Tripping sensitivity levels Such DC components may cause desensitisation of
were dictated by the inherent mismatch between the older generation ELCBs.
parallel connected current transformers, and was in
general, not less than many tens of amperes. The modern electronically operated ELCBs are not
affected by the presence of such pulsating DC fault
Later developments used the core balance principle currents and meet all the proposed Standards
of detecting the vectorial unbalance between phase performance requirements under such abnormal
currents. Limitations in the availability of suitable conditions.
magnetic materials and high sensitivity tripping
devices, did not however allow for practical tripping Operational considerations
levels below approximately 5 to 10 Amperes. Legal consequences
Prior to the advent of the extensive installation of
The 1950’s developments in more sophisticated sensitive earth leakage protection devices in South
magnetic materials and electronic tube switching Africa, municipal and supply authority engineers
devices, saw tripping sensitivities drop to some were often faced with court appearances in regard to
hundreds of milliamperes as the end of that decade enquiries into electrical accidents.
approached.
In addition to the question of the cost of time in
In parallel, the very interesting South African attending these enquiries, this was for obvious
adaptations of Second World War magnetic amplifier reasons, an undesirable situation.
technology provided the first breakthrough into
milliampere level tripping sensitivities. Whilst accurate statistics into the incidence of low
voltage electrical accidents are not easy to obtain,
Sensitive core balance earth leakage circuit breakers there is no doubt that the incidence of low voltage
electrical accidents has reduced significantly over
With the interest of the world stimulated by the South the past two decades.
African developments, the 1960’s saw the parallel
development of two different forms of ELCBs. The argument against
10
A 1979 paper produced by the NBRI (National
The first of these utilised solid state electronic Building Research Institute) attempted to develop an
components born out of the emerging space age. argument against the mandatory installation of earth
These developments were concentrated in the USA leakage circuit breakers (ELCBs) based primarily on
and in South Africa, with not insignificant interest the cost per life saved.
coming from Europe.
Despite these arguments being strongly refuted in a
11
The Europeans however, in response to their almost 1980 NEERI report by J N Prak, a paper containing
paranoic fear of loss of supply voltage to electronic much of the 1 979 NBRI report details was again
12
devices in the event of neutral breakage, began to presented by A Lap in 1987 under a slightly
concentrate on the development of high sensitivity different guise.
permanent magnet tripping releases for ELCBs.
Comments and reaction to this latter paper indicated
South Africa used both technologies in parallel for that the intervening seven years was possibly not
several decades. However, increasing costs of long enough a period to gain subsequent support
imported magnetic components when coupled to the against the mandatory requirement covering ELCBs.
sometimes questionable stability of pure electro-
magnetic tripping systems, have resulted in a South Thirty five years of successful South African
African 1990’s swing to solid state electronic tripping application of these devices appear to have
devices, using all the advantages of modern established strong precedents in regard to electrical
technological developments. safety, independent of social or economic status.

Even the “bogey” of broken neutral conductors has Statistics

been overcome by providing alternative circuitry to It is unfortunate that it is often not easy to obtain
the functional earth, whilst limiting the normal flow of accurate and weighted statistics indicating the
current to earth to microampere levels. reduction in fatalities in the event of electrical
accidents, as a result of the installation of ELCBs.
Pulsating DC earth faults
13
A recent report issued by the IEC’ however, does
The wider usage of electricity, coupled with the give some interesting information on the reduction of
availability of many electronically controlled fatal electrical accidents over the past several
appliances, has in recent years led to the possibility decades, in Austria and Switzerland.
of earth fault currents, which in addition to the AC
component, contain a pulsating DC component.
Fig 1 shows a dramatic decrease in fatal electrical Shock hazards
accidents in Austria following the introduction of 100 A directly lethal shock is almost invariably associated
mA sensitive devices in 1960. with the passage of current through the victim’s
body, arising from a line to line or line to neutral
A curve extrapolated from prior 1960 conditions shock. Almost invariably, there is an associated
indicates a trend of six times more electrocutions current through the body to earth and this is the
being possible had these devices not been installed. fundamental reason leading to tripping of ELCBs.

