Textbook of Prosthodontics 2nd Edition PDF

Textbook of Prosthodontics
SECOND EDITION
V Rangarajan, MDS
Prosthodontist and Implantologist, Chennai
Dental Advisor, Sri Venkateswara Dental College, Chennai, INDIA
TV Padmanabhan, MDS
Prosthodontist and Implantologist, Chennai, INDIA
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Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the first edition
Acknowledgements
SECTION 1. Complete Dentures
1. Introduction
Introduction
Effects of ageing
Complete dentures
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2. Diagnosis and treatment planning
Diagnosis
Treatment planning
3. Mouth preparation
Introduction
Sequelae of wearing complete dentures
Mouth preparation
4. Impressions and casts

Introduction
Definitions
Principles and objectives of impression making
Classification of impressions
Impression materials
Anatomic and denture landmarks
Preliminary impressions
Preliminary/primary cast
Custom trays
Final impressions
Definitive (final) cast
5. Record bases and occlusal rims

Introduction
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Definitions
Record bases
Occlusal rims
Clinical contouring of occlusal rims
6. Maxillomandibular relations
Introduction
Definitions
Structure of TMJ
Mandibular movements
Maxillomandibular relations and records
7. Articulation
Introduction
Definitions
Articulators
Articulation
8. Occlusion
Introduction
Difference between natural and complete denture occlusion
Requirements of complete denture occlusion
Types of complete denture occlusion
9. Selection of artificial teeth
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Introduction
Objectives
Selection of anterior teeth
Selection of posterior teeth
Selection of material
Posterior tooth forms
10. Teeth arrangement

Introduction
Factors influencing teeth arrangement
11. Try-in
Introduction
Evaluation of mandibular trial denture
Evaluation of maxillary trial denture
Evaluating both dentures together
12. Processing and remounting

Definitions
Waxing
Flasking
Dewaxing
Packing
Curing (polymerization)
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Deflasking
Remounting
Selective grinding or occlusal reshaping
Recovering denture from the cast
Finishing
Polishing
13. Denture insertion

Introduction
Denture inspection
Denture insertion
Instructions to patient
Recall and maintenance
Denture adhesives
14. Postinsertion problems

Introduction
Looseness
Discomfort
Poor appearance
Miscellaneous
15. Refitting and repair

Refitting
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Repair
16. Single complete denture

Introduction
Maxillary single complete denture
Mandibular single complete denture
Combination syndrome
17. Immediate dentures

Introduction
Definition and types
Conventional immediate denture
Interim immediate dentures
Comparison of conventional and interim immediate dentures
SECTION 2. Removable Partial Dentures
18. Introduction
Introduction
Definitions
Indications and contraindications
Steps in fabrication of a clasp-retained cast removable partial denture
Component parts of removable partial denture
19. Sequelae of partial edentulism
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Introduction
Sequelae of partial edentulism
20. Classification of partially edentulous arches

Introduction
Need for classification
Requirements of classification
Classification systems
21. Component parts

Minor connectors
Rests and rest seats
Direct retainers
Indirect retainers
Denture base

Introduction
History
Examination
Diagnostic impressions and casts
Differential diagnosis
Treatment planning
23. Surveying
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Introduction
Definitions
Surveyor
Surveying
24. Principles and design

Introduction
Biomechanical considerations
Principles of design

Introduction
Classification
26. Secondary impressions and master cast

Introduction
Anatomic impressions
Functional impressions
Master cast
27. Fabrication of removable partial denture

Introduction
Framework fabrication
Framework try-in
Record bases and occlusal rims
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Jaw relations and articulation
Selection of teeth and denture base
Arrangement of artificial teeth and occlusion
Try-in
Waxing and processing the denture base

Introduction
Objectives
Appointment
Insertion procedure
Instruction to patients
Postinsertion appointments
Postinsertion problems

Introduction
Refitting
Repair
30. Forms of removable partial dentures

Introduction
Temporary removable partial dentures
Immediate partial dentures
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Variations of conventional cast partial dentures
Removable partial overdentures
Implant-supported removable partial dentures
Attachment-retained partial dentures
Miscellaneous
SECTION 3. Fixed Partial Dentures
31. Introduction
Introduction
Definitions
Classification of fixed partial dentures
32. Component parts

Introduction
Retainer
Pontics
Connectors

Introduction
History
Clinical examination
Diagnostic casts
Treatment planning
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Mouth preparation
34. Occlusion
Introduction
Anatomy of TMJ
Centric relation
Mandibular movement and occlusal contact
Concepts of occlusion
Ideal occlusion
Occlusal interferences
Pathogenic occlusion
35. Tooth preparation

Introduction
Principles of tooth preparation
Armamentarium
Complete crowns (full) veneer crowns
Partial veneer crowns/partial-coverage restorations
36. Fluid control and gingival displacement

Introduction
Fluid control
Gingival displacement
37. Impression making
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Introduction
Impression material
Impression trays
Impression techniques
Disinfection of impressions
Evaluation
38. Provisional restorations

Introduction
Ideal requirements of provisional restoration
Classification
Provisional restorative materials
Techniques of fabrication
Limitations of provisional restoration
Cementation
Removal of provisional restoration
39. Shade selection and lab communication

Introduction
Colour and light
Shade guides
Shade selection guidelines
Lab communication
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40. Lab procedures
Introduction
Working cast and dies
Wax patterns
Spruing
Investing
Casting
Veneering
Soldering
41. Try-in and cementation

Introduction
Evaluation of prosthesis on cast
Try-in
Cementation
Cementation procedure for conventional restorations
Postcementation instructions
42. Failures in fixed partial dentures

Introduction
Classification
Methods of removing a failed FPD
43. Metal-free ceramic restorations
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Introduction
History and development
Strengthening ceramics
Advantages
Disadvantages
Indications
Contraindications
Classification
Methods of fabrication
Fixed partial dentures
Clinical procedures
44. Resin-bonded fixed partial dentures

Introduction
Advantages and disadvantages
Classification
Fabrication
45. Restoration of Endodontically Treated Teeth

Introduction
Post
Cores
Post crown
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SECTION 4. Miscellaneous
46. Ceramic laminate veneers

Introduction
Definitions
History
Indications
Contraindications
Shade selection
Tooth preparation
Soft tissue management
Impression procedure
Provisional restorations
Laboratory procedures
Cementation
Maintenance
Failures of laminate veneers
47. Attachment-retained dentures

Introduction
Applications
Classification
Rationale of using attachments with removable partial dentures
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48. Overdentures
Introduction
Requirements
Advantages
Disadvantages
Indications
Contraindications
Abutment selection
Types of tooth-supported overdentures
Immediate overdentures
49. Oral Implantology

Introduction
History and evolution
Classification
Implant-bone integration
Component parts of implant restoration
Implant treatment
Implant materials
50. Maxillofacial Prosthetics

Introduction
Classification of maxillofacial defects
Embryology
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Maxillary defects
Hollow bulb obturator
Mandibular defects
Retention in maxillofacial prostheses
Benefits of the implant-retained prostheses
Treatment prosthesis
Extraoral prosthesis
Materials used in maxillofacial prosthesis
51. Smile Design

Introduction
Components of smile aesthetics
Proportion in smile design
Absolute and conversational aesthetics
Appendices
Suggested readings
Index
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Brief Contents
Foreword, v
Preface to the Second Edition, vii
Preface to the First Edition, ix
Acknowledgements, xi
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SECTION 1. Complete Dentures
1 Introduction, 3
2 Diagnosis and treatment planning, 10
3 Mouth preparation, 24
4 Impressions and casts, 35
Video 1 Anatomic and Denture Landmarks in

Maxilla (Fig 4.7F), 44
Video 2 Anatomic and Denture Landmarks in

Mandible (Fig 4.10E), 51
Video 3 Mandibular and Maxillary Preliminary

Impressions (Figs 4.16A & 4.19A), 57,60
Video 4 Maxillary and Mandibular Border

Moulding and Final Impressions (Fig 4.38A), 71
5 Record bases and occlusal rims, 86
Video 5 Clinical Contouring of Occlusal Rims

(Fig 5.12A), 94
6 Maxillomandibular relations, 98
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Video 6 Facebow Transfer (Fig 6.27), 110
Video 7 Methods of Recording VD at Rest (Fig

6.43A), 116
Video 8 Niswonger’s Method of Recording VD of

Occlusion (Fig 6.46), 117
Video 9 Methods used to Record CR - Nick &

Notch method (Fig 6.58), 123
Video 10 Methods used to Record CR - Gothic

Arch Tracing (Fig 6.65), 126
Video 11 Graphic method used to record

Eccentric relations (Fig 6.81), 131
7 Articulation, 133
Video 12 Mounting Maxillary and Mandibular

Casts and Setting the Condylar Guidances (Fig
7.26), 144
8 Occlusion, 145
9 Selection of artificial teeth, 152
10 Teeth arrangement, 165
11 Try-in, 184
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12 Processing and remounting, 191
13 Denture insertion, 208
14 Postinsertion problems, 216
15 Refitting and repair, 224
16 Single complete denture, 238
17 Immediate dentures, 245
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SECTION 2. Removable Partial
Dentures
18 Introduction, 255
19 Sequelae of partial edentulism, 264
20 Classification of partially edentulous arches, 268
21 Component parts, 285
23 Surveying, 337
24 Principles and design, 354
25 Mouth preparation, 370
Video 13 Preparation of rest seat ( Fig 25.13), 377

26 Secondary impressions and master cast, 382
27 Fabrication of removable partial denture, 390
28 Denture insertion, 407
29 Refitting and repair, 414
30 Forms of removable partial dentures, 419
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SECTION 3. Fixed Partial Dentures
31 Introduction, 439
32 Component parts, 447
Video 14 Facebow Transfer for Diagnostic Cast

(Fig 33.2A), 463
Video 15 Interocclusal Records (Fig 33.12A), 467

34 Occlusion, 484
35 Tooth preparation, 493
Video 16 All Metal FVC Preparation (Fig 35.36A),

507
Video 17 All Ceramic Crown Preparation for

Central Incisor (Fig 35.54A), 521
36 Fluid control and gingival displacement, 542
37 Impression making, 554
Video 18 Single Impression Technique--- Custom

Tray (Fig 37.9), 559
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Video 19 Double Impression Technique with
Spacer (Fig 37.16A), 561
Video 20 Single Impression Technique using

Triple Tray (Fig 37.27A), 564
38 Provisional restorations, 570
39 Shade selection and lab communication, 584
40 Lab procedures, 592
41 Try-in and cementation, 626
42 Failures in fixed partial dentures, 637
43 Metal-free ceramic restorations, 652
44 Resin-bonded fixed partial dentures, 663
45 Restoration of Endodontically Treated Teeth, 669
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SECTION 4. Miscellaneous
46 Ceramic laminate veneers, 689
Video 21 Tooth Prep for Ceramic Laminate

Veneers (Fig 46.3A), 691
47 Attachment-retained dentures, 701
48 Overdentures, 711
49 Oral Implantology, 726
50 Maxillofacial Prosthetics, 772
51 Smile Design, 797
Appendices, 805
Index, 825
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Copyright
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Textbook of Prosthodontics, 2e, V Rangarajan and TV
Padmanabhan
Copyright © 2017 by RELX India Pvt. Ltd.

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All rights reserved.
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Foreword
Prof. (Dr.) Mahesh Verma Director – Principal, Maulana Azad Institute of Dental
Sciences, New Delhi - 110002
“It is the supreme art of teacher to awaken joy in creative expression

and knowledge”. With this quote I laud the magnificent literary
outcome of two of the most revered Prosthodontic educators and
clinicians of the current era-Dr.V. Rangarajan and Dr. T.V.
Padmanabhan. I am extremely delighted to introduce the product of
their years of dedication to churn out a stupendously detailed and
insightful “Textbook of Prosthodontics” in its current form of 2nd
edition. The members of Prosthodontic fraternity collectively express
gratitude to the stalwarts for their outstanding work.
Prosthodontics is a vast field and to acquire a complete
understanding of all its branches is a complex and challenging task,
for both dental students and practitioners alike. The current edition is
an enriched resource of information and an exclusive version as it
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compiles the traditional views and philosophies pertaining to all the
sub-specialties of Prosthodontics and merges them in a confluent
manner with the contemporary, updated methods and techniques.
The compiled book offers dental students and practitioners an
excellent opportunity to understand the basic fundamentals and
principles underlying the management of patients requiring
Prosthodontic rehabilitative services in a comprehensive and user
friendly manner.
The systematic manner in which the book presents each detail is
extremely appealing to readers of all stages, including those in the
early phase of learning curve as well as the seasoned practitioners.
The clarity of presentation acquaints the readers with the sequence of
procedures in an explicable manner. The illustrations supporting the
text further enhance the content presented. Of special mention are the
video illustrations (22 in number) that help to clear the ambiguity
associated with several clinical procedures. An additional feature that
is earmarked for this issue is the accompanying power point
presentations on important topics (15 in number). These topics can be
used “on-the-go” by the readers to refresh themselves with the
concepts and procedures at the click of a button!
The specialty of Prosthodontics has imbibed the avant-garde
technologies and digitization in both the clinical and laboratory
procedures. By encompassing both basic and advanced topics, the
intent of this edition is to guide and inform the readers at various
levels of learning and practice including undergraduates,
postgraduate students and practicing clinicians.
This education resource gets through to the readers to offer “value
care” to varied Prosthodontic scenarios. I wish the readers can take as
much as possible from this enriched resource! Simply because
“Readers of today become leaders of tomorrow”.
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Preface to the second edition
V Rangarajan
TV Padmanabhan
According to the Glossary of Prosthodontic Terms (GPT8),

Prosthodontics is the dental specialty pertaining to the diagnosis, treatment
planning, rehabilitation and maintenance of the oral function, comfort,
appearance and health of patients with clinical conditions associated with
missing or deficient teeth and/or maxillofacial tissues using biocompatible
substitutes—see Fixed Prosthodontics, Implant Prosthodontics, Maxillofacial
Prosthetics, Removable Prosthodontics.
Apart from throwing light on the speciality, the definition also
informs the reader to go through its various branches to get a
wholesome picture of the subject. It is very clear that to comprehend
the subject it is essential to read all the sub-specialities in one book so
that the fabrication of various types of prostheses can be elucidated. It
is with this objective Textbook of Prosthodontics was conceptualised.
Over the many years that we have interacted with our
undergraduate students and fellow general practitioners, we have
most often got the impression that; to them the subject was always an
unsolved puzzle. We were determined to demystify the subject and
have endeavoured to make each topic follow a sequence or
framework which is easy to comprehend and remember. We know
that visual impact is better than words, hence numerous colour
photographs on models and patients and line diagrams have been
included to complement the written text. This will serve as a
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comprehensive textbook for the undergraduate student and a good
basic platform for the postgraduate who can further utilize our
Suggested Reading in Appendices Section to widen their knowledge.
The step-by-step description of clinical procedures aided by
photographs will be a ready-reckoner for the general practitioner as
well.
Keeping in mind the various branches of Prosthodontics, the book
has been divided into 4 sections: Complete Dentures, Removable
Partial Dentures, Fixed Partial Dentures and Miscellaneous. The first
three sections will deal with terminologies, planning and fabrication
of the prototype prosthesis of that particular section. Prosthesis, which
may not necessarily come under one of these three categories:
Attachment Retained Dentures, Overdentures, Oral Implantology and
Maxillofacial Prosthetics, have been categorized and detailed in the
Miscellaneous section. Though we firmly believe that every aspect of
Prosthodontics has a cosmetic component, we have included Porcelain
Laminate Veneers and Smile Design in the Miscellaneous section for
the benefit of the cosmetic dentist.
The second edition of the book will retain the same simplified
textual content with an enhanced visual experience in the form of
videos of important procedures to compliment the line diagrams and
photographs. Lecture presentations on power point has also been
incorporated for specific chapters to facilitate classroom lectures.
You can refer the front inner cover of the book to explore online
additional reading material. Besides these, you will get access to the
complimentary e-book also.
We deem it a privilege to share more than two decades of our
experience in Prosthodontics, both didactic and clinical, with you.
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Preface to the first edition
V Rangarajan
TV Padmanabhan
According to the Glossary of Prosthodontic Terms (GPT8),

Prosthodontics is the dental specialty pertaining to the diagnosis, treatment
planning, rehabilitation and maintenance of the oral function, comfort,
appearance and health of patients with clinical conditions associated with
missing or deficient teeth and/or maxillofacial tissues using biocompatible
substitutes—see Fixed Prosthodontics, Implant Prosthodontics, Maxillofacial
Prosthetics, Removable Prosthodontics.
Apart from throwing light on the speciality, the definition also
informs the reader to go through its various branches to get a
wholesome picture of the subject. It is very clear that to comprehend
the subject it is essential to read all the subspecialities in one book so
that the fabrication of various types of prostheses can be elucidated. It
is with this objective Textbook of Prosthodontics was conceptualised.
Over the many years that we have interacted with our
undergraduate students and fellow general practitioners, we have
most often got the impression that; to them the subject was always an
unsolved puzzle. We were determined to demystify the subject and
have endeavoured to make each topic follow a sequence or
framework which is easy to comprehend and remember. We know
that visual impact is better than words, hence numerous colour
photographs on models and patients and line diagrams have been
included to complement the written text. This will serve as a
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comprehensive textbook for the undergraduate student and a good
basic platform for the postgraduate who can further utilize our
Suggested Reading in Appendices Section to widen their knowledge.
The step-by-step description of clinical procedures aided by
photographs will be a ready-reckoner for the general practitioner as
well.
Keeping in mind the various branches of Prosthodontics, the book
has been divided into 4 sections: Complete Dentures, Removable
Partial Dentures, Fixed Partial Dentures and Miscellaneous. The first
three sections will deal with terminologies, planning and fabrication
of the prototype prosthesis of that particular section. Prosthesis, which
may not necessarily come under one of these three categories:
Attachment Retained Dentures, Overdentures, Oral Implantology and
Maxillofacial Prosthetics, have been categorized and detailed in the
Miscellaneous section. Though we firmly believe that every aspect of
Prosthodontics has a cosmetic component, we have included Porcelain
Laminate Veneers and Smile Design in the Miscellaneous section for
the benefit of the cosmetic dentist.
We deem it a privilege to share more than two decades of our
experience in Prosthodontics, both didactic and clinical, with you.
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Acknowledgements
V Rangarajan
TV Padmanabhan
V Rangarajan
TV Padmanabhan
We are extremely grateful and indebted to the following persons who

have helped us in this endeavour:
Dr Mahesh Verma, Principal-Director, Maulana Azad Institute of
Dental Sciences, an academician and clinician par excellence, for
having consented to write the Foreword for our Second edition also.
He has been a great source of inspiration for many years and we are
privileged and humbled by his gesture.
Shri VR Venkataachalam, the Chancellor of Sri Ramachandra
University and the Dean of Faculties, Prof KV Somasundaram for
their encouragement and providing great infrastructural facilities to
work and study in the institution.
Dr Ishari Ganesh, Chairman, Vels Group of Institutions, a visionary,
friend and a guiding force, for all his encouragement and support
from the institution.
Dr Anil Kohli and Dr SM Balaji for their constant backing,
friendship and invaluable inputs throughout this venture.
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The faculty members of the Department of Prosthodontics, Sri
Ramachandra University – Dr Kasim Mohamed, Dr V Anand Kumar,
Dr Shanmuganathan, Dr Uma Maheshwari, and the postgraduate
students – Dr Kapil Baldev, Dr Ashwin Meiyappan and Dr
Jesureshwari for their assistance in providing instant information at
any time and in making the photographs and videos.
Staff of Dept of Prosthodontics, Sri Venkateswara Dental College,
Chennai – Dr Yogesh, Dr Ganesh, Dr Prasanna, Dr Gajapathy, Dr
Murali for their support, co-operation and extremely useful inputs.
Mr Kumaraguruparan of Vitalium Lab, Chennai for his lab support
with regard to photographs of the laboratory procedures.
Dr Mahendranadh Reddy and Dr Udey Vir Gandhi for being our
pillars of support in many endeavours in the last two decades, and for
just being there whenever needed.
Dr Harini Padmanabhan for her inputs regarding the line diagrams
and cover design.
The Elsevier India team, Mr Anand K Jha, and Ms Nimisha
Goswami for their thoroughly professional inputs, patient
understanding and gentle but constant reminders regarding the
deadlines. We greatly appreciate their uncompromising attitude
towards quality of the production.
The Lord Almighty for his blessings and giving us the mental
fortitude to successfully complete the publication.
I would like to sincerely thank my PG teacher and former Head of
Dept of Prosthodontics at Dr R Ahmed Dental College, Kolkata, late
Prof PK Basu, who has been a tremendous positive influence on my
professional development. I am eternally indebted to him for his
guidance in the subject and words of wisdom. I am privileged to have
fulfilled his dream of writing a book on Prosthodontics. I am also
grateful to my former Dean at Annamalai University, Late Prof B
Srinivasan for his valuable guidance during my formative years. I am
indebted to Dr Lodd Mahendra, Principal of my current institution,
for his unflinching support and co-operation. I am also grateful to all
the faculty members of my institution for their affection and good
wishes. I am extremely thankful to my wife Deepa for her patience,
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tolerance and eternally supportive nature as such projects intrude a
lot into family time. I am grateful to my daughter Hita for her
valuable inputs as an undergraduate student of dentistry during the
revision of this edition.
I would like to dedicate this book to my parents, particularly in
memory of my mother Mrs TV Vijayalakshmi, who was the driving,
determined force responsible for shaping my life and career. I would
not be here if not for my brothers Mr TVL Narsimhan and Mr TVT
Chari who have been a source of support and inspiration by
themselves being rolemodels of hardwork and success. I thank my
wife Sridevi and my daughter Harini for their patience and
understanding. I would like to thank my teacher Prof TN
Swaminathan, a man of principles and my postgraduate guide Late
Prof Julian Ratnasamy. I am also grateful to my mentors Prof S
Rangachari and Prof R Vishwanathan for all their blessings and
guidance. I am also deeply indebted to my Japanese professors, Prof
Yasunari Uchida and Prof Shin Ichi Masumi who are responsible for
shaping me as an academician and refining my clinical skills. A
special mention about Prof Ryuji Hosokawa, a researcher,
academician, and an excellent clinician, a perfect gentleman and a
very good friend who has been constantly motivating me for my
professional betterment. I am also thankful to all my well wishers and
friends from Sri Ramachandra University.
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SECTION 1
Complete Dentures
OUTLINE
1. Introduction
4. Impressions and casts
5. Record bases and occlusal rims
6. Maxillomandibular relations
7. Articulation
8. Occlusion
9. Selection of artificial teeth
11. Try-in
12. Processing and remounting
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14. Postinsertion problems
17. Immediate dentures
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CHAPTER 1
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Introduction
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 3
Effects of ageing 3
Bone 3
Residual ridge resorption (RRR) 3
Oral mucosa 5
Taste 5
Saliva 5
Mastication and deglutition 5
Skin 5
Nutrition 5
Complete dentures 6
Definitions 6
Objectives 6
Surfaces of complete dentures 6
Component parts of complete dentures 7
Steps in fabrication of complete dentures 9
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Introduction
Complete dentures (CD) replace the entire dentition and restore the
functions of aesthetics, mastication and speech. This is the last
consideration for the patient after all the other tooth-supported
options are exhausted. Hence, they must be designed with an
emphasis on preservation of the remaining oral structures and an
understanding of the psychological changes affected by the loss of all
natural teeth. The complete edentulous situation is most often
witnessed in the elderly, geriatric individual and changes associated
with ageing also need to be considered. This section deals with the
fabrication of the CD that is not supported by implants (implant-
supported dentures are discussed in Chapter 49). This chapter will
deal with the oral changes related to ageing, and the definitions,
components, anatomic landmarks and procedures involved in the
construction of a removable CD.
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Effects of ageing
The success of endodontic and periodontal treatments has made the
completely edentulous condition occur mostly in old age. The changes
that occur in the oral cavity concomitant with age need to be
understood in order to treat this condition successfully. Changes in
the following structures are important for the construction of CD.
Bone
Generally bone quantity and quality decrease with age. This occurs
due to decrease in efficiency of osteoblasts, less oestrogen production
and reduction in calcium absorption from intestine.
Osteoporosis is common, especially in women.
Residual ridge resorption

Definition: The diminishing quantity and quality of the residual ridge
after teeth are removed (GPT8).
The alveolar process of the jaws is dependent on the presence of
teeth and hence changes in shape due to age are more marked in
completely edentulous individual. This change in shape and size of
the ridge occurs at varying rates in different individuals and at
different times in the same individual. Due to this constant change,
the treatment of the completely edentulous patient requires a
‘maintenance phase’ throughout the life of the individual.
Classification
Atwood classified the progression of residual ridge resorption (RRR)
as follows (Fig. 1.1):
• Order 1: Pre extraction
• Order 2: Post extraction
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• Order 3: High, well rounded
• Order 4: Knife-edged
• Order 5: Low, well rounded
• Order 6: Depressed
FIGURE 1.1 Atwood classification indicating progression of

RRR: Order 1–6.
Resorption pattern
Generally women show more RRR than men.
During the first year following extraction, reduction in residual
ridge height is 2–3 mm in maxilla and 4–5 mm for mandible. After
this, the process will continue but with reduced intensity. Mandible
shows 0.1–0.2 mm resorption annually, which is four times more than
edentulous maxilla.
Aetiology
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This is multifactorial and may be due to a combination of the
following factors:
1. Anatomic factors: These are more pronounced in mandible than

maxilla; associated more in patients with short and square face with
increased masticatory forces. Large well-rounded ridges and broad
palates are favourable anatomic factors for RRR.
2. Metabolic factors: RRR varies directly with bone resorption factors

and inversely with bone formation factors.
a. Bone-resorbing factors: Factors causing periodontal

disease and heparin.
b. Bone-forming factors: Circulating oestrogen,

thyroxine, growth hormone, androgens, calcium,
phosphorus, vitamin D, protein and fluoride.
3. Mechanical factors: Though RRR may be inevitable due to ‘disuse
atrophy’, it can also be caused due to excessive force transmitted
through dentures because of continuous denture wearing and
unstable occlusal conditions.
Consequences of residual ridge resorption
1. Apparent loss of sulcus width and depth.
2. Displacement of muscle attachment closer to crest of the residual

ridge.
3. Loss of vertical dimension of occlusion.
4. Reduction in the lower face height.
5. Anterior rotation of mandible and increase in relative prognathism.
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6. Mental foramen may come to lie at or near the level of the upper
border of the body of mandible.
7. The genial tubercles project above the upper border of the mandible
in the symphyseal region.
8. Flattening of the vault of the palate.
9. Reduction in the height of both the maxillary and mandibular

edentulous arches. While the maxillary arch resorbs buccally and
labially with a concomitant reduction in perimeter or circumference of
the arch, the mandibular arch resorbs in a labial and lingual direction
resulting in widening of the arch posteriorly. This will lead to
confinement of maxillary arch within the mandibular arch in long-
standing edentulous situations, giving a pseudo-class 3 ridge
relationship (Fig. 1.2 A and B).
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FIGURE 1.2 (A) Maxillary ridge resorbs buccally and labially
which result in reduced arch size (red outline indicates the
centre of the arch following resorption). (B) Mandibular arch
resorbs labially (anteriorly) and lingually (posteriorly) resulting
in widening of the arch.
Treatment
• Due to this continuous process, a maintenance phase comprising of

relining and rebasing the dentures is essential throughout the life of
a CD patient.
• Overdentures help in minimizing ridge resorption and contribute

towards enhanced retention, stability, support of prosthesis along
with preservation of proprioception. Clinicians must try to retain
residual roots whenever possible.
• A severely resorbed ridge may require vestibuloplasty, but

prosthetic rehabilitation with osseointegrated implants is the best
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solution to prevent this process and preserve the bone.
Oral mucosa
The age changes seen in the oral mucosa are less acute than those seen
in the skin because the moist environment of the mouth helps to
maintain the turgor of the tissue. It can become thin and can be easily
abraded.
Taste
There is a 60% reduction in taste buds by the age of 75–80 years. The
threshold of basic taste modalities of salty and bitter is increased in
older subjects, while the threshold for sweet and sour remains very
similar to those of younger subjects.
Saliva
Salivary flow decreases and quality changes with age. It affects
denture retention and may be caused more by the medications than
age.
Mastication and deglutition

It has been observed that older adults are capable of fewer swallows
in a 10-s period of time than younger adults. Even healthy older
persons open their mouth less wide and chew with less power, which
is related to loss of muscle bulk with age. This is worsened in
edentulous patients.
Skin
Wrinkles, puffiness and pigmentation are associated with ageing.
Philtrum is flattened and nasolabial grooves are deepened which lead
to sagging of middle third of the face. Upper lip droops over the
maxillary teeth. All these are accentuated with edentulousness and
loss of vertical dimension.
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Nutrition
• As age advances, there is a 30% reduction in energy needs and food
intake. But, with the exception of carbohydrates, the requirement
for other nutrients does not significantly reduce. As a consequence,
the dietary intake by elderly individuals frequently shows some
nutritional deficiencies.
• Malnutrition among the elderly denture wearers can be due to the

following causes:
○ Low intake
○ Poor general health
○ Poor absorption and metabolic disturbances
○ Reduced salivary secretion rate
○ Condition of dentition
○ Socioeconomic factors
Nutritionally deficient denture-bearing tissues will be
uncomfortable for the denture. It is essential to improve the
nutritional status of the elderly patients through proper counselling
and nutritional supplements, for prosthodontic treatment to be
successful.
Nutritional requirements of the elderly

Recommended dietary requirements of geriatric individuals are
• Carbohydrates should comprise 45%–65% of total calories
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• Fat should comprise 20%–35% of total calories
• Protein should comprise 10%–35% of total calories
• Fluid: 30 mL/kg/day or 1 mL/kcal intake
Factors affecting the nutritional intake
1. Physiologic factors
As age increases, following conditions persist among elders:
• Decreased physical activity—the lean body mass is replaced by fat.
• Decrease in gastrointestinal functioning.
• Decrease in taste and smell sensation.
• Dehydration due to decline in renal function and impaired thirst

threshold.
All this leads to decreased metabolic rate and decreased caloric

needs.
2. Cognitive factors
• Dementia—mastication increases cortical blood flow and widely

activates various cortical areas of the somatosensory,
supplementary motor and insular cortices. Blood oxygen levels in
the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus are increased by
mastication, which may be essential for learning and memory
processes. Decreased masticatory efficiency in edentulous patient
consequently a poor nutritional status leads to loss of memory. Loss
of teeth has been identified as one of the causes for Alzheimer
disease.
3. Oral factors
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• Xerostomia
○ Lack of self-cleansing by saliva—tongue is coated

with epithelial debris.
○ Decreased taste sensation due to degeneration of

taste buds.
○ Difficulty in chewing food.

• Dentate status
○ Masticatory ability is affected due to loss of

dentition. Hence, the patient prefers soft diet which
is rich in fats.
4. Economic factors
These determine the variety and nutritional adequacy of the diet.
5. Psychological factors
Depression, anxiety and loneliness all can undermine the desire to
prepare and eat food.
6. Pharmacological factors
Prescribed drugs are the primary cause of anorexia, nausea, vomiting,
gastrointestinal disturbances, xerostomia, taste loss and interference
with nutrient absorption and utilization, e.g. digoxin, phenytoin, Ca++
channel blockers, H2 receptor antagonists.
Impact of wearing dentures on dietary intake

• Greater number of chewing strokes are required for mastication.
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• Due to decrease in masticatory ability, stringy food (including meat,
which is a significant dietary source of protein and iron), crunchy
food (including vegetables, a significant dietary source for vitamins
and fibre) and dry solid food (including bread) are avoided.
Patients select processed and softer diets rich in fat and
carbohydrates, for ease of chewing.
• Decline in taste sensation due to palatal coverage of denture.
Dietary counselling
This involves:
• Obtaining a nutrition history and accurate record of food intake

over a period of 3–5 days and evaluating the diet.
• Educating the patient regarding the importance of a balanced diet.
• Helping the patient to improve the diet.
• Follow-up to verify and support patient in changing food

behaviours.
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Complete dentures
Definitions
Denture: An artificial substitute for missing natural teeth and adjacent
tissues (GPT8).
Complete denture: A removable dental prosthesis that replaces the

entire dentition and associated structures of the maxilla or mandible
(GPT8).
Complete denture prosthodontics: That body of knowledge and skills

pertaining to the restoration of the edentulous arch with a
removable dental prosthesis (GPT8).
Objectives
CD should satisfy the following functional objectives:
1. Compatibility with surrounding oral environment.
2. Restoration of mastication.
3. Harmony with functions of speech, respiration and deglutition.
4. Aesthetics.
5. Preservation of remaining oral tissues.
Surfaces of complete dentures

Sir Wilfred Fish (1948) described a denture as having three surfaces,
with each surface playing an independent and important role in the
overall fit, stability and comfort of the denture (Flowchart 1.1).
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FLOWCHART 1.1 Three surfaces of complete dentures
Impression surface (intaglio surface) (fig. 1.3)

Definition: The portion of the denture surface that has its contour
determined by the impression (GPT8).
• Part of the denture in contact with the tissues on which the denture
rests.
• The fit of the denture depends on the accuracy of this surface.
• Contributes to retention, stability and support of the denture.
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FIGURE 1.3 Impression surface of the denture. It is the
surface that fits onto the tissues.
Occlusal surface (fig. 1.4B)

Definition: The surface that is intended to make contact with an
opposing occlusal surface.
• Aids in mastication and directs forces of mastication to the

supporting tissues.
• Contributes to the stability of denture.
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FIGURE 1.4 Polished surface extends both buccally and
lingually (a). Occlusal surface aids in mastication (b).
Polished or external surface (cameo surface) (fig.

1.4A)
Definition: That portion of the surface of a denture that extends in an
occlusal direction from the border of the denture and includes the
palatal surfaces. It is that part of the denture base that is usually
polished, and it includes the buccal and lingual surfaces of the teeth
(GPT4).
• It was termed by Fish (1948).
• It is the external surface of the denture without the teeth.
• Should correspond to the contours of the lips, cheek and tongue.
• Contributes to retention and stability of denture.
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Component parts of complete dentures
The various components of the CD are explicated in Flowchart 1.2.
FLOWCHART 1.2 Component parts of complete denture
Denture base
Definition: The part of a denture that rests on the foundation tissues
and to which teeth are attached (GPT8).
• Forms the foundation of the denture.
• Forces applied to the denture are distributed and transmitted to the

basal seat through the denture base.
• Adequate extension of the denture base helps in providing retention

and support.
• Denture bases are made of acrylic resin or metal (Fig. 1.5A and B).
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FIGURE 1.5 (A) Denture base made of acrylic. (B) Denture
base made of metal.
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Denture flange
Definition: The part of the denture base that extends from the cervical
ends of the teeth to the denture border (GPT8).
• Provides peripheral seal and horizontal stability.
• Classified according to the vestibule where it extends as—labial,

buccal and lingual.
Labial flange
Definition: The portion of the flange of a denture that occupies the
labial vestibule of the mouth (GPT8).
• Provides lip support.
• V-shaped notch is provided in the labial flange to accommodate the

labial frenum (Fig. 1.6A).
FIGURE 1.6 (A) Labial flange of the denture with V-shaped

notch to accommodate the labial frenum. (B) Buccal flange of
denture.
Buccal flange
Definition: The portion of the flange of a denture that occupies the
buccal vestibule of the mouth (Fig. 1.6B).
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• Provides the cheek support.
• Relief is provided to accommodate the buccal frenum.
Lingual flange
Definition: The portion of the flange of a mandibular denture that
occupies the alveololingual sulcus (GPT8) (Fig. 1.7).
• Should maintain contact with the tissues of the floor of the mouth.
FIGURE 1.7 Lingual flange.
Denture border
Definition: The margin of the denture base at the junction of the
polished surface and the impression surface (GPT8) (Fig. 1.8).
• Responsible for maintaining the peripheral seal.
• Should be smooth and polished.
• Overextended denture borders may cause ulcers and hyperplasia.
• Underextended borders result in loss of peripheral seal and

compromise retention.
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FIGURE 1.8 Denture borders. (A) Mandibular denture. (B)
Maxillary denture.
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Denture teeth
• Functions of denture teeth are to improve aesthetics, phonetics and
mastication.
They are classified as follows:
• Based on the type of material used:
○ Acrylic
○ Porcelain.
• Based on the morphology of teeth:
○ Anatomic (33 degree or more)
○ Modified anatomic (between 30 and 0 degrees)
Steps in fabrication of complete dentures

The various procedures involved in the fabrication of a CD can be
divided into clinical and laboratory procedures and are summarized
in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Sequential steps in the fabrication of complete dentures—clinical
and laboratory
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All these are discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters of this
section.
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CHAPTER 2
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Diagnosis and treatment
planning
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Diagnosis 10
Patient evaluation 10
History 11
Examination 13
Treatment planning 19
Prosthodontic diagnostic index (PDI) for
complete edentulism 20
Complete denture—case sheet 21
Summary 23
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Diagnosis
Definition: Determination of the nature of a disease.
Diagnosis is the examination and evaluation of the physical and
psychological state and understanding the needs of each patient to
ensure a predictable result. Diagnosis involves patient evaluation,
history and examination.
Patient evaluation
This process commences as the patient walks to the dentist’s chair as
well as during the introductory and history taking conversation. The
following characteristics are observed:
Gait
Observations regarding the patient’s walk, steadiness and the level of
coordination can help in gaining an insight into the patients’ motor
skills and any systemic disease.
• Stooped shoulders—spinal changes.
• Tremor of head—Parkinson disease, tranquillizers.
• Dragging of one leg—stroke.
• Staggering—excessive alcohol and medication, hyperventilation,

damage to brain and spinal cord.
Age
This refers to the physiologic age and provides information about the
patient’s expectations and care for the dentures. A young patient who
appears old may indicate disinterest, while an old patient who
appears young indicates willingness to adapt and look good.
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Facial expression
This provides information about the mental attitude and presence of
any disorders.
Absence of any expression indicates loss of muscle tone, trigeminal
neuralgia, plastic surgery or disorders of central nervous system.
Complexion
It is used to select the colour of the teeth. It may also be indicative of
the following conditions:
• Pale—anaemia, lack of nourishment.
• Ruddy—polycythaemia, chronic alcoholic.
• Bronze—radiation therapy, Addison disease.
• Bluish-purple—vitamin deficiency, cyanosis.
• Lemon-yellow—jaundice.
Speech
The fluency and quality of the speech should be noted, as it will help
in arranging artificial teeth. If speech is altered due to poor denture
construction, it should be rectified.
Speech can also be altered due to the following pathologies:
• Hypernasality—paralysis of palatal musculature.
• Hoarseness—paralysis of both vocal cords, excessive smoking.
Breathing pattern
Abnormal breathing patterns may indicate the following:
• Heavy sighing—emotionally disturbed
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• Wheezing—asthma
• Shortness of breath—lung disease, heart failure
• Shallow breathing at rapid rate—pulmonary fibrosis
• Erratic breathing—continuous hyperventilation
Personality
The personality may be vigorous or delicate, and it guides teeth
selection and arrangement.
Mental attitude
Dr M.M. House (1950) classified patients as philosophical, exacting,
indifferent and hysterical. This is the most widely used classification.
Class I: Philosophical patients
• They are rational and composed in difficult situations.
• They desire treatment for maintenance of health and appearance

and accept the complete denture treatment as a normal procedure.
• They learn to adjust rapidly.
• These patients have the best mental attitude for acceptance of the
treatment.
Class II: Exacting patients
• They are very methodical, precise and accurate, making severe

demands.
• They are comfortable when each procedure is explained and

discussed with them in detail.
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• They require extreme care, effort and patience on part of the dentist.
• The intelligent and understanding category in this class can be the

best type of patient, but for those lacking the same, extra time
should be spent in education and treatment started only after an
understanding is reached.
Class III: Indifferent patients
• These patients are identified by their lack of concern and motivation

and apathetic attitudes.
• They may not pay any attention to instructions, will not cooperate
and are prone to blame others including the dentist for their poor
health. In many cases, the lack of interest on part of the patient is
the reason for their edentulousness.
• A patient education programme is recommended before treatment.
• If their interest cannot be stimulated, it may be best to refuse such

patients.
• They present a questionable or unfavourable prognosis.
Class IV: Hysterical patients
• They are emotionally unstable, excitable and apprehensive.
• They may not be aware that their symptoms may be more related to
their systemic health.
• They often present an unfavourable prognosis and additional

psychiatric counselling is required prior to the treatment.
History
A record of all the information obtained from the patient must be
made and kept for further study and later use. The health history is an
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extremely important part of the patient’s overall diagnosis and
treatment planning. It is best obtained by a combination of
questionnaire and direct interrogation. It should include the
following:
General information
Name
This is important for documentation and record maintenance.
Patients are more comfortable and confident when addressed by
their names. Some systemic conditions are more common in certain
communities.
Age
Younger patients usually show better healing ability. They also adapt
easily to treatment and a new prosthesis. However, they can be
exacting in nature and be very concerned about their appearances.
Older patients need more care and patience on part of the dentist.
Systemic diseases and medications may be more relevant in older age.
Their previous experiences may lead them to be very apprehensive of
the treatment. Proper nutritional care is very important in geriatric
patients. This is an important consideration in the selection and
arrangement of artificial teeth.
Sex
Generally, appearance is a higher priority for women. Males may be
more concerned about comfort and function of the dentures.
Menopause and its associated hormonal and behavioural changes are
a concern with women. This is also an important consideration in the
selection and arrangement of artificial teeth.
Occupation/Social information
Particulars such as the occupation can help in setting up a convenient
appointment for the treatment procedure and in tooth selection and
arrangement.
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Executives in high stress jobs may exhibit bruxism. People who
work in places with high physical exertion and factories where
abrasive dust abounds require rugged teeth which do not wear easily.
For professionals, appearance and retention may be more important
than efficiency.
Public speakers and singers may need greater attention to palatal
shape and thickness and perfect retention. Wind instrument players
may require special positioning of anterior teeth. Patients in high
socioeconomic groups may be more demanding and critical, while
those of low economic status may show disinterest and poor hygiene
maintenance.
Location/Address
Some endemic disorders may be confined to certain localities.
Habits
Pan chewing, smoking, chronic alcoholism may modify the systemic
status and evoke concerns regarding the hygiene, maintenance and
wear of the denture.
Habits like pencil biting and nail biting may cause denture
instability.
Parafunctional habits like clenching and bruxism should also be
verified as they affect teeth selection and prognosis.
Nutritional history
It is important to obtain a record of food intake of the patient over a 3–
5 days period. This helps in evaluating the nutritional status of the
patient. The ability of the oral tissues to withstand the stress of
dentures is greater in a well-nourished patient. Dietary counselling is
necessary in malnourished patients.
Medical history
No prosthodontic procedure should be commenced without
evaluating the systemic status of the individual. The following need to
be assessed:
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Debilitating diseases
The most common is diabetes mellitus. Patients are at a higher risk of
opportunistic infections such as candidiasis and show delayed wound
healing. Salivary flow may also be impaired. Their medication and
mealtime should be given due importance while scheduling
appointments. Special emphasis on denture hygiene, recall and
maintenance is also necessary for such patients.
Tuberculosis is contagious and necessary precautions are required.
The therapy is also long term and the drugs can cause nausea. Patient
with blood dyscrasia require specific precautions if preprosthetic
surgery is contemplated. Mucosa is also more sensitive to denture
pressure.
All patients with debilitating disease should be under medical
control before commencing any dental treatment.
Diseases of the joints

Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis are common diseases affecting
the joints. If fingers are affected, patient will find it difficult to insert
and clean dentures. When the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is
affected, special impression trays are required due to poor mouth
opening and frequent occlusal correction may be necessary as jaw
relations are difficult to record due to painful mandibular movements.
Cardiovascular disease
Patients with stable cardiac problems under the regular care of a
cardiologist are not contraindicated for procedures. Short
appointments may help the patients to manage stress better. A
consultation with the physician is required if any invasive
preprosthetic procedure is contemplated, along with premedication
and stoppage of anticoagulants.
Neurological conditions
Conditions like Bell palsy and Parkinson disease will present
problems related to denture retention, maxillomandibular records and
support for the musculature. Patients need to be educated regarding
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these anticipated problems.
Oral malignancies
Construction of CD may be commenced depending on the tumour
prognosis, the healing of tissues following the treatment and the
amount of radiation. After CD construction, the tissues should be
evaluated constantly for any evidence of radiation necrosis. Patient
should be advised to use the dentures on a limited basis.
Epilepsy
Patient may aspirate or break the denture during the seizure. It will
influence the selection of denture base material and teeth. Patient and
close relatives may also need to be educated on quick removal of the
dentures prior to or during seizures.
Diseases of the skin

Dermatological diseases like pemphigus have painful oral
manifestations like ulcers and bullae. Medical treatment may or may
not provide relief to these patients. The constant use of dentures in
such patients must be discouraged.
Menopause
This is an important consideration in women as they could undergo
CD construction during this period. The period is characterized by
bone changes like osteoporosis, burning mouth syndrome, mental
disturbance ranging from mild irritability to complete nervous
breakdown. They may require psychiatric counselling and
medication. Patient must be made aware of this condition before
treatment and the possible effect on denture adjustment.
Medications
It can be an indication of a systemic problem or dental treatment may
be modified and influenced by the effect of the drug.
Xerostomia is a common side effect of antihypertensives and
antidepressants. This can decrease denture retention and cause
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increased soreness.
Diuretics cause changes in tissue fluids which affect retention and
stability of dentures.
Psychotropic drugs can cause uncontrollable tongue or facial
movements.
Drugs can also act as synergists or antagonists to produce
undesirable effects.
Hence, the dentist must be aware of all the patient’s medications.
Dental history
This should include the following.
Chief complaint
The chief complaint is recorded in patient’s own words. It should be
determined if the complaint is justified and realistic.
Patient’s desires and expectations

It is important to find out what the patient expects from the treatment.
Unrealistic expectations will be detrimental to success of treatment.
Patient education regarding what is possible is very important in such
cases.
Past dental history

The following information should be elicited:
1. Reason for tooth loss: If periodontal disease was the reason, more
bone loss is anticipated. It also helps in prognosis.
2. Period and sequence of edentulousness: Longer the period, more

will be the bone loss. By understanding the sequence, bone resorption
pattern can be identified.
3. Previous dental and denture experience: Traumatic experiences

will affect the attitude of the patient towards dental treatment and
they will require more counselling and education. Patient’s experience
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with previous dentures will give an insight into their attitude, desire
and expectations.
Current denture
The examination and evaluation of the present prosthesis gives an
insight into the patient’s previous experience, patient tolerance and
aesthetic values. It is evaluated for the following:
• Extension of denture is evaluated using vestibule, hamular notch

and vibrating line as guides for maxillary denture; and vestibule,
retromolar pad, retromylohyoid area and buccal shelf as guide for
mandibular denture.
• The jaw relation—vertical and horizontal, is checked using

appropriate methods.
• Occlusion is verified for balance and premature contacts.
• Artificial teeth are examined for type and wear or breakage.