Fig 2 shows an even more dramatic reduction in fatal Provided these devices are sufficiently rapid in
electrical accidents on building sites, following the operation, they can provide complete protection
mandatory introduction of 30 mA sensitive devices against the risk of any shock being directly lethal,
on building sites in Switzerland in 1976. without preventing the electrical shock itself.

The provision of 30 mA sensitive ELCBs is however

in no way a replacement for the provision of good
and solid earthing on the electrical installation. In
most cases developing electrical faults, in the
presence of a good earth, will be automatically
detected and disconnected by the ELCB.

With a good electrical distribution system, earthing in

itself, will generally restrict the degree to which
voltage can appear for example on accessible
metalwork. The ELCB in this sense is providing so-
called “Indirect Protection”. The high sensitivity of
ELCB’s however, does allow for reliable operation
even in the event of relatively high earth return
resistance paths. This implies the provision of “Direct
Protection”, particularly on electrical distribution
systems having a solidly earthed neutral.

Fire hazards
Electrical fires associated with overheating due to
Fig 1. Fatal low voltage accidents in Austria overloading of the installation, or of electrical
equipment connected to the installation, should, in
normal circumstances be prevented through
detection of the overload by the installed overcurrent
protective devices.

If however, the impedance of the fault restricts the

resultant current to less than the rated current of the
circuit, such a fault would not be detected by
conventional overcurrent protective devices.

Hence, a low current that is arcing or tracking

between conductors does present a different
problem.

Since such faults will invariably involve some flow of

Fig 2. Average annual fatal electrical accidents on building sites in current to earth, the use of sensitive earth leakage
Switzerland
protection devices can make a very significant
contribution to the elimination of fire risks.

Mass electrification
There is an urgent need to provide electricity to
millions of homes in South Africa. Economic
considerations dictate that this electrification be done
at the lowest possible cost so that more homes can
be electrified with limited funds, in the absence of
foreign investment.
The socio-political implications of relating the cost of “Ready Boards” as covered in NRS Specification
saving a life against the possibility of electrocution 019 of 1991. These devices approach the most
simply to provide more electricity, could be serious. fundamental requirement for the provision of
electricity into a dwelling unit.
For this reason the elimination of proven devices that
offer a high level of protection against both shock The degree as to which the supply of electricity
and fire hazards for marginal cost reasons only, is derived from these devices is either used or misused
not a real option, despite such reactions being is virtually uncontrollable.
economically correct and understandable.
While electricity in developed societies has been
Supply voltage considerations shown to be a clean, safe and economic source of
15
A school of thought exists in South Africa that energy, the potential hazards of this energy source if
suggests that the provision of sensitive earth misused, cannot be ignored. In a developing society,
leakage protection could be dispensed with by the probabilities of misuse are real.
changing the distribution system from the existing
400/231 three phase grounded neutral system, to a Examples may include circuit overloading involving
110-0-110 Volt single phase, centre point earthed multiple extensions. Such extensions (of
system similar to that used in the USA, but providing uncontrolled length) may be made by using low cost
220 Volts across the outer lines. The theory, is that underrated conductors having inadequate insulation
with a maximum of 110 Volts to earth, no shock properties. It will not be possible, nor desirable or
hazard would exist. practical to introduce regulations in an attempt to
control such extensions.
This theory remains questionable, particularly in
consideration of the extensive studies into the effects Notwithstanding these sentiments, it would be
of electrical currents on the human body and morally wrong to ignore the possibilities of either
confirmed in recent IEC reports. shock hazard or fire hazard that might arise from
misuse.
Furthermore, the extensive and ever increasing
mandatory requirements for extremely high If it were possible to include in the electrical
sensitivity devices in the USA (6 mA) must be installation a device that would allow for basically
indicative of the value and need for such devices. uncontrolled use of the electrical energy source, and
still provide automatic detection and prevention of a
The reduction of electrical fire risk hazards are a pending or real hazardous situation, such a device
further factor that cannot be ignored, and could would approach the ideal.
possibly be aggravated by lower supply voltages
under conditions of high impedance faults. Such a device not only exists, but has evolved over
the past several decades, into a reliable and
Test device accepted piece of equipment.
All ELCBs are provided with a test device. Users and
consumers are encouraged to operate this test It is the Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker which
device often and regularly as an assurance into the provides not only sensitive earth leakage protection,
continuing long term reliable operation of these but also overload and short circuit protection as well
important electrical protection units. as circuit safety disconnect features and is covered
by SABS 767 and SABS 156.
New opportunities
South Africa, over the coming decade, faces a Cost saving opportunities
tremendous challenge in the provision of millions of There is no doubt that the availability of. electricity
homes and their electrification. generates comforts and labour saving opportunities
that might previously not have been available. Many
The economic constraints associated with this theorists relate even the growth in affluence to the
commitment, present a unique opportunity to availability of electricity. Even a limited growth in
develop new techniques and methodologies in affluence will in all probability generate the desire for
achieving this end. more labour saving and entertainment providing
electrical appliances.
There is no doubt that in such a climate, some
degree of relaxation of existing standards may have Allied to this, the pride of home ownership will in all
to be considered for pure economic reasons. likelihood, increase the desire for a more permanent
electrical installation to provide power to these
One example of such relaxation that has already appliances in a possibly extended dwelling unit.
taken place is the introduction of small Power
Distribution units, or more commonly known as The actual wiring installation, in accordance with
existing regulations, could involve significant costs.
The presence of a permanently installed fault It would be frightening to contemplate the
detection device, such as an ELCB, having been consequences of uncontrolled wiring and electricity
proved effective for unauthorised wiring, presents usage in developing environments that were not
some unique opportunities for cost savings on provided with such protection devices.
conductor sizes, insulation requirements, as well as
on the installation of the wiring and associated South Africa is now poised to display to the world
outlets of authorised wiring. how electricity can be supplied to millions of
dwellings in a third world environment under
Faults on long cables restrictive economic resources, whilst maintaining
The problem of short circuit faults in cables some first world electrical protection criteria.
hundreds of metres from the energy source, has
always presented a serious protection problem, References
since at some point, short circuit currents may not be 1. About the effects of electrical current on the
much greater than full load currents. This problem human body. By G Biegelmeier — April 1977.
could be exacerbated if the fault were not a bolted
short circuit but an arcing fault. 2. World-wide design trends in earth leakage
protective devices. By J Rickwood — April 1976.
The majority of cable faults in all probability will
involve earth during some stage of the development 3. Protection systems against the hazards of
of the fault. electric shock in mines. By K A H Adams—April
1957.
Within the limitations of circuit protection technology
that is currently available, it would appear that the 4. Neutral earthing and earth leakage protection.
provision of sensitive earth leakage protection may By L H L Badham — March 1940.
possibly be the only practical solution.
5. Earth leakage protection. By C A Martin — June
Whilst such situations may be more common in 1950.
underground mining installations, they are not
inconceivable in surface distribution. 6. The effects of electric shock on man. By Charles
F Dalziel — May 1956.
Long lengths of unauthorised extensions using very
light conductor could result in a similar low level fault 7. Earth Leakage. By A A Middlecote — April 1957.
condition with an associated fire risk if not quickly
detected and cleared. 8. International trends in earth leakage protection.
By J A Robbins — September/October 1967.
Conclusions
This paper has traced the development of earth 9. Conflicts in international moves to rationalise
leakage protection and indicated the very real need Standards. By J A Robbins — February 1 971.
for such protection against both shock hazard and
fire risk. 10. NBRI Report on ELCB’s — 1979.

The major South African contribution in the 11. NEERI—Electric power report. By J N Prak —
development and application of sensitive earth 1980.
leakage protection circuit breakers has been
highlighted. 12. The safety aspects of prefabricated wiring
systems in housing. By A Lap — February 1987.
Having grown out of an identified need in the
underground gold mining industry, South Africa led 13. IEC document 64(Secretariat)559 — A new
the world in not only developing ELCBs but in philosophy of protection against electric shock.
publishing the world’s first Standard Specification
covering these devices, and also in mandating their 14. Protection against earth leakage shock and fire
use in both residential and industrial installations. hazards. By J A Robbins — 1976.

Only injurious or fatal electrical accidents are 15. An international review of electrification in
reported. It is impossible to determine how many developing countries. By C E Dingley — March
lives have been saved by ELCB’s since their first 1990.
installation three and one half decades ago