Considerable wear in a short time period is indicative of bruxism.
• Retention and stability.
• Aesthetics.
• Maintenance of the denture is checked which will provide

information about patient’s hygiene, interest and methods.
• Any previous prosthesis and the reasons for its change should also
be evaluated.
Pre-Extraction records
This will include old diagnostic casts, radiographs and photographs.
• Old diagnostic casts aid in determining tooth size, position and

arrangement.
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• Old radiographs aid in determining tooth size and bony changes.
• Photographs give information about tooth size, position and tooth

display.
Diagnostic casts
• They confirm and sometimes reveal new information obtained from

intraoral examination. It may be of immense benefit to keep the cast
ready during intraoral examination.
• Diagnostic casts should be mounted on an articulator following a

facebow transfer. This allows for dynamic evaluation of interarch
relations, most importantly the interarch space (interridge distance),
which is very essential in determining if space exists to place
artificial teeth.
• Undercuts and their significance can be evaluated with a dental

surveyor.
• Preprosthetic surgeries can be planned and surgical templates can

be made on the diagnostic cast.
Examination
Extraoral examination
• The patient’s head and neck should be examined for the presence of
any pathologic condition.
• Any nodules and ulcerations on the face are noted.
• Facial colour and tone, hair texture, eye clarity, symmetry and
neuromuscular activity should be noted.
• Face and neck are palpated to check for enlarged nodes or masses.
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Facial examination
Face form
Leon William has classified the facial form based on the approximate
shape of the face as square, tapering, square–tapering and ovoid (Fig.
2.1).
FIGURE 2.1 Facial form. (A) Square, (B) Square-Tapering,

(C) Tapering and (D) ovoid. Points on Temporal, Zygomatic,
Angle of the mandible are taken to form the lines on side of
the face.
This helps in selecting the shape of the artificial tooth for the patient
(also see Chapter 9).
Facial profile
The facial profile is classified as:
• Class I: Straight profile
• Class II: Retrognathic or convex profile
• Class III: Prognathic or concave profile. This helps in selection and

arrangement of artificial teeth (Fig. 2.2) (also see Chapter 9).
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FIGURE 2.2 Facial profile. (A) Straight, (B) retrognathic and
(C) prognathic. Forehead, base of nose and chin points are
considered for the classification.
Colour of face, hair and eye

This helps in determining the tooth shade. Though there is no
scientific evidence to associate this colour with a particular tooth
shade, a harmonious relationship of all of these should exist.
Lip examination
Lip health
Fissures, cracking or ulcers at the corner of the mouth indicate vitamin
B deficiency, candidiasis and loss of vertical dimension or neoplasm.
The cause should be determined before denture construction.
Lip support
Lack of proper support can lead to wrinkling. If the same is caused
due to age and health of the patient, it cannot be corrected with
dentures. Correct placement of upper anterior teeth will provide
adequate lip support to eliminate wrinkles around the modiolus.
Lip thickness
In patient with thin lips, even a slight change in the labiolingual tooth
position makes an impact on lip fullness and support. Thick lips can
tolerate more alterations in tooth position without visible changes.
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Lip length
Length of the lips affects the amount of anterior tooth exposure and
the anterior tooth size. They are classified as long, medium and short.
Patients with short upper lip will expose all the upper anterior teeth
and much of the labial flange of the denture base with any expression.
Long lip will hide most of the tooth and denture base. Short lips will
influence the selection of anterior tooth size and characterization of
denture base.
Muscular examination
The musculature surrounding the mouth plays an important part in
the stability of the prosthesis. The musculature can be classified
according to House as:
• Class 1: Normal muscle function and tone or patients showing no

degeneration. This is most commonly seen in patients with recent
extractions.
• Class 2: Normal muscle function with mildly decreased muscle tone.
• Class 3: Decreased muscle tone and function, seen as drooping

commissures, exaggerated nasolabial fold or loss of vertical
dimension.
Temporomandibular joint
The TMJ and associated muscles should be examined for pain by
palpation or mandibular movement. Range of opening, deviation,
clicking and crepitus should be noted. It must be decided if CD
construction will solve some of the problems associated with the TMJ
and explained to the patient.
Intraoral examination
Teeth present
Teeth, if present, are examined for planning the following treatments:
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1. Immediate denture
2. Overdenture
These are discussed in separate chapters in this section.
Mucosa
The mucosa of the cheeks, lips, floor of the mouth, residual ridge,
hard palate and soft palate is evaluated for colour and thickness and
the condition is noted.
Colour
• Redness is a sign of inflammation, which could be due to ill-fitting

dentures, infections, smoking and systemic diseases such as
diabetes. It is important to eliminate the cause and allow the tissues
to return to normal before impression making.
• White patches and brown/blue pigmented spots should be noted. If

the cause is uncertain, a biopsy is indicated.
Thickness
M.M. House has classified mucosa thickness as follows:
• Class 1: Normal uniform density of mucosal tissue (approximately 1

mm thick). Investing membrane is firm but not tense and forms an
ideal cushion for the basal seat of a denture.
• Class 2:
○ Soft tissues have thin investing membranes and are

highly susceptible to irritation under pressure.
○ Soft tissues have mucous membranes twice the
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normal thickness.
• Class 3: Soft tissues have excessively thick investing membranes
filled with redundant tissues. At the very least, this requires tissue
treatment. Such conditions may require surgical correction.
The quality of the mucoperiosteum may vary within each arch.

Tissues may be extremely thin in one area where teeth have been
missing for a long time and normal where teeth were removed
recently. Other areas may be excessively thick with localized regions
of redundant tissue. Such variations make it difficult to equalize
pressure under the denture and to avoid soreness.
Condition
Classified by House as:
• Class I—healthy
• Class II—irritated
• Class III—pathological
Residual alveolar ridge

Residual alveolar ridge should be evaluated for the following.
Arch size
• Greater the arch size larger is the contact and support, hence greater
is the retention.
• Discrepancy in the size of the maxillary and mandibular ridges can

create problems with denture stability in the smaller arch due to
poor relationship of the teeth. This discrepancy may be due to
developmental causes, trauma and early loss of teeth in one of the
arches, or from a severe class II or class III malocclusion.
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• Size can be classified as—small, medium and large (Fig. 2.3).
FIGURE 2.3 Arch size. Left—small, right—large.
Arch form
• Influences support and tooth selection.
• If opposing arches do not have the same form, difficulty in tooth

arrangement can be anticipated.
• Arch forms can be classified as—square, tapering or ovoid (Fig. 2.4).
FIGURE 2.4 Arch form. (A) Square, (B) tapering and (C)
ovoid.
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Ridge contour
Influences support and stability of the dentures.
Atwood has classified residual ridges as:
• Order I: Pre-extraction
• Order II: Postextraction
• Order III: High well rounded
• Order IV: Knife-edge
• Order V: Low well rounded
• Order VI: Depressed (also see Fig. 1.1 in Chapter 1).
The ideal is a high ridge with a flat crest and nearly parallel sides.
This offers maximum support and stability. A flat ridge lacking
vertical height affords little resistance to horizontal movement leading
to reduced stability. A knife-edged ridge offers the poorest prognosis
because it cannot withstand much occlusal force and can easily
become sore. Relief is necessary while making impressions.
Ridge relation
Ridge relation is evaluated for the following:
Interridge distance
• The interarch space is noted at normal occlusal vertical distance.
• Excessive space due to resorption will lead to poor denture stability

and retention due to excessive leverage. Less space will make teeth
setting difficult.
• Can be classified as normal, excessive and reduced (Fig. 2.5)
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FIGURE 2.5 Interridge distance (interarch space). (A)
Normal, (B) excessive and (C) reduced.
Parallelism
• This affects denture stability as nonparallel ridges will cause

movement of the bases when teeth occlude due to unfavourable
direction of forces.
• Classified as parallel, nonparallel.
Positional relation
• This affects tooth arrangement and denture stability.
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• As maxilla resorbs, the crest appears to move upwards and inwards.
As mandible resorbs, the crest appears to move downwards,
forwards and laterally.
• The positional relation can be normal (class I), retrognathic (class II)
and prognathic (class III) (Fig. 2.6).
FIGURE 2.6 Positional ridge relation. (A) Normal (class I),

(B) retrognathic (class II) and (C) prognathic (class III).
Flabby tissue
Both the arches should be examined for loose flabby tissue which can
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cause the denture bases as the foundations themselves are moving
leading to poor stability and support. This may need surgical
correction before impressions or special impression procedures are
adopted to record the same.
Hyperplastic tissue
Hyperplastic tissues such as epulis fissuratum and papillary
hyperplasia may result from an ill-fitting denture and need to be
treated. The patient is advised to rest the tissues by not wearing the
existing dentures, through proper oral hygiene and tissue massage,
tissue conditioning and lastly, if necessary, by surgical correction.
Bony undercuts
These do not aid in retention but cause loss of border seal and
retention; may be present in both maxillary and mandibular ridges.
Maxilla—present in anterior ridge and lateral to maxillary
tuberosity. These may be selectively relieved without any surgery.
Only if the undercuts are severe and previous denture attempts have
failed, surgery should be considered.
Mandible—prominent sharp mylohyoid ridge produces undercut.
Surgical reduction and reattachment may be beneficial.
Muscle and frenal attachments

The location of these attachments in relation to the crest of the ridge
must be verified. In resorbed ridges, they can be near the crest of the
ridge. This interferes with the border seal compromising retention of
the dentures. In such cases, a surgical correction may be required. The
attachments most often corrected surgically are the maxillary labial
frenum and the mandibular lingual frenum; buccal frena rarely
require surgical repositioning.
Relation with floor of the mouth

Relationship of the floor of mouth to crest of the ridge is important for
prognosis of lower denture.
If the floor of the mouth is at the crest of ridge at rest, especially in
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the sublingual gland and mylohyoid areas, retention and stability of
denture will be poor.
Palate
The following are evaluated.
Hard palate
It is classified according to the shape as:
• U-shaped: Provides good retention and stability
• V-shaped: Provides least retention
• Flat: Provides poor retention and stability (Fig. 2.7)
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FIGURE 2.7 Hard palate. (A) U-shaped, (B) V-shaped and
(C) Flat.
Soft palate
Based on the degree of flexure that the soft palate makes with the hard
palate and the width of the palatal seal area, the soft palate
configurations may be classified as:
• Class I: Almost horizontal with little movement making angle of less

than 10° with hard palate; most favourable, as it allows best tissue
coverage (more than 5 mm) and development of a wide posterior
palatal seal.
• Class II: Makes a 45° angle with the hard palate. Tissue coverage is
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less than class I (3–5 mm).
• Class III: Makes a 70° angle with the hard palate; least favourable, as
it allows least tissue coverage (less than 3 mm); usually associated
with V-shaped palate (Fig. 2.8).
FIGURE 2.8 Classification of soft palate. (A) Less than 10

Degree movement, (B) 45 Degree movement and (C) 70°
Degree movement.
Palatal sensitivity or gag reflex
• Gagging is a normal defence mechanism to prevent foreign objects

from entering the trachea.
• An exaggerated gag reflex can compromise prosthodontic

procedures like impression making.
• The cause of this can be systemic, psychological, physiologic and

iatrogenic. The management of such patients may be clinical,
psychological or pharmacological.
• House classified palatal sensitivity as:
○ Class I: Normal
○ Class II: Hyposensitive
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○ Class III: Hypersensitive
Lateral throat form
The retromolar space can be partially or totally obliterated by tongue
movement. This area is critical for lingual seal and lateral stability.
Neil classified lateral throat form (Fig. 2.9) according to the extent of
anterior movement of retromylohyoid curtain as tongue is extended
anteriorly. Checked by placing a finger in the area.
• Class I - Deep - Change in configuration, places heavy pressure on

finger
• Class II - Moderate - Any position in between I & III
• Class III - Shallow - Minimal pressure
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FIGURE 2.9 Classification of lateral throat form (lingual
view). (A) Deep, (B) moderate and (C) shallow.
Tongue
Size
The size of the tongue may be normal, enlarged or small.
• If the patient has been without teeth for a long time, the tongue can
become enlarged, which causes tongue biting, compromises
impression making and also leads to denture instability. Small
tongue compromises a lingual seal.
Position
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Tongue movement, muscular coordination and position control the
dentures during speech, mastication and deglutition.
• Wright has classified tongue positions as:
○ Class I: Tongue lies on the floor of the mouth with

the tip forwards and slightly below the incisal
edges of the mandibular anterior teeth.
○ Class II: Tongue is flattened and broadened but the

tip is in normal position.
○ Class III: Tongue is retracted and depressed into the

floor of the mouth with the tip curled upwards,
downwards or assimilated into the body of the
tongue (Fig. 2.10A–C).
• Class I position has the best prognosis because the floor of the
mouth will be high enough to cover the lingual flange of the
denture producing border seal. Class II and class III are
unfavourable, as the level of the floor of the mouth drops and does
not provide adequate seal.
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FIGURE 2.10 (A) Class I—tongue position. (B) Class II—
tongue position. (C) Class III—tongue position.
Tori
These are bony prominences which may be present in the palate or
lingual alveolar ridge.
Torus has an extremely thin mucous covering which can be
traumatized during impression making and by the denture. Adequate
relief must be planned. Tori can also act as a fulcrum to rock the
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denture and compromise denture stability.
Surgical removal is not indicated unless the tori are large.
Saliva
Major salivary glands orifices should be examined to ensure they are
open.
The amount and consistency of saliva affects denture retention and
construction.
Amount of saliva can be classified as:
• Class I: Normal
• Class II: Excessive
• Class III: Xerostomia
In xerostomia, denture will have poor retention and there is

increased potential for soreness as lubricating action of saliva is lost.
Excessive saliva will complicate impression making.
Consistency
It ranges from thin and serous to thick and ropy. Thick ropy saliva
prevents intimate contact between the denture and the tissues and
results in dentures.
Radiographic examination
• If some teeth are remaining, periapical and panoramic radiographs
are essential to plan the treatment for immediate dentures, single
complete dentures and overdentures.
• Panoramic radiographs are necessary for the completely edentulous

patients. The aim is to screen the edentulous jaws for any pathology
and determine the amount of ridge resorption.
• The screening gives information about the defects in jaw structure,
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root fragments, unerupted teeth or retained roots, foreign bodies,
sclerosis, tumours and cysts and TMJ disorders.
• Amount of bone resorption can be assessed using the method

described by Wical and Swoope. According to this, the original
alveolar ridge crest height is three times the distance from the
inferior border of the mandible to the inferior margin of the mental
foramen. The amount of bone resorption is classified as:
○ Class I: Mild resorption—loss of one-third of

vertical ridge height.
○ Class II: Moderate resorption—loss of one-third to

two-third of vertical height.
○ Class III: Severe resorption—greater than two-third

loss (Fig. 2.11).
FIGURE 2.11 Classification of bone resorption. Class I—one-
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third resorption class II—two-third resorption class III—more
than two-third resorption.
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Treatment planning
Treatment planning is the process of matching possible treatment
options with patient needs and systematically arranging the treatment
in order of priority but in keeping with a logical or technically
necessary sequence (Zarb and Bolender Prosthodontic Treatment for
Edentulous Patients, 12th edn).
It requires a wide knowledge of treatment possibilities, an idea of
patient needs as determined by a thorough diagnosis, while taking
into account prognosis, patient health, attitude and financial
capability.
It will involve two processes:
Mouth preparation
Mouth preparation involves:
1. Elimination of infection
2. Elimination of pathology
3. Conditioning of tissues
4. Nutritional counselling
5. Preprosthetic surgery.
It is discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
Prosthodontic treatment
Patients with some teeth remaining:
1. Interim removable partial dentures (Chapter 30, RPD Section)
2. Immediate dentures (discussed in Chapter 17)
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3. Single complete denture (discussed in Chapter 16)
4. Overdenture (discussed in Chapter 48).
Completely edentulous patient:
1. Conventional CD
2. Implant supported CD—fixed, removable (discussed in Chapter 49).
Prosthodontic diagnostic index for complete

edentulism
It was developed by American College of Prosthodontics. This system
classifies edentulous patient’s treatment complexity using four
diagnostic criteria:
• Mandibular bone height
• Maxillomandibular relationship
• Maxillary residual ridge morphology
• Muscle attachments
These four criteria identify patients as:
• Class I (ideal or minimally compromised)
• Class II (moderately compromised)
• Class III (substantially compromised)
• Class IV (severely compromised)
PDI for edentulous class I patient

A patient who presents ideal or minimally compromised complete
edentulism and who can be treated by conventional prosthodontic
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techniques.
The class I patient exhibits:
• A residual mandibular bone height of at least 21 mm measured at

the area of least vertical bone height.
• A maxillomandibular relationship permitting normal tooth

articulation and an ideal ridge relationship.
• A maxillary ridge morphology that resists horizontal and vertical

movements of denture base.
• Muscle attachment locations conducive to the stability and

retention.
PDI for edentulous class II patient

A patient who presents moderately compromised edentulism and
continued physical degradation of the denture supporting anatomy.
The class II patient exhibits:
• A residual mandibular bone height of 16–20 mm measured at the

area of least vertical bone height.
• A maxillomandibular relationship permitting normal tooth

articulation and an appropriate ridge relationship.
• A maxillary residual ridge morphology that resists horizontal and

vertical movements of the denture base.
• Muscle attachment that exerts limited compromise on denture base

stability and retention.
PDI for edentulous class III patient

A patient who presents substantially compromised complete
edentulism and exhibits:
• Limited interarch space.
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• A residual mandibular bone height of 11–15 mm measured at the
area of least vertical bone height.
• An Angle class I, II or III maxillomandibular relationship.
• Muscle attachment that results in compromised denture base

• Maxillary residual ridge morphology providing minimal resistance

to movement of the denture base.
PDI for edentulous class IV patient

A patient who presents the most debilitated form of complete
edentulism where surgical reconstruction is usually indicated, and
specialized prosthodontic techniques are required to achieve an
acceptable outcome.
The class IV patient exhibits:
• Residual mandibular bone height of 10 mm or less.
• An Angle class I, II or III maxillomandibular relationship.
• A maxillary residual ridge morphology providing no resistance to

movement of denture base.
• Muscle attachment that significantly compromises denture base

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SUMMARY
Diagnosis and treatment planning are the most important parameters
in the successful management of a patient. A major reason for
prosthetic failure is the inadequate and inappropriate diagnosis and
treatment planning. Therefore, care must be taken to elicit and record
an informative case history to understand the patients’ needs and
expectations for a successful outcome.
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CHAPTER 3
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Mouth preparation
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 24
Sequelae of wearing complete dentures 24
Direct sequelae 24
Indirect sequelae 29
Mouth preparation 30
Elimination of infection 30
Elimination of pathology 30
Conditioning of tissues 30
Nutritional counselling 30
Preprosthetic surgery 30
Summary 34
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Introduction
The oral tissues must be in a state of optimum health before
commencing the fabrication of complete dentures. The denture
foundation must be prepared to achieve all the functions of a
complete denture. Patients who have been wearing complete dentures
for a long time (old denture wearers) may undergo a number of
adverse changes in the denture-bearing areas (sequelae of wearing
complete denture). It is important to understand the nature of these
changes to initiate effective treatment. Many dentures fail because
impressions and jaw relations are made under distorted tissues. Even
in new complete denture wearers, the denture foundation must be
improved to obtain optimum comfort and function for the dentures.
The possible sequelae of using complete dentures, and various
procedures involved in preparing the mouth and restoring it to
optimum health prior to complete denture fabrication are discussed in
this chapter.
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Sequelae of wearing complete dentures
Sequelae of complete denture wearing may be categorized as follows.
Direct sequelae
Mucosal reactions
Denture stomatitis
• It is a pathological reaction of the denture-bearing mucosa.
• It is also known as denture-induced stomatitis, denture sore mouth,

inflammatory papillary hyperplasia or chronic atrophic candidiasis.
Classification (newton)
• Type 1: Localized simple inflammation or pin-point hyperaemia.
• Type 2: Erythematous or generalized simple type presenting a more

diffuse erythema involving a part or the entire denture-covered
mucosa (Fig. 3.1).
• Type 3: Granular type (inflammatory papillary hyperplasia)

commonly involving the central part of the hard palate and the
alveolar ridges. It is often seen associated with type 1 or type 2 (Fig.
3.2).
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FIGURE 3.1 Type 2 denture stomatitis.
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FIGURE 3.2 Type 3 denture stomatitis.
Type 1 is often trauma induced, whereas types 2 and 3 are

associated with denture plaque.
Aetiology
• The main cause is the presence of denture in oral cavity and is

associated with patients wearing dentures day and night.
• Denture plaque and trauma reduce the degree of keratinization and

barrier function of the epithelium, allowing easy penetration of
fungal and bacterial antigens.
• Candida albicans is most often associated with denture stomatitis

along with the other causative factors. It is then termed as Candida-
associated denture stomatitis. The predisposing systemic and local factors
for this type of denture stomatitis are listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
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Predisposing factors for Candida-associated denture stomatitis
Systemic factors Local factors

Old age Dentures
Diabetes mellitus Xerostomia
Nutritional deficiencies – iron, folate or vitamin B12 High-carbohydrate diet
Malignancies – acute leukaemia, agranulocytosis Broad-spectrum antibiotics
Immunosuppression due to disease or use of steroids Smoking
Diagnosis
• The diagnosis of Candida-associated denture stomatitis is confirmed by

the presence of mycelia or pseudohyphae in a direct smear and/or
the isolation of Candida in high numbers from the lesion (>50
colonies).
Prevention and management

This involves the following measures:
• Initiation of effective oral and denture hygiene
○ The patient is instructed to scrub and clean dentures

with soap after every meal, and massage the
mucosa in contact with dentures with soft
toothbrush.
○ The patient is advised against wearing the denture

at night and the dentures should be soaked
overnight in an antiseptic solution such as 0.2%–2%
chlorhexidine or dilute sodium hypochlorite (10
drops of household bleach in a denture cup or
container filled with tap water). If the denture base
contains metal, the patient should avoid using
hypochlorite because it causes metal to tarnish.
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○ Polishing of tissue surface of denture to facilitate
cleaning.
• Correction of ill-fitting dentures
○ Areas of denture causing trauma to the tissues are

trimmed and polished.
○ Generally rough areas on fitting surface are

smoothed or relined with tissue conditioner.
• Antifungal therapy
Indicated when:
○ Clinical diagnosis is confirmed by mycological

examination.
○ There is associated burning sensation from oral

mucosa.
○ Infection has spread to other parts of the oral cavity

and pharynx.
○ Patients are at increased risk of contracting systemic

mycotic infections due to debilitating diseases,
drugs or radiation therapy.
○ Local therapy with nystatin, amphotericin B,
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miconazole or clotrimazole is preferred to systemic
therapy with ketoconazole or fluconazole due to
frequent drug resistance.
To prevent recurrence:
○ Antifungal treatment should continue for 4 weeks.
○ Patients are instructed to remove dentures during

sucking when lozenges are prescribed.
○ Patient should follow meticulous oral and denture

hygiene.
• Surgical treatment
○ Indicated in type 3 denture stomatitis to eliminate

crypts and ensure effective mucosal hygiene.
Cryosurgery is preferred.
Denture irritation hyperplasia (epulis fissuratum) (fig. 3.3)
This tissue hyperplasia of the mucosa is a consequence of trauma of
ill-fitting dentures and occurs along the denture borders. It is also
known as inflammatory fibrous hyperplasia, denture injury tumour or
denture epulis.
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FIGURE 3.3 Epulis fissuratum.
Aetiology
Chronic injury due to unstable dentures or thin overextended denture
flanges.
Clinical features
• Proliferation takes place quickly but symptoms may be mild.
• Appears as single or multiple folds of hyperplastic tissue in the

alveolar vestibule (Fig. 3.3).
• Inflammation varies from mild to severe ulceration with deep

fissures. The severe form may mimic a neoplasm.
• The anterior portion of the jaw is more commonly affected than the
posterior areas.
Management
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• Surgical removal of lesion is followed by the adjustment of old
dentures or replacement of denture. Recurrence is unlikely.
Fibroepithelial polyp
Fibroepithelial polyp is a less common form of fibrous hyperplasia. It
is also known as leaf-like denture fibroma.
Aetiology
It occurs due to irritation or trauma of the maxillary denture.
It appears as a flattened pink mass that is attached to the palate by a
peduncle. It sits in a cupped out depression and is easily lifted up
with a probe. They usually appear as single lesions, but may
occasionally present as multiple lesions. They are a few millimetres in
size.
Management
Treatment comprises surgical excision of the lesion and relining or
remaking the ill-fitting denture.
Flabby ridge
• This is a mobile or extremely resilient alveolar ridge, which occurs

due to the replacement of bone by fibrous tissue (Fig. 3.4).
• It is commonly seen in the anterior part of the maxilla, especially

when there are remaining anterior teeth in the mandible.
• They provide poor support to the denture.
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FIGURE 3.4 Flabby ridge.
Aetiology
Excessive load on the residual ridge caused by unstable occlusal forces
from the remaining natural teeth.
Features
Histological examination shows marked fibrosis, inflammation and
resorption of underlying bone.
Management
Though surgical removal is an option to improve stability and reduce
ridge resorption, when severe resorption already exists, removing the
flabby tissue will completely eliminate the vestibular area. Here,
preserving the tissue will provide retention to the denture. Special
impression techniques are indicated for flabby ridges (discussed in
Chapter 4, p. 77).
Flabby ridge as a constituent of combination syndrome (Kelly,
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1972) (fig. 3.5)
Definition
The characteristic features that occur when an edentulous maxilla is
opposed by natural mandibular anterior teeth, including loss of bone
from the anterior portion of the maxillary ridge, overgrowth of the
tuberosities, papillary hyperplasia of the hard palate’s mucosa,
extrusion of the lower anterior teeth, and loss of alveolar bone and
ridge height beneath the mandibular removable dental prosthesis
bases – also called anterior hyperfunction syndrome (GPT8) (Figs 3.5
and 3.6).
FIGURE 3.5 Combination syndrome.
The cause for this problem is usually inadequate posterior occlusion

(Fig. 3.6).
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FIGURE 3.6 OPG showing features of combination
syndrome – overhanging maxillary tuberosity, extensive
mandibular ridge resorption, extrusion of lower anterior teeth.
Traumatic ulcers
Traumatic ulcers or sore spots are a breach in the surface epithelium
(Fig. 3.7). They develop within 1–2 days after placement of new
dentures.
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FIGURE 3.7 Lingual border overextension resulting in
traumatic ulcer.
Aetiology
It is caused due to overextended denture flanges or unbalanced
occlusion. Predisposing factors are conditions that reduce the
resistance of the mucosa to mechanical irritation – diabetes, nutritional
deficiencies, radiation therapy or xerostomia.
Clinical features
The ulcers are small, painful areas covered by a grey necrotic
membrane and surrounded by an inflammatory halo with firm,
elevated borders.
Management
Following correction of the offending denture problem, the ulcers will
heal spontaneously in a few days. Symptomatic relief is provided with
anaesthetic gels.
Oral cancer
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Oral carcinoma associated with chronic irritation from dentures has
been reported (Fig. 3.8).
FIGURE 3.8 Oral cancer.
Predisposing factors
Use of heavy alcohol and tobacco, uneducated and low socioeconomic
status, which lead to poor dental health.
Prevention
• Any traumatic ulcer that does not heal following correction of the
denture should be checked for malignancy.
• Denture patients should be recalled every 6 months for a clinical

examination.
Burning mouth syndrome

Definition
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Burning pain in the tongue or other oral mucous membrane
associated with normal signs and laboratory findings lasting at least
4–6 months (International Association for the Study of Pain).
It is also known as stomatopyrosis, glossopyrosis, stomatodynia
and glossodynia.
In this condition, the oral mucosa appears clinically healthy. It must
be differentiated from ‘burning mouth sensations’ where the oral
mucosa is inflamed due to mechanical denture irritation.
The symptoms often appear for the first time in association with the
placement of new dentures. The symptoms may be so severe that the
dentures cannot be tolerated for more than a few hours.
Aetiology
Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) has been associated with several
causative factors which can be broadly classified under local, systemic
and psychogenic factors.
• Local factors
○ Undue friction on mucosa from dentures
○ Instability of dentures
○ Prolonged period of masticatory muscle activity
○ Parafunctional tongue activity
○ Myofascial pain
○ Infection (oral candidiasis) and allergic reactions

may mimic BMS, but are more related to burning
mouth sensations.
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• Systemic factors
○ Menopause – most common
○ Vitamin (B12) and iron deficiencies
○ Xerostomia
○ Diabetes
○ Medication
○ Parkinson disease
• Psychogenic factors
○ Depression
○ Anxiety
Clinical features
• Female predilection specifically postmenopausal women.
• Symptoms appear for the first time after placement of new dentures.
• Gradual onset, pain begins in the morning and increases through

the course of the day.
• Patients complain of a burning sensation associated with a feeling of

dry mouth and persistent altered taste sensation. Burning
sensations from supporting tissues or tongue are also common
complaints.
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• Other symptoms include headaches, decreased libido, insomnia,
irritability and depression.
• Aggravating factors are tension, fatigue and hot or spicy foods while
sleeping, distraction and eating reduce pain.
Management
• The symptoms of the patient should not be ignored and denture

should be checked thoroughly for any local causes, and corrected.
• The patients need to be counselled to help them understand that

their problems are benign and that the dentures are not the cause of
their psychiatric disorders, with subsequent elimination of fears.
• Any comprehensive treatment may need the help of a psychiatrist.
Gagging or retching
• The gag reflex is a normal, healthy defence mechanism, which
prevents foreign bodies from entering the trachea.
• It can be triggered by tactile stimulation of the soft palate, posterior

part of the tongue and the fauces. Sight, taste, noise and
psychological factors can also produce gagging.
• In sensitive patients, gagging is common immediately after

placement of new dentures, but disappears in a few days as the
patient adapts to them. Some patients start to retch weeks or
months after the dentures have been satisfactorily fitted. Then the
cause needs to be identified and corrected.
Aetiology
• Overextended denture borders (posterior part of maxillary denture

and distolingual part of mandibular denture).
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• Unstable occlusal conditions.
• Increased vertical dimension of occlusion.
• Restricted tongue space.
• Gastrointestinal tract disorders, adenoids or discharge from upper

respiratory tract.
• Alcoholism and smoking.
Management
The cause has to be identified and corrected.
Residual ridge resorption

• Though residual ridge resorption (RRR) may be inevitable due to
‘disuse atrophy’, it can also be caused due to excessive force
transmitted through dentures because of continuous denture
wearing and unstable occlusal conditions.
• The various aspects of RRR are discussed in Chapter 1 of this

section.
Altered taste
• A condition characterized by alterations of the sense of taste may
range from mild to severe, including gross distortions of taste
quality.
Aetiology
• Covering of taste buds in the hard palate by the dentures.
• Ill-fitting dentures – cause patients to choose foods which are easier

to masticate. However, these foods may not be of proper nutritional
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value. Decrease in the nutrients greatly affects the quality and rate
of flow of saliva and saliva is required to provide an environment
for optimal functioning of the taste buds.
• Poor oral and denture hygiene – debris is constantly covering the

taste buds.
• Dental diseases, olfactory deficits, neurological deficits and other

systemic disorders.
Management
The patient must be advised to maintain good oral as well as denture
hygiene and any defect in the denture is corrected.
Altered speech
Difficulty is to be expected when the complete dentures are first worn.
However, the adaptability of the patient is sufficient to attain
adequate speech patterns.
Temporary alterations may be due to:
• Thickness of denture base covering the palate.
• Slightly altered tongue position.
• Copious salivary flow.
These difficulties can be overcome by asking the patient to practice

speaking with the dentures by reading aloud.
Aetiology
Persistence of phonetic problems may be due to:
• An alteration of the position of the maxillary incisors and change in

their palatal shape.
• Reduction in tongue space.
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• Alteration of the occlusal plane.
• Defective palatal contour.
• Improper posterior extension of the dentures.
Management
Correction of offending problem, if possible, but most often a new set
of dentures will have to be fabricated with a sound knowledge of the
valving actions of speech and keeping in mind the principles of teeth
arrangement.
Angular cheilitis
Angular cheilitis is a multifactorial disease affecting the commissure
of the lips and is commonly seen in denture wearers (Fig. 3.9).
FIGURE 3.9 Angular cheilitis seen at the commissure of the

lips.
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It is also called perlèche when it is associated with nutritional
deficiencies.
Aetiology
• Loss of vertical dimension or worn-out dentures – deep folds of skin

are produced at the corners of the mouth. The skin becomes
macerated and fissured, predisposing to infection – usually
candidal or staphylococcal.
• Nutritional deficiencies such an iron deficiency, vitamin B.
• Other uncommon predisposing factors include AIDS, diabetes and

neutropenia.
• Deep fissures and cracks at the corners of the mouth that may be
ulcerated. A superficial exudative crust may form.
• The fissures do not involve the mucosa on the inside of the mouth,
but stop at the mucocutaneous junction.
• Associated burning sensation or dryness at the corners.
Management
• The primary cause should be treated first.
• The patient’s vertical dimension should be restored.
• Antifungal agents and antibiotics can be given to treat the secondary

infection.
Galvanism
• This is due to the presence of different types of dental materials
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(mostly metals) in the mouth which cause electrochemical
corrosion. Bacterial plaque is also an important cofactor in the
process.
• These galvanic currents may be a cause of BMS, oral lichen planus

and altered taste perception.
Indirect sequelae of complete denture wearing
Atrophy of masticatory muscles

• Masticatory function depends on skeletal muscle force and
coordination of oral functional movements by patient.
• In general, bite force decreases with age. A greater reduction has

been demonstrated in complete denture patients, especially women.
In fact, CD patients need seven times more chewing strokes than
persons with natural dentition to achieve similar reduction in
particle size.
• Retaining a few teeth to support overdentures and implant-

supported dentures has improved the maximal occlusal force and
masticatory efficiency of completely edentulous individuals.
Nutritional deficiencies
• Severe deficiencies are rare, except in hospitalized or chronically ill
patients. In such patients, ill-fitting dentures, salivary gland
hypofunction or altered taste perception may have a negative effect
on the nutritional status and some improvement in nutritional
intake can be expected following prosthodontic correction.
• In healthy individuals, there is no evidence that the nutritional

intake is impaired in complete denture wearers or that the
replacement of ill-fitting dentures with new ones will cause a major
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improvement in nutrition.
• Dietary counselling and mechanical preparation of food may be

necessary to improve the nutritional status of the CD patients.
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Mouth preparation
Mouth preparation involves the following procedures.
Elimination of infection
Infections arising from remaining carious teeth, periodontally weak
teeth, ulcers and nonvital teeth should be eliminated. Fungal
infections like candidiasis, viral infections like herpetic stomatitis and
denture stomatitis must be treated prior to commencement of the
treatment.
Elimination of pathology
Patients must be educated and informed about the danger involved if
these lesions are left unattended. Tumours and cysts of the jaw should
be treated or surgically excised.
Conditioning of tissues
Deformed tissues are allowed to return to normal by asking the
patient to not wear the old dentures for some time and conditioning
the tissues using soft liners (see Chapter 15).
Nutritional counselling
As already discussed, nutritional counselling is essential to prevent
any nutritional deficiencies. This is more important for the patient
whose metabolic and masticatory efficiency may be compromised.
Preprosthetic surgery
Definition
Surgical procedures designed to facilitate the fabrication of a
prosthesis or to improve the prognosis of prosthodontic care (GPT8).
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Classification
The conditions and procedures involving preprosthetic surgery can be
classified as follows.
Conditions that prevent optimal prosthesis

function
1. Retained dentition
• These are assessed through radiographic examination. A decision

has to be made whether to retain or remove them.
• Generally, all retained roots and unerupted teeth are removed.
• Only those that are located deep within the bone, which are
asymptomatic and removal would leave a large defect, are retained,
but assessed regularly for any pathologies.
2. Soft tissue abnormalities
(i) Hypertrophic frenum

These are fibrous bands of tissue frequently attached superficial to the
muscle attachments in mandible and maxilla.
• Hypertrophic maxillary labial frenum attached close to the ridge

crest prevents ideal extension of denture borders and peripheral
seal. They can also become prominent as a result of ridge
resorption. Movement of the soft tissue adjacent to the frenum may
also create discomfort and ulceration. Providing relief in the labial
notch of denture can create loss of border seal and also midline
fracture of denture. It needs surgical removal (Fig. 3.10).
• Hypertrophic lingual frenum can attach high on the residual ridge

interfering with denture extension and stability. It can also attach
high on the ventral surface of the tongue, restricting tongue
movements, causing tongue-tie and speech impairment. In either
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case, surgical intervention is indicated (Fig. 3.11).
• Frenectomies can be performed before commencing prosthetic

treatment or at the time of denture insertion when the new denture
can act as a surgical template. The former is preferred.
• Prominent buccal frenum usually does not require any surgical

correction because of its compressible and flaccid nature.
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FIGURE 3.10 (A) Normal labial frenum. (B) Hypertrophic
labial frenum resulting in frenum attached close to the crest.
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FIGURE 3.11 (A) Normal lingual frenum. (B) Hypertrophic
lingual frenum obliterating the lingual sulcus.
(II) Flabby tissue, inflammatory papillary hyperplasia (denture

stomatitis), and denture irritation hyperplasia (epulis fissuratum)
These need to be surgically excised as indicated.
3. Bony abnormalities
(i) Extraction and alveoloplasty
• Irregularities of the alveolar ridge found either at the time of

extraction (Fig. 3.12) or after healing (Fig. 3.13) require recontouring
before final prosthetic construction.
• Alveoloplasty is the surgical smoothing and shaping of the alveolar

ridge prior to denture placement.
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FIGURE 3.12 Irregular alveolar ridge during extraction.
FIGURE 3.13 Irregular alveolar ridge postextraction.
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(ii) Ridge undercuts
• Small undercuts from ridge crests and undercuts only in anterior

labial region do not require any surgical intervention (Fig. 3.14A).
• If undercuts are present both anteriorly and posteriorly, reduction of

posterior undercut is preferred.
• Bilateral undercuts need correction at least on one side (Fig. 3.14B).
FIGURE 3.14 Ridge undercuts. (A) Undercut in anterior

region can be tackled by changing the path of denture
insertion. (B) Bilateral undercuts require surgical correction on
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one side to enable comfortable denture insertion.
(iii) Prominent mylohyoid ridge
• In addition to the actual bony ridge, with its easily damaged thin
mucosa covering, the muscular attachment in this area dislodges
the denture. The sharp ridge produces pain in this area (Fig. 3.15).
• If so, surgical recontouring is done with bone files along with

detachment of the posterior muscle insertion of mylohyoid muscle.
FIGURE 3.15 A mandible with prominent mylohyoid ridge.
(iv) Maxillary tuberosity interference
• Pendulous tuberosity with undercuts is encountered unilaterally or

bilaterally. They interfere with interarch space, denture insertion
and extension and mandibular movements. These require surgical
correction if they interfere with the normal denture function (Fig.
3.16).
• Bilateral undercuts will require surgical recontouring at least
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unilaterally.
• Maxillary sinus can expand into the tuberosity. Bone removal

should be performed with caution guided by radiographs.
FIGURE 3.16 Prominent tuberosity interferes with interarch

space, denture extension and mandibular movements.
(v) Sharp, spiny residual ridges
• These knife-edged ridges commonly occur in the lower anterior

region due to rapid labial and lingual resorption. It leads to
hypermobile tissue covering the ridge that gets trapped between the
denture and the sharp bony ridge, causing denture soreness,
discomfort and instability (Fig. 3.17).
• Meyer described three types of sharp ridges – saw-tooth, razor-like
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and discrete spiny projections.
• Surgical treatment involves recontouring of bone, reshaping of soft

tissues and closure of epithelium with sutures.
• If surgery is contraindicated dentures can be made with:
○ Selective pressure impressions to reduce the

pressure in this area.
○ Reduction of occlusal table with maximum denture

base extension.
○ Permanent resilient liners.
FIGURE 3.17 Sagittal section showing knife-edge ridge in

mandibular anteriors.
(vi) Tori and exostoses
• They are relatively common, benign, slowly growing bony

projections of maxilla or mandible. They attain their maximum size
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by the third decade and are of unknown aetiology. When it occurs
in the midline of palate, it is called ‘torus palatinus’, and when it
occurs in the lingual aspect of mandible, it is called ‘torus
mandibularis’.
• The mucosa over the torus is thin and can be abraded easily.
Maxillary Tori (Fig. 3.18A)
• They occur in multiple shapes and configurations.
• Smaller tori require only to be relieved, because they do not

interfere in prosthetic construction.
• Indications for removal:
○ Speech interference.
○ Affects posterior palatal seal.
○ Denture instability due to fulcrum effect.
○ Undercut torus that traps food debris.

Mandibular Tori
• They are bony protuberances on the lingual aspect of the mandible

and usually occur in the premolar area (Fig. 3.18B).
• Constructing a denture over mandibular tori causes frequent

mucosal irritation and sore spots, and prevents development of a
border seal. Large tori also cause interference in speech.
• All mandibular tori need to be surgically removed.
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FIGURE 3.18 (A) Maxillary tori. (B) Mandibular tori.
Enlargement of denture-bearing areas

1. Vestibuloplasty
Definition: A surgical procedure designed to restore alveolar ridge
height by lowering muscles attaching to the buccal, labial, and lingual
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aspects of the jaws (GPT8).
Purpose:
• To obtain more denture extension.
• Reposition the muscle attachment to obtain better support for the

prosthesis.
It can be done using one of the following procedures:
(i) Mucosal advancement

The subepithelial connective tissue is dissected and repositioned
apically with the aid of a surgical stent. Mostly used in maxilla, it has
potential for relapse.
(ii) Secondary epithelialization

’An apically repositioned flap is sutured to the periosteum at the
desired depth. The area is allowed to heal by secondary intention.
Overcorrection is usually necessary as there is 50% relapse.
Hyperplastic and hypermobile tissues can be reduced at the same
time.
(iii) Epithelial graft vestibuloplasty

A skin or oral mucous membrane graft is used to cover the exposed
tissue following raising of a full thickness mucoperiosteal flap. It is
allowed to heal by primary intention. This is the most successful
method of vestibuloplasty.
2. Ridge augmentation
• Augmentation by bone grafts adds strength to an extremely

deficient mandible or maxilla and improves the height and contour
of the available bone.
• Autogenous grafts from an iliac or rib source are the most

biologically acceptable but they require an additional and extensive
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surgery at the donor site. The use of hydroxyapatite alloplastic
material eliminates the donor site surgery but poses problems of
resorption. The results with regard to predictable recovery of ridge
height and morbidity are not encouraging.
• In general, grafting and just complete dentures are not

recommended as they are a major consideration with respect to
cost, success rate and procedure involved, especially for the elderly.
• Currently, grafts have been combined with osseointegrated

implants and have shown promising results.
SUMMARY
Mouth preparation is an important step before we commence
construction of complete denture prosthesis. Examination of hard and
soft tissues of the oral cavity will provide information about the need
for preprosthetic mouth preparation. The preparation may also be
essential in existing denture wearers, due to tissue abuse. Most often
it may be necessary for the patient to abstain from wearing the
denture for at least a period of 48 hours before we start the
impression procedures.
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CHAPTER 4
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Impressions and casts
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 35
Definitions 35
Principles and objectives of impression making 36
Principles 36
Objectives 36
Retention 36
Stability 39
Support 40
Preservation of residual structures 40
Aesthetics 40
Classification of impressions 40
Depending on purpose of impression making 40
Depending on theories of impression making 41
Depending on impression technique 41
Impression materials 42
Rigid or inelastic 42
Elastic 42
Anatomic and denture landmarks 43
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Mucous membrane 43
Maxilla 43
Mandible 50
Preliminary impressions 55
Requirements 55
Material selection 55
Tray 55
Position of patient and operator 56
Mandibular preliminary impressions 57
Maxillary preliminary impressions 59
Preliminary/primary cast 61
Custom trays 63
Objectives 65
Requirements 65
Design considerations 65
Types 65
Fabrication 66
Final impressions 70
Using custom trays 71
Using stock trays 77
Using record bases with occlusal rims 79
Definitive (final) cast 80
Beading and boxing 80
Pouring definitive casts 84
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Indexing the cast 84
Summary 85
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Introduction
Impression is a negative replica of the teeth and associated structures.
Impression making is the first clinical working procedure in the
fabrication of a complete denture. It helps the dentist in confirming
the evaluation of patient, which was performed during diagnosis and
treatment planning. It also helps in building confidence of the patient
towards the dentist. A thorough understanding of the anatomy of the
supporting and limiting structures is essential for proper extension
and support of the denture. Impression techniques also vary
depending on the clinical conditions. A preliminary impression is
made following all the necessary mouth preparations and a
preliminary cast is poured. If mouth preparation was not necessary,
the diagnostic cast can be used as the preliminary cast. Hence, the
procedures involved in making a diagnostic and preliminary
impression, and in pouring a diagnostic and preliminary cast are
similar. A custom tray is fabricated on the preliminary cast and a
definitive (final) cast is made following final impressions. The clinical
success of the complete denture depends largely on the accuracy and
contours of the patient’s definitive casts.
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Definitions
Impression: A negative likeness or copy in reverse of the surface of an
object, an imprint of the teeth and adjacent structures for use in
dentistry (GPT8).
Preliminary impression: A negative likeness made for the purpose of
diagnosis, treatment planning or the fabrication of a tray (GPT8); also
referred to as ‘primary impression’.
Preliminary cast: A cast formed from a preliminary impression for
use in diagnosis or the fabrication of an impression tray (GPT8); also
referred to as ‘primary cast’.
Final impression: An impression that represents completion of
registration of the surface or object, made for the purpose of
fabricating a prosthesis; also referred to as ‘secondary impression’ or
‘master impression’.
Definitive cast: A replica of the tooth surfaces, residual ridge areas
and/or other parts of the dental arch and/or facial structures used to
fabricate a dental restoration or prosthesis; called also final cast
(GPT8); also referred to as ‘master cast’.
Stock tray: A metal prefabricated impression tray typically available
in various sizes and used principally for preliminary impressions
(GPT8).
Custom tray: An individualized impression tray made from a cast
recovered from a preliminary impression. It is used in making a final
impression (GPT8); also referred to as ‘special tray’ or ‘individualized
tray’.
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Principles and objectives of impression
making
Principles
An impression must adhere to the following principles:
1. Tissues must be healthy, before impression making.
2. Proper space must be provided for selected impression material.
3. Tray and impression material should be dimensionally stable.
4. For correct positioning of tray, a guiding mechanism should be

provided.
5. Impression should be adequately extended to include the entire

basal seat area as dictated by limiting and supporting structures.
6. A border moulding must be performed in harmony with anatomical

and physiological limitations of the oral structures.
7. Impression must be removed without damage to the oral structures.
8. The tissue surface of impression and intaglio surface of the denture

must coincide.
Objectives
1. Retention
2. Stability
3. Support
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4. Preservation of residual structures
5. Aesthetics
Retention
Definition: That quality inherent in the dental prosthesis acting to
resist the forces of dislodgment along the path of placement (GPT8).
• It is related to forces that resist the forces of gravity, adhesiveness of

food and opening of the jaws.
• The process of obtaining denture retention begins with impression

making. Factors that attach the denture to the mucosa affect
retention.
Factors affecting retention

1. Anatomical factors
(i) Size of the denture-bearing area

Retention increases with increase in the size of the denture-bearing
area (Fig. 4.1). The average size of the maxillary denture-bearing area
is around 24 cm2 and that of the mandibular denture-bearing area is
around 14 cm2.
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FIGURE 4.1 (A) Maxillary edentulous ridge and (B)
mandibular edentulous ridge. Both ridges are well formed but
size of denture-bearing area is smaller in the lower jaw.
(ii) Tissue displaceability

The displaceability of the tissues affects the retention of the denture.
Tissues displaced during impression making will rebound during
function and lead to loss of retention.
2. Physiological factors
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• The amount and consistency of saliva affects retention.
• Thin, watery saliva affords best retention.
• Excessive saliva that is thick and ropy accumulates between the

tissue surface of the denture and the palate leading to loss of
retention.
• The absence of saliva (xerostomia) affects retention and can also

cause irritation and soreness of the denture-bearing tissues.
3. Physical factors
(i) Adhesion
• Adhesion is defined as the physical attraction of unlike molecules to one

another.
• Saliva is present in between the denture base and the mucosa, and
its contact with both these surfaces creates adhesion. It is achieved
by ionic forces between the salivary glycoproteins and surface
epithelium or acrylic resin (Fig. 4.2A).
• It depends on:
○ Close adaptation of denture.
○ Size of denture-bearing area.
○ Type of saliva.
• Adhesion also takes place directly between the denture base and
mucosa in case of xerostomia (lack of saliva), but this leads to
ulcerations and abrasions in the mucosa.
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FIGURE 4.2A Adhesion (attraction of dissimilar molecules)
takes place between saliva and denture base, and between
saliva and mucosa.
(ii) Cohesion
• Cohesion is defined as the physical attraction of like molecules to one

another.
• This occurs within the film of saliva and aids in retention (Fig. 4.2B).
• Normal saliva is not very cohesive; hence, retention from mucosa

interface is more dependent on adhesion and surface tension.
• As viscosity of saliva increases, greater is the cohesion but very

thick, mucous saliva can physically push the denture out, resulting
in loss of retention.
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FIGURE 4.2B Cohesion (attraction between similar
molecules) takes place within the molecules of saliva present
between the mucosa and denture base.
(iii) Interfacial surface tension
• Interfacial surface tension is defined as the tension or resistance to

separation possessed by a film of liquid between two well adapted parallel
surfaces.
• It is dependent on the ability of the liquid to ‘wet’ the surfaces. The

‘wettability’ of the fluid is inversely proportional to the surface
tension of the surfaces.
• These forces are found within the thin film of saliva that is present
between the denture base and tissues. Saliva ‘wets’ the denture
surface, to aid in retention. The oral mucosa has low surface tension
and hence the saliva ‘wets’ it well, spreading out in a thin film.
Denture base materials demonstrate less wettability than oral
mucosa, with heat-cured resins showing better wetting than
autopolymerized resins. But once coated with salivary pellicle, the
surface tension of the denture base material decreases and contact
increases. This is similar to trying to separate two glass plates with
intervening liquid between them (Fig. 4.2C and D).
• Interfacial surface tension is also dependent on existence of a
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liquid/air interface at the boundary of the liquid/solid contact. If
two plates with a fluid between them are immersed in the same
fluid, then there is no interfacial surface tension and they can be
separated easily. The external boundary of the mandibular denture
is always filled (immersed) in saliva, thereby reducing the surface
tension effect (Fig. 4.2E). Hence, interfacial surface tension plays a
significant role in retention of only the maxillary denture.
• The interfacial surface tension can be calculated by Stephan’s

formula:
Where F is surface tension, k is viscosity of liquid, r is

radius of the contacting surfaces, v is velocity of
force, h is the space between the surfaces.
• This means the following:
○ Greater the space (h3), interfacial surface tension (F)

is less – closer the adaptation of the denture, greater
is the interfacial tension and retention.
○ Greater the radius (r4), greater is interfacial surface

tension (F) – greater the area covered by the
denture, greater is the interfacial tension and
retention.
• Other factors that aid in obtaining maximum interfacial surface
tension are
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○ Thin and even layer of saliva.
○ Adequate adhesion and cohesion.
FIGURE 4.2C, D Interfacial surface tension acts only when

the two glass plates are pulled apart. The cohesive forces
between the molecules of the liquid, (intermolecular
attraction) and the adhesive forces between the plate and the
liquid will result in preventing the plates to move away from
each other forming a concave meniscus.
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FIGURE 4.2E Surface tension lost in mandibular denture.
(iv) Capillarity
That quality or state, which because of surface tension causes elevation or
depression of the surface of a liquid that is in contact with a solid.
• Capillarity causes the thin film of saliva to rise and increase its
contact with the denture base and the mucosa.
• Close adaptation of the denture base to mucosa is important for

capillarity to provide effective retention.
(v) Atmospheric pressure
• This can help resist dislodging forces if the dentures have an

effective border seal. Peripheral seal or border seal is defined as the
contact of the denture border with the underlying or adjacent
tissues to prevent the passage of air or other substances (GPT8).
• When a force is exerted perpendicular to and away from the basal
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seat of a denture which is properly extended and fully seated,
pressure between the prosthesis and mucosa drops below the
ambient pressure, resisting displacement. This has been previously
referred to as ‘suction’ (Fig. 4.2F).
• Retention due to atmospheric pressure is proportional to the

denture base area. Proper border moulding is essential for this
retention mechanism to function.
FIGURE 4.2F When dislodging forces act on a properly

extended denture, pressure between the prosthesis and
mucosa drops, contributing to retention.
(vi) Gravity
This natural force can aid in the retention of the mandibular denture
especially when there is more weight and other retentive forces and
factors are marginal (Fig. 4.2G).
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FIGURE 4.2G Gravitational force helps seat the mandibular
denture (a), while it acts against the maxillary denture (b).
4. Mechanical factors
(i) Undercuts
• Moderate undercuts enhance retention because of the resiliency of

mucosa. Examples are unilateral tuberosity undercuts, undercuts in
maxillary premolar area, distolingual areas and lingual to the
midline of mandible.
• Severe undercuts covered with thin mucosa compromise retention

and need to be surgically eliminated. Undercuts like those present
in the retromolar areas and maxillary anterior ridge allow insertion
of denture with a rotational path with the undercut area seated first.
• They provide good resistance to displacement in a vertical direction

(also see Fig. 3.14A).
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(ii) Denture adhesives
These commercially available products enhance retention by
increasing adhesive and cohesive properties and by eliminating voids
between denture base and basal seat tissues (Fig. 4.3A). (These are
discussed in Chapter 11.)
FIGURE 4.3A A commercially available denture adhesive

powder applied on denture.
(iii) Suction chambers and discs

These have been used to create a negative pressure in the palatal
surface of the maxillary denture, thereby enhancing retention. They
are best avoided due to their potential to cause papillary hyperplasias
(Fig. 4.3B).
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FIGURE 4.3B Left—suction disc, right—suction chamber.
5. Muscular factors
The oral and facial musculature and tongue supply supplementary
retentive forces. For this to be effective:
• Teeth must be positioned in the ‘neutral zone’ between the tongue

and cheeks.
• Polished surfaces of the dentures should be properly contoured.
• Denture bases must be extended to cover maximum area.
• Occlusal plane must be at correct level.
• The potential denture space or the neutral zone is explained in

Chapter 10.
Stability
Definition: The quality of a removable dental prosthesis to be firm,
steady, or constant, to resist displacement by functional horizontal or
rotational stresses (GPT8).
Factors affecting stability

1. Vertical height of the residual ridge
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• Stability deceases with loss of vertical height of the ridges (Fig.
4.4A–C).
FIGURE 4.4 Stability: (A) good ridge height, (B) poor ridge
height, (C) flabby ridge. Ridge with good vertical height
contributes to better stability than poor ridges due to
decreased leverage.
2. Quality of soft tissue covering the ridge
• Flabby ridges provide poor stability.
3. Adaptation of denture to the tissues
• Close adaptation of the denture to the basal seat tissues is very

important to ensure proper stability. An accurate impression is
essential to achieve this.
4. Occlusal plane
• The occlusal plane should be oriented parallel to the ridges and

should divide the interarch space equally. Inclined occlusal planes
will promote sliding forces and cause instability (Fig. 4.4D).
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FIGURE 4.4D Occlusal plane (b) contributes to stability when
the interarch space (a) is equally divided.
• Setting teeth in ‘balanced occlusion’ and in the ‘neutral zone’

promotes stability.
6. Contour of polished surface
• The polished denture surface should be in harmony and with the

functioning of oral muscles to promote stability.
Support
Definition: The resistance to the vertical forces of mastication,
occlusal forces and other forces applied in a direction towards the
basal seat tissues.
To provide adequate support, the denture base should cover as
much denture-bearing area as possible. This distributes the forces over
a large area and is known as snowshoe effect (Fig. 4.5).
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FIGURE 4.5 Forces distributed over a large area, by
maximum extension of denture base, known as snowshoe
effect.
The maxillary and mandibular ‘supporting structure’ and ‘stress-

bearing areas’ are discussed further in this chapter.
Preservation of residual structures

• Preservation of remaining oral structures is vitally important to
long-term success of the denture.
• Accurate impressions using a selective pressure impression

technique that places pressure only on stress-bearing areas is
important for this preservation.
Aesthetics
• Denture border and flange thickness are dependent on the amount
of residual ridge loss and varies with each patient.
• Reducing or increasing the thickness of this area leads to poor

aesthetics.
• Border moulding ensures adequate thickness in the region.
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Classification of impressions
Impressions can be classified into the following types.
Depending on purpose of impression making
Diagnostic impression
• This is an impression made for the purpose of diagnosis, treatment
planning and fabricating diagnostic casts (discussed in Chapter 2).
• Materials used for diagnostic impressions – irreversible

hydrocolloids.
Primary/Preliminary impression
• This is made for the purpose of making a preliminary cast on which
a special tray is constructed.
• Materials used for making preliminary impressions – irreversible

hydrocolloids, impression compound, putty and heavy body
elastomeric impression materials.
Final/Secondary/Master impression
• This is made for the purpose of fabricating a master cast, on which
the prosthesis is fabricated.
• Materials used for final impressions—zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE)

impression paste, impression plaster, medium and light body
elastomeric impression materials.
Depending on theories of impression making
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Mucostatic/passive/nonpressure/minimal
pressure impression technique
• Proposed by Henry Page.
• In this technique, the oral mucosa is recorded in a resting state.
• Impression is made in an oversized impression tray with spacer.
• Border moulding is not performed; hence, flanges are shorter than

other techniques.
• Impression material of choice for this technique is ‘impression

plaster’.
• It is best termed as ‘minimal pressure’ impression as it is impossible

to record the mucosa with no pressure.
• Disadvantages:
○ Deprives the denture of maximum coverage within

physiologic limits.
○ Results in closely adapted dentures but with poor

peripheral seal thereby providing good stability but
poor retention.
Mucocompressive/pressure impression technique

• This technique compresses the denture-bearing tissues during
impression making.
• The proponents of this theory perceived that by recording the

tissues in a compressed state, they would withstand functional
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forces, which compress the tissues better.
• Pressure can be manually applied using high viscosity impression

materials impression compound, irreversible hydrocolloids, putty
and heavy body elastomeric impression materials. Closed mouth
functional technique also produces mucocompressive impressions.
• Disadvantages:
○ Produces overextended impressions.
○ As the tissues are recorded in a compressed state,

due to the rebound phenomenon of the oral tissues,
there are chances that the dentures will dislodge
when not in function (compression) – at rest or
speaking.
○ Increased residual ridge resorption is seen as the

ridges are constantly under pressure from the
overlying dentures.
○ As the tissues are uniformly compressed, pressure

is also transmitted to areas that are not capable to
withstanding the stress.
○ This often results in good initial retention but

eventual resorption and loose dentures.
Selective pressure technique

• It combines the principles of both pressure and minimal pressure
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techniques. Pressure is applied selectively on areas capable of
resisting stress (stress-bearing areas), and reduced from areas
incapable of tolerating stress (relief areas).
• This is achieved through the design of the custom tray, where

nonstress-bearing (relief) areas are relieved and only stress-bearing
areas contact the tray. (See section on ‘Custom Trays’ in this
Chapter)
• The technique combines the principles of maximum coverage within

physiologic limits, with intimate contact on the movable, loosely
attached peripheral tissues, and light pressure on weak tissues.
• Disadvantages:
○ Some feel it may be impossible to record areas with

varying pressure.
○ Some areas are still recorded under compression,

which can rebound.
Depending on impression technique
Open mouth
• This records the oral tissues in a static state with displacement.
• The amount of displacement depends on the ability of the different

oral tissues to withstand pressure, the amount of space provided for
the impression material and the consistency of the impression
material.
• With the patient’s mouth in open position, the dentist applies

controlled pressure on the inserted tray to record the tissues in a
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static form.
• Disadvantages:
○ The tissues are not recorded in a functional state.
Closed mouth
• In this technique oral mucosa is recorded in a functional,
compressed form. It is assumed that the occlusal loading during
impression making is comparable to occlusal loading during
function.
• Occlusal rims or teeth are attached to the impression trays and

impression is recorded, while patient applies pressure and performs
functional actions like swallowing, grinning or pursing the lips.
Thus, the peripheries of the dentures are established during
function.
• Impression materials used for this technique are waxes and soft
liners.
• Indicated for atrophic ridges.
• Disadvantages:
○ Difficult to control the amount of pressure leading

to pressure spots.
○ Even occlusion is essential for recording, which

may be difficult to establish.
○ Can produce distorted impressions.
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Impression materials
The impression materials used for complete dentures may be
classified as follows.
Rigid or inelastic and elastic

The impression materials under the classification rigid are as follows.
Impression plaster
• Type I dental plaster is used for this purpose.
• Potato starch is added to make it soluble and for easy removal of

impression from the cast.
• It is mostly used with a custom tray as a ‘wash’ impression, but can

be used with stock trays also.
• Used for making final impressions.
• It is mixed with water in appropriate ratio, loaded onto tray and

inserted in patient’s mouth.
• Advantages:
○ Minimal tissue distortion—indicated for minimal

pressure impressions
○ Good flow
○ Ease of manipulation.
• Disadvantages:
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○ Pores must be sealed before pouring cast, which can
result in inaccuracies.
○ It is brittle.
○ Not used for mandibular impressions as saliva

washes the material and distorts the surface.
○ Cannot be used in the presence of undercuts.
○ Messy.
• This material is rarely used currently.
Impression compound
• These are reversible thermoplastic materials also called ‘modelling
plastic’.
• It is supplied as a tray material, impression material and sticks for

border moulding (also called low fusing compound and tracing
stick) (Fig. 4.6A). The tray material requires more heat to soften,
while the stick material requires least heat.
• It is composed of a mixture of waxes, thermoplastic resins, filler and

colouring agents.
• Indicated for making preliminary impressions with stock trays and

border moulding.
• The impression compound is softened by immersion in warm water

at about 65°C, while the stick material is softened over a flame.
• Advantages:
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○ Low cost, easy to manipulate.
○ Material can be reused.
○ Impression can be corrected.
○ Easy to bead and box.

• Disadvantages:
○ Rigid, cannot be used to record undercuts.
○ Impression material cannot be used to make final

impressions as ability to record surface detail is
poor due to its high viscosity.
○ Tissue compression is high.
FIGURE 4.6A Impression compound (left) and tracing stick

(right).
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Zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) impression paste (fig.
4.6B)
• Main constituents are ZOE to which plasticizers, fillers and
additives are added.
• Supplied as base and catalyst paste.
• Used for making final impressions in a custom tray.
• Advantages:
○ Accurate recording of surface details due to high

fluidity.
○ Minimal tissue compression can be used with

minimal pressure technique.
○ Cost effective, easy to manipulate.
○ Easy to bead and box.
○ Dimensionally stable.
• Disadvantages:
○ Temperature and humidity affect setting time.
○ Rigid, so it can distort in the presence of undercuts.
○ Hydrophobic, does not absorb palatal secretions.
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○ Untidy.
FIGURE 4.6B Base (white) and catalyst (red) paste of ZOE

impression paste.
Impression waxes
• It not sufficiently accurate for final impressions.
• It is indicated as a corrective material to refine tray borders.
Elastic
Elastic impression materials are discussed in Chapter 37.
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Anatomic and denture landmarks
A thorough understanding of the anatomic and denture landmarks in
relation to the denture foundation is important for the following
reasons:
• Selective placement of forces as determined by the stress-bearing

potential of the anatomic structures.
• Maximum coverage of denture without interfering with the health

or function of the tissues.
• Long-term success of the complete denture.
The anatomic landmarks of significance in relation to maxillary and

mandibular complete denture impressions can be discussed as:
• Mucous membrane
• Supporting areas
• Limiting areas
• Stress-bearing areas
• Relief areas
Mucous membrane
• Covers or lines the oral cavity including the residual alveolar ridges
and acts as an intervening cushioning material between the residual
ridges and denture.
• Composed of mucosa and submucosa.
• Mucosa is classified as masticatory, specialized and lining.
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Specialized mucosa covers the dorsal surface of the tongue and is
keratinized. Lining mucosa is nonkeratinized and covers the lips,
cheek, sulcus, soft palate, ventral surface of tongue and slopes of
residual ridges.
• Mucosa covering the hard palate and crest of the residual ridge is
termed as masticatory mucosa and is formed by keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium and a thin layer of connective tissue,
the lamina propria. Keratinization decreases in denture wearers.
Removing dentures at night and massaging improves
keratinization.
• The submucosa is formed by connective tissue and makes up the

bulk of the mucous membrane. The submucosa varies in thickness
and character from dense to loose areolar connective tissue. The
support and stability offered by the mucosa to the denture depends
on the thickness of submucosa and its attachment to the underlying
bone. A dense, firmly attached submucosa will successfully
withstand the pressure of the denture. A thin layer can be easily
traumatized, while a loosely attached layer is easily displaceable.
Maxilla
1. Supporting structures (Fig. 4.7A and B):
○ Hard palate—rugae
○ Residual alveolar ridge—maxillary tuberosity

2. Limiting structures (Fig. 4.7A and B):
○ Labial frenum
○ Labial vestibule
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○ Buccal frenum
○ Buccal vestibule
○ Hamular notch
○ Fovea palatine
○ Posterior palatal seal area

3. Relief areas:
○ Midpalatine suture
○ Incisive papilla
○ Torus palatinus
4. Stress-bearing areas (Fig. 4.7C and D):
○ Primary—horizontal slopes of hard palate lateral to

median sutures
○ Secondary
▪ Crest of the residual alveolar ridge
▪ Rugae
▪ Maxillary tuberosity
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FIGURE 4.7 Supporting and limiting structures in maxilla: (a)
palate, (b) rugae, (c) residual ridge, (d) maxillary tuberosity,
(e) labial frenum, (f) labial vestibule, (g) buccal frenum, (h)
buccal vestibule and (i) fovea palatine, (j) median palatine
raphe, (k) hamular notch, (l) posterior palatal seal area and
(m) incisive papilla. (A) Line diagram and (B) model.
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FIGURE 4.7C, D Stress-bearing areas in maxilla: (a) primary-
horizontal slopes of hard palate, (b) secondary-crest of
residual alveolar ridge, (c) secondary-rugae and (d)
secondary-maxillary tuberosity.
Supporting structures
Hard palate
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• It is made up of two maxillae and the palatine bone.
• The palatine process of the maxillae join together at the midline

forming the median suture.
• The mucosa is keratinized throughout the hard palate.
• Posterolaterally, submucosa contains glandular tissue and the

horizontal portion lateral to midline provides the primary support
as it also undergoes least resorption (Fig. 4.7E).
FIGURE 4.7E Hard palate.
Rugae
Raised areas of dense connective tissue present in the anterior one-
third of the palate are at an angle to the residual ridge. This provides
the secondary support to the maxillary denture as it resists anterior
displacement of denture. It should not be distorted during impression
making (Fig. 4.7F).
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FIGURE 4.7F Rugae, residual ridge and maxillary tuberosity
—intraoral and model.
Residual ridge
Definition: The portion of the residual bone and its soft tissue
covering that remain after the removal of teeth (GPT8) (Fig. 4.7F).
• Residual alveolar ridge resorption is rapid immediately following

extraction of teeth and continues throughout the life but at a
reduced rate.
• The crest of the maxillary residual alveolar ridge provides good

support, but as it is subject to resorption, it can be a secondary
stress-bearing area.
• Maxillary tuberosity is a bulbous extension of the residual ridge in

the second and third molar region. The posterior part of tuberosity
rarely resorbs and therefore is among the most important areas
providing support to the maxillary denture (Fig. 4.7F).
Limiting structures
Labial frenum
• It is a fold of mucous membrane present in the midline that extends

from the labial aspect of the residual ridge to the lip (Fig. 4.7G).
• It has a configuration varying from single to multiple folds and is
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fan shaped superiorly.
• It contains no muscle or action of its own and can be excised if

attached close to the ridge crest.
• It inserts in a vertical direction.
• It is accommodated by providing a notch in the labial flange of the

denture.
FIGURE 4.7G Labial frenum and vestibule, buccal frenum

and vestibule—intraoral and model.
Labial vestibule
• Definition: The portion of the oral cavity that is bounded on one

side by the teeth, gingiva, and alveolar ridge (in the edentulous
mouth, the residual ridge) and on the other by the lips anterior to
the buccal freni/frenum (GPT8) (Fig. 4.7G).
• Extends on both sides from labial frenum to buccal frenum and

houses the labial flange of the denture.
• The mucous membrane lining the labial vestibule is relatively thin

and classified as lining mucosa. The submucosa layer is thick and
contains large amount of loose areolar tissue and elastic fibres.
• The main muscle of the lip, orbicularis oris forms the outer surface
of the labial vestibule. Its tone depends on the support given by the
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labial denture flange and position of teeth. As the fibres run
horizontally, it only has an indirect effect on the impression
extension and the denture base.
• The main support for the upper lip is obtained from the junction of
acrylic to the teeth and not from the periphery.
Buccal frenum
It separates the labial and the buccal vestibule and overlies the levator
anguli oris muscle (Fig. 4.7G).
• It also varies in configuration from single or double folds, to broad

and fan-shaped.
• Its insertion is in an anteroposterior direction.
• Orbicularis oris pulls the frenum in a forward direction, while the

buccinator pulls it in a backward direction.
• It requires more clearance in the denture than the labial frenum due
to its muscle attachments.
Buccal vestibule
• It extends from the buccal frenum to the hamular notch and houses
the buccal flange of the denture (Fig. 4.7G).
• Its mucosa is a lining mucosa and similar to that of labial vestibule.
• Its size varies with:
○ Contraction of buccinator
○ Position of mandible
○ Amount of bone lost from maxilla
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• The size and shape of distal end of buccal flange must be adjusted to
accommodate the movement of coronoid process of mandible and
the masseter muscle. When the mandible is opened wide and
moved laterally, the width and height of this area is reduced. The
stability and retention of the denture is greatly increased when this
area is recorded properly.
Hamular notch
• It is a depression present between the maxillary tuberosity and

pterygoid hamulus (Fig. 4.7H).
• It is the distal termination of the denture. The denture should never

extend onto the pterygoid hamulus as it is sharp and contains thin
mucous membrane.
• The mucosa here contains a thick submucosa made up of loose

areolar tissue. This can be safely displaced to achieve a posterior
palatal seal.
• The pterygomandibular ligament is attached to the hamulus and

provision must be made for its movement.
FIGURE 4.7H Hamular notch: (a) model and (b) intraoral.
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Fovea palatinae
• These are two ductal openings into which the ducts of other palatal
mucous glands open (Fig. 4.7I).
• They are present posteriorly in the hard palate on either side of

midline.
• Not a constant finding in all individuals.
• They serve no specific function, but are a guide in identifying the

posterior extent of the denture. The denture should extend 1–2 mm
beyond the fovea.
FIGURE 4.7I Fovea palatinae: (a) model and (b) intraoral.
Posterior palatal seal
• Definition: The soft tissue along the junction of hard and soft
palates on which pressure within physiologic limits can be applied
by the complete removable dental prosthesis to aid in retention of
denture.
• The posterior palatal seal is identified as the area between the

anterior and posterior vibrating lines (Fig. 4.7J).
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Vibrating line: An imaginary line across the posterior part of the
palate marking the division between the movable and immovable
tissues of the soft palate; this can be identified when the movable
tissues are functioning (GPT8).
It is divided into:
○ Anterior vibrating line is an imaginary line at the junction of the

attached tissue overlying the hard palate and the immediate
movable tissue of the soft palate. It is always on soft palate. Due to
the projection of the posterior nasal spine, the anterior vibrating line
is not a straight line, but takes the shape of a cupid’s bow. It is
located by:
▪ Valsalva manoeuvre—patient is asked to hold both

nostrils and gently blow through the nose. This will
place the soft palate inferiorly at the junction of the
hard palate and the junction can then be marked.
▪ It can also be located by instructing the patient to

say ‘ah’ in short vigorous bursts.
○ Posterior vibrating line is an imaginary line at the junction of the
aponeurosis of the tensor veli palatini muscle and the musculature
of the soft palate. It is the demarcation between the part of the soft
palate that has limited movement during function and the
remainder of the soft palate that is markedly displaced during
function. It is a slightly curved line.
▪ It can be located by instructing the patient to say ‘ah’

in short bursts but in a normal, unexaggerated
manner.
• The seal also consists of two separate but confluent areas (Fig. 4.8A):
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○ Postpalatal seal extends medially from one
tuberosity to another.
○ Pterygomaxillary seal extends through the hamular

notch for 3–4 mm anterolaterally approximating the
mucogingival junction.
• The width and depth of the posterior palatal seal depend on the
type and displaceability of soft palate (see Chapter 2).
• Functions: This can be divided into its importance when

incorporated in the impression tray and complete denture.
○ Impression tray
▪ Establishes positive contact posteriorly and prevents

impression wash material from sliding down the
pharynx.
▪ Guides the positioning of impression tray.
▪ Creates slight displacement of soft tissues.
▪ Helps verify retention and seal of potential denture

border.
○ Complete denture
▪ Primary function is retention of maxillary denture.
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▪ Reduces gag reflex by reducing patient awareness of
this area.
▪ Prevents food accumulation beneath the posterior

aspects of the denture.
▪ Reduces patient’s discomfort when contact occurs

between dorsum of tongue and posterior part of
denture.
▪ Compensates for volumetric shrinkage that occurs

during polymerization of methyl methacrylate
resin.
FIGURE 4.7J Posterior palatal seal: (a) model and (b)

intraoral.
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FIGURE 4.8A (a) Pterygomaxillary seal, (b) post palatal seal
and (c) Posterior palatal seal area.
Recording the posterior palatal seal

This can be achieved by the following methods:
1. Scraping of cast
○ Functional
○ Arbitrary
2. Impression technique
○ Using fluid wax
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○ Using low fusing compound.
1. Functional scraping of cast:
• This procedure is done on the trial denture base that is fabricated on

the master cast (Fig. 4.8B).
• The patient is asked to sit in an upright position.
• After the posterior palatal area is wiped with gauze, a ‘T’ burnisher
is used to locate the hamular notches by palpating posterior to the
maxillary tuberosity on both sides, and marked with an indelible
pencil. The posterior vibrating line is established and marked. Both
these lines are connected to form the posterior border of the
denture. The trial denture base is inserted into the patient’s mouth
and the line is transferred to the record base.
• The trial base is trimmed till the posterior border marking and
seated on the master cast to transfer the recorded posterior border.
The anterior vibrating line is marked in the patient’s mouth by
performing the Valsalva manoeuvre and transferred to the cast.
• Scraping the master cast functionally:
○ The deepest area of seal is located on either side of

midline, one-third the distance anterior to posterior
vibrating line. This is scrapped to a depth of 1–1.5
mm.
○ In the region of the midpalatine raphe, it should be

only 0.5–1 mm in depth.
○ It should taper towards the hamular notches and
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anterior vibrating line, with minimal scraping.
○ It should also taper towards the posterior vibrating

line but blends with the palatal tissues.
• After scraping the master cast, the postdam should be checked. The
scrapped area of the cast is filled by readapting the shellac denture
base or by adding autopolymerizing acrylic resin material.
• The modified record base is reinserted in the patient’s mouth, and

with a mouth mirror kept at the distal end, checked for any space as
the patient says ‘ah’ in a short unexaggerated manner. Presence of a
space between the record base and the soft tissues indicates under
postdamming and the depth of the scraping should be increased.
The procedure is repeated until no space exists.
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FIGURE 4.8B (a) Functional scraping of cast—sections
made through the deepest portion (black line) and midpalatine
suture and hamular notch (red lines). (b) Functional scraping
—sagittal section showing depth of scraping in deepest
portion (1–1.5 mm) and midpalatine suture and hamular notch
areas (0.5 mm). (c) Functional scraping—enlarged view of
section of deepest part. PVL, posterior vibrating line; AVL,
anterior vibrating line.
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Advantages:
• The trial base has increased retention due to this technique, thereby
enhancing the accuracy of the jaw relation procedure.
• The patient can experience and is aware of the retentive qualities

expected from the final denture.
• The dentist is also aware of the amount the retention denture will
possess.
• Adjustment period with regard to the posterior extension of the

denture is less for the patient.
Disadvantages:
• Not a physiological technique; hence, it is technique sensitive.
• Excessive scraping of the cast can lead to over postdamming.
2. Arbitrary scraping of the master cast:
• This is mostly done by the technician prior to processing the denture

when the dentist fails to establish the seal clinically.
• It is an arbitrary notched line formed in the imaginary posterior

vibrating line area extending to the hamular notches (Fig. 4.8C).
• It should be discouraged.
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FIGURE 4.8C Arbitrary scraping of cast—a notch formed in
the cast along the posterior vibrating line, which looks like a
ledge in the denture.
3. Fluid wax technique:
• Any wax that is designed to flow at mouth temperature can be used.
• The seal is established after making final impressions but before

pouring the master cast.
• ZOE and impression plaster are suitable impression materials for

this technique as fluid wax adheres well to them.
• The anterior and posterior vibrating lines are marked as described

in the conventional technique and transferred to the final
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IMPRESSION in the mouth.
• The final impression is painted with fluid wax within the marked
seal area. Usually it is applied in excess and cooled below mouth
temperature so that it gains resistance to flow. This allows them to
soften at mouth temperature and flow intraorally during
impression making.
• The patient’s head should be positioned such that the Frankfort’s

horizontal plane is 30° below the horizontal plane. It is only at this
position that the ‘soft palate’ is at its maximal downward and
forward functional position. Flexion of the head also helps to
prevent excess impression material and saliva from moving down
the throat.
• The patient’s tongue should be positioned against the mandibular

anterior teeth.
• The impression tray is inserted in the mouth and the patient is asked
to periodically rotate the head so that all functional movements of
the soft palate are recorded.
• The impression is removed after 4–6 min and examined. Glossy

areas show tissue contact and dull areas represent lack of contact.
Wax extending beyond the posterior vibrating line should be cut
with a hot knife. Wax is added to areas that appear dull, and the
procedure is repeated till the appropriate seal is achieved.
Advantages:
• It is a physiological technique.
• Overcompression of tissues is avoided.
• Increased retention of the record base and convenience in jaw

relation.
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• There is no need for mechanical scraping the master cast.
Disadvantages:
• Increase chairside time during patient appointment.
• Handling of material is difficult.
• Care needed while pouring master cast.
4. Low fusing compound:

Low fusing compound (greenstick compound) can also be used to
make an impression of the seal area using a similar procedure as
described for fluid wax.
Errors in establishing posterior palatal seal
Underextension
This is the most common cause for posterior palatal seal failure and
leads to loss of retention.
Causes:
• Using fovea palatine as the limit for posterior denture extension

results in loss of several millimetres of denture extension.
• Gag reflex of the patient, prompting the dentist to intentionally

leave the posterior borders short.
• Incorrect delineation of the anterior and posterior vibrating lines.
• Asking technician to establish the seal on the cast arbitrarily.
Overextension
• Overextension of the denture base can lead to ulceration and painful

deglutition.
• Covering of the hamular process can also lead to sharp pain in the
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region.
• These areas should be identified, trimmed and polished.
Under postdamming
• This can occur if the patient’s mouth was wide open while making
final impressions. The seal area becomes taut in this position and a
space is created in other positions.
• Under postdamming can be verified by inserting a wet denture into

a patient’s mouth and inspecting the posterior border. If air bubbles
are seen escaping under the posterior border, it indicates under
damming.
• This is corrected by adding a new seal to the existing denture.
Over postdamming
• This commonly occurs due to excessive scraping of the master cast,

especially in the hamular notch region.
• Mild overdamming in the hamular notch region can cause irritation

of the mucosa and excessive postdamming displaces the denture.
Adding a seal to an existing denture

If all other functional and aesthetic requirements of the denture are
fulfilled and it lacks only a proper seal, the same can be added in the
denture as follows:
• An impression is made of the seal area on the denture, with fluid

wax or low-fusing compound as described previously.
• The seal area is boxed separately and a cast is poured, or undercuts

in the denture are blocked out and a cast of the entire fitting surface
of denture is poured after applying separating medium in
uninvolved areas.
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• The cast is separated from the denture, wax or compound is
removed from the cast and autopolymerizing denture base resin is
added to the space occupied by the impression material using the
sprinkle-on technique.
• As the resin polymerizes, the denture is attached firmly to the cast

with rubber bands.
• It is then placed in a pressure pot for 20 min under 30 psi pressure.

Denture is then separated from cast, excess trimmed and polished.
It is stored in water for 24–36 h to eliminate any free monomer and
then delivered.
• Light-activated resins can also be used.
• Direct intraoral correction with autopolymerizing resin is best

avoided due to the exothermic heat and residual monomer.
Relief areas
Midpalatine suture
The submucosa underlying the median palatal suture is very thin
making the overlying mucosa nonresilient. During intraoral
examination, this area should be palpated to determine any
tenderness. It may then be relieved during impression making (Fig.
4.9).
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FIGURE 4.9A Relief areas in maxilla (model).
Incisive papilla
The submucosa covering the incisive papilla contains the
nasopalatine vessels. It also gives an indication of the amount of
resorption, as it comes to lie near the crest as resorption progresses. It
may then need to be relieved to avoid pressure on the nerve and
vessels (Fig. 4.9).
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FIGURE 4.9B Relief areas in maxilla (intraoral).
Torus palatinus
This is a bony enlargement that occurs in the middle of the palate in
20% of the population. It is covered by a thin mucosa which can act as
a fulcrum and is easily traumatized. Relief should be provided or
surgical excision is planned (also see Chapter 3).
Mandible
1. Supporting structures (Fig. 4.10A and B):
○ Buccal shelf area
○ Residual alveolar ridge

2. Limiting structures (Fig. 4.10A and B):
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○ Labial frenum
○ Labial vestibule
○ Buccal frenum
○ Buccal vestibule—masseteric notch
○ Retromolar pad
○ Alveololingual sulcus—retromylohyoid space

3. Stress-bearing areas (Fig. 4.10C):
○ Primary—buccal shelf area (Fig. 4.10D)
○ Secondary (Fig. 4.10E)
Labial and lingual slopes of the residual ridge

4. Relief areas:
○ Crest of the residual alveolar ridge
○ Mylohyoid ridge
○ Mental foramen
○ Genial tubercles
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○ Torus mandibularis
FIGURE 4.10A, B Supporting and limiting structures of the

mandible: (a) buccal shelf area, (b) residual alveolar ridge, (c)
labial frenum, (d) labial vestibule, (e) buccal frenum, (f) buccal
vestibule, (g) retromolar pad, (h) lingual frenum, (i)
alveololingual sulcus and (j) retromylohyoid space. (A) Line
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diagram and (B) model
FIGURE 4.10C Stress-bearing area in mandible: (a) primary

and (b) secondary.
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FIGURE 4.10D Primary stress-bearing area in mandible –
buccal shelf area.
FIGURE 4.10E Secondary stress-bearing area in mandible –

labial and lingual slopes of the residual ridge: (a) model (b)
intraoral.
Supporting structures
Buccal shelf
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• It is bounded by:
○ Medially—crest of the ridge
○ Laterally—external oblique ridge
○ Anteriorly—buccal frenum
○ Distally—retromolar pad
• The buccal shelf lies at right angles to the vertical occlusal forces and
is covered with good smooth cortical bone. The total width of this
region actually becomes greater with bone resorption. Hence, it is
the primary stress-bearing area of the mandible even though the
mucous membrane may not be histologically suitable for this (Fig.
4.10F).
FIGURE 4.10F Buccal shelf area: (a) model and (b) intraoral.
Residual alveolar ridge
• The slopes of the residual alveolar ridge may provide more support
than the crest in the mandible due to the nature of the underlying
bone and the mucosa (Fig. 4.10G).
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• The crest of the residual alveolar ridge is covered by fibrous
connective tissue. But the underlying bone is cancellous made up of
spongy trabeculae without a good cortical plate covering it. Though
in the healthy mouth it is keratinized, the crest of the mandibular
ridge is not suitable as a primary stress-bearing area.
FIGURE 4.10G Residual alveolar ridge: (a) model and (b)

intraoral.
Labial frenum
• The mandibular labial frenum contains a band of fibrous connective

tissue that helps attach the orbicularis oris (Fig. 4.10G).
• It is quite sensitive and active vertically. It must be carefully

accommodated by making a groove in the denture, to maintain a
seal without causing soreness.
Labial vestibule
• Extends between the labial frenum to buccal frenum and houses the
labial flange (Fig. 4.10G).
• Length of the labial flange of the denture is limited by muscles—

orbicularis oris and incisive labii inferioris that are inserted close to
the crest of the ridge.
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• The thickness is restricted by orbicularis oris, which is stretched
when asking patient to open mouth wide.
Buccal frenum
• Overlies depressor anguli oris and moves vertically and

horizontally; needs wide clearance (Fig. 4.10G).
• Clearance must be provided in the denture, to avoid dislodgement.
Buccal vestibule
• Extends from the buccal frenum to the retromolar pad and houses
the buccal flange. The buccinator muscle influences the extent of the
flange (Fig. 4.10G).
• The distobuccal area of the buccal flange must converge rapidly to

accommodate the anterior fibres of the masseter muscle which pass
outside the buccinator in this region. When properly
accommodated and recorded, this results in a notch in the denture
called masseteric notch. Overextension in this region causes
soreness and movement of denture.
Retromolar pad
This is a triangular pad of tissue at the distal end of the ridge (Fig.
4.10H).
• Its mucosa is composed of thin, nonkeratinized epithelium and

submucosa contains loose areolar tissue, some glandular tissue,
fibres of the buccinator (buccally), superior constrictor (lingually),
pterygomandibular raphae (superoposteriorly) and tendon of the
temporalis. This limits the pressure and extension in the pad.
• It should be covered by the denture as determined by the muscle

attachments.
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FIGURE 4.10H Retromolar pad: (a) model and (b) intraoral.
Lingual frenum
• Anterior attachment of the tongue and overlies genioglossus muscle

(Fig. 4.10G).
• Extremely resistant and active.
• Usually occurs as a narrow, single band.
• It should be accommodated as a notch in the mandibular denture.
Alveololingual sulcus
• It is the space between the tongue and the residual ridge and
extends posteriorly from the lingual frenum to the retromylohyoid
curtain. It accommodates the lingual flange and is divided into
three regions (Fig. 4.11A):
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FIGURE 4.11A Alveolingual sulcus.
1. Anterior region
• Also called the sublingual crescent area or sublingual fold (Fig.

4.11B).
• It extends from the lingual frenum to the premylohyoid eminence

(present in the impression).
• The lingual border of the denture in this region should extend down
to make definite contact with the mucous membrane of the floor of
the mouth, when the tip of the tongue touches the upper central
incisors.
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FIGURE 4.11B Anterior region (blue colour).
2. Middle region
• Extends from the premylohyoid fossa to the distal end of the

mylohyoid ridge curving medially from the body of the mandible.
This is due to the prominence of the mylohyoid ridge and action of
the muscle (Fig. 4.11C).
• The lingual flange in this area is made to slope towards the tongue
and can extend below the level of the mylohyoid ridge due to the
following reasons:
○ Tongue rests on the flange stabilizing it.
○ Space is provided for raising the floor of the mouth

during function without displacing denture.
○ Seal is maintained during function.
▪ If the ridge is flat, the denture border in this area
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may be made thicker (4–5 mm) to provide better
stability and support.
FIGURE 4.11C Middle region (green colour).
3. Distolingual region
• The flange passes into the retromylohyoid fossa and turns laterally
towards the ramus. It is no longer influenced by mylohyoid muscle
(Fig. 4.11D).
• The flange in this region completes the ‘S’ shape of the lingual
flange as dictated by the combination of the arch form of the lingual
side of the mandible, projection of mylohyoid ridge and
retromylohyoid fossa.
• Denture border should be extended posteriorly to contact the

retromylohyoid curtain when the tip of the tongue is placed against
the front part of upper residual ridge.
• Retromylohyoid space is an anatomic area in the alveololingual

sulcus just lingual to the retromolar pad bounded anteriorly by the
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mylohyoid ridge, posteriorly by the retromylohyoid curtain,
inferiorly by the floor of the alveololingual sulcus, and lingually by
the anterior tonsillar pillar when the tongue is in a relaxed position
(GPT8) (Fig. 4.11E).
FIGURE 4.11D Distolingual region (black).
FIGURE 4.11E Retromylohyoid space.
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Relief areas (fig. 4.12A and B)
Crest of residual alveolar ridge
This area can sometimes be present as sharp, spiny or knife-edged.
Then it needs to be relieved.
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FIGURE 4.12A, B Relief areas in mandible: (a) mylohyoid
ridge, (b) crest of residual alveolar ridge, (c) torus
mandibularis (d) genial tubercles and (e) mental foramen. (A)
Line diagram and (B) model.
Mylohyoid ridge
The shape and inclination of the mylohyoid ridge varies greatly
among edentulous patients. Mylohyoid muscle attaches to this ridge.
The denture flange should extend below the mylohyoid ridge. With
resorption, the mylohyoid ridge can become prominent and sharp,
and is easily traumatized by the denture base. Relief may be necessary
in such cases.
Mental foramen
It may come to lie on the crest of the residual ridge when resorption is
severe. The denture will then compress the mental nerves and blood
vessels unless relief is provided. Pressure on the nerve can cause
numbness of lower lip.
Genial tubercles
Present lingual to the anterior body of the mandible and can also
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become prominent with severe resorption. They may need to be
relieved then.
Torus mandibularis
It is a bony prominence found bilaterally and lingually in the
premolar region. Surgical removal is indicated mostly as relief may
compromise on peripheral seal. Surgical contraindications may
necessitate relief.
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Preliminary impressions
The main objective of making preliminary impression is to fabricate a
custom tray.
Requirements
• To obtain an accurate impression of the entire denture-bearing
surface of each jaw.
• To record the full extent of the sulcus.
• To ensure all the anatomic landmarks are recorded.
Material selection
• Preliminary impressions are made with stock trays.
• An impression material with relatively high viscosity is selected

allowing the material to compensate for any deficiencies in the tray.
• The preliminary impressions are generally overextended.
• The following materials are commonly used:
○ Impression compound
○ Irreversible hydrocolloids
○ Silicone putty
Tray
Definition: A receptacle or device used to carry the impression
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material to the mouth, confine the material in apposition to the surface
to be recorded, and control the impression material, while it sets to
form the impression.
Selection
A stock tray (prefabricated) is used for preliminary impressions.
• These are available in metal or plastic. Metal is preferred because of

its rigidity (Fig. 4.13).
• They may be perforated or nonperforated – perforated trays are

used with irreversible hydrocolloids for retention. Impression
compound is used with nonperforated trays. Silicon putty requires
a tray adhesive for retention.
• Size of the tray is selected by using a divider or calipers:
○ Measurement for the lower tray is made by placing

the tips of the divider on the lingual aspect of the
ridges just below the retromolar pad on the right
and left sides. This must be comparable to the
lingual flanges of the tray posteriorly (Fig. 4.14A
and B).
○ In the upper jaw, the tips of the divider is placed in

the buccal vestibule in the tuberosity region and
compared to tray flanges in the corresponding area
(Fig. 4.14C and D).
○ The tray should be 5 mm larger than the residual

ridge. It should cover the tuberosity and the
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retromolar pads.
▪ Modelling/beading wax is added to build up the

tray contour if the tray is short. This is necessary
only for irreversible hydrocolloid impressions.
FIGURE 4.13 Stock tray: metal nonperforated and

perforated.
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FIGURE 4.14 (A) Size of mandibular tray is selected by
placing a divider lingual to retromolar pad on either side in the
mouth. (B) This should conform to the lingual flange of the
tray posteriorly.
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FIGURE 4.14 (C) Size of maxillary tray is selected by placing
the divider buccal to tuberosity on either side (D) and
comparing it to the tray.
Position of patient and operator
Maxillary impressions
The position of the patient and operator varies for maxillary and
mandibular impressions. For maxillary impressions, the patient is
seated upright with the operator in the rear. Patient’s mouth is at the
level of operator’s elbow. The position is summarized in Table 4.1 and
shown in Fig. 4.15A.
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FIGURE 4.15A Patient and operator position for maxillary
impression.
Table 4.1
Summary of patient and operator position for maxillary
impressions
Patient Head and neck are in line with the trunk. Head is upright, occiput resting firmly on the
position headrest of the chair
Operator Right rear or rear position
position
Height of the Patient’s mouth should be in level with the operator’s elbow
chair
Mandibular impression
The position of the operator changes for mandibular impressions. The
operator is positioned in front of the patient, on the right. Patient’s
mouth is at the level of operator’s shoulder. The position is
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summarized in Table 4.2 and shown in Fig. 4.15B.
FIGURE 4.15B Patient and operator position for mandibular

impression.
Table 4.2
Summary of patient and operator position for mandibular
impressions
Patient Head and neck are in line with the trunk. Head is upright, occiput resting firmly on the
position headrest of the chair
Operator Right front position
position
Height of the Patient’s mouth should be in level with the operator’s shoulder
chair
Mandibular preliminary impressions

It is always preferable to make the lower impression first for the
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following, according to George Alexander Lamme
• If the patient is susceptible to gagging, it is more likely to occur

when making the upper impression. The patient becomes more
apprehensive and less cooperative when an attempt is made to
make the mandibular impression after the maxillary impression.
• The effect of inserting an impression tray and material into the

patient’s mouth causes a reflex salivation, which is cumulative and
after a period excess saliva pools in the floor of the mouth.
• Particles of some impression materials can become detached from

the mass of impression material loaded into the tray. In the upper,
such fragments may fall onto the lower alveolar ridge and these
escape removal when the patient washes out the mouth. This is
particularly liable to occur when the oral tissues are covered with a
tenacious layer of mucous.
With impression compound

• The patient is usually asked to use an astringent mouthwash to
reduce the viscosity of the saliva.
• Nonperforated stock tray is inserted in the patient’s mouth to

confirm its extension.
• Compound is placed in hot water (60°C) and is kneaded to achieve

uniform consistency without wrinkles or folds.
• It is formed into a suitable size roll (1.5 cm in diameter) and placed

in the tray with enough bulk extending beyond the flanges such
that there is no restriction in flow when pressed over the ridge (Fig.
4.16 A and B).
• A trough is indented in the compound with a finger to receive the

crest of the alveolar ridge (Fig. 4.16C). It should be deeper
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posteriorly and shallow anteriorly and moulding should begin from
the midline and proceed distally.
• It is again placed in hot water, tempered and inserted in the

patient’s mouth.
• For insertion, the tray is first placed in the left side of the mouth at
right angles to the final position, and then rotated in a clockwise
manner to engage the right side after retracting the angle of the
mouth on that side (Fig. 4.16D).
• Once the tray is in position, the patient is instructed to slightly close

the mouth and raise the tongue, while vertical pressure is applied
on the tray in the molar region (Fig. 4.16E).
• The cheeks are stretched to ensure that they are not trapped in the
tray.
• Labial and buccal flanges are border moulded (see Border Moulding
in the subsequent section) and patient is asked to move the tongue
from side to side and then protrude it slightly.
• As the room temperature may be less than that intraorally, the

material sets from the tray towards the tissues. Due to poor thermal
conductivity, it will take longer time for the material in contact with
the tissues to set as compared to those outside of tray. Sufficient
time should be given after the external material sets to remove the
tray, thereby, preventing distortion.
• To remove the tray, patient is asked to close the mouth partially,

cheeks are retracted to break the seal, the handle of the tray is held
between the thumb and index and middle fingers of the right hand,
and an upward and backward force is applied.
• The impression (Fig. 4.16F) is evaluated for extension, reproduction

of anatomical landmarks, tray exposure and wrinkles or voids.
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• Refining the preliminary impression: Any excess material is trimmed,
impression is again softened in warm water and refined by
reseating the impression in the patient’s mouth. Similarly, a
deficient border can be added with low fusing compound.
• The impression should be poured within an hour to minimize

warpage due to release of stresses.
FIGURE 4.16A Roll.
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FIGURE 4.16B Placed on tray.
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FIGURE 4.16C Troughing.
FIGURE 4.16D Insertion at right angles.
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FIGURE 4.16E Final seating.
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FIGURE 4.16F Completed lower impression.
With irreversible hydrocolloid (Alginate)

• Alginate requires support from the tray because of its poor tear-
resistance. The tray should be extended if needed with modelling or
boxing wax (Fig. 4.17A).
• A clearance of 2–3 mm is sufficient for alginates.
• The powder and liquid are mixed to a slightly thicker consistency

and loaded onto a perforated stock tray up to the border. A small
quantity is placed on the retromylohyoid area and labial vestibules
to displace any air pockets and the impression is made (Fig. 4.17B).
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• Tray is inserted and removed as described for impression
compound. All elastic impressions should be removed in a snap. It
is then rinsed in tap water, dried and evaluated for any deficiencies
(Fig. 4.17B). The impression must be remade if any deficiencies
exist.
• It should be poured immediately.
FIGURE 4.17A Tray extended with wax.
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FIGURE 4.17B Completed irreversible hydrocolloid
preliminary impression.
Impression with silicone putty

• The procedure is similar to impression compound except that the
material is supplied as a base and catalyst, which is dispensed in
equal quantities and kneaded. A nonperforated stock tray is used
with a tray adhesive.
• The impression is removed in a snap. It is difficult to refine the

impression, but pouring can be delayed (Fig. 4.18).
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FIGURE 4.18 Completed mandibular putty impression.
Maxillary preliminary impressions
With impression compound

• Nonperforated stock tray is inserted in the patient’s mouth to
confirm its extension.
• Compound is placed in hot water (60°C) and is kneaded to achieve

uniform consistency without wrinkles or folds.
• It is formed into a suitable size ball and placed over the centre of the
tray (Fig. 4.19A).
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• The compound is moulded and spread to fill the tray in order to
develop a trough to accommodate the ridge crest (Fig. 4.19B). This is
best accomplished by moulding the compound with both thumbs
holding the tray from the rear end (Fig. 4.19C).
• For insertion, the tray should be held with the handle in the
operator’s right hand pointing towards the patient’s right. The
operator uses index and middle finger of left hand to retract the
upper lip and tray is rotated into the mouth (Fig. 4.19D and E).
• The labial frenum is used as a guide to centre the tray.
• The patient is instructed to slightly close the mouth, while the upper
lip is lifted upwards and forwards.
• Seat the tray anteriorly such that the alveolar process presses the
compound and excess flows into the labial sulcus (Fig. 4.19F).
• Seat the tray posteriorly until the impression contacts the ridge.
• Apply an upward and backward force with index finger of each

hand placed under the tray until the material flows into the
vestibule and posteriorly (Fig. 4.19G).
• The lips and cheek are gently border moulded (as described in
subsequent section) and patient is instructed to open the mouth
wide and move the mandible from side to side (to mould the
distobuccal flange). The material is then allowed to set.
• To remove the tray, patient is asked to close the mouth partially,

cheeks are retracted to break the seal, the handle of the tray is held
between the thumb and index and middle fingers of the right hand,
and a downward and forward force is applied.
• The impression (Fig. 4.19H) is evaluated for extension, reproduction

of anatomical landmarks, tray exposure and wrinkles or voids.
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• It can be refined if needed and poured within an hour.
FIGURE 4.19A The compound is moulded into the shape of

a ball and placed in centre of tray.
FIGURE 4.19B Moulding the compound with both thumbs
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holding the tray from the rear end.
FIGURE 4.19C The material is spread out evenly creating a

trough in the ridge areas.
FIGURE 4.19D Tray inserted from right side.
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FIGURE 4.19E Tray rotated into mouth.
FIGURE 4.19F Tray seated anteriorly.
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FIGURE 4.19G Final seating.
FIGURE 4.19H Completed maxillary impression.
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With irreversible hydrocolloid
• The tray should be extended if needed with modelling or boxing
wax. Wax can also be added to the vault area of the tray in case of
high palatal vaults (Fig. 4.20A).
• A clearance of 2–3 mm is sufficient for alginates.
• The posterior palatal seal area is wiped with gauze to remove any
excess saliva.
• The powder and liquid are mixed to a slightly thicker consistency

and loaded onto a perforated stock tray up to the border. A small
quantity is placed on the palatal vault and buccal vestibule.
• Tray is inserted as described for impression compound and as the

material sets, the patient is instructed to keep eyes open, relax,
breathe through the nose and bend the head down a little to prevent
impression from running down the throat. All elastic impressions
should be removed in a snap. It is rinsed in tap water, dried and
then evaluated for any deficiencies (Fig. 4.20B). The impression
must be remade if any deficiencies exist.
• It should be poured immediately.
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FIGURE 4.20A Correction with modelling/utility wax.
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FIGURE 4.20B Completed irreversible hydrocolloid
impression.
Impression with silicone putty

• Procedure of manipulation, insertion and making an impression is
similar to impression compound, except that the putty is supplied
as a base and catalyst paste.
• The impression is removed in a snap. It is difficult to refine the

impression, but pouring can be delayed (Fig. 4.21).
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FIGURE 4.21 Completed maxillary preliminary impression
with silicone putty.
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Preliminary/primary cast
• After making the preliminary impressions, the preliminary casts are
poured with model plaster, irrespective of the impression material
used.
• The recommended water, powder of plaster is dispensed in a rubber

bowl and mixed.
• This is poured into the impression in small quantities from one

posterior end, allowing it to flow into the other under vibration
(Fig. 4.22A and B). After filling up the entire impression and initial
set attained (Fig. 4.22C), a base former is filled with plaster and the
poured impression is inverted onto it. Alternately, a block of plaster
can be poured on a tile or glass plate and the poured impression is
inverted onto it forming a base of 15 mm. The width should be 5–6
mm (Fig. 4.22D) beyond the impression. The ridge crests should be
parallel to the glass plate or table top. The material in the tray
should reach its initial set before it is inverted to form a base.
• The material should be allowed to set for about 45 min or follow

manufacturers’ recommendations and then it is removed. For
irreversible hydrocolloids’ impressions, a damp cloth can be used to
cover the cast while it sets.
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FIGURE 4.22C2 A block of plaster poured on a tile.
• To remove compound impressions, the cast with tray is immersed in

warm slurry water at 65°C for 5 min. The impression is then easily
separated once the material softens (Fig. 4.22E).
• The casts are trimmed as per recommended dimensions for the base
and land areas (Figs 4.23–4.25).
• The impressions can also be poured after beading and boxing as

described later in this chapter in the section ‘Definitive Casts’.
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FIGURE 4.22 Showing pouring of cast from one posterior
end and allowing to flow: (A) maxillary and (B) mandibular.
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FIGURE 4.22C1 Poured maxillary and mandibular casts on
initial setting, with grooves for retention to base.
FIGURE 4.22D The poured cast is inverted onto the block of

plaster: (a) maxillary and (b) mandibular.
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FIGURE 4.22E The set cast is immersed in a bowl of warm
water to retrieve the cast from the tray.
FIGURE 4.23A Cross section of a mandibular cast: (a) ridge

is parallel to base, (b) sides are perpendicular to base, (c)
land area 2–3 mm at 45º, (d) sulcus 2 mm depth below land
area and (e) base of 10–15 mm.
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FIGURE 4.23B Cross section of a maxillary cast: (a) ridge is
parallel to base, (b) sides are perpendicular to base, (c) land
area 2–3 mm at 45º, (d) sulcus 2 mm depth below land area
and (e) base of 10–15 mm.
FIGURE 4.23C Base of the cast 10–15 mm.
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FIGURE 4.23D Height of base measured on the mandibular
cast.
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FIGURE 4.23E The width of the land area measured on the
cast is 2–3 mm.
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FIGURE 4.23F Height of the land area measured from the
sulcus is 2 mm.
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FIGURE 4.23G Land area at 45.
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FIGURE 4.24 Completed preliminary maxillary cast.
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FIGURE 4.25 Completed preliminary mandibular cast.
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Custom trays
Definition: An individualized impression tray made from a cast
recovered from a preliminary impression. It is used in making a final
impression (GPT8).
Objectives
• To confine and control the final impression material
• To obtain minute details of denture-bearing area
• Development of border seal
• Ensure uniform distribution of final impression material
• Ensure planned distribution of pressure on the residual ridges
Requirements
The custom tray should be
• Rigid
• Dimensionally stable
• Easily adjusted
• Easy to construct
• Smooth without sharp edges
Design considerations
• It should include the entire denture-bearing area.
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• Periphery should be such that impression material can flow without
displacement of soft tissues.
• Appropriately relieved and spaced if necessary.
• Handle is designed to avoid displacing the lips.
• Allows free movement of muscle attachments.
Types
Custom trays are fabricated depending on the condition of the ridge:
Custom tray with spacer

• Indicated for ideal ridges where a uniform pressure can be given to
the entire denture-bearing tissues and impression is made of the
tissues in an undistorted state.
• Custom tray should extend 2 mm short of the vestibular reflection.
• Uniform spacer of 2 mm is provided using baseplate wax. The

peripheral extension of spacer should be 2 mm short of the custom
tray (Fig. 4.26). In maxilla, it should not cover the posterior seal area
but should stop at the anterior vibrating line. In mandible, it should
not cover the retromolar pad.
• Tissue stops are square or rectangular areas where the spacer is

removed. The custom tray is in direct contact with the ridge in these
areas. They function to correctly orient and stabilize the tray during
impression making and ensure uniform thickness of impression
material. Generally, four square stops are given, 2 mm in
dimension, two in the canine region and two in the molar region, on
the crest of the ridge (Fig. 4.27).
• Functions of spacer is to provide space for the final impression

material.
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FIGURE 4.26 Spacer is outlined on the cast. Its extension
should be 2 mm short of the custom tray: (A) maxillary and
(B) mandibular.
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FIGURE 4.27 Square wax stops of 2 mm are created by
removing wax from spacer anteriorly and posteriorly: (A)
maxillary and (B) mandibular.
Custom tray with relief

• Also termed as ‘close fitting tray’.
• Areas such as the incisive papilla and midpalatine suture in maxilla

and the crest of the residual ridge in the mandible, sometimes need
to be relieved. This happens when an incisive papilla comes to lie
on the crest of the ridge (due to resorption), mid palatine suture is
tender on palpation due to very thin mucosal covering and a sharp,
spiny ridge presents in a mandibular crest (see discussion on ‘Relief
Areas’ in Anatomic and Denture Landmarks in this chapter).
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• One thickness of baseplate wax is applied over the areas when relief
is indicated, on maxillary and mandibular cast (Figs 4.28 and 4.29).
• A close fitting tray is made over these relieved areas without the use
of a spacer. This produces a selective pressure impression
distributing more load to the stress-bearing areas.
FIGURE 4.28 Midpalatine suture and incisive papilla relieved

in maxillary cast.
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FIGURE 4.29 Crest of the residual ridge relieved in
mandibular cast.
Custom tray with window

• This is indicated with flabby and displaceable tissues.
• Usually the anterior ridges are affected.
• A minimal or controlled pressure impression is indicated for the

displaceable tissue, while a normal impression can be made for the
remainder of the arch. This is another example of a selective
pressure impression.
• The affected area is marked and blocked out in the preliminary cast
and a custom tray is constructed without involving this area (Figs
4.30 and 4.31).
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• The rest of the custom tray can be prepared similar to a ‘close fitting
tray’ or ‘custom tray with spacer’ as described before.
• The impression procedure is discussed in the section on ‘Final

Impressions’ in this chapter.
FIGURE 4.30 Maxillary anterior flabby ridge marked on

preliminary cast.
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FIGURE 4.31 Custom tray with a window in the flabby ridge
area.
Fabrication
Outlining and preparing the preliminary cast for

making custom tray
• Preliminary impressions are overextended due to the material used
and that was the purpose. The aim is to produce a tray, which is 2
mm short of the reflection of the mucosa when the tissues are at
rest. This outline of the custom tray should be marked on the
preliminary cast so that less chairside time is spent on trimming the
borders while making final impressions.
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• The outline or extension is similar for all types of custom trays. In
both the casts, the outline should follow the area where the mucosa
begins to turn outwards into the sulcus (tissue reflection point).
• In the maxilla, the distal termination should be a line joining the

hamular notches passing 2 mm posterior to the fovea palatine. In
the mandible, it should be just beyond the retromolar pad. In both
arches, the outline in the frenum areas should be elevated (notched)
by 1 mm to provide adequate space for this landmark (Figs 4.32 and
4.33).
• Undercut areas are blocked out with baseplate wax to ensure easy
removal of tray from cast.
• Depending on the indication, relief and spacer are provided and

tissue irregularities like flabby tissue are blocked out using
baseplate wax.
• Separating medium is applied on the entire cast following provision

of relief, spacer and block-out. Cold mould seal, vaseline
(petrolatum) and tin foil are commonly used.
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FIGURE 4.32A, B Outline of maxillary custom tray showing
vestibular extension (blue), tray extension (black) and spacer
with stops (brown).
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FIGURE 4.33 Outline of mandibular custom tray showing
vestibular extension (brown), tray extension (blue), spacer
extension (green), stops (red).
Custom tray materials and methods of fabrication

The following materials are commonly used for fabricating custom
trays:
1. Autopolymerizing resins
• Autopolymerizing denture base acrylic resins are used. They are

also termed as self-curing or chemically activated resins; dispensed
as powder and liquid.
• The difference between this and the heat cure resins is in the method
of activating the initiator-benzoyl peroxide. Here, a tertiary amine–
dimethyl-para-toluidine is added to the liquid, which upon mixing
with the powder, causes decomposition of the benzoyl peroxide and
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production of free radicals which initiates polymerization. Heat is
the activator in heat curing resins.
Advantages:
• Rigid, easy to fabricate
• Easy to trim and adjust
• Inexpensive.
Disadvantages:
• Undergo dimensional changes for 24 h following fabrication. It is

recommended for use only after this period.
• Potential sensitizer can produce allergic manifestations.
Various techniques used are
(i) Sprinkle-on method
• The powder is taken in a container with a perforated top like a salt

and pepper dispenser, while the liquid is loaded in a syringe or
taken in a dropper from a dappen dish.
○ Powder is shifted onto a particular area and is then saturated with

monomer. This is continued until the area is built up to a thickness
of 2.5 mm. The procedure is extended to cover the entire denture-
bearing area with the resin (Fig. 4.34A–D).
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FIGURE 4.34A Cast is tilted approximately at 45, polymer is
shifted on one side of the cast and monomer is syringed on it.
FIGURE 4.34B Powder and liquid are alternately added until

there is a uniform layer of resin approximately 2 mm thick.
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FIGURE 4.34C This is continued until rest of the denture-
bearing area is covered with resin.
FIGURE 4.34D Completed tray.
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Advantage:
• Wastage of material is minimal.
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to obtain uniform thickness throughout.
• Greater chances of porosity due to inadequate saturation of

polymer.
(ii) Dough method
• The powder and liquid are mixed according to the manufacturer’s

instructions in a porcelain jar.
• When the mix attains the dough stage, it is kneaded into a ball and
placed in the centre of a flat glass plate. Using another plate the
dough is pressed down and flattened (Fig. 4.35A). Wet cellophane
sheets are used as separating medium. This spreads and flattens the
acrylic dough uniformly, making it in the form of a sheet of 2 mm
thickness. Alternately, a rolling board and roller can also be used to
flatten the resin dough.
• The sheet of tray material is gently lifted from the glass plate/roller
board and placed over the lubricated cast.
• The resin is adapted to the cast using light finger pressure (Fig.
4.35B). The excess material is trimmed with a sharp knife.
• After the material has polymerized completely, it is removed from

the tray and trimmed.
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FIGURE 4.35 Dough method: (A) Acrylic dough placed in
between two glass slabs. (B) The flattened dough is adapted
on the cast with mild finger pressure until the material sets.
Advantages:
• Takes less time.
• Chances of porosity are less.
Disadvantages:
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• Less working time, hence perfect adaptation in all areas will be
difficult.
• Technique-sensitive.
• More wastage of material.
(iii) Fabrication of tray handle
• The handle should approximate the size and shape of the missing
teeth to properly support the lips and cheek and must not distend
or distort the lips or vestibules.
• It should be located in the space previously occupied by the teeth

and alveolar bone.
• The handles ensure that the tray is positioned without disturbing

the borders.
• The maxillary tray requires only a single handle placed in the

midline. Its dimensions may be 8 mm in height, 8 mm in width and
4 mm in thickness. It should be slightly concave anteroposteriorly
and mesiodistally to aid gripping and removal from the mouth (Fig.
4.36).
• The mandibular tray requires three handles, one in the anterior

region similar to the maxillary, and two more on either side in the
molar region. These two are called auxiliary handles and used for
stabilization and orientation of the tray. The dimensions should be
similar to that described for the maxillary handle (Fig. 4.37).
• Handle is fabricated using the dough method. The desired quantity

of powder and liquid is mixed into appropriate shape and when the
resin attains dough stage, it is placed in the area marked for the
handle. Tray is roughened in the area of placement and a small
amount of monomer sprinkled in the area, will help to retain the
dough on the tray. Deficient areas at the junction of the handle and
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tray are filled with resin using the sprinkle-on method.
FIGURE 4.36 Handle for maxillary tray.
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FIGURE 4.37 Handles for mandibular tray.
Light-polymerized resins
• Urethane dimethacrylate is used. They are available in sheet and gel

forms. Sheet forms are used for tray fabrication.
• The sheet is adapted to the preliminary cast following provision of

relief/spacer/block out and after application of separating medium.
• The cast with the adapted sheet is then placed in a light-curing

chamber for 2 min, following which the tray is removed, inverted
and cured again for 6 min.
• It is then trimmed, finished and handles are placed using the same
material to the same dimensions as described previously.
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Advantages:
• Easy to fabricate
• Dimensionally stable can be used immediately
Disadvantages:
• Brittle
• Produce fine particles during grinding
• Need special curing chamber
Thermoplastic resins
• They are made of vinyl or polystyrene materials; available in the

form of sheets. As heat is used to adapt the materials, high fusing
wax or tin foil can be used as spacer.
• They can be fabricated manually or using vacuum former.
• Manually: The material is softened in a water bath at 77°C and

manually adapted to the cast. Easy tray is a commercially available
example of this material.
• Vacuum formed: These are adapted using a vacuum-forming

machine (see Chapter 38). The sheet is held in place over the cast,
heated until it sags and adapted on the cast under vacuum.
Advantages:
• Adaptation is excellent.
Disadvantages:
• Strength is less than the acrylic resins.
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• Expensive specialized equipment is needed.
Other materials used for custom trays
• Shellac has been used previously. They are brittle and distort easily.
Hence, they are not recommended.
• Impression compound (tray compound) has been used to make a

primary impression in a stock tray. The impression is trimmed to
convert it into a custom tray and a final wash impression is made
with appropriate materials.
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Final impressions
Definition: The impression that represents the completion of
registration of the surface or object.
Final impressions are made using the following methods:
1. Custom trays
2. Stock trays
3. Record bases with occlusal rims
Whichever method is used, old denture wearers are instructed to remove

their dentures for 24 h prior to making the final impressions to enable
distorted tissues to return to normal.
Using custom trays
Checking the custom trays intraorally

Before border moulding, the custom tray is placed in the mouth and
checked for the following and trimmed, if necessary:
• The borders of the trays should be 2 mm short of the sulcus and

should provide adequate clearance for the frenum.
• The posterior extension of the maxillary should cover the hamular

notch and extend up to the posterior vibrating line. This is checked
by palpating for the notch with a ball or ‘T’ burnisher, and drawing
the posterior vibrating line in the mouth and transferring it to the
tray.
• The mandibular tray should cover the retromolar pads posteriorly.
• If a spacer is placed, it should be removed only after border
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moulding.
Border moulding
It is also termed as ‘peripheral tracing’.
Definitions
1. The shaping of the border areas of an impression material by

functional or manual manipulation of the soft tissue adjacent to the
borders to duplicate the contour and size of the vestibule.
2. Determining the extension of a prosthesis by using tissue function

or manual manipulation of the tissues to shape the border areas of an
impression material (GPT8).
Purpose
The main purpose of border moulding is to create a peripheral seal.
Methods of manipulating the peripheral tissues

There are two methods of manipulating the peripheral tissues to
mould them.
1. Active method: The patient performs various functions related to

the concerned areas to manipulate the borders.
2. Passive method: The dentist physically manipulates the tissues to

mould them.
Either of these methods or a combination of both is used to mould the

borders.
Techniques of border moulding
1. Incremental or sectional border moulding

In this method, sections of the periphery of the tray are refined
individually, according to the anatomic landmark in that area. This is
the better method for the beginner as it allows each section to be
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recorded, verified and refined. The material of choice for this
procedure is greenstick compound (low fusing impression
compound). Putty or heavy body elastomeric impression materials
can also be used.
Method of adapting greenstick compound:
• Appropriate length of the stick corresponding to the length of the

section to be moulded is softened over a flame till it begins to droop
(Fig. 4.38A).
• The compound is placed on the border of the custom tray, rotated

slightly and then quickly pulled away to prevent long strings from
forming (Fig. 4.38B).
• The material should then be tempered in warm water (about 50°C)

and formed into appropriate shape with fingers (make sure vaseline
is applied to the gloved fingers) and inserted in the patient’s mouth.
• After moulding the borders, the tray is removed and compound is

chilled in cold water and any excess is trimmed.
• This sequence is followed for moulding every section and repeated

until the moulding is seen to be accurate without over or under
extension:
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FIGURE 4.38A Method of softening greenstick compound.
FIGURE 4.38B The compound is placed on the border of the

custom tray, rotated slightly and then quickly pulled away to
prevent long strings from forming.
Soften – place – temper – form – insert – mould – remove – chill –

trim.
Maxillary tray border moulding: The moulding can be accomplished
using the following sections and sequences (Fig. 4.39):
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(i) Labial flange:
a. Passive: The lips are elevated and then extended

outwards, downwards and inwards.
b. Active: Patient is asked to pucker the lips and

suck on the dentist’s finger (Fig. 4.40).
(ii) Buccal flange (buccal frenum area): This may be performed
unilaterally.
a. Passive: The cheek is elevated and pulled

outwards, downwards and inwards and moved
backwards and forwards.
b. Active: Patient is asked to pucker the lips and

smile (Fig. 4.41).
(iii) Distobuccal area: This should be performed bilaterally.
a. Passive: The cheek is pulled outwards,

downwards and inwards.
b. Active: Patient is asked to open the mouth wide,

close and move the mandible from side to side.
Opening the mouth wide delineates the depth
and width of the distobuccal flange as governed
by the muscle attachments, while moving the
mandible from side to side, accommodates for
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the movement of the coronoid process (Fig. 4.42).
(iv) Posterior palatal seal area:
a. Active: The patient is asked to say ‘ah’ in short

bursts to record this area (Fig. 4.43). The seal or
‘postdam’ can be developed as per the methods
described earlier in this chapter.
FIGURE 4.39 Sequence of border moulding: (a) labial flange,

(b) buccal flange, (c) distobuccal flange and (d) posterior
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palatal seal area.
FIGURE 4.40 Custom tray with labial flange moulded.
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FIGURE 4.41 Custom tray with buccal frenum area of buccal
flange moulded.
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FIGURE 4.42 Custom tray with distobuccal area of buccal
flange moulded.
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FIGURE 4.43 Custom tray with posterior seal area moulded.
Mandibular tray border moulding: The moulding can be

accomplished using the following sections and sequence (Fig. 4.44):
(i) Labial flange:
a. Passive: The lip is slightly lifted outwards,

upwards and inwards (Fig. 4.45).
(ii) Buccal flange (buccal frenum area): Can be developed unilaterally.
a. Passive: The cheek is lifted outwards, upwards

and inwards and moved backwards and
forwards.
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b. Active: Patient is asked to pucker and smile (Fig.
4.46).
(iii) Buccal flange (distobuccal area): Developed bilaterally.
a. Passive: The cheek is pulled buccally to ensure it

is not caught in the tray and then moved
upwards and inwards.
b. Active and Passive: The masseteric notch is

recorded by asking the patient to close, while
dentist exerts a downward pressure on tray (Fig.
4.47).
(iv) Anterior lingual flange
a. Active: Patient is asked to protrude the tongue

and then push the tongue against the anterior
part of the palate. This develops the length and
thickness of the flange in this area, respectively
(Fig. 4.48A).
(v) Middle portion of lingual flange: Developed bilaterally.

and lick the upper lip from side to side (Fig.
4.48B).
(vi) Distolingual flange: Developed bilaterally.
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and then place the tongue in the distal part of the
palate in the right and left buccal vestibules (Fig.
4.49).
FIGURE 4.44 Sequence of border moulding mandible: (a)

labial flange, (b) buccal flange, (c) distobuccal area including
masseteric notches, (d) anterior lingual flange, (e) middle
portion of lingual flange and (f) distolingual flange.
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FIGURE 4.45 Labial flange moulded.
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FIGURE 4.46 Buccal flange moulded.
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FIGURE 4.47 Distobuccal flange moulded.
FIGURE 4.48 (A) Anterior portion of lingual flange moulded.

(B) Middle portion of lingual flange moulded.
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FIGURE 4.49 Distolingual flange moulded and border
moulding completed.
Verification: The extension in retromolar pad is verified by asking the

patient to open mouth wide. A notch in the area indicates interference
from pterygomandibular raphae and should be adjusted. The patient
is asked to wipe the tongue against the vermilion border of the upper
lip. This should not displace the tray.
2. Single-step or simultaneous border moulding

In this method, the entire periphery of the tray is refined in a single
step. The border moulding material is placed around the entire border
in a single step and moulded similar to sectional technique all at once.
Putty or heavy body elastomeric impression materials are ideal for
this method (Figs 4.50–4.52). Greenstick compound is not
recommended, as it is impossible to soften the material over the entire
length of the border.
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FIGURE 4.50A Putty addition silicone is kneaded and rolled
into a rope of required length.
FIGURE 4.50B Tray adhesive applied on borders.
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FIGURE 4.50C Putty placed around the borders.
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FIGURE 4.51 After border moulding.
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FIGURE 4.52A Alternately heavy body impression material
can also be used. It is syringed around the borders of the
mandibular tray using an automix syringe.
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FIGURE 4.52B Showing mandibular tray after border
moulding with heavy body impression material.
Advantages of technique:
• Number of insertions of tray in the mouth is reduced to one.
• Error in one section will not propagate the mistakes to the other
segments.
Advantages of using elastomeric impression materials:
• Procedure is simpler no need to temper and chill.
• Less armamentarium – no water baths and flames.
• No fear of patient discomfort from heated stick compound.
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Disadvantages of using elastomeric impression materials:
• They will not adhere to tray and require tray adhesive.
• They need good support from tray, not indicated with grossly
underextended trays.
• Material is more expensive.
Preparing tray for final impressions

After border moulding, the maxillary and mandibular trays should be
prepared before making the secondary impression.
• If a custom tray with spacer was used, the wax spacer is removed to
provide space for the impression material.
• 0.5–1 mm of the tracing material is removed from inner, outer and

top surface of the border. A scalpel blade is used for greenstick
compound, while a scalpel or bur can be used with elastomeric
impression material (Figs 4.53 and 4.54).
• The material over the posterior palatal seal is not removed because:
○ It enhances seal by slightly displacing the tissues.
○ It guides the positioning of the tray.
○ It prevents excess material from going into the

throat.
• Holes are drilled in all the types of custom trays to provide escape
ways for the final impression material. They can be drilled over the
relief areas just to ensure an undistorted impression (Figs 4.55 and
4.56).
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FIGURE 4.53 Trimmed maxillary tray.
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FIGURE 4.54 Trimmed mandibular tray.
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FIGURE 4.55 Holes placed in maxillary tray over relief areas.
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FIGURE 4.56 Holes placed in mandibular tray over relief
areas.
Making final impression

Material selection:
• When gross tissue undercuts exist, elastomeric impression materials

are indicated.
• When using a custom tray with relief (close fitting tray), ZOE
impression paste is preferred.
• When using a custom tray with spacer, medium/regular body or

monophase elastomeric impression material is preferred.
• When using a custom tray with window, impression plaster is used

for the displaceable tissues, in combination with ZOE paste. Light-
body elastomeric impression material can also be used to record the
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flabby tissues, in combination with medium body materials.
Making final impressions using custom tray with relief and

custom tray with spacer
The procedures are similar using both types of trays. The spacer is
removed prior to impression making.
Mandibular final impression
• Correct position of tray is essential and it is practiced before making

the impression. It also enables the patient to be familiar with the
procedure and what is expected.
• If ZOE paste is used, patient’s lips and some part of the face are
covered with vaseline as the material is sticky and will be hard to
remove.
• The impression material of choice is mixed and evenly loaded onto

the tray, covering the borders also.
• The tray is rotated and inserted into the mouth as discussed with
preliminary impressions, asking the patient to lift the tongue
slightly and centring it anteriorly. The index fingers of each hand
are placed on the auxiliary posterior handles to apply gentle
downward pressure such that buccal flanges come in contact with
the buccal shelf.
• Border moulding, as described previously, is gently performed

simultaneously on all the sections both passively and actively.
• Once this is done, the material is allowed to set with the patient’s
tongue touching the upper lip.
• After the material is set, the tray is removed and is inspected for
deficiencies and voids (Fig. 4.57).
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FIGURE 4.57 Completed mandibular final impression using
(A) medium/regular body elastomeric impression material and
(B) ZOE impression paste.
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Maxillary final impression
• All the procedures prior to impression making are similar to

mandibular impressions.
• After placing the material evenly on the tray and around the
borders, the tray is inserted by centering and aligning the labial
notch in the tray with the labial frenum.
• The index fingers of each hand are used to apply an upward

pressure in the molar regions until the tray seats posteriorly in the
hamular notches.
• The tray is then held in position with a finger in the hard palate just
anterior to the posterior palatal seal area.
• Border moulding, as described previously, is gently performed

simultaneously on all the sections both passively and actively.
• The material is allowed to set and then removed and inspected for
any discrepancies (Fig. 4.58).
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FIGURE 4.58 Completed maxillary final impression using (A)
medium/regular body elastomeric impression material, (B)
ZOE impression paste.
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Final impression using custom tray with window
• This is indicated for flabby or displaceable tissues.
• A custom tray with a window in the displaceable area is made as

described previously.
• Border moulding is completed as described previously with

greenstick low fusing impression compound (Fig. 4.59).
• A final impression is made with ZOE impression paste (Fig. 4.60).
• The tray is reinserted and impression plaster is injected onto the

window (Fig. 4.61A and B).
• The tray is removed after the plaster sets (Fig. 4.62), and the master
cast is poured after applying appropriate separating medium on the
plaster. The impression has recorded the displaceable tissues with
minimal pressure, while controlled pressure is transferred to the
other areas with a close fitting tray and impression with ZOE paste.
• Alternately, impression for flabby ridges can also be accomplished

using a combination of medium body elastomeric impression
material and light body elastomeric impression material (Fig. 4.63).
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FIGURE 4.59 Border moulded custom tray with window.
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FIGURE 4.60 Impression made with ZOE paste.
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FIGURE 4.61A Impression plaster syringed onto flabby
tissue.
FIGURE 4.61B Following setting of plaster.
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FIGURE 4.62 Completed final impression (custom tray with
window) – combination of ZOE paste and impression plaster.
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FIGURE 4.63 Completed final impression (custom tray with
window). Light body used for flabby tissue and medium body
for the remaining tissues.
Using stock trays

• This is used more frequently for making maxillary impressions than
for mandibular.
• It is indicated for ideal ridge conditions and when patient does not
have the time for additional impression procedures.
• An appropriate stock tray is selected ensuring adequate support for

the borders. They may be modified with baseplate wax if needed.
• Preliminary impression is made using putty elastomeric impression

material or tray compound material as described previously (Fig.
4.64). The putty material requires a tray adhesive.
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• The borders of the preliminary impression are reduced by 0.5 mm
and a final wash impression is made with light body impression
material or ZOE paste depending on whether the primary
impression was made with putty or compound, respectively (Fig.
4.65).
• If a compound impression is used, the compound can be separated

from the stock tray and used as a custom tray, while borders are
refined.
• During both preliminary and final impression procedures,

simultaneous technique of border moulding is performed.
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FIGURE 4.64 Preliminary impression made with silicone
putty in stock tray.
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FIGURE 4.65 Final wash impression made with light body
material.
Using record bases with occlusal rims

• This is indicated for atrophic ridges and this condition is more
common in edentulous mandibles.
• A functional closed-mouth impression is made using tissue

conditioning materials and then an anatomic open-mouth final
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wash impression is made using light body impression materials.
• Record base with occlusal rims are fabricated on a maxillary final

impression and a mandibular preliminary impression.
• The occlusal rims are inserted intraorally and modified to

appropriate vertical dimension.
• The lower record base is used as a tray and tissue-conditioning

material is loaded and inserted. The lingual borders are developed
with mouth open as described for border moulding of
alveololingual sulcus. The patient is instructed to perform
functional movements like talking, swallowing and smiling while
biting on the occlusal rims. The record base is removed, pressure
areas are relieved and overextensions trimmed. More material is
added and similar movements are performed till an impression
with appropriate borders without pressure areas is obtained. For
each application, the conditioning material is left in the mouth for at
least 10 min.
• A final wash impression is made with mouth open using standard

border moulding methods. A cast is poured immediately (Fig. 4.66).
• The procedure takes up a lot of clinical time.
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FIGURE 4.66 Completed maxillary and mandibular
impressions using occlusal rims.
Inspecting impressions
Final impressions are inspected for air inclusions and voids. The
surface is inspected to make sure that all the landmarks are recorded
accurately. Small voids can be rectified by filling with wax.
Disinfecting impression
The impression may be disinfected by immersing in iodophor or 2%
glutaraldehyde for 10 min.
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Remaking impression
Causes:
• Improper positioning of the tray.
• Large voids.
• Improper consistency of impression material.
• Movement of the tray during the setting of the impression material.
• Inadequate scraping of the border moulding material.
• Quantity of the impression material used.
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Definitive (final) cast
The final impression should be poured accurately, preserving the
depth and width of the border tissues, which have been recorded
assiduously. It is poured using dental stone. The cast obtained is
termed as ‘definitive cast’ or ‘master cast’.
Definition: Definitive cast is a replica of the tooth surfaces, residual
ridge areas, and/or other parts of the dental arch and/or facial
structures used to fabricate a dental restoration or prosthesis. It is also
called ‘final cast’.
This involves:
• Beading and boxing
• Pouring the cast
• Indexing the cast
Beading and boxing

Beading preserves the depth and width of the sulcus, while boxing produces
the desired form and size of the base of the cast.
This is commonly accomplished using two methods:
Wax boxing
• Both beading and boxing is done using wax.
• This method is more suitable for final impressions made with ZOE
impression paste. Elastomeric impressions are more difficult to
bead with wax.
• Commercially available beading wax or baseplate wax can be used

for beading, while boxing wax or baseplate wax can be used for
boxing.
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• Strips of 4 mm width are attached to the periphery of the impression
(both maxillary and mandibular) such that it is placed 3–4 mm
below the border of the impression and sealed with a spatula (Fig.
4.67A and B). The beading should run parallel and horizontal to the
denture border.
• For the lower impression, the tongue space is also covered by

attaching baseplate wax to the superior surface of the beading wax
(Fig. 4.67B).
• The beaded impressions are placed on a table top, with the

impression surface facing upwards, such that the ridges are parallel
to the floor. For the upper impression, the handle can be used for
anterior stabilization, while soft wax or modelling clay is added to
the two posterior ends for stabilization. For the lower impression,
the anterior and auxiliary tray handles can stabilize the tray
anteriorly and posteriorly. Soft wax or modelling clay can be used
to adjust the height to achieve parallelism of ridges (Fig. 4.67C).
• Boxing or baseplate wax is then attached (fused) to the outside of

the beading wax all around the impression, to form a vertical
enclosure. This should extend 10–15 mm above the highest point on
the impression (Fig. 4.67D and E).
• Disadvantages:
• Attaching the beading wax to impression and boxing wax to the

beading is technique-sensitive and can cause spilling of wax on the
impression.
• Detachment of beading while pouring cast is

common.
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FIGURE 4.67 (A) Beading of maxillary impression using
beading wax. (B) Beading of mandibular impression using
beading wax and tongue space covered with baseplate wax.
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FIGURE 4.67C Beading using baseplate wax placed 3–4 mm
below, parallel and horizontal to impression borders: (a)
Maxillary and (b) mandibular. They are stabilized on a table
top using the tray handles and modelling clay such that the
ridges are parallel to the floor.
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FIGURE 4.67D Boxing with wax all around the beading. The
height should be 10–15 mm from highest point in the
impression.
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FIGURE 4.67E Beaded and boxed (using boxing wax): (a)
mandibular and (b) maxillary impressions.
Plaster boxing
• This is the most common method and can be used with all
impression materials.
• A 1:1 mixture of plaster of Paris and pumice is mixed uniformly.

Pumice weakens the set plaster and facilitates separation from the
definitive cast. A stiff mix is made of this mixture with appropriate
amount of water and placed on a glass slab, such that it is 15 mm
thick and larger than the impressions.
• The impression is now pushed into this mix (tray side down) (Fig.
4.68A) and the mix is manipulated such that the sides are
approximately 5 mm below and outside the entire border. The
ridges should also be parallel to the floor.
• The mixture is allowed to set and the sides are trimmed

perpendicular to the base, leaving with a width of 3–4 mm
surrounding the borders (Fig. 4.68B and C).
• Modelling clay is added on top of the plaster ledge and it is built up

to a height of 2–3 mm short of the border uniformly all around. The
advantage of using this material is that it can be easily modified and
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separation of cast from the boxed plaster is easy (Fig. 4.68D).
• Boxing or baseplate wax is then attached to the outside of the plaster

base all around the impression, to form a vertical enclosure. This
should extend 10–15 mm above the highest point on the impression
(Fig. 4.68E).
FIGURE 4.68A Maxillary impression immersed in plaster

(tray side down).
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FIGURE 4.68B Excess plaster trimmed leaving a width of 4–
5 mm all around: (a) maxillary and (b) mandibular.
FIGURE 4.68C Plaster trimmed to 5 mm below the borders

with the ridges parallel to the floor: (a) maxillary (b) and
mandibular.
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FIGURE 4.68D Modelling clay added on top of plaster 2–3
mm short of borders: (a) maxillary and (b) mandibular.
FIGURE 4.68E Boxing completed using boxing wax: (a)

maxillary and (b) mandibular.
Pouring definitive casts

The dental stone should be mixed according to the recommended
proportion with water. The mix is vibrated and poured into one
posterior end of the boxed impression and allowed to flow onto the
other. This is continued until the boxed impression is full.
The stone is allowed to set for 45 min and then it is separated. It is
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trimmed as described previously for preliminary impressions (Fig.
4.69).
FIGURE 4.69A, B Trimmed maxillary and mandibular

definitive casts.
Indexing the cast

• This permits removal and accurate replacement of definitive cast on
an articulator.
• Purpose:
○ Verifying jaw relations – split cast method.
○ Checking processing errors – remounting.

• Requirements:
○ Should permit easy removal and accurate

replacement without damage to cast or mounting.
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○ Should not weaken the cast.
○ There should be no undercuts or mechanical locks.
○ Should be functional even if cast size is reduced.
○ Should provide a positive three-dimensional fit.
○ Procedure should be simple and easily

accomplished with readily available materials and
equipment.
• It involves the following methods:
○ Grooves
○ Notches
○ Remounting plates.
Groove indexing
This method involves placing ‘V-shaped’ grooves on the base of the
cast for indexing.
Procedure:
• For maxillary casts, two lines that are perpendicular to each other
are drawn through the centre of the base of the cast (Fig. 4.70).
• For the mandibular casts, the lines are marked under the thickest
area (under the area of the ridges).
• The grooves, 5 mm in depth, are prepared using a lathe – mounted
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wheel which has been sharpened to make a V-shaped edge.
FIGURE 4.70A, B Groove indexing in maxillary and

mandibular casts.
Notch indexing
• It is a simple method wherein three ‘V/C -shaped’ notches are
marked on the three corners of the cast (one anterior and two
posterior) (Fig. 4.71).
• The notches are created using a sharp knife or a lathe-mounted

wheel.
• Disadvantage:
• If cast is trimmed to reduce the size, the indexing is lost.
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FIGURE 4.71 V-shaped notch indexing.
Split remounting plates

• These are commercially available, and consist of two plates (one
male and one female), which precisely fit into each other and can be
locked with a locking pin.
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• Advantages:
○ Fit is precise.
○ Cast can be removed and remounted rapidly.

• Disadvantages:
○ Expensive.
○ More time is required to attach them to cast.

• Procedure:
○ The male mounting plate is fixed to a 0.5 inch thick

sheet of plexiglass to avoid stone contact.
○ The female plate is locked to the male plate with a

locking pin.
○ The master impression is poured and before the

stone sets; the plexiglass with the remounting
plates is inverted and placed over the stone.
○ The female component is allowed to fuse with the

stone.
○ After the stone sets, the locking pin is removed and

the male remounting plate is separated from the
master cast.
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○ During articulation, the male and the female parts
are locked together and the mounting plaster is
contoured over the male plate alone (Fig. 4.72A and
B).
FIGURE 4.72A The female component of the mounting plate

gets incorporated in the maxillary cast. The male component
is attached to the female before mounting it to the articulator.
The retentive mechanism of the plates engages the plaster.
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FIGURE 4.72B Schematic diagram of the mounting plate
assembly, articulator and the cast.
SUMMARY
An impression is the primary reason for the success or failure of a
denture. It is, therefore, extremely important to pay utmost attention
to this step and create an exact replica of the patient’s oral structures.
There are various techniques and materials available for impressions.
It is the duty of the operator to choose, based on the clinical findings
and requirements and then make an ideal impression. As this
procedure is the beginning of all the clinical steps, any mistake in this
stage should be identified and corrected. Failure to correct will result
in surmounting of mistakes, which will have profound impact on the
prognosis of the treatment. However, most often it is safe to make a
selective compression impression using low-fusing compound as
material of choice for border moulding and ZOE as a final impression
material.
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CHAPTER 5
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 86
Definitions 86
Record bases 86
Requirements 86
Materials 86
Temporary bases 87
Permanent bases 90
Occlusal rims 91
Purpose 91
Dimensions of a standard occlusal rim 91
Fabrication of occlusal rims 92
Compound occlusal rims 93
Clinical contouring of Occlusal rims 93
Maxillary rim 93
Mandibular occlusal rim 95
Guidelines 95
Summary 97
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Introduction
Following the fabrication of definitive casts, the next clinical
procedure in the fabrication of a complete denture is to record the jaw
relationship. For this, a record base and occlusal rims should be
fabricated on the definitive cast. The record base should provide a
stable foundation and occlusal rims should be contoured
appropriately to enable accurate recording of jaw relations. Various
materials can be used to fabricate record bases, their properties,
advantages and disadvantages, and method of fabrication is discussed
in this chapter. Occlusal rims are most commonly made in wax, and
their dimensions and fabrication techniques are also discussed.
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Definitions
Record base: An interim denture base used to support the
occlusal/record rim material for recording maxillomandibular records.
Stabilized record base: A record base lined with a material to
improve its fit and adaptation to the underlying supporting tissues.
Occlusal rim: Occluding surfaces fabricated on interim or final
denture bases for the purpose of making maxillomandibular relation
records and arranging teeth, also called record rim (GPT8).
Denture base: The part of a denture that rests on the foundation
tissues and to which teeth are attached.
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Record bases
Definition: An interim denture base used to support the
occlusal/record rim material for recording maxillomandibular records
(GPT8).
It is also known as baseplate, trial base or temporary base. It
supports the occlusal rims and the artificial teeth for clinical
procedures like recording jaw relations and try-in.
Requirements
• Should be rigid, accurate and stable.
• Borders should resemble that of the finished denture.
• Should be smooth, rounded and polished.
• Should not interfere with teeth arrangement.
• Should be easy to remove from the cast.
• Thickness should not be greater than 2 mm.
• Acceptable colour to blend with the mucosa.
Materials
The materials commonly used for making record bases are classified
as:
1. Temporary bases: These are eliminated prior to processing the

denture and are replaced with a new denture base material. These can
be of the following types:
○ Autopolymerizing acrylic resin
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○ Light-curing resins
○ Thermoplastic resins
○ Shellac
○ Baseplate wax
○ Stabilized bases
2. Permanent bases: The record base is also used as the denture base
for the completed denture. Permanent bases can be of the following
types:
○ Heat-curing acrylic resins
○ Fluid resins
○ Metal bases
Temporary bases
Autopolymerizing acrylic denture bases

They can be manipulated using the following techniques:
• Sprinkle-on technique
• Dough technique:
1. Finger-adapted
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2. Confined dough methods
• Stone-mould method
• Wax-confined method
• Flask-confined method
The sprinkle-on technique and the finger-adapted dough technique

have been described for making custom trays (Chapter 4) and the
technique is similar. The main disadvantage of the finger-adapted
method is that it is impossible to adapt and apply pressure
throughout the tray during polymerization. This results in lift-off or
rebound of the resin causing distortion. To overcome this, two
techniques are described to apply pressure on the resin and confine it
during polymerization.
Stone-mould method
• Described by Assadzadik and Yarmond (1975).
• One or two sheets of baseplate wax are adapted over the definitive
cast (master cast). This should duplicate the record base in thickness
and contour (Fig. 5.1A).
• Small, widely separated round indentations are made in the land

area of the cast (Fig. 5.1A).
• Separating medium is applied over the cast.
• The cast is boxed to achieve a height of at least 15 mm, and the

index is poured in dental plaster, and removed from the definitive
cast after setting (Fig. 5.1B–D).
• The baseplate wax is removed from master cast, and separating

medium is applied over both the index and cast.
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• Autopolymerizing resin is mixed, kneaded and rolled into a sheet
and placed on the cast (Fig. 5.1E). The index is placed on top of the
cast to fit the indentations and the assembly is confined with heavy
rubber bands (Fig. 5.1F).
• The resin is allowed to polymerize in a pressure pot for 20 min

under 20 psi pressure to reduce porosities or bench cure.
• Once polymerization is complete, the baseplate is separated from

the cast, trimmed and polished (Fig. 5.1G).
FIGURE 5.1 (A) Baseplate wax adapted and indentations

made in land area of cast (black marks). (B) The cast is
boxed and an index poured in plaster. (C) Cast with plaster
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index. (D) Index separated from cast and baseplate wax is
removed. (E) Autopolymerizing denture base acrylic resin is
rolled into a sheet and placed on cast after application of
separating medium in index and cast. (F) The index is placed
on the cast and resin to fit the indentations, the assembly is
secured with rubber bands and the resin is allowed to
polymerize. (G) After polymerization, the assembly is
separated, record base retrieved, trimmed and finished.
Wax-confined method
• Described by LaVere and Freda (1974).
• This combines baseplate wax and acrylic resin to form the record
base. This may also be used as a method to obtain a stabilized
record base of wax using acrylic resin.
• Undercuts are blocked out with wax.
• Three layers of separating medium are applied over the cast and
allowed to set for 10 min.
• A sheet of baseplate wax is adapted over the entire cast short of the
borders by 2 mm (Fig. 5.2).
• A thin mix of autopolymerizing resin is added along the borders to

fill the sulcus.
• The resin is also added on the fitting surface of the adapted wax
covering the entire surface by 2 mm (Fig. 5.3).
• After an initial set, the baseplate wax with the unpolymerized resin
is inverted and placed on the cast and compressed evenly till the
resin attains a thickness of 2 mm (Fig. 5.4A and B).
• The resin is allowed to cure, trimmed and polished.
• Advantages:
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○ Acrylic on fitting surface gives accuracy and
rigidity.
○ Wax on the outer surface allows better attachment

to wax occlusal rim.
FIGURE 5.2 Sheet of baseplate wax is adapted over the

entire cast.
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FIGURE 5.3 Resin is added onto the tissue surface of the
adapted baseplate wax.
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FIGURE 5.4 (A) Wax with the resin is inverted and placed on
the cast and compressed. (B) Record base removed after the
resin has polymerized. (C) Shellac base reinforced with wire.
Flask-confined method
• Baseplate wax shaped is adapted on the master cast and shaped to

the final contour of the record base. This is then flasked and
dewaxed as for making the permanent denture base in heat-cure
acrylic resin.
• Following dewaxing, the autopolymerizing resin is mixed and

kneaded to a dough-like consistency and packed. The flask is
closed, clamp tightened and the resin allowed to cure under
pressure.
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Light cure and thermoplastic resins
These are discussed with fabrication of custom trays in Chapter 4 and
are similarly used for making record bases.
Shellac bases
• Shellac is derived from the resinous exudates of a scale insect. It is

thermoplastic and brown in colour, but can be bleached to other
colours like pink. It is available in the shapes of the maxillary and
mandibular arches.
• Procedure:
○ The cast is coated with powdered talc or dipped in

slurry water to prevent shellac from sticking to cast
when heated.
○ The baseplate is centred over the cast and flamed or

it is softened and placed on the cast.
○ The shellac is adapted from the centre to the

periphery using a wet cotton swab, thus preventing
creases. The borders are adapted using a wax
spatula.
○ While soft, the excess is trimmed with scissors.
○ The formed record base is gently tapped to check

for rocking. Specific areas can be heated and
readapted.
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○ The borders of the baseplate are smoothened using
files or arbour band.
○ Presence of glossy areas on tissue surface indicates

improper adaptation and needs to be readapted.
• Advantages:
○ Easy to fabricate in less time.

• Disadvantages:
○ Can distort and break easily due to lack of rigidity.
○ Needs to be reinforced or stabilized.

• Reinforcing shellac: Orthodontic wires or paper clips can be used to
reinforce shellac (Fig. 5.4C). They are placed in the posterior border
of the maxillary cast and lingual to the crest of the ridge anteriorly
in the mandibular cast.
Wax record bases
• Hard baseplate wax is used, reinforced with wires as described

previously.
• Advantages:
○ Easy to fabricate in less time.

• Disadvantages:
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○ Lack of dimensional stability and rigidity.
○ Tend to distort easily.
○ Not recommended.
Stabilized bases
• Definition: A record base lined with a material to improve its fit

and adaptation to the underlying supporting tissues.
• Shellac and wax bases are commonly stabilized but additional time
must be spent on the procedure.
• Materials used:
○ Zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) impression paste.
○ Elastomeric impression material (medium-body).
○ Autopolymerizing resin.
• Procedure: Similar for all the materials. The shellac or wax is first
adapted on the cast, removed and some relief holes placed (Fig.
5.5A). Separating medium is applied on the cast. The stabilizing
material is mixed, loaded on the tissue surface of the record base
and replaced on the cast, giving adequate pressure to maintain
thickness and allowed to set (Fig. 5.5B–D).
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FIGURE 5.5 (A) Holes made in the shellac baseplate. (B)
Medium body impression material applied on the tissue
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surface of the baseplate. (C) The shellac baseplate is
stabilized by applying pressure. (D) Stabilized record base
(tissue surface).
ZOE impression paste

• Disadvantages:
○ Excessive thickness.
○ Undercuts need to be blocked out.
Elastomeric impression materials

The material can extend into undercuts.
• Disadvantages:
○ Material is expensive.
○ Excessive thickness.
Autopolymerizing resins
• Disadvantage:
○ The resin tends to warp the record base due to

release of stresses.
Permanent bases
Heat cure resins
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• These serve as record bases and subsequently become denture
bases.
• Procedure:
○ A layer of baseplate wax is adapted over the

definitive cast and contoured to the shape of record
base.
○ The cast is invested and flasked using the three-

pour technique.
○ Dewaxing is carried out and the wax is removed

completely.
○ Heat-cure denture base acrylic resin is mixed and

packed into the mould.
○ Compression moulding technique and heat are

used for polymerization.
○ Alternately, an injection-moulding technique can

also be used to process the heat-cure acrylic resin
(described in Chapter 13).
• Advantages:
○ Strong and rigid.
○ Thickness can be controlled by manipulating wax.
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○ Requires minimal finishing.
• Disadvantages:
○ Master cast can be damaged during flasking, hence,

may need to be duplicated.
○ Time-consuming.
Fluid resin bases

• This employs a pourable, chemically activated acrylic resin for
fabrication.
• It can be used as a denture base material.
• The waxed record base with the cast is placed in a modified

duplicating flask with sprues and filled with reversible
hydrocolloid.
• After chilling the hydrocolloid, the wax pattern of record base is

removed, resin is mixed and poured into the mould and cured.
• Advantages:
○ Improved adaptation.
○ Simplified flasking procedure.

• Disadvantages:
○ Physical properties poor compared to conventional

heat-processed resins.
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○ Technique sensitive.
○ It can also be fabricated using injection moulded

technique.
Metal bases
• It is used as a permanent denture base material.
• Procedure:
It is similar to fabricating a cast–metal partial denture. Master cast is

duplicated and refractory cast is poured. Wax pattern is formed on the
refractory cast, which is sprued, invested and cast with suitable alloy
(Fig. 5.6).
• Advantages:
○ Rigid, accurate, dimensionally stable.
○ Easy to maintain.
○ Good thermal conductivity.
○ Adds more weight to mandibular dentures.
○ Less reaction with the mucosa.
○ More strength even at thin sections.

• Disadvantages:
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○ Expensive.
○ Require more time for fabrication.
○ Alteration, relining and rebasing are difficult.

• Materials used:
○ Type IV gold alloys.
○ Chromium-based alloys.
○ Titanium and titanium alloys.
FIGURE 5.6 Record base made of cast metal.
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Occlusal rims
Definition: Occluding surfaces fabricated on interim or final denture
bases for the purpose of making maxillomandibular relation records
and arranging teeth, also called record rim (GPT8).
Wax occlusal rims are most commonly used; compound rims may
be used for specific purposes.
Purpose
1. To establish and record maxillomandibular relationships.
2. Arranging artificial teeth for try-in. Assists in determining the

following:
○ Length and width of artificial teeth
○ Midline of arch
○ Proper lip support
○ Cuspid eminence
Dimensions of a standard occlusal rim
Maxillary occlusal rim

• Should be parallel to the long axis of the tooth to be replaced.
• Should follow the arch contour (Fig. 5.7).
• Anterior:
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○ Height – should be 22 mm from the highest portion
of the labial flange to occlusal edge.
○ Width – 4–6 mm.
○ Inclination – the anterior border of the rim should be

about 8 mm from the incisive papilla or a labial
inclination of 5°.
○ Relation to ridge – slightly labially.

• Posterior:
○ Height – should be 18 mm from highest portion of

buccal flange to occlusal edge.
○ Width – 8–10 mm.
○ Inclination – 5° palatal (buccal aspect),

perpendicular to occlusal plane (palatal aspect).
○ Extension – 1 cm anterior to hamular notch and

angled down.
○ Relation to ridge – slightly buccal.
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FIGURE 5.7 Dimensions for maxillary rims. (A) Height of 22
mm anteriorly measured from the highest point of labial flange
and 18 mm posteriorly measured from highest portion of
buccal flange. (B) Width of 4–6 mm anteriorly and 8–10 mm
posteriorly.
Mandibular occlusal rim

• Should be parallel to the long axis of the tooth to be replaced and
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follow the contour of the arch (Fig. 5.8).
• Anterior:
○ Height – should be 18 mm from the deepest portion

of the labial flange to occlusal edge.
○ Width – 4–6 mm.
○ Inclination – labial inclination of 5°.
○ Relation to ridge – slightly labial.

• Posterior:
○ Height – up to retromolar pad.
○ Width – 8–10 mm.
○ Inclination – slight 5° lingual inclination of buccal

aspect and buccal inclination of lingual aspect.
○ Relation to ridge – on crest of ridge.
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FIGURE 5.8 Dimensions for mandibular rims. (A) Width of 4–
6 mm anteriorly and 8–10 mm posteriorly. (B, C) Height of 18
mm anteriorly measured from the deepest point of labial
flange and extends posteriorly up to retromolar pad.
Fabrication of occlusal rims

Occlusal rims can be fabricated by one of the following methods.
Rolled wax technique

• A sheet of modelling wax is taken, heated, softened and rolled to a
diameter of 1 cm (Fig. 5.9A).
• It should not be melted and should be continuously softened and

rolled to prevent air bubbles.
• The roll is placed on the record base to follow the contour of the
arch and downward pressure is given to extend it along the lateral
borders (Fig. 5.9B).
• The adapted wax is sealed to the record base on the lingual/palatal
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surface using a hot wax knife or wax spatula.
• Wax is added as required to fill up voids and spaces.
• The rims are contoured to appropriate dimensions using a hot plate

(Fig. 5.9C).
• Polishing is done by gently flaming the rim, and rubbing with wet
cotton or nylon.
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FIGURE 5.9 (A) Modelling wax sheet softened and rolled to a
diameter of 1 cm. (B) Roll placed on record base along the
contours of arch and extended laterally. (C) Contoured wax
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occlusal rim.
Using metal occlusal rim formers

• Modelling wax or baseplate wax is rolled into a cylinder as
described earlier.
• The cylinder of wax is then shaped using the rim formers and stored
for later use (Fig. 5.10).
• When required, it is adapted over the record base, sealed and

shaped.
FIGURE 5.10 Metal occlusal rim formers used to form wax

rims.
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Preformed occlusal rims
• Preformed rims are commercially available wax rims (Fig. 5.11).
• They are designed separately for the maxillary and mandibular

ridges.
• They are adapted over the record base, sealed and shaped.
FIGURE 5.11 Preformed occlusal rims.
Compound occlusal rims
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• Apart from wax, occlusal rims are also fabricated in impression
compound rarely.
• They record the jaw relationship using functionally generated

techniques.
• The procedure of fabrication is similar to rolled wax technique.
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Clinical contouring of occlusal rims
• The basic laboratory procedures involved in the fabrication of
occlusal rims have been discussed previously.
• Final contouring is accomplished in chairside prior to recording the

maxillomandibular relations. Some adjustments may also be
required while recording jaw relations depending on the method
used.
Maxillary rim
Labial extension or fullness

• Should be in harmony with facial profile.
• Nasolabial angle should be 90°.
• Nasolabial sulcus, philtrum and commissure of the mouth exhibit a

distinct, normal appearance when proper lip support has been
developed (Fig. 5.12A and B). If the rims are under extended
labially, there is a deepening of the nasolabial sulcus, philtrum is
flattened, nasolabial angle is obtuse and commissures drop. If the
rims are overextended, the sulcus is distorted and shallow, philtrum
is obliterated, nasolabial angle is acute and commissures are
stretched laterally (Fig. 5.12C).
• The vertical length in the anterior region should be 2 mm below the

relaxed lip or low lip line (Fig. 5.13).
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FIGURE 5.12A Profile picture showing normal appearance of
(a) philtrum and (b) mentolabial sulci and nasolabial line angle
of 90.
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FIGURE 5.12C (a) Overextension of maxillary occlusal rim
causes stretching of lip and acute nasolabial angle and (b)
underextension causes flaccid lips and obtuse nasolabial
angle.
FIGURE 5.13 Two-millimetre height of anterior maxillary rim

in mouth showing ‘low lip line’.
Buccal extension
• The contour of the buccal surface from just distal to the cuspid
should slightly slant towards the palate to provide space for the
buccal corridor (Fig. 5.14).
• The vertical length at the first molar region should be approximately

6 mm below the orifice of the Stensen’s duct (Fig. 5.15). The height
should also be in harmony with the occlusal plane.
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FIGURE 5.14 Slant and buccal corridor.
FIGURE 5.15 Vertical length at the first molar region should

be approximately 6 mm below the orifice of the Stensen’s
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duct (marked as brown dot).
Occlusal plane
• In profile view, the occlusal plane should be parallel to the
Camper’s line (Fig. 5.16). This line is also called ala-tragal line and
runs from the inferior border of ala of nose to superior border of
tragus of the ear.
• In frontal view, the occlusal plane should be parallel to the

interpupillary line (Fig. 5.17).
• A Fox plane (Fig. 5.18A) is used in conjunction with a scale or

tongue blade outside, to check the parallelism (Fig. 5.18B).
FIGURE 5.16 Profile view, the occlusal plane should be

parallel to the Camper’s line.
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FIGURE 5.17 Occlusal plane parallel to interpupillary line.
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FIGURE 5.18 (A) Fox plane indicator. (B) Fox plane used to
check parallelism.
Mandibular occlusal rim

• Labially, the lip should be unstrained, with vermilion border
showing, with proper support of mentolabial sulcus (Fig. 5.12B).
• The anterior extension should be such that an overjet of 2 mm is

present with the maxillary rim in position (Fig. 5.19A).
• The height of the rim anteriorly should be at the level of corner of

the mouth (Fig. 5.19B).
• Buccally, the rim should contour slightly lingually from the cuspid
region with provision for a buccal corridor (Fig. 5.20).
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FIGURE 5.12B Showing normal appearance of (a) philtrum,
(b) commissure of lips, (c) nasolabial sulcus and (d) lower
vermilion border.
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FIGURE 5.19 (A) Labial extension of mandibular rim should
be such that there is an overjet of 2 mm. (B) Mandibular
occlusal rim in place. When correctly contoured, lip should be
unstrained labially and height should be in level with the
corner of the mouth.
FIGURE 5.20 Mandibular occlusal rim tilting lingually

posteriorly.
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Guidelines
The following lines are placed on the occlusal rims for orientation
purpose when recording maxillomandibular relations and arranging
artificial teeth.
Midline
The following guides are used to record midline (Fig. 5.21):
a. Centre of philtrum of lip
b. Centre of forehead
c. Labial frenum
d. Midpalatine suture and incisive papilla
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FIGURE 5.21 Midline oriented to the face using centre of
forehead and philtrum as guides.
Low lip line

Definition: The lowest position of the inferior border of the upper lip
when it is at rest (GPT8) (Fig. 5.22).
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FIGURE 5.22 Low lip line – lip in rest position.
This helps to determine the vertical length of the incisors.
High lip line

Definition: The greatest height to which the inferior border of the
upper lip is capable of being raised by muscle function (GPT8).
This is determined by asking the patient to smile and helps in
determining the extent to which the teeth and gums are exposed
superiorly and laterally when the patient smiles (Fig. 5.23).
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FIGURE 5.23 High lip line marked.
Cuspid line
It marks the tentative position of maxillary canine teeth and is also
used as a guide in teeth selection.
With the occlusal rims in the mouth, the pointed end of a No. 7 wax
spatula is placed in the corners of the mouth and a line parallel to the
pupils of the eye is marked. This marks the tentative distal extension
of the maxillary canine teeth.
A line is marked from the inner canthus of the eye through the
lateral border of ala of the nose and extended onto the maxillary
occlusal rim. This marks the tentative cusp tip of the maxillary canine
teeth (Fig. 5.24).
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FIGURE 5.24 Cuspid lines are marked using the eye and
nose as guides.
SUMMARY
Record bases and occlusal rims are essential to record jaw relations. A
rigid, accurate and dimensionally stable record base is necessary to
achieve the desired objectives, and autopolymerizing denture base
acrylic resin is most commonly used. Appropriately contoured wax
occlusal rims in the laboratory save a lot of clinical time, while
verifying the occlusal rims intraorally prior to recording the jaw
relations.
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CHAPTER 6
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Maxillomandibular relations
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 98
Definitions 98
Structure of TMJ 99
Components of TMJ 99
Mandibular movements 100
Factors regulating mandibular movements 101
Significance of mandibular movements 107
Maxillomandibular relations and records 107
Oriental jaw relation 107
Vertical jaw relations 115
Horizontal jaw relations 120
Summary 132
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Introduction
The relationship of the mandible to the maxilla and their orientation
to the cranium is a very important consideration in prosthodontics.
This is more so in completely edentulous individuals where there are
no teeth to provide any reference. The maxillomandibular relationship
is recorded following the fabrication and contouring of occlusal rims
described in the previous chapter. The mandible moves to perform
various functions like chewing, swallowing and speech. The
constructed complete denture should function in harmony with the
various mandibular movements. This will ensure a great deal of
comfort and confidence to the denture wearer. The mandible moves as
dictated by the movement of its condyle in the glenoid fossa and by
the guidance of teeth. In a completely edentulous situation, the teeth
should be arranged such that they do not interfere with the smooth,
coordinated movement of the mandible during function. Hence, an
understanding of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and mandibular
movements is essential for understanding and recording
maxillomandibular relations. The recorded jaw relations are then
transferred to an articulator which can simulate these movements and
assist in arranging the artificial teeth accordingly.
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Definitions
Temporomandibular joint:
1. The articulation between the temporal bone and the mandible. It is

a bilateral diarthrodial and bilateral ginglymoid joint.
2. The articulation of the condylar process of the mandible and the

intra-articular disc with the mandibular fossa of the squamous portion
of the temporal bone; a diarthrodial, sliding hinge (ginglymus) joint.
Movement in the upper joint compartment is mostly translational,
whereas that in the lower joint compartment is mostly rotational. The
joint connects the mandibular condyle to the articular fossa of the
temporal bone with the temporomandibular disc interposed (GPT8).
Glenoid fossa: The concavity in the temporal bone by the zygomatic

arch that receives the mandibular condyle (GPT8).
Articular capsule: The fibrous ligament that encloses a joint and limits
its motion. It is lined with the synovial membrane (GPT8).
Articular disc: A ring of fibrocartilage that separates the articular
surfaces of a joint (GPT8).
Excursive movement: Movement occurring when the mandible
moves away from maximum intercuspation (GPT8).
Christensen’s phenomenon: Space that occurs between opposing
occlusal surfaces during mandibular protrusion (GPT8).
Bennett angle: The angle formed between the sagittal plane and the
average path of the advancing condyle as viewed in the horizontal
plane during lateral mandibular movements (GPT8).
Early mandibular translation (early side shift): The translatory
portion of lateral movement in which the greatest portion occurs early
in the forward movement of the nonworking side condyle as it leaves
centric relation (CR) (GPT8).
Progressive mandibular translation (progressive side shift): The
translatory portion of mandibular movement as viewed in a specific
body plane that occurs at a rate or amount that is directly proportional
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to the forward movement of the nonworking condyle (GPT8).
Immediate mandibular lateral translation: The translatory portion of
lateral movement in which the nonworking side condyle moves
essentially straight and medially as it leaves the CR position (GPT8).
Envelope of motion: The three-dimensional space circumscribed by
mandibular border movements within which all unstrained
mandibular movements occur (GPT8).
Camper’s line (ala-tragus line): The line running from the inferior
border of the ala of the nose to some defined point on the tragus of the
ear, usually considered to be the tip of the tragus (GPT8).
Maxillomandibular relationship: Any spatial relationship of the
maxillae to the mandible; any one of the infinite relationships of the
mandible to the maxillae (GPT8).
Maxillomandibular relationship record: A registration of any
positional relationship of the mandible relative to the maxillae (GPT8).
Transverse horizontal axis: An imaginary line around which the
mandible may rotate within the sagittal plane (GPT8); Also called the
‘hinge axis’ previously.
Interocclusal distance: The distance between the occluding surfaces of
the maxillary and mandibular teeth when the mandible is in a
specified position (GPT8).
Interocclusal rest space or freeway space: The distance between the
occluding surfaces of the maxillary and mandibular teeth when the
mandible is in its physiologic rest position (GPT8).
Vertical dimension at rest: The length of the face when the mandible
is in the rest position (GPT8).
Physiologic rest position: The postural position of the mandible when
an individual is resting comfortably in an upright position and the
associated muscles are in a state of minimal contractual activity
(GPT8).
Vertical dimension of occlusion or occlusal vertical dimension: The
length of the face when the teeth are in contact in maximal intercuspal
position (maximal intercuspation).
Centric relation: The maxillomandibular relationship in which the
condyles articulate with the thinnest avascular portion of their
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respective discs with the complex in the anterior–superior position
against the slopes of the articular eminencies. This position is
independent of tooth contact. This position is clinically discernible
when the mandible is directed superiorly and anteriorly. It is
restricted to a purely rotary movement about the transverse
horizontal axis (GPT5).
Maximal intercuspal position (MIP): The complete intercuspation of
the opposing teeth independent of condylar position, sometimes
referred to as the best fit of the teeth regardless of the condylar
position – called also maximal intercuspation (GPT8).
Eccentric relation: Any relationship of the mandible to the maxilla
other than the CR (GPT8).
Central bearing tracing device: A device that provides a central point
of bearing or support between the maxillary and mandibular dental
arches. It consists of a contacting point that is attached to one dental
arch and a plate attached to the opposing dental arch. The plate
provides the surface on which the bearing point rests or moves and on
which the tracing of the mandibular movement is recorded. It may be
used to distribute occlusal forces evenly during the recording of
maxillomandibular relationships and/or for the correction of
disharmonious occlusal contacts. First attributed to Alfred Gysi, Swiss
prosthodontist, in 1910 (GPT8).
Central bearing point: The contact point of a central bearing device
(GPT4).
Central bearing tracing: The pattern obtained on the horizontal plate
used with a central bearing tracing device.
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Structure of TMJ
The TMJ is a ‘ginglymoarthrodial joint’. ‘Ginglymus’ meaning a
‘hinge’ joint and ‘arthrodia’ meaning a joint permitting ‘gliding’
motion. Hence, it permits both hinge and gliding movements.
Components of TMJ (fig. 6.1)
Glenoid fossa
The glenoid fossa is a deep hollow on the under surface of the
zygomatic process of the temporal bone. The condyle stays in the
fossa during ordinary opening and closing (hinge) movements.
FIGURE 6.1 Structure and components of TMJ.
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Articular eminence
The articular eminence is a ramp-shaped prominence which extends
forwards and downwards from the anterior boundary of the glenoid
fossa. During forward (protrusive) movements of the entire mandible,
both condyles leave their fossa and move onto eminences. In lateral
movements, one condyle usually stays in a fossa and the other
condyle moves out of the fossa onto its eminence.
Condylar head of mandible

The condyle is an oval- or kidney-shaped structure found at the end of
the condylar process. It consists of a head and a neck. The convex
superior surface of the head articulates with the concave inferior
surface of the articular disc.
Articular disc
The articular disc is a pad of tough, flexible fibrocartilage situated
between the condyle and the glenoid fossa. The biconcave disc is a
shock-absorbing mechanism. When the condyle moves out onto the
articular eminence, the disc travels with it. It is also called meniscus. It
is attached at its periphery to the capsule and divides the
compartment into two spaces that contain synovial fluid – synovial
spaces.
Synovial cavity
It contains the synovial fluid, which acts to lubricate the joint. It is
divided into two:
1. Upper synovial cavity: Located between the

glenoid fossa and the upper surface of the
articulating disc.
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2. Lower synovial cavity: Located between the
lower surface of the disc and the condyle of the
mandible.
TMJ ligaments
1. Articular capsule
The capsule is the ‘major’ ligament of the TMJ. This ligamentous
sleeve or capsule originates from the entire rim of the glenoid fossa
and articular eminence, attaches to the edges of the articular disc, and
passes to insert around the rim of the condyle. The capsule holds the
disc in place between the condyle and the fossa and it also retains the
synovial fluid in the upper and the lower joint compartments. It acts
to prevent the dislocation of the mandible and limits extreme lateral
movements in wide opening of the mandible.
Some authors mention a separate temporomandibular ligament,
while others describe it as an anterior thickening of the capsule, not a
separate ligament (Fig. 6.2).
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FIGURE 6.2 Ligaments of TMJ.
2. Accessory ligaments (fig. 6.3)
(i) Stylomandibular ligament: The stylomandibular ligament

originates on the styloid process of the temporal bone and inserts on
the posterior border of the ramus near the angle. This ligament
becomes tense only in extreme protrusive movements.
(ii) Sphenomandibular ligament: The sphenomandibular ligament

originates on the spine of the sphenoid bone and inserts on the
anterior–superior of the mandibular foramen (lingula). This ligament
is passive during mandibular movements.
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FIGURE 6.3 Accessory ligaments of TMJ.
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These are complex and vary among individuals and also within each
individual.
An articulator must simulate the mandibular movements so that the
planned occlusal contacts will function properly. The less it simulates,
more will be the occlusal discrepancy.
Factors regulating mandibular movements

The following factors regulate mandibular movements. They are also
called ‘determinants or controlling factors’.
1. The condylar path.
2. The opposing tooth contact and anterior guidance.
3. Neuromuscular system.
The condylar path or guidance and the anterior guidance are called
‘end-controlling factors’. The condylar guidance is also termed as
‘posterior determinant’, while the anterior guidance is termed as
‘anterior determinant’.
Condylar path
This is the path travelled by the condyle in the TMJs during various
mandibular movements. It is influenced by the following:
• Inclination of glenoid fossa.
• Tone of muscles responsible for mandibular movements and their

nerve controls.
• Attached ligaments.
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• Shape and movement of the articular disc.
• Teeth (when present).
The condylar path is not under the dentists’ control and cannot be
altered. The movements can be categorized into the following types:
1. Basic movements
2. Excursive movements
3. Border movements
4. Functional movements
5. Parafunctional movements
1. Basic movements
All the movements of the condyle can be categorized as:
(i) Rotation (hinge movement)

Definition: The action or process of rotating on or as if on an axis or
centre (GPT8).
Movement is similar to a door hinge, and the condyle rotates
without any bodily movement. It happens in the inferior joint cavity
(lower compartment) between the superior surface of the condyle and
the inferior surface of the articular disc. Rotation occurs around an
axis – horizontal, frontal and sagittal and can be viewed in the three
reference planes of the skull – sagittal, frontal or coronal and
horizontal (Figs 6.4–6.6).
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FIGURE 6.4 (A) Rotation in the transverse horizontal axis
can be viewed in the sagittal plane (B) Sagittal plane divides
the face into right & left parts.
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FIGURE 6.5 (A) Rotation around the frontal axis can be
viewed in the horizontal plane, (B) Horizontal plane divides
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the face into upper & lower parts.
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FIGURE 6.6 (A) Rotation in the sagittal axis can be viewed in
the frontal or coronal plane, (B) Coronal plane divides the
face into anterior & posterior parts.
Axis: It is a line around which a body may rotate or about which a

structure would turn if it could revolve (GPT8).
Rotation in the horizontal axis (also called transverse horizontal
axis) occurs during mouth opening and protrusion. It is also a
posterior border movement.
Rotation in the frontal and sagittal axis occurs during lateral
movements.
(ii) Translation
Definition: That motion of a rigid body in which a straight line
passing through any two points always remains parallel to its initial
position. The motion may be described as a sliding or gliding motion
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(GPT8).
Translatory movement: The motion of a body at any instant when all
points within the body are moving at the same velocity and in the
same direction (GPT1).
This refers to bodily movement of the condyle. It occurs during all
the excursive mandibular movements. Translation occurs in the
superior joint cavity (upper compartment) between the superior
surface of the articular disc and the inferior surface of the glenoid
fossae.
2. Excursive movements
Definition: Movement occurring when the mandible moves away
from maximum intercuspation.
In a completely edentulous situation, it can be assumed as any
movement of the condyle from the CR position as it coincides with
MIP. Excursive movements are a combination of rotation and
translation.
The excursive movements are
(i) Opening and closing
• During mouth opening from CR position, initially for about 12 mm

of opening, there is only rotation of condyles in the glenoid fossa.
This is a posterior border movement. Then there is a translatory
movement and the condyles move downwards and forwards until
maximal opening. This can be viewed in the sagittal plane (Figs
6.7–6.9).
• This movement is used during introduction of food in the oral

cavity and for crushing certain types of brittle food.
• The reverse movement occurs during mouth closure.
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FIGURE 6.7 Opening movement begins from CR. Showing
position of condyle during CR.
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FIGURE 6.8 For 12 mm of opening (CR to B), there is only
hinge or rotational movement in condyle.
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FIGURE 6.9 Showing position of condyle after maxillary
opening, translation occurs.
(ii) Protrusion and retrusion

Protrusion: A position of the mandible anterior to CR (GPT8).
• This movement is used to grasp or incise food.
• The condyles translate downwards and forwards in the glenoid

fossa depending on the degree of protrusion (Fig. 6.10A and B). The
movement is not in a straight line and is dictated by the contour of
the glenoid fossa.
• In a natural dentition, the edge-to-edge protrusive contact will

create a gap between the posterior teeth (Fig. 6.11). This is called the
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Christensen’s phenomenon. While fabricating complete dentures, it
is essential to eliminate this gap by allowing simultaneous contact
of posterior teeth also, when the anterior teeth contact in protrusion
(see ‘Balanced Occlusion’ in Chapter 9). This stabilizes the denture
during protrusive movement.
• The average path of the advancing condyle makes an angle with the
frontal plane called the ‘protrusive condylar guidance
angle/inclination’ (Fig. 6.12). It is determined using protrusive
records (also see Chapter 7).
Retrusion: Movement towards the posterior (GPT8).
• The reverse of the above occurs during retrusive movement.
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FIGURE 6.10 (A) Protrusive movement brings the anterior
teeth edge-to-edge. Condyle translates downwards and
forwards. (B) During maximal protrusion F, condyle shows
maximal movement as dictated by the contours of glenoid
fossa.
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FIGURE 6.11 Christensen’s phenomenon – gap between the
upper and lower posterior natural teeth when the jaw is
moved edge-to-edge.
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FIGURE 6.12 Protrusive condylar guidance angle/inclination.
Angle formed by the average path of the condyle and the
frontal plane.
(iii) Lateral excursion
• Movement produced when the mandible moves laterally (side to

side or right and left). This movement is used for the reduction in
fibrous and other types of foods while chewing.
• When the mandible moves laterally (side to side), the side to which
it moves is termed as the ‘working side’ or ‘functional side’ and the
other side is termed as the ‘nonworking side’, ‘balancing side’ or
‘nonfunctional side’(Fig. 6.13).
• The condyle on the side to which the mandible moves (working

side) is termed as the working condyle or rotating condyle and the
condyle on the left side is termed as orbiting condyle or
nonworking condyle (Fig. 6.13).
• The working side condyle can just rotate on its axis or move
outwards and laterally (Fig. 6.13). This lateral movement is termed
as the ‘laterotrusion’ or ‘mandibular lateral translation’ or ‘Bennett
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movement’. It has also been termed previously as ‘Bennett shift’ or
‘mandibular side shift’. If the temporomandibular ligament of rotating
condyle is very tight, there is no bodily side shift of the mandible and
therefore no Bennett movement occurs.
• The lateral movement can also have a superior, inferior, anterior or

posterior component and this is termed as follows:
○ Superior – latero - surtrusion
○ Inferior – latero - detrusion
○ Anterior – latero - protrusion
○ Posterior – latero - retrusion
○ A definite timing may also be involved in Bennett

movement. It can occur immediately, take place at
the beginning, or be distributed throughout the
lateral deflection. This is termed as immediate,
early or progressive side shift respectively.
• The nonworking side condyle moves forwards, downwards and
medially (inwards). The medial movement is termed as
‘mediotrusion’. The average path of this advancing condyle forms
an angle with the sagittal plane called the ‘Bennett angle’ or ‘lateral
condylar guidance angle’ (Fig. 6.14). This angle is determined using
lateral records or using the Hanau formula, L = H/8 + 12 (see Page
137, Chapter 7). It can range from 2° to 44° with a mean value of 16°.
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FIGURE 6.13 When the mandible is moved to the right, the
right side condyle is the working condyle and the opposite
condyle is the nonworking condyle. The working condyle
rotates with or without a lateral shift (Bennett shift – CR to B),
while the nonworking condyle translates forwards, downwards
and medially (from CR to A).
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FIGURE 6.14 Bennett angle – angle formed by the average
path of balancing condyle, with the sagittal plane when lateral
movement is made. A, end of lateral movement; CR, centric
relation.
3. Border movements
Definition: Mandibular movement at the limits dictated by anatomic
structures, as viewed in a given plane (GPT8).
• These are extreme positions of the mandible in any direction limited

by nerves, muscles and ligaments.
• These positions can be recorded in the three anatomic planes with

devices such as the pantograph.
• These border positions are invaluable in recording jaw relations, as

they are consistently repeatable.
• Most mandibular movements occur as intraborder movements.

Parafunctional activities such as bruxism or wide opening during
yawning may occur in the borders.
Border movement in sagittal plane

This traces the movement as the mandible moves from centric
occlusion (CO) to maximal protrusion (F) to maximal mouth opening
(E) and then closing while returning to CO. While closing, condyle
translates (EB) and then rotates (B-CO) as explained in ‘opening
movements’. The characteristic tracing in sagittal plane is shown in
Fig. 6.15A and B. The last portion of the movement is basically a
posterior border movement and depicts the transverse horizontal axis
as the condyles only rotate in this position.
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FIGURE 6.15A, B Border movement in the sagittal plane.
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Border movement in horizontal plane
This traces the movement from CR to right and left extreme lateral
movements, maximal protrusion and then returns to CR. This
characteristic tracing forms the basis of ‘gothic arch tracing’ used to
record centric and eccentric jaw relations (Fig. 6.16).
FIGURE 6.16 Border movement in the horizontal plane.
Border movement in frontal plane

This traces the movement from CR to right and left extreme lateral
movements to maximal mouth opening and back. The characteristic
tracing is shown in Fig. 6.17.
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FIGURE 6.17 Border movement in the frontal plane.
Envelope of motion
This is the three-dimensional combination of all the border
movements discussed above. It was first described by Posselt. All
functional movements of the mandible occur within this envelope
(Fig. 6.18).
Definition: The three-dimensional space circumscribed by
mandibular movements occur (GPT8).
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FIGURE 6.18 Envelope of motion as described by Posselt. A
combination of border movements in all three planes.
4. Functional movements
Chewing, swallowing, speaking, yawning and associated movements
constitute the functional movements of the mandible. These take place
within the border movements. The envelope of motion recorded
during chewing appears as a characteristic ‘tear drop’ and can be
viewed in all three planes (Fig. 6.19). The movements are variable,
within the borders and are influenced by:
• Consistency, bulk and type of food
• Size, number and form of teeth
• Excess or lack of saliva
• The musculature and force of chewing
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FIGURE 6.19 Characteristic tear drop pattern of movement
recorded while chewing in all three planes.
The chewing cycle can be divided into opening and closing phases.
Closing phase is further divided into crushing phase and grinding
phase. While chewing, adults open their mouth to a comfortable
distance and more at the mandible in a forward direction until the
edges of maxillary and mandibular teeth meet. The food bolus is then
transported to the centre and mandible goes to its original position.
The mandible after moving sideways closes into the food until the
guiding teeth contact.
Chewing cycle
The chewing cycle was divided into the following six phases by
Murphy:
(i) Preparatory phase: The mandible deviates towards the chewing

side and the tongue positions the food within the oral cavity.
(ii) Food contact phase: Sensory receptors are triggered due to food
contact.
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(iii) Crushing phase: Starts at a high velocity and slows down as the
food gets crushed.
(iv) Phase of tooth contact: Reflex muscular adjustments for tooth

contact are made. A slight change in the direction occurs without
delay.
(v) Grinding phase: Maxillary and mandibular occlusal tables guide

the grinding movement.
(vi) Centric occlusion: The cuspal inclines slice the food, as the
mandible moves in an incline and then returns into a single terminal
point before going into the preparatory phase. Usual masticatory
frequency is one to two strokes per second. A tear drop tracing is
obtained, when tracing is recorded for the chewing cycle in the
sagittal plane (Fig. 6.19). When the mandible moves in an anterior
incline, the churned food is dispersed along the sluiceways.
Trituration of food occurs when the teeth are in a cusp to fossa
relationship.
Mandibular movements occur during speech but are highly variable

and cannot be practically recorded. Speech can be used as a guide to
verify jaw relations and for an arrangement of artificial teeth as
anterior teeth come very close together (discussed later in this chapter
and in Chapter 10).
During swallowing (deglutition), mandible is generally stabilized
against maxilla by contraction of masseter and temporalis muscle.
This results in contact of the upper and lower teeth. Mandibular
movement during swallowing can be used as a guide to verify jaw
relations as described later in this chapter.
5. Parafunctional movements
These are sustained movements of the mandible that occur other than
normal, manifested by long periods of increased muscle activity. They
are almost impossible for the patient to control. The two most
common parafunctional activities are bruxism and clenching (Table
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6.1).
Table 6.1
Functional and parafunctional activities
Functional activities Parafunctional activities

Chewing (mastication) Bruxism
Swallowing (deglutition)Clenching
Speech (phonation) Habits (pipe smoking, pencil biting, bobby pin opening and other habits)
Respiration
Yawning
Facial expression
Parafunctional movements of the mandible are activities that serve

no useful function and are potentially harmful to the dentition and its
contiguous structures. They can cause restricted mandibular
movements. These have to be diagnosed and appropriate remedial
measures need to be initiated, as they might affect jaw relation records
and prognosis of the prosthesis.
Opposing tooth contact

In complete denture wearers, a balanced occlusion is essential (see
Chapter 9) to prevent mandibular deflection and displacement of
dentures. During mandibular movements, the inclined planes of teeth
should not disrupt the influence of the condylar guidance posteriorly
and incisal guidance anteriorly. The condylar and incisal guidance are
also called ‘end-controlling factors’ in mandibular movement.
It has been shown that deflective contacts produce variations in
mandibular movements. But the patients tend to avoid deflective and
eccentric contacts by chewing on both sides at the same time during
mastication, which may explain why they function well even in the
absence of balanced occlusion.
The effect and adjustment of anterior (incisal guidance) guidance
which is also called the ‘anterior determinant’ of mandibular
movement is discussed in Chapter 9.
This factor can be altered by the dentist to achieve a balanced and
smooth occlusion during various functional mandibular movements.
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Neuromuscular system
This is another important factor in regulating mandibular movement.
The muscles responsible show increased activity and may be
associated with movement, fixation or stabilization of mandible such
that there is a smooth and coordinated movement from one position
to another.
The muscles perform their specific functions because they receive
impulses from the central nervous system. The impulses may arise at
the conscious or subconscious levels and result in voluntary or
involuntary muscular activity respectively.
The muscles of mastication and suprahyoid muscles are involved in
mandibular movements (Table 6.2).
Table 6.2
Muscles involved in mandibular movements
Muscles of mastication and suprahyoid

muscles
Masseter Closing and retrusion
Temporalis Elevation and retrusion
Medial pterygoid Closing and lateral movements
Lateral pterygoid Opening, protrusion and lateral movements
Suprahyoid group of muscles Depress (open the mouth) the mandible assisted by
infrahyoid group
Significance of mandibular movements

A sound understanding of mandibular movements is essential for the
following reasons:
• Recording jaw relations
• Designing, selection and adjustment of articulator
• Developing tooth form for dental restorations
• Understanding the basic principles of occlusion
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• Diagnosis and treatment of TMJ disturbances
• Preserving periodontal health
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Maxillomandibular relations and
records
Maxillomandibular relationship: Any spatial relationship of the
maxillae to the mandible; any one of the infinite relationships of the
mandible to the maxillae (GPT8).
Maxillomandibular relationship record: A registration of any
positional relationship of the mandible relative to the maxillae (GPT8).
Maxillomandibular relations can be classified as:
• Orientation relations: These establish the relationship of the maxilla

to the cranium.
• Vertical relations: Vertical relations establish the degree of jaw

separation or vertical height of the face. These are classified as:
○ Vertical relation (dimension) at rest
○ Vertical relation (dimension) in occlusion (occlusal

vertical dimension)
• Horizontal relations: Horizontal relations establish the
anteroposterior and side-to-side relationships of the jaws. These are
classified as:
○ CR
○ Eccentric relations:
▪ Protrusive
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▪ Lateral
The various jaw relations, their significance and methods of
recording are discussed below.
Oriental jaw relation

This is the first jaw relation to be recorded. It establishes the
relationship of the maxilla to the base of the skull or cranium.
Basically, it establishes the angle or tilt of the maxilla in the three
reference planes. The mandible moves against a fixed maxilla and to
accurately reproduce mandibular movements, it is necessary to
establish and record the tilt of the maxilla (Fig. 6.20A).
FIGURE 6.20A Tilt of maxilla – red lines show the existing

tilt/inclination of the maxilla in relation to the cranium. The tilt
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can vary with every individual (green line). This tilt needs to
be recorded and transferred to the articulator to obtain
accurate jaw relation records. This tilt is recorded using
facebow.
To record the angulation of the maxilla, a plane should be formed

with at least two posterior references and one anterior reference (Fig.
6.20B).
FIGURE 6.20B View of a head from top – to record the

inclination of maxilla, a plane should be formed with two
posterior (centre of both condyles A and B) and one anterior
point – here infraorbital notch C is used as anterior reference
point.
As the mouth opens and closes in CR, the movement of the

condyles in the initial stages (up to about 12 mm) of opening and final
stages of closing is a rotational movement in the horizontal axis,
following an arc of a circle (as previously described in Mandibular
Movements). The axis of the rotation or arc passes through the centre
of both the condyles. The condyles are centred in the glenoid fossa
during this rotational movement. If the centre of condylar rotation can
be determined, it will correspond to the two posterior reference points
necessary to form a plane for the maxilla, as the glenoid fossa is
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located just above the centre. This is a repeatable border position and
can be located consistently. A third reference point located anteriorly
in the maxilla – infraorbital notch or nasion – will complete the plane
(Fig. 6.20C).
FIGURE 6.20C Facebow is used to determine the inclination

of maxilla by forming a plane (a–c) using the centre of the two
condyles (a and c) as posterior references and infraorbital
notch (b) as anterior reference. Hence, the centre of condylar
rotation is also determined and the same is transferred to the
articulator. Once the maxilla is oriented, the mandible is
oriented with the maxilla using centric and eccentric records.
The instrument that is used to record the centre of condylar rotation

along with a third reference point, thereby forming a plane to record
the orientation relationship of the maxilla to the cranium, is called
facebow.
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Facebow
Definition: A caliper-like instrument used to record the spatial
relationship of the maxillary arch to some anatomic reference point or
points and then transfer this relationship to an articulator; it orients
the dental cast in the same relationship to the opening axis of the
articulator. Customarily the anatomic references are the mandibular
condyles, transverse horizontal axis and one other selected anterior
point; also called hinge bow (GPT8).
Types of facebow
There are two types of facebows:
• Arbitrary facebows
• Kinematic/hinge facebows
The arbitrary facebow determines the approximate ‘centre of rotation’

of condyle, while the kinematic facebow establishes the centre
accurately.
Arbitrary facebow
Definition: A device used to relate the maxillary cast to the condylar
elements of an articulator using average anatomic landmarks to
estimate the position of the transverse horizontal axis on the face
(GPT8).
• Also called ‘average axis facebow’.
• It is the most commonly used facebow and is preferred for complete

denture construction.
• The hinge axis (transverse horizontal axis) is approximately located.

It positions the rods within 5 mm of the true centre of rotation of
condyle.
• This method does not locate the true hinge axis, but the clinical
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impact of this inaccuracy is minimal and will lead to a mild error in
the occlusion, which can be adjusted during insertion of the
complete dentures.
• Arbitrary facebows are classified as:
○ Earpiece type (ear bow): In this type, the external

auditory meatus is considered as reference point to
determine the centre of condylar rotation. The
condyles are located at an approximate distance in
front of the meatus (Fig. 6.21) and this is
compensated for in the articulator by mounting the
facebow behind the condylar centre (Fig. 6.22). This
type of facebow is easier to manipulate clinically.
○ Facia type: In the facia type of facebow, the centre

of condylar rotation is arbitrarily marked as 13 mm
anterior to the middle of the tragus of the ear, on a
line drawn from the outer canthus of the eye to the
middle of the tragus of the ear – canthotragal line
(Fig. 6.23). The condylar rods of the facebow are
placed on this point (Fig. 6.24). Unlike the earpiece
type, this facebow is mounted by placing the
condylar rods at the centre of the condyle in the
articulator (Fig. 6.25).
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FIGURE 6.21 Ear pieces fit into the external auditory meatus
which is located posterior to the centre of condyle (A).
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FIGURE 6.22 The ear piece (B) that fits into the external
auditory meatus is fitted in a slot behind the centre of condyle
(A) in the articulator similar to its position on the patient.
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FIGURE 6.23 The condylar centre is located 13 mm from the
middle of tragus of ear on the canthotragal line.
FIGURE 6.24 Placement of condylar rods at the marked

point (centre of condyle).
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FIGURE 6.25 Facebow is mounted by placing the condylar
rods at the centre of the condyle in the articulator.
Kinematic facebow
Definition: A facebow with adjustable caliper ends used to locate the
transverse horizontal axis of the mandible (GPT8) (Fig. 6.26B).
• It locates the true (exact) centre of condylar rotation or transverse

horizontal axis.
• It is preferred in full mouth reconstructions.
• It usually requires a fully adjustable articulator.
• When we consider the rotation of any circular object, only the

central point rotates, any other point within the circle will show
translatory movement (Fig. 6.26A). Similarly in the condyle, the
centre alone will display pure rotation. This principle used to
determine the true centre of rotation using kinematic facebow.
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• The condylar rods are first positioned arbitrarily similar to facia
type of facebow at a point 13 mm anterior to the auditory meatus on
the canthotragal line.
• The patient is instructed to make opening and closing movements in

CR. The opening should not be greater than 12 mm as then the
condyle will then begin to translate instead of rotating.
• The position of the condylar rod is shifted around the arbitrary

mark until it shows pure rotation. This is the centre of condylar
rotation. This point is marked, the condylar rods are locked, the
facebow assembly is removed and mounted on an appropriate
articulator.
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FIGURE 6.26 (A) Rotation of a circular object – only the
centre rotates, other points translate. (B) Kinematic facebow.
The bite fork/clutches are attached to the mandible which has
the tracing stylus, and the tracing plates fixed to the skull, so
that the tracers are in contact with the plates. During the
mandibular opening and closing, the stylus makes the tracing
on the plates.
Parts of a facebow
Slight modifications in the facebow may be seen in different types.
The basic parts of a facia facebow are described as follows:
1. U-shaped frame
• It is a U-shaped metallic frame, to which all the other components of

the facebow are attached (Fig. 6.27).
• It extends from the TMJ of one side to the TMJ of the other side, at
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least 2–3 inches anterior to the face to avoid contact.
FIGURE 6.27 Parts of a facebow: (a) U-shaped frame, (b)

condylar rod-facia facebow, (c) locking device (d) bite fork, (e)
orbital pointer and (f) condylar rod-earpiece facebow.
2. Condylar rods
• These are two calibrated metal extensions fitted on either side of the
free end of the U-shaped frame that are placed on the determined
centre of condyle (Figs 6.27 and 6.28).
• The calibrations on either side are equalized (to centre the facebow)
and then locked.
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FIGURE 6.28 Condylar rods.
3. Bite fork
• It is a U-shaped rod which is attached to the maxillary occlusal rim

while recording the orientation jaw relation (Figs 6.27 and 6.29).
• It is attached to the frame with the help of a metal rod called the
‘stem’.
• The bite fork should be inserted about 3 mm above the occlusal

surface into the occlusal rim.
• Sometimes the bite fork is attached to the occlusal surface of the

occlusal rim with the help of impression compound. This is done in
order to preserve the occlusal rim.
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FIGURE 6.29 Bite fork.
4. Locking devices
There are three locking devices (Figs 6.27 and 6.30):
• Locking clamp for bite fork: It attaches the bite fork to the U-
shaped frame.
• Locking clamp for orbital pointer pin: Locks the orbital pin onto
the U-shaped rod.
• There is another locking screw for the condylar rods.
FIGURE 6.30 Locking device: (a) locking screws for condylar

rods, (b) locking clamp for bite fork and (c) locking clamp for
orbital pointer.
5. Orbital pointer pin
• It helps in marking the anterior reference point (Figs 6.27 and 6.31).
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• It is adjusted after marking the anterior reference point on the
patient. This enables the transfer of the third reference point.
FIGURE 6.31 Orbital pin.
Facebow transfer
The procedure of transferring the orientation of the maxilla to the
articulator involves:
• Facebow record
• Facebow mounting
Clinical procedure for recording orientation jaw relation (using

facia type)
• The maxillary occlusal rim is inserted into the patient’s mouth and
contoured and all the required guidelines are marked as described
in Chapter 5.
• A point 13 mm from tragus of the ear on the canthotragal line is

marked on both sides (Fig. 6.23).
• The bite fork is flamed and attached anteriorly to the maxillary

occlusal rim, 3 mm above the incisal plane and parallel to the
occlusal plane (Fig. 6.32).The maxillary rim with the attached bite
fork is inserted into the patient’s mouth. The parallelism and
centring of the attached bite fork are verified (Fig. 6.33).
• The U-frame is supported by two fingers and gently rotated and

inserted into the stem of the bite fork in the patient’s mouth (Fig.
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6.34).
• The condylar rods are unlocked and the condylar heads are then
placed in the patient’s right and left condylar centres on the
previously marked points (Fig. 6.35).
• The third point of reference (infraorbital notch) is palpated and the

orbital pointer is set to the third point of reference (Fig. 6.36A and
B).
• The condylar rod readings are equalized on both sides and the
locking screws are tightened. Following this, the orbital pointer is
also tightened in position (Fig. 6.37A and B).
• Once the entire apparatus is in position, the condylar rods, orbital

pin and the bite fork are verified for any movement, alignment and
parallelism.
• The contoured mandibular occlusal rim may be used during the

transfer to stabilize the maxillary rim. The facebow record is
removed from the patient by loosening only the condylar screws
(Fig. 6.38). The record is now ready to be mounted on the
articulator. This completes the facebow transfer and then it is
transferred to the articulator.
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FIGURE 6.32 (A) The bite fork is mildly warmed on a burner
and slowly inserted into the maxillary occlusal rim 3 mm
above and parallel to the occlusal plane. (B) The centre of the
fork should coincide with the patient’s midline.
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FIGURE 6.33A, B The occlusal rim with attached bite fork is
inserted into the patient’s mouth and verified.
FIGURE 6.34 The U-frame is inserted into the bite fork stem.
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FIGURE 6.35 The condylar rods are placed on the
predetermined condylar centres.
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FIGURE 6.36A, B The infraorbital notch, which is the third
point of reference is palpated.
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FIGURE 6.37A, B Completed facebow record.
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FIGURE 6.38 The entire assembly to be transferred to the
articulator is carefully removed. Note the condylar rod
calibration, position of maxilla and orbital pin.
Mounting on the articulator
• The articulator is programmed first (zeroing of articulator): The

incisal guide pin is set to correct jaw separation and the anterior
stop screws are tightened first. Next the horizontal condylar
inclination is set at 40° and the Bennett angle at 20° (Figs 6.39 and
6.40).
• The facebow record is now mounted on the articulator as follows:

The condylar rods are attached to the auditory pins. The bite fork is
stabilized on the tilting support bar provided and the orbital pin is
made to coincide with the orbital axis plane indicator.
• The incisal pin is locked with its lock screw at zero on calibration
and the incisal table is set horizontally (Fig. 6.41).
• The upper member of the articulator is swung open, plaster is mixed

and placed on the cast and the upper member is closed slowly, until
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the incisal pin fully touches the incisal table and upper mounting
plate is covered with plaster.
• Excess plaster is trimmed once the plaster is set (Fig. 6.42). Facebow
is now removed by loosening all the locking devices.
FIGURE 6.39 Programming articulator – horizontal condylar

guidance set at 40.
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FIGURE 6.40 Lateral condylar angle set at 20.
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FIGURE 6.41 The U-shaped frame is supported by the base
anteriorly.
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FIGURE 6.42 Mounted maxillary cast using facebow transfer.
Indications of facebow
The need to use a facebow in complete dentures has been debated
with many dentists preferring not to use the same. It is seen that not
using the facebow only leads to minor errors in occlusion, which can
be corrected intraorally during the delivery of the denture. In fact,
studies comparing the patient response to complete dentures with or
without facebow transfer failed to show any significant clinical
advantage with facebow use. In this context facebow may be indicated
when:
• Balanced occlusion is desired.
• Vertical dimension is subject to change.
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If a facebow is not used, the maxillary cast is mounted arbitrarily on
the articulator using the occlusal plane as a guide.
Vertical jaw relations

• Following the orientation of the maxilla or maxillary cast, the
mandible/mandibular cast is related to the maxilla using
interocclusal records, which record the horizontal jaw relation. It is
important to record the horizontal jaw relation at the appropriate
vertical dimension that is normal for the individual. Hence, the
vertical dimension should be determined first.
• The vertical jaw relation or vertical dimension is defined as the

length of the face as determined by the amount of separation of the jaws
under specified conditions.
• The correct vertical dimension should be established before

recording horizontal relations as increasing or decreasing the
vertical dimension can have deleterious effects.
• The vertical dimension is maintained by the occlusion of teeth or the

mandibular musculature.
• Classification:
○ Vertical dimension at rest.
○ Vertical dimension of occlusion or occlusal vertical

dimension.
○ Vertical dimension in other positions of mandible.

Vertical dimension at rest and occlusion are the two measurable
guides and need to be determined.
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Vertical dimension at rest: The length of the face when the mandible
is in rest position (GPT).
Physiologic rest position: The postural position of the mandible when
an individual is resting comfortably in an upright position and the
associated muscles are in a state of minimal contractual activity
(GPT8).
Vertical dimension of occlusion or occlusal vertical dimension: The
length of the face when the teeth are in contact in MIP (maximal
intercuspation).
It is imperative that teeth should not contact at rest position and a
space exists. This is important because the rest position is a
comfortable position and the individual returns to this position most
of the time that allows the supporting hard and soft tissues to rest.
Contact of teeth in this position will be similar to a premature and
constant contact of teeth and will lead to soreness of supporting
tissues and bone resorption. The vertical distance between the teeth at
rest position is termed as ‘freeway space’ or ‘interocclusal rest space’.
In the dentulous individuals this space varies from 1 to 10 mm with an
average of 2–4 mm. The older the complete denture patient, more
interocclusal rest space is provided.
As the rest position does not depend on the presence of teeth and is
repeatable and recordable, the vertical dimension of occlusion in
complete denture patients can be calculated by determining vertical
dimension at rest and then subtracting 2–4 mm to allow for freeway
space.
VD at occlusion = VD at rest – 2–4 mm
The most commonly used method of determining the occlusal

vertical dimension – Niswonger’s method (described later in this
chapter) – employs this principle to determine the same.
Whatever method is used for determining the occlusal vertical
dimension, the rest position is always used as a guide to ensure that
interocclusal rest space or freeway space is present. This will ensure
that the vertical dimension is not increased or decreased.
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Methods of determining vertical dimension at rest
The following factors influence the rest position:
1. The posture of the patient: The rest position is affected by postural

changes. The patient should be sitting upright or standing with the
head erect and looking straight ahead, when the rest position is
determined.
2. A relaxed patient: When a patient is nervous, tense, irritable or

tired, the rest position may be inaccurate. It should be determined
when the patient is relaxed.
3. Neuromuscular disturbance: It will be difficult to determine the

rest position in patients with such problems. The dentist should be
more considerate, patient and spend more time to establish the rest
position in such individuals.
4. Duration: As it is a position in space, the patient cannot maintain

the rest position for long periods. The dentist should make the
measurement without delay when the patient assumes this position.
5. Use of several methods: Although the rest position is measurable

and repeatable, there is no single scientific method of establishing the
same. A combination of various methods is used to verify the
position.
The following methods are commonly used to determine the

vertical dimension of rest:
1. Facial measurements
The vertical dimension at rest is calculated by making facial
measurements. The posture of the patient should be as described
previously. Two marks are commonly placed, one on the tip of the
nose and other on the chin directly below the nose marking. The
markings can be made with an indelible marker or pieces of adhesive
tape (Fig. 6.43).
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FIGURE 6.43 (A) Facial measurements can be made by
marking points on chin and nose. (B) A divider can be used to
measure the vertical dimension.
As the patient assumes rest position, the vertical distance between

the two points is measured using a divider or scale. Measurements
can also be made with special instruments made for the purpose like
Willis gauge (Fig. 6.44) and Dakometer.
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FIGURE 6.44A, B Willis gauge used to make facial
measurements.
The following methods are used to make the patient assume the
postural rest position:
(i) Swallowing: The patient is instructed to drop the shoulders, wipe

his/her lips with tongue, swallow and close the mouth. This makes the
mandible assume the rest position, which is immediately measured.
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(ii) Tactile sense: The patient is instructed to open the mouth wide
until strain is felt in the muscles (may be for 1–2 min). They are then
asked to close the mouth slowly until they feel comfortable and
relaxed. Measurement is made in this position.
(iii) Phonetics: The patient is instructed to repeatedly say words that

contain the letter ‘m’. The lips meet when this is pronounced and the
patient is instructed to stop all jaw movements when this happens.
Measurement is made between the two points of reference.
Alternately, the patient can be engaged in a conversation and

measurement made when the patient pauses during the dialogue. The
mandible assumes rest position at this point.
(iv) Facial expression: The following indicates rest position:
○ Lips are even anteroposteriorly with slight contact.
○ Skin around the eyes and chin is relaxed.
○ Relaxation around the nostrils with unobstructed

breathing.
With experience the dentist learns to recognize, these features
depicting rest position and will make measurements accordingly.
2. Measurement of anatomic landmarks

The Willis guide states that the distance from the pupil of the eye to
the rima oris (corner of mouth) should be equal to the distance from
the anterior nasal spine to the lower border of the mandible, when the
mandible is in its physiologic rest position (Fig. 6.45).
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FIGURE 6.45 Willis guide – distance from pupil of eye to rima
oris (B) should be equal to the distance from anterior nasal
spine to the lower border of mandible (A), when the mandible
is in physiologic rest position.
Methods of recording vertical dimension of

occlusion
The methods employed to determine vertical dimension of occlusion
can be classified as physiologic and mechanical methods. In dentate
individuals, the occlusal vertical dimension may not be established at
CR, but for the complete denture patient, it must be established at CR.
1. Physiologic methods
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(i) Niswonger’s method (physiologic rest position)
This is the most commonly used method to establish occlusal vertical
dimension. It uses the physiologic rest position (vertical dimension at
rest) to determine the occlusal vertical dimension. As discussed
previously in this chapter, Niswonger stated that:
VD at Occlusion = VD at rest – freeway space (2–4 mm)
Hence, the physiologic rest position is first determined. The

contoured maxillary occlusal rim is placed in the patient’s mouth and
the vertical dimension at rest is determined using facial measurements
as discussed previously. The mandibular occlusal rim is then inserted
and it is trimmed and contoured until it meets the maxillary rim
evenly. The lower rim is adjusted till the facial measurement in
occlusion is 2–4 mm less than that in rest position. This will provide
for the necessary interocclusal space or freeway space (Fig. 6.46). The
same can be verified by asking the patient to part the lips without
moving the jaws at rest position, with the occlusal rims inserted.
FIGURE 6.46 Niswonger’s method: vertical dimension of

occlusion (VDO) = vertical dimension at rest (VDR) – freeway
space (2–4 mm).
(ii) Swallowing threshold
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The concept that maxillary and mandibular teeth come into light
contact at the beginning of the swallowing cycle is used as a guide to
determine occlusal vertical dimension. The procedure involves
building a cone of soft wax on the lower denture base in such a way
that it contacts the upper occlusion rim when the jaws are open. Flow
of saliva is stimulated by a piece of chocolate. The lower wax cone is
softened and the patient is asked to repeat the action of swallowing.
This will gradually reduce the height of the wax cone until it just
touches the upper rim while swallowing. However, this method has
not proven to be consistent.
(iii) Phonetics
This uses phonetics to determine the vertical dimension.
Closest speaking space: The space between the anterior teeth that,
according to Dr Earl Pound, should not be more or less than 1–2 mm
of clearance between the incisal edges of the teeth when the patient is
unconsciously repeating the letter ‘s’. Dr Meyer M Silverman termed
this speaking centric, which was defined as the closest relationship of
the occlusal surfaces and incisal edges of the mandibular teeth to the
maxillary teeth during function and rapid speech. This was later
called closest speaking level by Dr Silverman and finally the closest
speaking space (GPT8). The occlusal rims are inserted and height is
adjusted until a minimum of 2 mm space exists when the patient
pronounces the letter ‘s’.
The production of ‘ch’ and ‘j’ sounds also brings the anterior teeth
close together. When correctly placed, the lower incisors should move
forward to a position nearly directly under and almost touching the
upper central incisors (Fig. 6.47).
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FIGURE 6.47 Closest speaking space. Position of the
anterior teeth govern the vertical separation between them
during pronunciation of ‘ch’, ‘s’ and ‘j’. Incorrect positioning
will result in obliteration or opening of this space (closest
speaking space) which will result in altered pronunciation of
these words.
If the distance is too large with any of the above methods, it means
that too small a vertical dimension of occlusion may have been
established. If the anterior teeth touch or click together when these
sounds are made, the VD is probably too great.
(iv) Neuromuscular perception
• Central bearing device (tactile sense): This utilizes the tactile sense
of the individual to establish the vertical dimension. An adjustable
central bearing screw is attached to one of the rims and a central
bearing plate is attached to the other rim. The central bearing screw
is first placed such that it is obviously too long or vertical dimension
is increased. Progressively the screw height is reduced till the
patient indicates that the jaws are overclosing (reduced vertical
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dimension). Finally the screw is adjusted until the patient indicates
that the length is comfortable. The problem with this method is the
presence of foreign objects in the palate and restriction of tongue
space.
• Power point (maximum biting force): Boos (1940) demonstrated

that the maximum biting force in an individual is registered at
vertical dimension at rest. The method involved attaching a
pressure indicating gauge which displayed the biting pressure, to a
central bearing plate and screw on the occlusal rims as previously
described. The device is called bimeter and the maximum biting
point is termed as power point. The screw is adjusted to increase or
decrease the vertical dimension and the bite force is recorded with
each insertion (Fig. 6.48). Boos stated that the vertical dimension of
occlusion is the rest position or maximum force minus 2 mm.
FIGURE 6.48 Bimeter used to determine the bite force and

thereby the vertical dimension.
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(v) Aesthetics
The vertical dimension also affects aesthetics. When the vertical
dimension is increased, the skin of the lips appears stretched
compared to the skin over other parts of the face (Fig. 6.49). The skin
appears more flaccid with a decreased vertical dimension. The
contour of the lips is also distorted with a change in vertical
dimension. The same problems can also occur if the labial contour of
the occlusal rims is incorrect. Hence, the labial contour of the occlusal
rims should be first developed and verified individually before
evaluating the vertical relations.
FIGURE 6.49 Aesthetics affected due to increase in vertical

dimension. The same is also true for a decreased VD.
2. Mechanical methods
(i) Ridge relations
• Incisive papilla to mandibular incisors: The incisive papilla is a
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stable landmark whose position changes very little with resorption
of the alveolar ridge. The distance of the papilla from the incisal
edges of the mandibular anterior teeth should be on an average,
approximately 4 mm in CO (Fig. 6.50). This is again just a guide to
verify the vertical dimension and should be used with caution in
patients with severe resorption.
• Ridge parallelism: Parallelism of the maxillary and mandibular

ridges with a 5° opening in the posterior region provides a guide of
appropriate vertical dimension. Since the clinical crowns of the
anterior and posterior natural teeth have similar lengths, their
removal makes the residual alveolar ridges nearly parallel to each
other. However, in most people the teeth are lost at different times,
and when a person finally becomes edentulous, the residual ridges
may no longer be parallel.
FIGURE 6.50 Maxillary and mandibular casts showing
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relationship of incisive papilla to mandibular incisors.
(ii) Pre-extraction records

These records can be prepared prior to the extraction of teeth and can
be used as a guide to verify the vertical dimension of occlusion during
the fabrication of complete dentures.
• Profile photographs: Photographs are made of the facial profile

when the teeth were present, in occlusion (Fig. 6.51). These are
enlarged to a life size and similar photographs are made during
recording of jaw relations with the rims in occlusion. Distance
between similar anatomic landmarks on the photographs taken
when the teeth were present and during jaw relation is compared.
This allows verification of occlusal vertical dimension.
• Profile silhouettes: The facial profile of a patient with natural teeth

in occlusion before extraction can be carved out in a cardboard or
contoured in a wire. The same can be placed on the face when the
occlusal vertical dimension is being recorded with occlusal rims in
position. This also allows verification of the vertical dimension.
• Radiographs: Cephalometric radiographs and radiographs of

condyles in fossa have been used similar to previous methods
before extraction and during recording jaw relations to verify the
vertical dimension. Because of radiation hazards and inaccuracies,
they are now avoided.
• Articulated cast: Casts are mounted before extraction and following

the recording of the edentulous jaw relation in CR. The interarch
distance is compared between the two casts to verify accuracy of
vertical dimension.
• Facial measurements: Tattoo marks are placed, one in the upper

half and other on the lower half of the face (Fig. 6.52). The vertical
distance between the marks is measured with the teeth in occlusion
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before extraction. The measurement is compared with the occlusal
rims in position during jaw relation procedure to determine
occlusal vertical dimension.
FIGURE 6.51 Profile photograph used for pre-extraction

records. It is enlarged to a life size and compared to similar
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photograph taken with occlusal rims in mouth.
FIGURE 6.52 Tattoo marks placed in the upper and lower

half of face before extraction of teeth enable verification of
vertical dimension following extraction.
(iii) Measurement of former dentures

The old dentures are placed in the mouth and using facial
measurements the vertical distance is measured. This can be done
during the jaw relation appointment for the new dentures. This again
can only be used as a guide to establish the vertical dimension for the
new dentures as there could be loss of vertical dimension with the old
dentures due to ridge resorption and wear of the artificial teeth.
Effects of increase in vertical dimension
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1. Discomfort: Chewing is a muscular mandibular movement,
acquired over a period of many years, which the patient performs
automatically and unconsciously. Increasing the vertical dimension
alters the environment in which these unconscious movements take
place and until the original condition is restored, discomfort will
result. The jarring effect of teeth coming into contact sooner than
expected also causes discomfort.
2. Trauma: The sudden and frequent contacting of teeth causes

trauma to the denture-bearing area, especially under the lower
denture, where the area to resist pressure is less. Correcting the fitting
surface of the denture will typically not solve the problem.
3. TMJ problem: The constant tooth contact will also affect the TMJ
causing soreness and pain.
4. Bone resorption: The increased vertical height does not allow the
muscles that close the mouth to complete their contraction. They will
continue to exert force to overcome this obstruction and this will lead
to resorption of supporting tissues.
5. Muscular fatigue: Due to the constant effort of the muscles to close

the mouth, muscular fatigue will also occur.
6. Clicking of teeth: The premature contact of teeth sooner than what

the individual is used to, will cause clicking of teeth.
7. Facial distortion: There will be an inability to close the lips, which

will produce a strained expression and elongation of face.
8. Difficulty in swallowing and speech: The inability to close the lips

will also cause difficulty in swallowing and speech.
Effects of decrease in vertical dimension

1. Inefficiency: The biting force exerted by the teeth in occlusion
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decreases which causes inefficient mastication.
2. Cheek biting: The loss of muscle tone and reduced vertical height
causes the flabby cheeks to become trapped during mastication.
3. TMJ problem: The patient has to often protrude the mandible to

occlude the teeth and this causes pain and clicking in the TMJ.
4. Facial distortion: The following effects are seen:
○ Nose appears closer to the chin
○ Loss of lip fullness
○ Loss of tonicity of muscles of facial expression
○ Face appears flabby
○ Patient appears older (Fig. 6.53)

5. Angular cheilitis: The corners of the mouth form deep folds, which
are bathed in saliva. This becomes infected and sore (also see Fig. 3.9,
Chapter 3).
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FIGURE 6.53 Effects of a reduced vertical dimension on
facial appearance.
There is no single method to determine the vertical dimension. It has to be

evaluated using the various methods as discussed. All determination of the
vertical dimension must be considered tentative until the teeth are arranged.
During try-in, the vertical relation should again be assessed.
Horizontal jaw relations

Following the orientation of maxilla and determination of vertical
dimension, the final relation to be recorded is the horizontal relation.
This is the anteroposterior relation of the mandible to the maxilla in
the horizontal plane.
The horizontal relations can be classified as:
• Centric relation
• Eccentric relations – protrusive and lateral.
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Centric relation
Definitions
1. The maxillomandibular relationship in which the condyles

articulate with the thinnest avascular portion of their respective discs
with the complex in the anterior–superior position against the slopes
of the articular eminencies. This position is independent of tooth
contact. This position is clinically discernible when the mandible is
directed superiorly and anteriorly. It is restricted to a purely rotary
movement about the transverse horizontal axis (GPT5).
2. The most retruded physiologic relation of the mandible to the

maxillae to and from which the individual can make lateral
movements. It is a condition that can exist at various degrees of jaw
separation. It occurs around the terminal hinge axis (GPT3).
Maximal intercuspal position (MIP): The complete intercuspation of

position, is also called maximal intercuspation.
Centric occlusion (CO): The occlusion of opposing teeth when the
mandible is in CR. This may or may not coincide with the MIP.
• CR is a bone-to-bone relation, while MIP and CO are tooth-to-tooth

relation.
• Definitions of CR have been constantly modified in prosthodontic

literature. The first definition given above is what is currently
advocated. The second one has been used previously and various
other definitions have also been documented (GPT8). The current
definition throws light on the position of the condyle in the fossa,
which is clinically not significant while recording CR. The most
retruded position is also not acceptable as this position requires the
operator to use force to obtain and may not be a comfortable
position for the individual.
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• It can be assumed that the CR is certainly a posterior border position
or retruded position (may be not the most retruded), independent
of tooth contact, which is comfortable, repeatable and recordable for
the patient and allows easy access to all other eccentric positions of
the mandible.
Significance of CR
CR is the most important record to obtain for complete denture
construction because of the following reasons:
1. CR and MIP: In natural dentition, the MIP may not coincide with
CR. But this does not create any damage as the proprioceptive
receptors present in the periodontal ligament direct the mandible
away from deflective occlusal contacts present in CR into MIP. So a
memory pattern is established which allows the mandible to move
from CR to MIP and back without any interference and damage.
In completely edentulous individuals, these receptors

are lost along with the teeth. So they cannot avoid
deflective contacts in CR. This will cause movement
of denture base, displacement of supporting tissues
and direct the mandible away from its path. Hence,
MIP must coincide with CR in completely edentulous
individuals.
2. CR and transverse horizontal axis: The maxillary cast is oriented to
the hinge axis or transverse horizontal axis using a facebow transfer.
As already discussed, this axis is a posterior border position and
hence the facebow record was made in CR. Hence, the mandibular cast
will also be correctly oriented to the opening axis of the articulator only if it is
mounted in CR.
3. CR and vertical relation: CR position changes with variations in
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vertical dimension. The deleterious effects of increase or decrease in
vertical dimension have already been discussed. Hence, the CR must be
recorded at the established vertical dimension, which is normal for the
individual.
4. Reproducible: Since it is a border position, it can be recorded,

reproduced and verified over a period of time. It is a learned position
to which the patient can voluntarily and reflexly return.
5. Comfortable: The mandible returns to this position during all its

functional movements, and hence it is convenient and comfortable.
6. Easy excursion: This posterior reference position allows easy access

to all other excursive positions.
7. Conducive to health: Pain and lack of occlusal integrity and

instability have been associated with complete dentures not fabricated
with MIP in CR.
Retruding the mandible

Methods: To record CR, the mandible must be retruded. The various
methods of retruding the mandible can be classified as:
Passive methods
The mandible is retruded by the patients themselves, following the
dentist’s instructions without any physical participation by the
dentist. The patient is instructed to
1. Relax, pull the jaw back and close on the back teeth.
2. Get the feeling of pushing the upper jaw out and close on back
teeth.
3. Touch the posterior part of the upper denture with tongue and close
till the rims contact.
4. Swallow and close.
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5. Tap the occlusal rims together repeatedly and rapidly.
6. Tilt the head back while performing the above exercises.
7. Protrude and retrude the mandible repeatedly holding his/her

fingers lightly against the chin.
Active methods
The patient is guided to retrude the mandible with physical assistance
from the dentist.
1. The dentist places his thumb and forefinger on the patient’s chin to
exert a mild but firm posterior force while patient closes on the rims.
This will prevent the patient from moving the jaw anteriorly (Fig.
6.54A).
2. Dentist palpates the temporal and masseter muscles to relax them.
3. Dawson’s bimanual palpation – the dentist stands behind the

patient and places all four fingers of both hands on the lower border
of the mandible on either side. The thumbs are placed over the
symphysis such that they contact in the midline (Fig. 6.54B). The
patient is instructed to open the mouth and then close slowly. As the
patient closes, dentist applies an upwards lifting force with the fingers
on the inferior border and simultaneously applies a downward force
with the thumbs (Fig. 6.55). This guides the patient to close in CR.
Difficulty: Difficulties in retruding the mandible can be classified as:

Biological causes
• Lack of muscle coordination in opposing groups
• Patient closing habitually in a protruded relation
Psychological causes
• Patient unable to follow the dentist’s instructions due to anxiety and
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stress
Mechanical causes
• Poor adaptation of record bases
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FIGURE 6.54 (A) Active method of retruding mandible. (B)
Dawson’s bimanual palpation – position of fingers.
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FIGURE 6.55 Dawson’s bimanual palpation – direction of
force application.
Recording the centric relation

After establishing the vertical dimension, the mandible is oriented to
the maxilla in the horizontal relation using centric and eccentric
records. The record is transferred to the articulator so that the artificial
teeth can be arranged to harmonize with the patient’s mandibular
movements.
Requirements of CR record
1. To record correct horizontal relation of mandible to maxilla.
2. To exert equalized vertical pressure.
3. To remain undistorted till mounting on articulator.
Methods used to record CR
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1. Static methods: These methods are employed without the use of
functional or excursive mandibular movements. They have been
referred to as ‘tentative centric record’.
Advantages:
• Simple, no extra armamentarium or devices are required.
• Can be recorded in one appointment.
Disadvantages:
• Inaccuracy can result from lack of equalized pressure.
• Difficult to verify the accuracy of the record.
• Not as accurate as graphic method.
(i) Wax occlusal rims:
• One of the most commonly used methods to record CR.
• The wax occlusal rims are contoured (as described in chapter 5) and
the vertical dimension of occlusion is established ensuring even
contact of the maxillary and mandibular rims anteriorly and
posteriorly.
• The patient is trained to retrude the mandible (using one of the

methods previously described). The various ‘guidelines’ are marked
(as described in chapter 5) and the patient is asked to close in centric
and hold the position.
• The rims are joined or sealed in this position and then removed
from the mouth and articulated.
• The following methods can be used to seal the rims:
○ Heat: A hot wax knife can be used to melt and flow
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the wax at the junction of the rims. Care must be
taken to avoid heating the lips and cheeks by
adequately protecting and retracting them. The
knife should not be hot enough to cause the wax to
run (Fig. 6.56).
○ Pinning: The occlusal rims can also be sealed

together using pins. Slightly warm metal staples
can be used to join the sides of the rims (Fig. 6.57).
FIGURE 6.56 Heated wax knife used to fuse the occlusal

rims.
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FIGURE 6.57 Stapler pins used on both sides to join the
occlusal rims together.
In both the above methods, pins can also be placed on the

mandibular rim in the premolar area protruding not more than 2 mm
above the occlusal surface, to prevent movement of the bases while
sealing.
○ The above methods of sealing are not recommended due to:
▪ Chances of burning and injuring lips and cheek.
▪ No equalization of pressure.
▪ Difficult to prevent movement of rims while sealing.

○ Nick and notch method: This is the recommended method for sealing
the rims as there is less resistance to closure and the movement
during sealing is tackled. After the rims are evened, V-shaped
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notches are then placed in the molar region of the maxillary occlusal
rim to prevent anteroposterior movement. A nick is cut anterior to
the notch in the premolar regions, not extending throughout the
width of the occlusal rim, to prevent the lateral movement.
▪ A trough is created in the posterior regions of the

mandibular occlusal rims (Fig. 6.58).
▪ The patient is trained to retrude and close at CR

position.
▪ Soft wax, zinc oxide eugenol impression paste, quick

setting plaster and elastomeric bite materials may
be used as interocclusal record materials.
▪ The recording material is loaded in the trough

created on the mandibular rim (Fig. 6.59A).
Occlusal rims are inserted in the patient’s mouth
and the patient is instructed to retrude and close.
Contact should be observed in the maxillary and
mandibular rims anteriorly.
▪ Once the intervening recording material sets, the

rims get sealed and are removed together (Fig.
6.59B).
(ii) Interocclusal check records:
• As the name suggests, these records are used to verify the centric
jaw relation at the time of try-in or denture insertion. They are also
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used to check the occlusion of teeth in existing dentures.
• These are also called ‘physiologic’ methods as the patient’s

proprioception and tactile sense is essential in the making of an
accurate record.
• The same recording mediums used for static registrations can also
be used for this procedure.
• After the occlusal rims have been articulated with a static record, the
artificial teeth are arranged and a trial denture is fabricated.
• At the time of try-in (or denture insertion) if the dentist feels the
need to verify the CR, then this procedure is adopted.
▪ Patient is asked to rehearse retruding the mandible.
▪ The maxillary trial denture is inserted in the patient’s mouth. The

recording medium like aluwax is loaded onto the occlusal surface of
the teeth in the mandibular occlusal rim (Figs 6.60 and 6.61).
▪ The patient is asked to slowly retrude the mandible and close on the
wax till the tooth contact occurs (Fig. 6.62). They should not bite
through the material. The recording material is allowed to set and
the trial dentures are removed with the recording material.
▪ The maxillary trial denture is removed from the record and placed
on the mounted maxillary cast in the articulator.
▪ The mandibular trial denture with the record is now returned to the
mandibular cast on the articulator.
▪ The horizontal condylar guide locks in the articulator are released.
▪ The maxillary teeth are now seated over the record.
▪ If the previous recording of CR is the same as the check record, then
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both the condylar elements of the articulator will contact the centric
stops, i.e. the articulated casts need not move to fit into the check
records.
• If anyone or both of the condylar elements of the articulator does

not contact the centric stops, it indicates that one of the records is
inaccurate.
Indications: It may be advisable to make interocclusal check records to

verify the CR in the following conditions:
• Abnormally related jaws
• Displaceable, flabby tissues
• Large tongue
• Uncontrolled mandibular movements
Factors affecting the success of interocclusal records:
• Uniform consistency of the recording material
• Accurate vertical jaw relation records
• Stability and fit of the record base
2. Functional method or chew-in method: These methods utilize the

functional movements of the jaws to record the CR. The patient is
asked to perform border movements such as protrusive and lateral
excursive movements in order to identify the most retruded position
of the mandible. All these methods require a static CR record
mounted on the articulator to prepare the recording devices. The new
occlusal rims with the recording devices are fabricated with an
increased vertical height so that the correct dimension is established
as patient performs functional movements and grinds down the
recording medium. Very stable record bases are required. The
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functional methods are not very popular as graphic methods may be
more accurate.
Advantages:
• Vertical dimension and CR can be determined.
Disadvantages:
• Inaccuracy can result from:
○ Displaceable basal seat tissues
○ Resistance of recording mediums
○ Lack of equalized pressure

• Patients must have very good neuromuscular coordination and be
capable of following instruction.
(i) Needle–House method: Occlusal rims are fabricated from

impression compound. Four metal balls or styli are embedded in the
canine and molar areas of the maxillary occlusal rim. The occlusal
rims are inserted and the patient is asked to perform various
functional and excursive movements of the mandible with the styli
contacting the lower rim. The vertical height is reduced as the styli
cuts through the lower rim and the patient is stopped at the
appropriate vertical dimension. The styli makes three-dimensional
diamond-shaped tracings, which can be transferred to a suitable
articulator (House articulator – discussed in Chapter 7) to duplicate
the movements. The most anterior point of the marking denotes CR
and can be used to mount on any articulator (Fig. 6.63).
(ii) Patterson method: Wax occlusal rims are fabricated. A trench or

trough is made in the mandibular occlusal rim which is filled with
equal mixture of carborundum paste and plaster (Fig. 6.64).
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The occlusal rims are inserted and the functional mandibular
movements will produce compensating curves in the plaster lower
rim. As the vertical height reaches the appropriate level, the patient
is asked to retrude his jaw and the occlusal rims are joined together
with metal staples.
(iii) Meyer’s method: Meyer used soft wax to generate the functional
pathway and record CR.
3. Graphic methods: These methods are called so because they use

graphs or tracings to record the centric jaw relation. Graphic methods
are of two types namely:
• Gothic arch tracing
• Pantographic tracing
FIGURE 6.58 Nick and notch in the maxillary occlusal rim

and a trough in the mandibular occlusal rim.
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FIGURE 6.59 (A) Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste
injected into the trough and nick and notch. (B) The occlusal
rims are removed once the material sets.
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FIGURE 6.60 Aluwax used to make the interocclusal check
record.
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FIGURE 6.61 Aluwax is softened and loaded on the occlusal
surface of the mandibular trial denture.
FIGURE 6.62 The patient is asked to retrude the mandible

and bite. Once the wax hardens, the assembly is transferred
to the articulator and centric relation verified.
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FIGURE 6.63 Needle–House technique: metal styli (on
maxillary rim) cut diamond-shaped tracings on mandibular
rim. P, protrusive; LL, left lateral; RL, right lateral; CR, centric
relation.
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FIGURE 6.64 Mandibular occlusal rim with trough for holding
carborundum and plaster mix.
Gothic arch tracings record mandibular movements in one plane

(horizontal), while pantographs record it in all three planes.
(i) Gothic arch tracing:
• This concept was proposed by Hesse (1897) and popularized by

Gysi (1910).
• This is also termed as ‘arrow head tracing’ or ‘needle point tracing’.
• Concept: The concept consists of attaching a stylus (a writing device

with a pointed end) to one occlusal rim and a plate to the other rim.
The stylus traces or marks the path in the plate as the mandible
performs excursive movements from the centric position. The
tracing is typically in the shape of a ‘gothic arch’ or ‘arrow head’ if
the patient is trained to move the mandible from centric to
protrusive, right and left lateral positions (Fig. 6.65).
• Components: The tracing can be made intraorally or extraorally.

The extraoral tracing device consists of a central bearing device and
a tracing device. The central bearing device consists of a central
bearing point and a central bearing plate. The tracing device
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consists of a stylus and a recording plate. The stylus or stud and
central bearing plate attached to the maxillary occlusal rim, while
the central bearing point and recording plates are attached to the
mandibular rim (Figs 6.66 and 6.67).
○ In the intraoral tracer, the central bearing device

also performs the function of a tracing device. So
there is only one set of device (Fig. 6.68).
○ Central bearing device is a very important aspect of

the device. It should be placed in the geometric
centre of the maxillary and mandibular arches to
serve the following functions:
▪ Maintains vertical dimension.
▪ Equalizes the pressure by distributing the forces

throughout the supporting tissues.
▪ Allows mandibular movement to be dictated by the

condyles.
• Advantages:
○ Documented to be the most accurate method of

recording CR.
○ Allows equalization of pressure on the supporting

tissues.
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○ Easily verifiable.
○ Can also be used to record eccentric relations.

• Disadvantages:
○ May be difficult to locate the centre of the arches

which is very important for central bearing function
and accuracy of tracing.
○ More time consuming.
○ Training patient in making mandibular movements

is strenuous.
• Indications:
○ Broad edentulous sides.
○ Adequate interarch space.
○ In patients with habitual centric (a more anterior

position of the jaws due to prolonged edentulous
period without tooth replacement), the use of the
graphic method eliminates all occlusal contacts on
the rims, thus breaking the neuromuscular reflex
and allows the patient to record his true centric.
• Contraindications:
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○ Severely resorbed ridges and excessively flabby
ridges as they lead to instability of denture bases.
○ Decreased interarch space – difficult to place central

bearing device without raising the vertical
dimension.
○ TMJ arthropathy.
○ Abnormal jaw relations.

• Procedure for extraoral tracing:
○ The maxillary cast is mounted on the articulator

with a facebow transfer.
○ The mandibular cast is oriented to the maxillary

cast at the established vertical dimension with a
static CR record.
○ The condylar elements of the articulator are secured

against the centric stops.
○ The central bearing and tracing devices are

mounted on the respective rims (Fig. 6.69).
○ The patient is seated with head upright, in a

comfortable position on the dental chair.
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○ The record bases with the attached devices are
inserted in the patient’s mouth. They are checked
for stability, contact during mandibular movements
and interference (Fig. 6.70).
○ The stylus is retracted and patient is trained to

make various excursive movements passively and
actively (if needed). Patient is instructed to move
the jaw forwards, right and left from centric
position. The Ney Excursion Guide has been used
as an aid in training the patient but patient
responds better to specific locations than numbers
(Fig. 6.71).
○ When the patient is well trained in making the

movements, the recording plate is coated with a
thin coating of lacquer, precipitated chalk or dark
coloured wax. The coating material should not
provide any resistance to movement and produce a
clearly visible tracing (Fig. 6.72).
○ The stylus is made to contact the recording plate

and the patient is instructed to make the specific
movements.
○ When an acceptable tracing is made with a single

sharp apex, a centric record is obtained. The rims
and tracing are prepared to receive the centric
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record (Figs 6.73A and B). The patient is instructed
to retrude the mandible such that the stylus
contacts the apex of the tracing. Quick setting
plaster is injected between the rims and allowed to
harden (Fig. 6.74); thus, the centric record is
obtained (Fig. 6.75A).
○ The rims are remounted on the articulator with the

new record (Fig. 6.76).
○ The procedure with intraoral tracer is similar, but as

the tracing is not visible while being made, a thin
plastic disc with a central hole is fixed on the
recording plate such that the hole is placed on the
apex of the tracing. The patient closes with the tip
of the stylus in the hole and this ensures that the
patient closes in centric and maintains the position
while the record is being made.
• Troubleshooting: The following are the commonly observed
inaccuracies in tracings:
○ Apex absent/round:
▪ It indicates a weak retrusive movement.
▪ Patient needs more training in making the

movements (Fig. 6.77).
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○ Double arrow point:
▪ Indicates a habitual and retruded CR and an

alteration in the vertical dimension during tracing.
▪ Patient requires training and vertical dimension

should be checked and maintained by the central
bearing device (Fig. 6.78).
○ Interrupted gothic arch:
▪ Usually due to posterior interference at the heels

during movements (Fig. 6.79).
• Differences between extraoral and intraoral tracers are given in
Table 6.3.
(ii) Pantographic tracings:
Pantograph: An instrument used to graphically record in, one or more

planes, paths of mandibular movement and to provide information
for the programming of an articulator (GPT8).
Pantographic tracing (pantogram): A graphic record of mandibular
movement usually recorded in the horizontal, sagittal and frontal
planes as registered by styli on the recording tables of a pantograph or
by means of electronic sensors (GPT8).
• The pantograph is a device that records the movement in all three

planes. The tracing is called a pantographic tracing or pantogram
(Fig. 6.80A).
• To put it simply, it will consist of styli and recording plates placed

in all three planes and the various jaw movements from centric
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position traced in all the planes (Fig. 6.80B). The recordings are
transferred to a fully adjustable articulator, which is capable of
accepting and reproducing these movements.
• This can also be used to record eccentric relations.
• Records are very accurate but procedure is complex.
FIGURE 6.65 Drawing of the tracing showing centric and

eccentric positions.
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FIGURE 6.66 Extraoral tracer components – stylus (tracing
device) and central bearing plate attached to the maxillary
rim.
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FIGURE 6.67 Extraoral tracer components – recording plate
(tracing device) and central bearing point (central bearing
device) is attached to the mandibular rim.
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FIGURE 6.68 Intraoral tracer components: (a) Recording
plate and central bearing plate are combined as one
component and attached to maxillary rim. (b) The stylus and
central bearing point are combined as one component and
attached to the mandibular rim.
FIGURE 6.69 Extraoral tracers attached to articulated

occlusal rims. The stylus must be in contact with the recording
plate and the tracers must be mounted parallel to each other.
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FIGURE 6.70 Occlusal rims with the extraoral tracer inserted
in the patient’s mouth.
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FIGURE 6.71 Ney Excursion Guide. The patient is trained to
make the mandibular movements in the numerical order.
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FIGURE 6.72 Characteristic arrow head tracing obtained in
the recording plate coated with recording medium. For
obtaining a centric record, patient is asked to close at the
apex of the tracing.
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FIGURE 6.73 (A) Before making the records, the undercuts
are blocked with wax and orientation grooves made in the
wax. A repositioning guide can also be made with sticky wax.
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(B) Before making the records, the tracing is protected by a
transparent plastic film (b). This film is secured over the
recording plate using sticky wax (a). The centric point of the
arrow head is viewed and using a sharp heated needle, a
hole is made (c) which will guide the needle in position while
making records. 6 mm from the centric point, another slot is
made, to stabilize the needle while making the protrusive
record.
FIGURE 6.74 Patient is instructed to close in centric (contact

of the stylus with the apex of the tracing is verified) and quick
setting plaster is injected to make a centric record.
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FIGURE 6.75 Centric record (A) and protrusive record (B).
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FIGURE 6.76 The occlusal rims are seated over the casts
and with the centric record in place, and the mandibular cast
is remounted with the new record.
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FIGURE 6.77 Gothic arch tracing with round apex.
FIGURE 6.78 Double arrow point tracing.
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FIGURE 6.79 Interrupted arrow point tracing.
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FIGURE 6.80 (A) Pantograph – traces the mandibular
movement in three planes using a styli and recording plates
attached to a facebow. (B) Pantogram – the tracings recorded
in the three planes.
Table 6.3
Comparison of intraoral and extraoral tracers
Intraoral tracers Extraoral tracers

Tracing not visible when being made – verification of mandibular Tracing is visible, movement and
movement and position is not possible position can be verified
Tracings are small – may be difficult to locate apex Larger – apex is more discernible
As central bearing and recording device is the same and placed The lips and cheek may interfere as
intraorally, movement is not interrupted by the position of lips and recording device is placed
cheeks extraorally
Example: Coble tracer Example: It is Hight tracer
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Eccentric relations
Definition: Any relationship of the mandible to the maxilla other than
CR (GPT8). The eccentric relations that are recorded and used in
complete denture construction are:
• Protrusive relations
• Lateral relations
These records are essential if a balanced occlusion is planned for the

denture.
They are used to adjust the protrusive and lateral condylar
inclinations of the articulator, which will help in reproducing the
mandibular movements of the patient. The extent of reproducibility
depends on the capabilities of the articulator. Hence, they can be used
only with semi- and fully adjustable articulators (see Chapter 7).
Protrusive records
As the condyles move downwards and forwards during protrusion,
these records help determine the protrusive condylar inclination of
the articulator. The following methods are used.
Functional methods
• Similar to those described for recording CR.
• As the various mandibular movements are recorded with this

procedure, the articulator is adjusted to the eccentric records after
mounting the casts in CR.
• These can be used with both semi- and fully adjustable, to simulate
the eccentric mandibular movements.
Graphic methods
Gothic arch tracing can be used as previously described to record
protrusive relation also.
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• The same central bearing and recording devices are reseated in the
patient’s mouth after casts are mounted with the CR record.
• A distance of 5–6 mm from the apex of the arrow point tracing is

measured on the protrusive tracing and marked (Fig. 6.81).
• The patient is instructed to protrude until the stylus rests on this

mark.
• Quick setting plaster is injected between the occlusal rims and

allowed to harden.
• This plaster index is the protrusive record (Fig. 6.75B) and is later
used to adjust the protrusive (horizontal) condylar inclination.
• Since the Gothic arch tracer records the movements in only one
plane, it can be used only with semi-adjustable articulators.
FIGURE 6.81 Protrusive record is obtained by making the

patient close on a mark 5–6 mm from the apex on the
protrusive line.
Pantographic tracings
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As previously described, these devices record the movements in three
dimensions and the eccentric movements recorded can also be
transferred to a fully adjustable articulator.
Static methods
• These are similar to those described for recording CR.
• Most commonly used method is interocclusal check record.
• As previously described, these records are made during try-in

following arrangement of artificial teeth. Soft baseplate (4 mm) wax
is placed over the mandibular teeth and sealed to the buccal/labial
and lingual surfaces. Wax is softened and mandibular trial denture
is inserted in the patient’s mouth.
• The patient is instructed to protrude the lower jaw for 5–6 mm and
close until all the upper teeth contact the wax. Midlines of the upper
and lower teeth must coincide.
• The record with the trial denture is removed and used to adjust the
condylar inclinations of the articulator. The interocclusal record can
also be used only with semi-adjustable articulators.
Lateral records
• Lateral records are used to adjust the lateral condylar inclination of

the articulator. Two records are required unlike the centric and
protrusive records – one of right lateral and other of left lateral (Fig.
6.82). The lateral condylar inclination of the opposite side is
adjusted with each record, respectively.
• The same functional, graphic and interocclusal check methods can

be used to make lateral records. The patient is instructed to move
the jaw laterally instead of protrude, to make the record.
• Some semi-adjustable articulators are not capable of accepting
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lateral records. Hanau derived a formula to determine the lateral
condylar inclination, if the protrusive (horizontal) condylar
inclination was available through protrusive records.
L = (H/8) + 12
FIGURE 6.82 Lateral records. Note the position of the needle

on the recording plate positioned to make a left lateral record.
Where L = lateral condylar inclination, H = horizontal condylar

inclination.
• He opined that making a lateral record had no major advantages,

and discrepancies because of this could be determined and
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corrected following denture insertion.
• The usefulness of this formula has not been proved or disproved.
SUMMARY
The mandible articulates with the maxilla through the TMJ.
Mandibular movements are responsible for oral functions like
mastication, deglutition and speech. To provide satisfactory oral
function with complete dentures, it is desirable to have a
reproducible mandibular position, which allows the denture teeth to
meet evenly – maximum intercuspation at CR. This relation should be
established at the appropriate vertical dimension so that sufficient
interocclusal clearance is provided when the mandible is in the rest
position. Although there is no conclusive scientific evidence that use
of facebow is associated with a more acceptable clinical result, a
significant relation is seen between accuracy of CR and presence of
interocclusal space with comfortable wearing of dentures and
chewing efficiently. Hence, establishing and recording the correct CR
at the appropriate vertical dimension are a very important aspect of
complete denture construction.
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CHAPTER 7
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Articulation
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 133
Definitions 133
Articulators 133
Functions of articulators 133
Advantages of articulators 133
Limitations of articulators 134
Requirements 134
Classification 134
Articulation 138
Mean value articulator 138
Semi-adjustable articulator 140
Summary 144
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Introduction
As can be inferred from the definitions, an articulator should perform
the function of the TMJs of the patient so that the restorations that are
developed on it do not interfere with mandibular function during
mastication, speech and swallowing. Theoretically, if they represent
the TMJs, they should also reproduce the mandibular movements of
the patient, more so in a completely edentulous situation. Numerous
articulators are available which range from simple to complex. Their
capacity to reproduce the mandibular movements of the individual
also varies. Selection of articulator for complete dentures depends on
the type of occlusion planned.
After recording the maxillomandibular relations, the maxillary cast
is attached to the articulator with a facebow transfer. The mandibular
cast is then attached to the maxillary cast with a centric relation
record. If balanced occlusion is planned, the condylar elements of the
articulator are adjusted with eccentric records. Artificial teeth are then
arranged on the articulator such that maximal intercuspation
coincides with centric relation. It is made to coordinate with the
various mandibular movements if balanced occlusion is planned.
It may be noted that ‘articulation’ is a dynamic relationship of the
teeth compared to ‘occlusion’, which is a static relation.
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Definitions
Articulator: A mechanical device which represents the
temporomandibular joints and the jaw members to which maxillary
and mandibular casts may be attached to simulate jaw movements
(GPT8).
Articulation: The static and dynamic contact relationship between the
occlusal surfaces of the teeth during function (GPT8).
Occlusion: The static relationship between the incising or masticating
surfaces of the maxillary or mandibular teeth or tooth analogues
(GPT8).
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Articulators
Functions of articulators
1. To hold the maxillary and mandibular casts in a planned relation.
2. To simulate the patient’s TMJs, mandible, maxilla and mandibular

movements.
3. To open and close similar to patient.
4. To mount casts for diagnosis, treatment planning and patient

presentation.
5. To fabricate occlusal surfaces of restorations.
6. To arrange artificial teeth.
7. To teach and study occlusion and mandibular movements.
Advantages of articulators
1. Providing a better view of the patient’s occlusion, especially lingual
side.
2. Refinement of complete denture occlusion is extremely difficult

intraorally, because of movement of denture base and resiliency of
supporting tissues. These problems are eliminated with articulators.
3. Patient cooperation is not a factor once casts are mounted on

articulator with appropriate records.
4. Chairside time for the dentist and appointment time for the patient
is decreased.
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5. Some procedures can be delegated to technicians if an articulator is
used.
6. Patient’s tongue, saliva and cheeks are not factors of hindrance

while using an articulator.
Limitations of articulators
1. The articulator is subject to errors in tooling and errors resulting
from metal fatigue and wear.
2. No articulator can exactly duplicate the condylar movements of an

individual.
3. It cannot compensate for any errors in jaw relation records.
Requirements
Minimal requirements
1. It should hold casts in the correct horizontal and vertical
relationships.
2. It should provide a positive anterior vertical stop (incisal pin).
3. It should open and close in a hinge movement.
4. It should allow protrusive and lateral jaw motion.
5. The moving parts should move freely.
6. The nonmoving parts should be rigid.
Additional requirements
1. It should accept a facebow transfer record.
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2. Adjustable condylar guide elements.
3. A terminal hinge position locking device.
4. Mounting plates that can be repositioned accurately.
5. An adjustable incisal guide table.
6. Adjustable intercondylar width of the condylar elements.
Classification
Articulators can be categorized as follows.
Based on adjustability
1. Nonadjustable: An articulator that does not allow adjustment to
replicate mandibular movements (GPT8).
Example: Class I and II articulators.
2. Semi-adjustable: An articulator that allows adjustment to replicate
average mandibular movements – also called class III articulator
(GPT8).
3. Fully adjustable: An articulator that allows replication of three-
dimensional movement of recorded mandibular motion – also called
class IV articulator (GPT8).
Based on position of condylar elements

1. Arcon: An articulator that applies the arcon design; this instrument
maintains anatomic guidelines by the use of condylar analogues in the
mandibular element and fossae assemblies within the maxillary
element (GPT8).
2. Nonarcon: Any articulator design in which the condylar element
(analogue) is not part of the lower member of the articulator and may
be used to simulate the three-dimensional motions of the left and right
condylar compartments (GPT8).
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• Bergstrom designed a semi-adjustable articulator in 1950 called
‘Arcon’.
• He derived the word, ARCON from ‘articulator’ and ‘condyle’.
• The condyle was attached to the lower member of articulator and

the condylar guides were attached to the upper member similar to
the natural jaws.
• Though this was not the first arcon articulator to be developed,

Bergstrom was the first to coin the term. Also, though the term was
coined for describing semi-adjustable articulators, it can be used
with any type of articulator.
• The other articulators where the condyle is attached the upper

member is called nonarcon.
• As condyles move in the articulator similar to natural glenoid fossa,

visualization and understanding of condylar movements is better in
arcon articulators. There seems to be no other advantage with
regard to accuracy of movement or superiority in clinical evaluation
of complete dentures when compared to nonarcon articulators.
Based on instrument function

The International Prosthodontic workshop on complete denture
occlusion at the University of Michigan in 1972 proposed the
following classification:
It was developed based on articulator’s function:
• Instrument capability
• Intent
• Registration procedure
• Registration acceptance
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This is now a widely followed classification which is also given as a
definition for articulators in GPT8.
Class I
A simple holding instrument capable of accepting a single static registration;
vertical motion is possible.
• Only opening and closing movement is possible. No eccentric

motion is possible. Hence they are categorized as nonadjustable
articulators.
• Examples: Slab articulator, hinge articulator, barn door hinge.
Slab articulators:
• This was the first articulator to be conceptualized.
• It was formed by extending plaster indices from the back of the casts
which were keyed to each other (Fig. 7.1A and B).
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FIGURE 7.1 (A) Slab articulator formed by extending plaster
from base of cast. (B) A model poured for a triple tray
impression is also an example of slab articulator (discussed in
Chapter 37).
Hinge articulator:
• Designed by J.B. Gariot in 1805.
• Consists of a simple hinge with a screw in the posterior region

contacting the upper member to serve as a vertical stop (Fig. 7.2A).
• Barn door hinge: These are articulators that have a vertical stop (Fig.
7.2B).
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FIGURE 7.2 (A) Hinge articulator; (a) hinge, (b) set screw, (c)
upper member, (d) lower member. (B) Barn door hinge
articulator.
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Class II
An instrument that permits horizontal as well as vertical motion but does not
orient the motion to the temporomandibular joints.
• In this category, eccentric motion (protrusive and lateral) can be

made, but these are not adjustable (cannot be replicated from the
patient) and are based on average values and theories. Hence they
are categorized as nonadjustable articulators.
• They cannot accept a facebow transfer.
• They are further subdivided into three categories depending on the

method used for producing eccentric movement.
Class IIA
Eccentric motion permitted is based on average values.
Examples: Grittman articulator, Gysi simplex, mean value
articulator.
Grittman articulator:
• Designed by Grittman in 1899.
• The condylar path is inclined at 15° – determined by measurements

taken from a large number of patients.
Gysi simplex:
• Designed by Alfred Gysi in 1914.
• Condylar path is inclined at 30°, incisal guidance is fixed at 60°.
Mean value articulator is explained in detail later in the chapter.
Class IIB
Eccentric motion permitted is based on arbitrary theories of motion.
Spherical theory:
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• This proposes that each cusp and incisal edge
touches or conforms to a segment of the surface of a
sphere 8 inch in diameter with its centre in the
region of the glabella (Fig. 7.3A).
• Monson proposed this theory and designed an

articulator the ‘maxillomandibular instrument’
based on this (Fig. 7.3B).
Bonwill theory:
• Also called ‘theory of equilateral triangle’. It states

that distance between the condyles and each
condyle and incisal point is 4 inch forming an
equilateral triangle (Fig. 7.4).
• Proposed by Bonwill, and ‘Bonwill articulator’ was

desi’gned based on this theory (Fig. 7.5).
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FIGURE 7.3 (A) Monson’s spherical theory sphere with 8-
inch diameter, with the centre of circle in the glabella. (B)
Maxillomandibular instrument.
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FIGURE 7.4 Bonwill triangle. The sides of the triangle
measure 4 inches each and form an equilateral triangle from
the condyles to the incisal tip.
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FIGURE 7.5 Bonwill articulator.
Conical theory:
• It states that the lower teeth move over the surfaces of the upper
teeth as over the surface of a cone, generating an angle of 45° with
the central axis of the cone tipped 45° to the occlusal plane. The
teeth of the maxillary denture would conform to a segment of the
inner surface of an 8-inch cone (Fig. 7.6A).
• Proposed by Hall in 1915. The Hall articulator is

based on this theory (Fig. 7.6B).
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FIGURE 7.6 (A) Hall’s conical theory. 45 angle generated
when upper teeth glide over the surface of the lower teeth. (B)
Hall articulator.
Class IIC
Eccentric motion permitted is based on engraved records obtained from the
patient.
• The ‘House articulator’ was designed by M.M. House in 1927, based

on this concept.
• The instrument is adjusted by using a CR record by the ‘Needle–

House’ method (described in Chapter 6, Page 123).
Class III
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An instrument that simulates condylar pathways by using averages or
mechanical equivalents for all or part of the motion; these instruments allow
for orientation of the casts relative to the joints and may be arcon or nonarcon
instruments.
• These permit eccentric motion (protrusive and lateral) and also

allow adjustment of the movements according to the patient. But
only a part of the patient’s condylar movement can be simulated
and hence they are categorized as semi-adjustable articulators.
• They accept a facebow transfer.
• The classification of ‘arcon and nonarcon’ originated from this class

of articulators but it can be applied to any articulator.
• They are further divided into two categories depending on the

records they accept.
Class IIIA
Instruments accept only a protrusive record to adjust the protrusive
condylar inclinations. The lateral condylar inclination is determined
using the Hanau formula L = H/8 + 12.
Examples: Hanau Model H and H2, Dentatus (Fig 7.16), Bergstrom.
Class IIIB
Instruments accept both protrusive and some lateral records.
Examples: Hanau Kinoscope, Ney Articulator, Panadent.
Class IV
An instrument that will accept three-dimensional dynamic registrations;
these instruments allow for orientation of the casts to the temporomandibular
joints and simulation of mandibular movements.
They can simulate all the mandibular movements of the patient.
Hence, they are categorized as fully adjustable articulators.
• They do accept a facebow transfer.
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• All articulators in this class are ‘Arcon’ type with adjustable
intercondylar distance.
• They are categorized into two types depending on the method used
for recording the condylar movements.
Class IVA
The condylar pathways are engraved by the patient (stereographic recording)
and the instruments will accept these three-dimensional dynamic engravings.
Example: TMJ articulator (Fig. 7.7).
FIGURE 7.7 Swanson’s TMJ articulator with fossa moulded

(B) using studs (A).
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An instrument that records mandibular movement in three planes.
Engraving, milling or burnishing the recording medium by means of
styli, teeth, abrasive rims or rotary instruments thus obtains the
registrations (GPT8).
• The record of mandibular movement is obtained by engraving.
• The instrument used is termed as stereograph and recording is

called stereographic record.
• The TMJ articulator was designed by Kenneth Swanson in 1965. An

intraoral registration of the various jaw relations (centric and
eccentric) is generated by studs in autopolymerizing resin similar to
the ‘Needle–House’ technique. This is called ‘stereographic’
recording. This is placed on the articulator and is used to mould the
condylar fossa in the articulator. This is claimed to produce an
accurate replica of the patient’s TMJ function.
Class IVB
The condylar pathways are obtained using three-dimensional tracings
(pantographic recordings) and the instruments will accept these three-
dimensional dynamic tracings.
Pantograph: An instrument used to graphically record in, one or more
planes, paths of mandibular movement and to provide information
for the programming of an articulator (GPT8). Example: Pantogragh.
• The record of mandibular movement is obtained by graphic tracing.
• The instrument used is termed as pantograph (see Fig. 6.80A) and

tracing is called pantographic tracing or pantogram (see Fig. 6.80B).
• The tracings obtained are similar to gothic arch tracing, but are
obtained in all three planes. So six styli and tracing tables are
attached by means of facebows and clutches to maxilla and
mandible (Fig. 7.8). The tracings of the various mandibular
movements obtained in 3D are then transferred to the articulator in
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the same relation as in the patient. The articulator is adjusted to
follow these tracings.
• These are now also available in electronic form (Fig. 7.9).
FIGURE 7.8 Tracings obtained in various mandibular

movements is recorded in the three planes and transferred to
the articulator.
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FIGURE 7.9 Electronic pantograph. Source: Courtesy:
Chang WSW, et al. An in vitro evaluation of the reliability and
validity of an electronic pantograph by testing with five
different articulators. J Prosthet Dent 2004; 92(1): 83–89.
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Articulation
Once the jaw relation is obtained or tracings are done, the casts are
articulated using the records.
The most commonly used articulators are mean value articulator
and semi-adjustable articulator. These are discussed here in detail.
Mean value articulator
Class II nonadjustable articulator

Used if occlusal contacts are to be oriented in centric occlusion only. It
can open and close in a fixed horizontal axis and has a fixed incisal
table and condylar path. It is also called three-point articulator.
Component parts (fig. 7.10)
1. Upper and lower member
2. Incisal table and pin
3. Midincisal pin
4. Condylar shafts and slots
5. Vertical supporting arms
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FIGURE 7.10 Mean value articulator. (a) Upper member. (b)
Condylar shaft and slot with spring. (c) Lower member. (d)
Two additional pins for orientation and support. (e) The two
vertical arms on either side, hold the upper and lower
members together. (f) Incisal adjustment screw. (g) Incisal
pin. (h) Midincisal pin. (i) Incisal pin table.
Design
Designed using fixed dimensions derived from the average distance
between the incisal and condylar guidance. The condylar shafts,
placed at a distance of 110 mm from each other, are engaged within
the condylar slots, which represent the glenoid fossa. The condylar
slots are angulated at a 30° incline and have a spring mechanism,
which helps to push the condylar rod into position (Fig. 7.11).
Anteriorly, the incisal pin which rests on the incisal table (with a
uniform 5° angulation on all sides of the table), maintains the vertical
height and separation between the upper and lower members and acts
as an anterior vertical stop. In the centre of the incisal pin, there is a
smaller, thinner pin placed horizontally, known as the midincisal pin,
which helps in the orientation of maxillary anterior teeth according to
the midline and the occlusal plane (Fig. 7.12). All these components
are supported on either end by two vertical supporting arms. These
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also have two additional horizontal arms running to either end, where
one acts as an orientation guide and the other provides support (Fig.
7.13).
FIGURE 7.11 Condylar shaft and 30 slot with spring loaded

mechanism.
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FIGURE 7.12 (a) Incisal pin adjustment screw. (b) Incisal pin.
(c) Midincisal pin. (d) Incisal table.
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FIGURE 7.13 Support arm and orientation arm.
Articulation procedure
The occlusal rims fused with the centric record are placed over the
respective casts. A thread is suspended all around the articulator,
running anteriorly across the midincisal pin to the point where the
posterior horizontal pin meets the vertical rod (Fig. 7.14). This thread
line must coincide with the occlusal plane. Wax blocks are stabilized
on the lower member – one anteriorly and two posteriorly (Fig. 7.15A)
and the occlusal rims with cast is placed over the wax blocks. The
height of the wax is reduced or increased as required, such that the
reference plane of the thread coincides with the occlusal plane and the
incisal pin meets the incisal table (Fig. 7.15B).
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FIGURE 7.14 The horizontal orientation arm and the
midincisal pin are joined with the help of thread to guide the
occlusal plane orientation during articulation.
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FIGURE 7.15 (A) Wax blocks are placed two posteriorly and
one anteriorly to support the casts with occlusal rims. (B)
Sealed maxillary and mandibular cast positioned in the
articulator. The tip of the incisal pin is oriented to the midline
at the junction of the occlusal rims anteriorly. The occlusal
plane should run parallel to the attached thread connecting
the incisal pin and horizontal orientation arm. (C) Completed
articulation.
The upper member is swung open. Plaster is mixed and placed over
the cast and the upper member is then gently closed, till the incisal pin
touches the incisal table. Excess is removed.
Once the plaster is set, the articulator is now reversed. The lower
member is swung open and the wax blocks are removed. The space
between the lower cast and lower member is adequately filled with
plaster, excess removed and finished.
The articulator (Fig. 7.15C) is then cleaned and once the plaster is
set, it can be opened.
Semi-adjustable articulator
It is used if balanced occlusion in eccentric movement is desired.
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Examples are Hanau wide vue articulator, Dentatus ARH and ARL.
The mounting of maxillary cast using a facebow transfer has been
discussed in Chapter 6. The procedures used to mount the mandibular
cast to the maxillary cast using centric record and setting the
horizontal and lateral condylar guidance inclinations on the
articulator using protrusive and lateral records respectively, will be
discussed here. The semi-adjustable articulator used for explanation is
a Dentatus articulator as the facebow of the same was used to mount
the maxillary cast in Chapter 6.
The Dentatus articulator is a class IIIA type, which is a nonarcon
type of semi-adjustable articulator. The parts of articulator are
depicted in Fig. 7.16.
FIGURE 7.16 Parts of a Dentatus semi-adjustable articulator.
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Parts of the Articulator
1. Support rod for upper member
2. Lock screw for incisal pin
3. Curved calibrated incisal pin
4. Midincisal groove
5. Incisal table (detachable)
6. Infraorbital plane indicator
7. Upper member
8. Lock nut for HCI, 8A – lock nut for condylar sphere
9. Condylar track or path
10. Condylar sphere
11. Condylar assembly
12. Calibration for horizontal condylar inclination (HCI)
13. Condylar post
14. Lower member
15. Lock nut for lateral condylar inclination (LCI)
16. Screw for moving condylar sphere
17. Calibration for lateral condylar inclination.
The instrument has the following features:
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• Fixed intercondylar distance of 110 mm.
• Adjustable horizontal condylar inclination and lateral condylar

inclination (Fig. 7.17).
• The incisal guide pin rests on an adjustable incisal table that can also
be customized according to the patient’s jaw movements. The
incisal pin supplied with this articulator is calibrated and curved.
The curve in the incisal pin is used to compensate the arc of closure,
in dentate individuals, and also in post processing adjustment of
complete dentures (Fig. 7.18).
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FIGURE 7.17 Condylar assembly showing the horizontal
condylar calibration (12) and lateral condylar calibration (17).
For adjusting HCI the condylar assembly is moved up and
down as shown in arrow A. For adjusting the LCI the condylar
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assembly is moved right and left as shown in arrow B. For
zeroing of articulator the HCI and LCI angles are set at 40
and 20, respectively.
FIGURE 7.18 Incisal pin assembly – incisal pin adjustment

screw, curved incisal pin, incisal table.
The articulation using this semi-adjustable articulator starts with basic
adjustment of the articulator controls. This is also called ‘zeroing of
the articulator’ (as discussed in Chapter 6). The condylar element and
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the incisal tables are set at recommended positions (depending on the
manufacturer) to prevent rotation of the movable parts of the
articulator and the resultant errors during mounting procedure.
Recommended positions
Zeroing of the articulator on both sides.
1. The horizontal condylar inclination is set to 40° and the locknuts (8

and 8A in Fig. 7.17) are tightened.
2. The lateral condylar inclination is set to 20° and the locknut (15 in
Fig. 7.16) is tightened.
3. Incisal pin is adjusted to align to the midline calibration on the

incisal table.
4. The incisal guide table is set to zero degree and thumb nut is
tightened.
Mounting of the maxillary cast

The facebow assembly is transferred to the articulator from the
patient’s mouth and the maxillary cast is mounted to the articulator
using the obtained facebow records. This has been explained in detail
in Chapter 6.
The following are verified after mounting the maxillary casts (Fig.
7.19):
1. Incisal pin should contact the midpoint of the incisal table.
2. The calibrated reading on both the condylar rods must be equal.
3. The midpoint of the wax rim, midpoint of the fork and the incisal
pin should be in a straight line.
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FIGURE 7.19 Check list after mounting the upper cast. (1)
Incisal pin touching the incisal table. (2) Condylar rod reading
equal on both sides. (3) Midline coincides with incisal pin.
Clinical procedure of recording the true centric will start with

recording the tentative centric records by nick and notch method. The
mandibular casts are mounted on the articulator and the gothic arch
tracing devices are fixed to the wax occlusal rims. The tracings and the
plaster record of the true centric is obtained as described in Chapter 6.
Using the centric plaster record from the tracings, the mandibular
cast is rearticulated, i.e. the mandibular cast which was mounted
using the nick and notch method will be disarticulated, and the cast
will be articulated again.
Mounting of the mandibular cast
1. Maxillary and mandibular casts with their occlusal rims and tracers
are assembled with the centric record. It is ensured no gaps exist
between the wax rims and the centric record (Fig. 7.20). It is
sometimes preferable to fasten this assembly with a rubber band.
2. The articulator is now inverted so that the maxillary jaw member of

the articulator is in contact with the table (Fig. 7.21).
3. Place the wax rim assembly and also the mandibular cast. Close the
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lower jaw member and make sure that there is enough space for the
plaster (Fig. 7.22).
4. A well-proportioned mix of plaster is made and applied on the base

of the mandibular cast (Fig. 7.23). The lower jaw member is slowly
closed such that the incisal pin makes a contact with the table (Fig.
7.24). Secure the articulator in this position with the help of a rubber
band.
5. After the plaster sets the excess of the plaster is trimmed and
finished (Fig. 7.25A and B).
FIGURE 7.20 Interocclusal record. The assembly consisting

of (1) maxillary cast, (2) maxillary occlusal rim, (3) tracers (4)
interocclusal record – note there should be no gap between
the wax and the record, (5) mandibular occlusal rim, (6)
mandibular cast.
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FIGURE 7.21 Mounting the mandibular cast. Articulator is
inverted, occlusal rim with the records are secured in correct
position.
FIGURE 7.22 Lower member of the articulator in position to

make sure that there is enough space for plaster.
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FIGURE 7.23 Plaster placed on the base of the mandibular
cast.
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FIGURE 7.24 Lower member of the articulator closed, note
the incisal pin touches the incisal table.
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FIGURE 7.25 The excess plaster trimmed and articulation is
completed (A) Line diagram (B) Picture.
Setting the horizontal condylar guidance

Once the mandibular cast is also mounted using the centric record, we
have to set the protrusive horizontal condylar inclination (HCI) using
the protrusive record. The protrusive record is now placed between
the maxillary and mandibular rims but will not seat properly (Fig.
7.26). The following will be observed:
• The notches in the wax occlusal rims do not correspond to the

elevations in the protrusive records.
• The incisal pin does not touch the incisal table.
• The stylus of the tracers do not contact the plates fixed in the
mandibular occlusal rims.
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FIGURE 7.26 Protrusive record in place, before condylar
adjustments. Note (1) the wax indentations do not coincide
with elevations of the interocclusal record, (2) incisal pin not
making contact with the incisal table, (3) stylus of the tracer
not contacting the tracing table.
Now the lock nuts (Fig. 7.27) are loosened and the upper jaw
member is adjusted till the maxillary and mandibular rims seat
accurately over the record, incisal pin touches the incisal table and the
stylus of the tracers coincide with the protrusive point of the gothic
arch arrow head tracings. The angle which is now shown in the
condylar assembly is the horizontal condylar guidance angle (Fig.
7.27).
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FIGURE 7.27 After adjustment of the condylar angle note the
protrusive record coinciding with the wax rims. Incisal pin and
stylus of the tracer contacting their respective tables. The
determined HCI is now 20° as shown.
Setting the lateral condylar guidance

The lateral condylar guidance angle can be determined similarly using
two lateral records (right and left) provided the articulator accepts the
records (class IIIB). The right lateral record will set the condylar
guidance for the left assembly and vice versa. Alternately, for class
IIIA articulators, it can also be calculated using Hanau’s formula: L =
H/8 + 12, where L is the lateral condylar guidance angle and H is the
horizontal guidance angle.
When these two angles are determined, the arrangement of artificial
teeth can be commenced.
SUMMARY
Articulator is a device, which attempts to replicate the position of the
condyle during various mandibular movements of the patient. The
level of replication determines their adjustability. For complete
dentures, the mean value articulator is used when occlusion with
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centric balance only is planned. The semi-adjustable articulators are
used when eccentric balance is planned. When using a mean value
articulator, articulation involves mounting the maxillary and
mandibular casts with a tentative centric record using the occlusal
plane as a guide. When using a semi-adjustable articulator,
articulation involves mounting the maxillary cast using a facebow
transfer, mounting the mandibular cast using a tentative centric
record, attaching the tracers, obtaining centric, protrusive and lateral
records, rearticulating the mandibular cast using the centric record,
obtaining the horizontal condylar guidance angle using the
protrusive record and obtaining the lateral condylar guidance angle
using the lateral record (or using Hanau formula) (see Flowchart 7.1).
These angles assist in determining the protrusive and lateral
movements, which help in arranging the teeth in eccentric balance.
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FLOWCHART 7.1 Steps involved in articulation using a
mean value articulator and a semi-adjustable articulator.
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CHAPTER 8
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Occlusion
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 145
Difference between natural and complete denture occlusion 145
Requirements of complete denture occlusion 145
Types of complete denture occlusion 146
Balanced occlusion 146
Monoplane occlusion 150
Lingualized occlusion 151
Summary 151
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Introduction
(GPT8).
Prior to selection and arrangement of the artificial teeth, the type of
occlusal scheme is planned. It is important to understand the
differences in occlusion between natural teeth and the complete
dentures and their nature of transfer of forces. This chapter discusses
the requirements of complete denture occlusion along with the
various types and their influence on the tooth arrangement.
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Difference between natural and
complete denture occlusion
This is given in Table 8.1 and this forms the basis for developing
occlusion for complete dentures such that they will function efficiently
with least trauma to the supporting tissues.
Table 8.1
Differences in occlusion between natural teeth and complete
dentures
Natural teeth Complete denture

Incising with anterior teeth does not affect posteriors Incising affects all the teeth
Presence of proprioception allows avoidance of Interferences cannot be avoided due to lack of
prematurities and interferences and establishes a proprioception and the dentures will move on the
habitual occlusion bases
Second molar is the favoured area for mastication Masticating in second molars will tilt the base;
second premolar and first molar is the favoured area
for mastication
Bilateral balanced occlusion does not exist Balanced occlusion may be necessary to enhance
stability
Teeth respond individually to forces of occlusion All teeth respond as one unit and move on the bases
Malocclusion may not cause any damage for a long Malocclusion causes immediate damage
period
Nonvertical forces are well tolerated Nonvertical forces are traumatic to supporting
tissues
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Requirements of complete denture
occlusion
• Cutting and shearing efficiency of incisal and occlusal surfaces with
sluiceways for escape of food.
• Minimal areas of contact for reduced force on ridges during

mastication.
• Favourable tooth-to-ridge crest position for functional lever balance.
• Reduced posterior cusp height to control horizontal forces.
• Reduced buccolingual width of posterior teeth to decrease forces

transmitted to residual ridge.
• Should have a surface to direct the forces of occlusion vertically.
• Occlusal forces should be directed towards the anteroposterior

centre of the ridges.
• Occlusal plane parallel to the mean foundation plane.
• Allow settling of denture bases without interference or locking of

cusps.
• No anterior teeth contact except during protrusion by providing

adequate vertical and horizontal overlap and flat incisal guidance.
• Stability of occlusion in centric and eccentric relations.
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Types of complete denture occlusion
These can be of three types.
Balanced occlusion
Definition: The bilateral, simultaneous, anterior and posterior
occlusal contact of teeth in centric and eccentric positions (GPT8) (Figs
8.1–8.3).
FIGURE 8.1 Balanced occlusion – showing posterior teeth

contact in centric occlusion.
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FIGURE 8.2 Balanced occlusion – showing posterior tooth
contact on working and balancing side during lateral
excursion.
FIGURE 8.3 Balanced occlusion – showing anterior and

posterior tooth contact in protrusion.
Balanced occlusion in complete dentures is unique as it does not

occur with natural teeth. If it occurs in natural teeth, it is considered as
a premature contact on the nonworking side and is considered
pathologic. Usually anatomic teeth are used to arrange teeth in
balanced occlusion. Nonanatomical teeth can be used with balancing
ramps.
Importance
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• It enhances the stability of the denture.
• The concept was originally put forth to enhance the retention of

complete dentures during mastication. But it became apparent that
even a grain of food on the working side eliminated balance on the
nonworking side. It was aptly summarized as ‘enter bolus, exit
balance’ by Sheppard. The rationale for balance was then altered.
Balance is now deemed necessary during many excursive
movements like swallowing saliva, closing to reseat dentures and
bruxism, performed by patients in between meals. Mastication is
performed only for about 10 min during the day, while the other
eccentric contacts occur for hours during the day. Hence, if balance
is not present, the bases could shift, tip or torque on their
foundations during the eccentric movements and cause soreness
and inflammation leading to accelerated bone resorption.
• Although some authors argue that these contacts other than

mastication are not likely to be made with any great deal of force, it
is seen that many patients enjoy comfort only when eccentric
balance is present.
• Equal contact of all posterior teeth (centric occlusion) in centric

relation is definitely essential to the health of the mucosa, though
the same cannot be stated for contact in eccentric relations (balanced
occlusion).
• Lever balance: This is the relation of the tooth to its base of support.
It is important when a bolus of food is placed in between the teeth
on one side and a space exists on the opposite side (Fig. 8.4). It is
enhanced by the following:
○ Placing the teeth such that resultant direction of

force on the chewing side is on the crest or slightly
lingual.
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○ Placing the teeth close to the ridge.
○ Denture base covering as wide an area as possible.
○ Reducing the buccolingual width of the teeth.
FIGURE 8.4 Bolus food (A) on one side creates a gap on

opposite side. Lever balance is essential when this happens
and resultant force (B) should be directed on the crest or
slightly lingual.
Factors affecting balanced occlusion

The following five factors affect occlusal balance.
1. Condylar guidance
Definition: The mechanical form located in the upper posterior region
of an articulator that controls movement of its mobile member (GPT8).
Condylar guide inclination: The angle formed by the inclination of a
condylar guide control surface of an articulator and a specified
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reference plane (GPT8).
• This is the mandibular guidance generated by the condyles

traversing the contours of the glenoid fossa.
• It is duplicated in the articulator. The extent of duplication depends

on the articulator’s capability, whether it is semi-adjustable or fully
adjustable (Fig. 8.5).
• Protrusive condylar guidance is obtained using protrusive records,

while the lateral condylar guidance is obtained using Hanau’s
formula or lateral records (see Chapter 7).
• It is designated as an inclination or angle – condylar guidance angle

or inclination – and is expressed in degrees.
• This is the only factor that is obtained from the patient and is not
under the dentist’s control.
• A shallow condylar guidance will cause less posterior tooth

separation in protrusion and requires teeth with shorter cusps and
flatter fossa to achieve balanced occlusion, than a steep guidance
(Fig. 8.6A–C).
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FIGURE 8.5 Simulation of condylar guidance in an
articulator. (A) Movement of natural condyle. (B) Simulated by
articulator.
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FIGURE 8.6 (A) Shallow condylar guidance causes lesser
posterior tooth separation on protrusion. (B) Steep condylar
guidance causes greater tooth separation on protrusion. (C) A
steep condylar guidance requires teeth with longer cusps and
deeper fossa to achieve balanced occlusion.
2. Incisal guidance
Definition: The influence of the contacting surfaces of the mandibular
and maxillary anterior teeth on mandibular movements (GPT8).
Incisal guide angle: The angle formed between the horizontal plane
of occlusion and a line drawn in the sagittal plane between the incisal
edges of the maxillary and mandibular central incisors when teeth are
in maximum intercuspation (Fig. 8.7).
• It is also expressed in degrees.
• It is established during try-in.
• If this angle is steep, it requires steep cusps, steep occlusal plane and
a steep compensating curve to obtain occlusal balance. This is
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detrimental to denture stability.
• Hence, it should be as flat (close to zero degrees) as aesthetics and

phonetics will permit. It should never be greater than the condylar
guidance.
• When a steep vertical overlap is required for the anterior teeth, a

compensating horizontal overlap should be given to reduce the
incisal guide angle (Fig. 8.8).
FIGURE 8.7 (a) Vertical overlap, (b) horizontal overlap, (c)
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incisal guidance angle.
FIGURE 8.8 If a steep vertical overlap (VO) is required for

aesthetics, a corresponding increase in horizontal overlap
(HO) will help to decrease the incisal guidance angle.
3. Orientation of occlusal plane

Occlusal plane: The average plane established by the incisal and
occlusal surfaces of the teeth. Generally, it is not a plane but
represents the planar mean of the curvature of these surfaces (GPT8).
• It is established anteriorly by the height of the lower canine, which

nearly coincides with the commissure of the mouth. Posteriorly it is
established by the height of the retromolar pad.
• It is also related to the ala-tragus line (see Chapter 5).
• It must be oriented in the same relation as when natural teeth

existed and hence there is not much scope to manoeuvre this factor.
4. Compensating curves
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Definition: The anteroposterior and lateral curvatures in the
alignment of the occluding surfaces and incisal edges of the artificial
teeth that are used to develop a balanced occlusion (GPT).
• It is determined by the inclination of the posterior teeth and their

vertical relationship to the occlusal plane. This results in a curve
that is in harmony with the mandibular movements as dictated by
the condylar guidance – both protrusive and lateral.
• A steep condylar guidance requires a steep compensating curve for

occlusal balance otherwise it will lead to loss of balancing molar
contact during protrusion and lateral excursion.
• The curves that assist in producing balanced occlusion are
○ Anteroposterior curve – run in anteroposterior

direction and help in obtaining protrusive balance.
○ Mediolateral curves – run in a lateral direction from

one side of the arch to the other and help in
obtaining lateral balance.
Anteroposterior curve (curve of spee)
The anatomic curve established by the occlusal alignment of the teeth,
as projected onto the median plane, beginning with the cusp tip of the
mandibular canine and following the buccal cusp tips of the premolar
and molar teeth, continuing through the anterior border of the
mandibular ramus, ending with the anterior most portion of the
mandibular condyle. First described by Ferdinand Graf Spee, German
anatomist, in 1890 (GPT8) (Fig. 8.9).
• This curve assists in obtaining protrusive balance. Without this

curve, it would be necessary to tilt the entire occlusal plane at an
angle and raising it distally, to obtain balance. This will destabilize
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the upper denture and causes damage to the rugae area, increasing
bone resorption in this area.
• The radius or steepness of the curve necessary to achieve balance is

dependent on the incisal and condylar guidances. It is functionally
and mechanically advantageous to keep it as modest or shallow as
possible.
FIGURE 8.9 Curve of Spee.
Mediolateral curves
1. Curve of Wilson: This is a curve that is convex downwards. Wilson

adopted this curve in setting the artificial teeth in balanced occlusion
for complete dentures. It is used to arrange the molars. The lower
teeth are inclined lingually, giving prominence to the buccal cusps
and bringing them into heavy occlusal contact with the upper buccal
cusp during lateral movements on the working side (Fig. 8.10). It is
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named after George Wilson who described it in 1911.
2. Reverse curve or anti-Monson curve: A curve of occlusion that is

convex upwards. This is usually used to arrange the first premolars
(Fig. 8.11).
3. Curve of Monson: Curve of occlusion in which each cusp and

incisal edge touches or conforms to a segment of the surface of a
sphere 8 inches in diameter with its centre in the region of the glabella
(GPT8).
It was described by George S. Monson, a US dentist.

This curve in three dimensions is a combination of
‘curve of Spee and curve of Wilson’ (Fig. 8.12).
4. Pleasure curve: In excessive wear of the teeth, the obliteration of the
cusps and formation of either flat or cupped-out occlusal surfaces,
associated with the reversal of the occlusal plane of the premolar, first
and second molar teeth (the third molars being generally unaffected),
whereby the occlusal surfaces of the mandibular teeth slope facially
instead of lingually and those of the maxillary teeth incline lingually
(GPT8).
○ This is a combination of Monson and anti-Monson

curves. Hence, it is not a single curve but a
combination of curves.
○ It was used for arranging nonanatomic teeth in

balanced occlusion.
○ The premolars and the first molars are set in a

reverse curve to prevent buccal tipping and seat the
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denture.
○ Second molars are set in a conventional Monson’s

curve to provide eccentric lateral balance (Fig. 8.13).
FIGURE 8.10 Curve of Wilson.
FIGURE 8.11 Reverse curve.
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FIGURE 8.12 Monson’s curves.
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FIGURE 8.13 Pleasure curve. Premolars and I molar set in
reverse curve, II molar set in Monson’s curve.
5. Cuspal inclination
Definition: The angle made by the average slope of a cusp with the
cusp plane measured mesiodistally or buccolingually; also called
‘cusp angle’ (GPT) (Fig. 8.14).
• This has effects on the occlusal plane and the compensating curves.
• The closer a tooth is located to incisal or condylar guidance, the

more influence that guidance has on cuspal inclination of that tooth.
• In anatomic teeth, it is preferable to eliminate the mesiodistal cusp

height, as then only the buccolingual inclines need to be considered
for balanced arrangement.
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FIGURE 8.14 Cuspal angulations – determined by the angle
which is formed by the incline of a cusp with the horizontal.
Hanau’s quint
The above factors have also been described as Hanau’s quint. Fig. 8.15
shows how each factor influences the other factors, thereby affecting
balanced occlusion.
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FIGURE 8.15 Hanau’s quint.
Thielman’s formula
This also describes the interrelationship of the 5 factors affecting
balanced occlusion:
Monoplane occlusion
Definition: An occlusal arrangement wherein the posterior teeth have
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masticatory surfaces that lack any cuspal height (GPT8).
• This is an occlusal arrangement using nonanatomic teeth.
• This is based on the philosophy that by eliminating cusps, lateral

forces on the denture will be reduced thereby enhancing denture
stability.
• Anterior teeth are arranged with an overjet of 2 mm and no

overbite.
• Although balanced occlusion in eccentric relations is not a part of

the occlusal scheme, it may be developed using compensating
curves and balancing ramps (Figs 8.16 and 8.17).
• To direct the force towards the centre of the ridge, the number of
posterior teeth and their buccolingual width is reduced. Teeth are
not placed on inclines in the second molar area (Fig. 8.18).
• Advantages:
○ Easy to arrange the teeth.
○ Simple nonadjustable articulator is sufficient.
○ Easier occlusal scheme to achieve especially in the

following conditions:
▪ Difficult to obtain accurate centric relation records

(muscle incoordination)
▪ Skeletal malocclusion
▪ Severe residual ridge resorption
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• Disadvantages:
○ Poor appearance (nonanatomic teeth)
○ Reported less chewing efficiency
○ Unstable dentures in patients with steep condylar

guidance
FIGURE 8.16 Monoplane occlusion. Left shows occlusion in

centric, right shows occlusion in lateral excursion.
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FIGURE 8.17 Balancing ramp used with monoplane teeth to
achieve balance.
FIGURE 8.18 Reduced number of posterior teeth (buccal

view).
Lingualized occlusion
Definition: This form of denture occlusion articulates the maxillary
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lingual cusps with the mandibular occlusal surfaces in centric
working and nonworking mandibular positions. The term is
attributed to Earl Pound and was first described by S. Howard Payne,
in 1941 (GPT8).
• This combines the balanced occlusion and the monoplane concepts.
• Anatomic teeth are used in the maxillary arch and nonanatomic

teeth are used for the mandibular arch.
• It differs from traditional fully balanced occlusal schemes by having

only the palatal cusps of the maxillary teeth to contact the
mandibular teeth in centric and eccentric relations (Fig. 8.19).
• All the five factors involved in balanced occlusion play a similar role
in the arrangement of teeth with this scheme also.
• Manufacturers are now producing moulds for this concept

specifically – Myerson Lingualized Integration (MLI).
• Advantages:
○ More natural appearance of upper premolar teeth.
○ Better chewing than monoplane occlusion.

• Disadvantages:
○ More challenging teeth arrangement than

monoplane.
○ No scientific data to show improved stability.
○ Cannot be applied to difficult situations – muscular
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incoordination, severe ridge resorption and
malrelated jaws.
FIGURE 8.19 Lingualized occlusion. Left – centric contact,

right – eccentric contact.
SUMMARY
The occlusal scheme selected should satisfy the aesthetic and
functional needs of the patient. Anatomic teeth show slightly better
chewing efficiency. The concept of bilateral balanced occlusion and its
necessity has been debated for many years. Due to ‘realeff’ (resiliency
like effect) of the mucosa and the ability of the patient to alter their
chewing pattern to suit a centric balance, balanced occlusion in
eccentric relations has not had many takers in general dental practice.
Patients do seem to have more comfort with eccentric balance, though
there is no documented evidence for this. Even a minimum of three
point contact – one anteriorly and two posteriorly on either side, may
provide some balance in eccentric relations to enhance denture
stability. The basic requirement is certainly to provide even
maximum intercuspal contact of all the posterior teeth in centric
relation (centric occlusion), along with a no contact of the anterior
teeth.
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CHAPTER 9
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Selection of artificial teeth
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 152
Objectives 152
Selection of anterior teeth 152
Size 152
Form 155
Colour 156
Selection of posterior teeth 157
Size 157
Form 159
Selection of material 160
Posterior tooth forms 161
Anatomic teeth 161
Modified anatomic teeth 161
Nonanatomic teeth 163
Summary 164
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Introduction
Following the mounting of casts on the articulator and determining
the type of occlusal scheme, the next procedure in the fabrication of
complete dentures is selection of artificial teeth. Anterior teeth are
primarily selected for aesthetics, while the posterior teeth are selected
for mastication. Both must function in harmony with each other and
with the surrounding oral environment. The type of occlusal scheme
planned also dictates the selection of posterior teeth.
Although there is again no single rule of the thumb to decide the
selection, it certainly requires artistic skill in addition to scientific
knowledge.
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Objectives
The following are the main objectives in selecting artificial teeth:
• To establish harmony with surrounding tissue.
• Maintenance of vertical dimension.
• Aesthetic acceptability.
• Masticatory efficiency.
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Selection of anterior teeth
The anterior teeth are selected according to the following factors.
Size
The following factors guide and contribute to anterior teeth selection.
Size of face and head

• The average combined width of the maxillary anterior teeth is
determined by dividing the bizygomatic width by 3.3. (Pound
stated that zygoma was mostly present 1–1.5 inches behind the
lateral corner of the eyes.)
• The average width of the maxillary central incisor is determined by

dividing the bizygomatic width by 16 (Fig. 9.1).
• The ratio of the cranial circumference (glabella to occiput) to the

width of upper anterior teeth has been shown to be 10:1 (Fig. 9.2).
• The average length of the maxillary central incisor is determined by

dividing the length of the face by 16. Length of the face is a measure
of distance from the hairline to the lower edge of the bone of the
chin, with the face at rest.
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FIGURE 9.1 Bizygomatic width – used to determine the width
of maxillary anterior teeth and the average width of maxillary
central incisor.
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FIGURE 9.2 Cranial circumference – used to determine the
width of upper anterior teeth.
Anatomical landmarks
• Mark or pin is placed at the corners of the mouth on the wax occlusal
rims. The width of the maxillary anterior arch is determined by
measuring the distance from the two marks with a flexible ruler
(Fig. 9.3).
• Parallel lines are extended from the lateral surface of the ala of the
nose onto the maxillary occlusal rim. This line tentatively gives the
position of apex of canine teeth indicating the width of the
maxillary anteriors (Fig. 9.4).
• Through the distal border of incisive papilla a line is drawn

perpendicular to the midline of palate and continued onto the edge
of master cast. The tips of the canine teeth should lie near the point
of intersection of this line with the labial surface of the occlusal rim.
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A flexible ruler can be used to measure this distance (Fig. 9.5).
• If the cuspid eminences are evident, a line placed at its distal

termination in the cast gives a measure of the anterior maxillary
arch. If the eminences are not evident, the buccal frenum can be
used as a guide for the arch.
FIGURE 9.3 Corners of the mouth are marked on occlusal

rims; this determines the width of maxillary anterior arch.
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FIGURE 9.4 Positioning apex of the canine teeth on the
parallel lines extending from ala of the nose.
FIGURE 9.5 Tip of maxillary canine is positioned on the
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intersection of a line drawn through distal border of incisive
papilla and labial surface of occlusal rim.
Maxillomandibular relations
• In class III arches, the mandibular anterior teeth are selected larger
than normal.
• In class II arches, the mandibular anterior are selected smaller than

normal.
Contour of the residual ridges

• The artificial teeth should be placed to follow the contour of the
residual ridges that existed when the natural teeth were present
(Fig. 9.6). Thus the size of anterior teeth is selected according to this
position. The loss of contour as a result of resorption, accident or
surgery may make this a difficult task. Resorption of the maxillae
anteriorly is in a vertical and palatal direction, while posteriorly it is
in a vertical and medial direction. Resorption of the mandible
anteriorly is in a vertical and lingual direction, while posteriorly it is
in a vertical and slightly lingual direction (Fig. 9.6).
• There also may be a relationship between the form of the residual

ridge and the form of the teeth – square, tapering and ovoid (Fig.
9.7).
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FIGURE 9.6 a–d show the resorption pattern. Irrespective of
the amount of resorption, the artificial tooth should be set in
the place where the natural teeth existed.
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FIGURE 9.7 (A) Square, (B) tapering and (C) ovoid.
Vertical distance between the ridges

• This determines the length of the teeth. When space is available, it is
more aesthetically acceptable to use teeth that are long enough to
eliminate the display of denture base (Fig. 9.8 A and B).
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FIGURE 9.8 (A) When interridge distance is less, shorter
teeth are used. (B) When interridge distance is more, longer
teeth should be used so that display of denture base is less
(more aesthetic).
Lips
• This again guides the selection of length of maxillary anterior teeth.
• At rest, the relationship of incisal edges of the central incisors to the

lip line is given in Table 9.1 (Frush and Fischer, 1958). This depends
on the age and sex of the individual (Fig. 9.9 A and B).
• In speech, the incisal edges of the maxillary anterior teeth should

contact the lower lip at the junction of the moist and dry surfaces of
the vermilion border, when the patient pronounces the letter ‘f’.
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FIGURE 9.9 Amount of tooth visible below the upper lip
should be more in (A) a young patient than (B) an elderly
patient.
Table 9.1
Amount of tooth exposure depending on age and sex of
individual
Type of individual Amount of tooth exposure below lip line at rest

Young female 3 mm
Young male 2 mm
Middle aged 1–1.5 mm
Elderly 0–2 mm above lip line at rest
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Pre-extraction records
These can provide information about the size and form of both
anterior teeth. These include:
• Facial photographs: Provide general information about the width

and outline form of anterior teeth through an algebraic proportion.
By comparing, clearly visible factors like interpupillary distance of
patient in photo and in person with the tooth width in photo, the
actual width of the anterior tooth can be calculated.
• Diagnostic casts: Casts of patient’s natural or restored dentition

provide information, which is useful to select the size and form of
anterior teeth.
• Radiographs: They can provide information about the size and form
of teeth.
• Teeth of close relatives: Son’s or daughter’s tooth size, colour and

arrangement can be effectively used in selecting and arranging
artificial teeth for their parents.
• Extracted teeth: Provide information about the size and form;

should not be used for selecting colour.
Form
The form or shape of the anterior teeth is selected according to
1. Form and contour of face
2. Dentogenic concept
3. Pre-extraction records.
Form and contour of face
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• The form of a tooth should conform to the contour of the face as
viewed from the front and side (profile) (Figs 9.10 and 9.11).
• According to Leon William’s classification, facial forms can be

categorized as square, square tapering, tapering and ovoid, when
viewed from front. Three areas in the face are considered for this –
temporal, zygomatic and angle of mandible. (See Fig. 2.1, Chapter
2.)
• To determine the facial profile, forehead, base of nose and chin

points are considered. The profiles can be classified as – straight or
convex and teeth are selected accordingly. (See also Fig. 2.2, Chapter
2.)
FIGURE 9.10 Form and shape of teeth are selected

according to facial form. (A) Square, (B) Tapering and (C)
Ovoid.
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FIGURE 9.11 Form and shape of teeth selected according to
facial profile.
Dentogenic concept
This concept was advocated by Frush and Fisher (1957). It was based
on sex, personality and age of the patient (SPA concept or factors).
The teeth were selected and arranged according to this concept.
• Sex: Curved facial features are associated with femininity and

square with masculinity. To create harmony between the tooth form
and face, teeth of females may be more ovoid or tapering than
square as compared to males. The incisal edges may also be
rounded for females. Square feature is associated with masculinity
(Fig. 9.12).
• Personality: A vigorous personality requires square teeth with flat

incisal edges, while a delicate personality will require ovoid teeth.
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• Age: With age, the teeth wear at the incisal edges and interproximal
surfaces. Labial surfaces seem flatter and form appears squarer. The
same should be considered while selecting the teeth.
FIGURE 9.12 (A) Mould selected for male with sharp edges.
(B) Mould selected for female with round edges.
As previously described, these are useful in selecting the size and
form of anterior teeth.
Colour
Definition: A phenomenon of light or visual perception that enables
one to differentiate otherwise identical objects (GPT8).
Dimensions
Colour has three dimensions according to the Munsell system – hue,
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value and chroma. Translucency is a fourth dimension, which is the
property of an object that permits the passage of light through it.
Factors
The following parameters assist in selecting the colour of the artificial
teeth.
Colour of hair, eyes and skin
• Individuals with blue, green or light coloured eyes and fair skin are
given teeth with lighter shade, while those with black or dark eyes
and ruddy complexion are given darker teeth.
• Some authors have also suggested a relation between colour of the

hair and tooth colour, but this is a very unreliable guide as the
patient could be dyeing the same.
• Although there is no scientific correlation between the above factors

and tooth colour, in general the selected artificial tooth colour or
shade should be in harmony with these factors.
Age
• With increasing age, tooth colour becomes progressively darker.
• When young, the pulp chambers are large & the increased blood
supply, lightens the tooth colour. With age,formation of secondary
dentin reduces the size of the pulp chamber, making teeh appear
more opaque & dark.
• As wear occurs on the teeth as a result of age, they also become

smoother and reflect more light. But the attrition at the incisal edge
contributes to decreased translucency with age.
• Teeth also pick up stains with age and acquire a brownish colour.
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Sex
• Darker shade is generally selected for men and lighter shade for
women.
A record of the patient’s tooth colour before extraction can be a useful
guide in selecting the colour, but extracted teeth are unreliable as they
dehydrate and become lighter.
Selecting colour
The colour or shade of the artificial teeth for complete dentures is
selected by placing the shade tab in the following areas:
• Along the side of the nose – establishes the basic hue, chroma and
value (Fig. 9.13).
• Under the lips with only the incisal edge exposed – reveals the effect
of the colour of the teeth when the patient’s mouth is relaxed (Fig.
9.14).
• Under the lip with only the cervical end covered and mouth open –
simulates the exposure of the teeth as in a smile (Fig. 9.15).
FIGURE 9.13 Along the side of the nose.
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FIGURE 9.14 Under the lips with only incisal edge exposed.
FIGURE 9.15 Under the lip with only the cervical end
covered and mouth open.
The squint test may be helpful in evaluating the colour of teeth with
complexion of face. With the eyelids partially closed to reduce light,
the dentist compares the selected shade tabs by holding them along
the face of the patient. The colour that fades from view first is the one
that is least conspicuous and is in harmony with the colour of the face.
Colour and its selection for partially edentulous individuals are also
discussed in Section III, Chapter 39.
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Selection of posterior teeth
Posterior teeth are selected according to the following.
Size
Buccolingual width
• The buccolingual width should be sufficient to act as a table to hold
food during trituration, to support cheeks and tongue and function
in harmony with the musculature during swallowing, speaking and
mastication (Fig. 9.16).
• Buccolingual width of the artificial posterior teeth should be less

than the width of the natural teeth being replaced (Fig. 9.17A). But it
should not be reduced such that support for cheeks is lost. It should
also not be so large that it encroaches on tongue space and buccal
corridor (Fig. 9.17B).
• Artificial teeth that are narrow in this dimension also enhance

development of the correct form of polished surface of the denture,
by allowing the denture to slope away from the occlusal surfaces.
This also permits forces from the cheeks and tongue to stabilize the
denture (Fig. 9.18).
• When the lower ridge is strong, well formed and covered by

adequate thickness of attached masticatory mucosa, the entire
buccolingual space available can be used to place the artificial teeth
as the ridge has the capacity to tolerate the forces of mastication
(Fig. 9.19).
• When the ridge is weak, resorbed and covered only by thin lining
mucosa, the size should be smaller. This will limit the forces
directed to the ridge.
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FIGURE 9.16 Buccolingual width should be in harmony with
cheeks, tongue and musculature.
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FIGURE 9.17 (A) The buccolingual width should be less than
the natural tooth to be replaced. (B) Buccolingual width
should not be too large to encroach on tongue and cheek.
FIGURE 9.18 Correct selection of posterior teeth size also

allows development of properly contoured polished surfaces
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of the denture.
FIGURE 9.19 Entire buccolingual width of residual ridge is

utilized for placement of artificial tooth when the ridge is well-
formed.
Mesiodistal width
• This is determined by the edentulous space available from the distal
of mandibular cuspids to the beginning of ascending area of
mandible (Fig. 9.20).
• The ascending area is inclined and placing teeth here would direct
forces at an inclined plane rather than at right angles to the support,
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which will cause the lower denture to slide forward.
• The posterior teeth should also not be placed over the retromolar
pad as it is soft and easily displaced. Placing teeth here would tip
the denture during mastication.
• The posterior should be placed as far as possible posteriorly as

otherwise forces of mastication will place a heavier load on the
weaker anterior part of the residual ridge.
• This measurement may need to be modified for class II and class III
arches.
FIGURE 9.20 Mesiodistal length of edentulous ridge from

distal of mandibular canine till the ascending ramus
determines the mesiodistal space available for the posterior
teeth.
Occlusogingival height (vertical)

This is determined by the available interridge space, occlusal plane
and height of anterior teeth. Teeth with largest possible vertical length
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that can be used without grinding are preferred for aesthetics (Fig.
9.21).
FIGURE 9.21 (A) Occlusogingival length. Long teeth are

preferred when the interocclusal space is adequate. (B)
Shorter teeth are selected when the interocclusal space is
deficient.
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Form
Artificial posterior teeth are available in two forms.
Anatomic teeth
• Also called ‘cusp teeth’ (Fig. 9.22).
• Designed to simulate the occlusal surface of the natural tooth.
• Available in varying degrees of inclinations – the standard is

approximately 33°.
• The angle can be modified by grinding or purchased in a modified

anatomic form. When the cusp incline is less than the conventional
33°, it is termed as modified anatomic or semi-anatomic teeth (Fig.
9.23).
FIGURE 9.22 Cusp teeth (angulation of 33)
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FIGURE 9.23 Semi-anatomic teeth – angulation of less than
33.
Advantages:
• Aesthetic, as they resemble natural teeth.
• More efficient in cutting food, thereby reducing the forces directed

at the residual ridge.
• When cusps are making contact in fossa at centric relation, the

position is comfortable, a definite point of return.
• Contours are more compatible with surrounding oral environment.
• Occlusion with cusp teeth is more organized and has depth; it is not
a sudden closure of flat surfaces.
• They can be arranged in balanced occlusion in eccentric relations.
Disadvantages:
• The presence of cusps generates more horizontal force during
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function.
• Harmonious balanced occlusion is lost when settling of denture base

occurs.
• The bases need prompt and frequent refitting to keep the occlusion
stable and balanced.
Nonanatomic teeth
These are also called ‘cuspless’, ‘monoplane’ or ‘zero degree’ teeth.
The occlusal surface is essentially flat and has no cusp heights (Fig.
9.24).
FIGURE 9.24 Monoplane teeth.
Advantages:
• They are less damaging than cusp teeth when teeth are not arranged
in balanced occlusion.
• They offer less resistance to horizontal forces thereby causing less

damage to the ridges in the following conditions:
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○ Bruxism
○ Poor residual ridges
○ Malrelated jaws – class II and class III
○ Uncoordinated neuromuscular controls

Disadvantages:
• They occlude only in two dimensions (no height). Absence of this

vertical component reduces the shearing efficiency of food.
• Any occlusal grinding further impairs their efficiency.
• Poor aesthetics.
• Obtaining lateral and protrusive balance of teeth is not possible.
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Materials used for artificial denture teeth can be classified as:
1. Resin
(i) Acrylic resin
a. Monolithic
b. Cross-linked
c. IPN linked
(ii) Composite resin

2. Porcelain
• Resin and porcelain are the materials used for

fabricating preformed artificial denture teeth.
• The majority of resin teeth are made of acrylic resin

– polymethyl methacrylate. Composite resin teeth
are not commonly used due to greater wear than
newer acrylics. The main disadvantage of
traditional monolithic acrylic teeth has been their
poor wear resistance, which led to the development
of cross-linked acrylics, IPN (interpenetrating
polymer network) resins and highly cross-linked
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resins.
• The development of these high strength acrylic

resin teeth with good wear resistance has
considerably reduced the use of porcelain denture
teeth.
• Although resin posterior denture teeth can be used

in all situations, they are specifically indicated in
the following conditions:
○ When opposing dentition consists of natural teeth

or metal restorations.
○ Recently extracted residual ridges.
○ Limited interocclusal space.
○ If an immediate denture is being contemplated.
○ Poor ridges and mucosa.
○ Aged and debilitated patients.
○ When teeth are in contact with retainer of RPD.

• Porcelain teeth are rarely used, only when aesthetics are paramount.
As they cannot be trimmed easily, they are used only when
adequate interarch space is available.
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• A combination of resin and porcelain teeth on opposing dentures
can be used, as it softens the impact sounds, reduces friction and
chipping. But porcelain can wear the resin faster and loss of vertical
dimension occurs with anterior interference.
• Differences between resin and porcelain teeth are given in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2
Differences between resin and porcelain teeth
Resin Porcelain
1. Wears easily with loss of VD No clinically significant wear
2. Easy to grind and adjust Difficult to grind and adjust
3. Chemical bonding to denture base Mechanical bonding using pins (for anterior teeth) and
diatoric holes (for posterior teeth)
4. Does not abrade opposing natural teeth and Abrades opposing natural teeth and restorations
restorations
5. Colour instability – can stain easily Does not stain easily
6. Soft impact sound – no clicking sound when Sharp impact sound – clicking present
opposing teeth meet
7. Rebasing is a problem as it is difficult to Easy to separate the teeth and rebase
separate the teeth from denture base
8. No leakage Marginal staining is possible due to capillary leakage
9. Good impact resistance – chipping is not a Poor impact resistance – chipping of denture tooth is a
problem problem
Diatoric: A channel placed in denture teeth to serve as a mechanical

means of retaining the teeth in a chemically dissimilar denture base
material (GPT8) (Fig. 9.25).
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FIGURE 9.25 Diatoric channel made in artificial teeth for
retention to denture base.
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Posterior tooth forms
The historical development of posterior tooth forms can be
categorized according to their morphology.
Anatomic teeth
• 1914 – Trubyte teeth – designed by Gysi.
These were the first 33° anatomic posterior teeth to be

developed. They were made of porcelain and
resembled natural teeth with transverse ridges
intended for tight interdigitation. Crossbite
situations were difficult to treat with these teeth
(Fig. 9.26).
FIGURE 9.26 Trubyte teeth.
Modified anatomic teeth

• 1927: Gysi crossbite teeth – designed by Gysi.
Maxillary buccal cusp was eliminated. Palatal cusp
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occluded with anatomic lower posteriors. Occlusal
surfaces of all posterior teeth were reduced and
these were used for crossbite cases (Fig. 9.27).
• 1927: Channel tooth – designed by Sears.
Maxillary occlusal surfaces had a deep channel

running mesiodistally along all four posterior teeth.
Lower posteriors were like a single ridge, half the
buccolingual width of normal anatomic teeth,
which articulated with the upper channel. They
permitted unlimited protrusive glide (Fig. 9.28).
• 1930: Scissor bite teeth – designed by Avery Brothers.
Posterior occlusal surfaces were ground-like steps

with the angle determined by condylar guidance.
There was freedom in lateral excursion (Fig. 9.29).
• 1932: Pilkington-Turner teeth – designed by Pilkington and Turner.
Resembled natural occlusal forms but had angle of

30°. Provided a small degree of freedom in
protrusive excursions, but were interlocked in
lateral excursions (Fig. 9.30).
• 1935: Modified posteriors – designed by French.
Upper posterior teeth were similar to ‘channel teeth’
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but with very shallow buccolingual inclines. Lower
teeth had a sloping buccal surface that was placed
below the occlusion. Only lingual cusp contacted
the grove in the upper. This was claimed to direct
the forces lingually stabilizing the lower denture
(Fig. 9.31).
• 1937: Pleasure scheme – designed by Max Pleasure.
Lower posterior occlusal surfaces were modified to

produce a reverse curve by tilting the tooth
buccally. This was also claimed to stabilize the
lower denture by directing the forces lingually.
• 1942: Metal insert in resin – designed by John Vincent.
Circles of gold solder wire or stainless steel wire were

inserted into maxillary posterior resin occlusal
surfaces. They were set opposing French’s
mandibular posteriors. It was claimed that as the
resin wore, the chewing force was concentrated in
the centre of the denture (Fig. 9.32).
• 1961: Crossblades – designed by Sosin.
The occlusal surface of upper second premolar and

first and second molars were covered with
vitallium. During try-in, the lower posteriors were
removed and denture processed. During insertion
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of denture, wax was placed on the lower
permanent record base and the patient was asked
to produce chewing movements. This lower
occlusal pattern was converted to gold and
processed onto lower denture (Fig. 9.33).
• In 1977, Levin modified these teeth by placing the vitallium only on
the maxillary palatal cusps for aesthetic reasons. Both authors
claimed increased masticatory efficiency with this ‘functionally
generated path’ technique.
FIGURE 9.27 Gysi crossbite teeth.
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FIGURE 9.28 Sears channel tooth.
FIGURE 9.29 Scissor bite teeth.
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FIGURE 9.30 Pilkington–Turner teeth.
FIGURE 9.31 Modified posteriors.
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FIGURE 9.32 Metal insert in resin.
FIGURE 9.33 Crossblades.
Nonanatomic teeth
• 1929: Inverted cusp tooth – designed by Hall.
This was one of the first nonanatomic designs. The

occlusal surface of the teeth was flat with sharp
concentric ridges around cup-like depressions
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(inverted cusp). Efficient mastication was claimed
with this type. But actually the depressions became
clogged with food and lost their efficiency (Fig.
9.34).
• 1929: True-kusp – designed by Myerson.
This was also a cuspless posterior that had a series of

buccal–lingual ridges with sluiceways between
them (Fig. 9.35).
• 1934: Chopping block – designed by Nelson.
Flat occlusal surface with ridges. Mandibular ridges

were placed transversely, while maxillary ridges
were mesiodistal. The perpendicular contact made
by the ridges was claimed to have an efficient
shredding and cutting mechanism (Fig. 9.36).
• 1939: Nonlock – designed by Swenson.
Flat occlusal surfaces with sluiceways for shredding

and allowing food to escape from the occlusal table.
They also provided some balancing contact as mild
buccal and lingual incline was provided (Fig. 9.37).
• 1946: ‘VO’ (Vitallium Occlusal) – designed by Hardy.
These were nonanatomic teeth, which contained
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metal inserts in the occlusal surface. The two
premolars and first molar teeth were joined
together but with separation evident buccally.
Vitallium ribbon was embedded on the occlusal
surface in a zigzag manner, slightly raised from the
resin surface. The contact of the upper and lower
teeth was on this metal ribbon and this improved
the cutting efficiency. The Astenal Company
manufactured the teeth (Fig. 9.38).
• 1951: Shear-cusp tooth – developed by Myerson Tooth Corporation.
These were the first cross-linked acrylic nonanatomic teeth

to be developed. These cross-linked resin teeth were
documented to be at least 30% more wear resistant
than normal acrylics.
• 1952: Coe masticators – designed by Cook.
The mandibular second premolar and first molar

were flat stainless steel castings with diagonal holes
on the occlusal surface that sloped buccally. These
occluded with flat upper porcelain teeth to grind
the food. The force required for mastication was
claimed to be reduced. Again, problems occurred
with clogging of food in the holes (Fig. 9.39).
• 1957: Cutter bars – designed by Bader.
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A cobalt–chromium metal cutting bar was placed on
the occlusal surface of the lower posteriors – second
premolar, first and second molars. They opposed
flat upper porcelain teeth. Masticatory efficiency
was claimed to be superior. This was similar to
Sears channel teeth.
• 1967: Linear occlusal concept – designed by Frush.
A single mesiodistal ridge was placed on the lower

posterior teeth opposing flat upper teeth.
FIGURE 9.34 Inverted cusp teeth.
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FIGURE 9.35 Myerson’s true-kusp teeth.
FIGURE 9.36 Nelson’s chopping block teeth.
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FIGURE 9.37 Swenson’s nonlock teeth.
FIGURE 9.38 VO (vitallium occlusal) – Hardy’s posteriors.
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FIGURE 9.39 Coe masticators.
SUMMARY
Artificial teeth are selected for aesthetics and function. The size, form
and colour play an important role in this selection. While aesthetics
dictate the selection of anterior teeth, the type of occlusion planned
dictates the posterior tooth selection. Anatomic teeth are usually used
especially when balanced occlusion in eccentric relations is planned.
Nonanatomic teeth may be used in specific conditions. With the
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advent of highly cross-linked resin teeth, the use of porcelain denture
teeth has now become a rarity.
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CHAPTER
10
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Teeth arrangement
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 165
Factors influencing teeth arrangement 165
Anatomical landmarks 165
Dentogenic concept 167
Ridge relations 168
Developing balanced occlusion 179
Neutral zone technique 180
Summary 183
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Introduction
Following the selection of teeth and determining the type of occlusion,
the artificial teeth are arranged. Arrangement of teeth is dictated by
the setting principles of individual teeth, anatomical landmarks and
dentogenic concept. The ridge relation and the need to arrange the
teeth in balanced occlusion also influence the procedure. The teeth
should occupy the potential denture space or neutral zone.
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Factors influencing teeth arrangement
The various factors/guidelines involved in the arrangement of
artificial teeth are discussed in this chapter. These are categorized into:
1. Anatomical landmarks
3. Ridge relation
4. Balanced occlusion
5. Neutral zone
Anatomical landmarks
Residual ridge
Maxillary teeth are positioned labial to the ridge and mandibular teeth
on the crest of ridge due to the resorptive pattern of the ridge (Fig.
10.1).The lingual cusp of the maxillary posterior teeth should be
centred over the mandibular ridge and mandibular anterior teeth
should not be set too far from the centre of the ridge to ensure denture
stability (Fig. 10.2A).
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FIGURE 10.1 Position of anterior teeth in relation to ridge.
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FIGURE 10.2 (A) Relation of denture teeth to the residual
ridge. (B) The lingual position of the mandibular posteriors
should not go beyond the pound line (marked). (C)
Characteristics of a square arch. (D) Characteristics of a
tapering arch. (E) Characteristics of an ovoid arch.
The lingual cusp of the mandibular posteriors should not encroach

on the ‘pound line’ – an imaginary line from the lingual border of
retromolar pad to the mesial angle of the canine, as it would restrict
the tongue space (Fig. 10.2B).
Arch form
Teeth arrangement especially of the maxillary varies with arch form –
square, tapering or ovoid, and the general rule is to follow the contour
of the arch.
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1. Square arch: The arrangement is almost on a straight line (slight
curve) from canine to canine without much rotation. The full face of
all the maxillary anteriors should be seen to give broad effect (Fig.
10.2C).
2. Tapering arch: The central incisors are placed much forward than
canines and also rotated distally. Lateral incisors are also rotated,
raised from occlusal plane and depressed at the gingival margin. Neck
of canine teeth is prominent (Fig. 10.2D).
3. Ovoid arch: Arrangement has a definite curvature and central

incisors are set forward of canines (not as much as a tapered arch).
There is not much rotation and canines will not be very prominent
(Fig. 10.2E).
Retromolar pad
The line extending from the tip of lower canine to the upper two-third
of retromolar pad will determine the height of the lower posterior
teeth (occlusal plane) (Fig. 10.3). If the occlusal plane is too low, it
causes tongue biting or too high occlusal plane can cause instability
and strain as tongue struggles to place the food bolus back on occlusal
table.
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FIGURE 10.3 Relation of retromolar pad in determination of
height of posterior teeth.
Parotid duct
Maxillary first molar should be placed below the orifice of the parotid
gland (Fig. 10.4).
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FIGURE 10.4 Relation of Stensen’s duct to teeth position.
Rugae
The labial surface of the canine is normally 10.5 mm from the lateral
aspect of the first large pair of anterior rugae (Fig. 10.5).
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FIGURE 10.5 Relation of rugae to the denture teeth.
Incisive papillae (figs 10.5 and 10.6)
• A line through the incisive papilla and the midline of the raphae
determine the midline of the denture teeth. The distance from the
middle of the incisive papilla to the labial surface of the maxillary
central incisor is typically 8–10 mm.
• A line drawn perpendicular to the midline of the palate, through the

centre of the incisive papilla intersects the cusp tips of the canines.
• In young persons, a line connecting tips of canines transverses the

incisive papilla.
• With advancing age due to increased alveolar ridge resorption, line

moves posteriorly and may eventually pass through the distal
extent of the papilla.
• Pterygomaxillary notch-incisive papilla plane tends to be more

parallel to the occlusal plane that uses mesiolabial incisal edge of
maxillary right central incisor as anterior reference point and
mesiobuccal cusp tips of maxillary first or second molars as
posterior reference point.
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FIGURE 10.6 Relation of incisive papillae to the denture
teeth.
Nose
The distance between the tips of the canines is the same as the width
of the base of the nose. In order to visualize buccal corridor space,
canines are positioned immediately inferior to the side of the nose
(Fig. 10.7).
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FIGURE 10.7 Philtrum and nose and their relation to the
denture teeth.
Philtrum
The width of the central incisor approximates the width of the
philtrum (Fig. 10.7).
Dentogenic concept
Sex factor
Feminine characteristic – softness
Central incisor
For softness, one of the central incisors is moved out at the base and
the incisal edges are placed together (Fig. 10.8B).
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FIGURE 10.8 Position of one central incisor bodily placed
anteriorly (A), rotation of the distal surface forwards to depict
vigorous appearance.
Lateral incisor
The lateral incisor is rotated outward with asymmetric long axis
between right and left lateral incisors (Fig. 10.9A).
FIGURE 10.9 Lateral incisor position. Female characteristics.

(A) Male characteristics (B).
Masculine characteristic – boldness and hardness
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Central incisor
The incisal edge of one upper central incisor can be brought
anteriorly. For boldness, one of the central incisors is bodily placed
anterior to the other (Fig. 10.8A) or combined rotation of the two
central incisor with their distal surface forward having one incisor
depressed at the cervical and the other depressed incisally (Fig.
10.8C).
Lateral incisor
The mesial line angle of the lateral incisors can be labially overlapped
on the distal line angle of the central incisors to give a feminine
characteristics (Fig. 10.9A). The mesial line angle of lateral if
positioned palatally with prominent distal line angle of the central
incisors, it depicts male characteristics (Fig. 10.9B).
Canine
A prominence in the canine tooth.
Personality factor
• Grouped into three categories: vigorous type – hard, aggressive,
muscular; medium type – normal, robust, healthy; delicate type –
fragile, frail appearance.
• Vigorous look is given by having wider central incisors, wearing of

central incisors and canine with sharp line and point angle.
• Delicate look is created by rounded contours of the tooth with pale

colour.
Age factor
Incisal edge
• Young patients – presence of mamelons and cuspid with pointed
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tip.
• Youth full adult – more incisal wear on central, lateral incisors,

canine and the enamel incisal edge of visible depth and of bluish
hue.
• Adults – central and lateral incisors abrade in straight line and

cuspids abrade in a curve. This results in flattening of the arch (Fig.
10.10).
FIGURE 10.10 Age factor on the incisal edge. Dotted line –

young age, darker line – as age advances.
Erosion: It is seen on the gingival third and the necks of the teeth. It
is depicted by careful grinding and polishing effectively with variable
shading effects.
Diastema: It is seen very frequently in youth.
Denture base
• Youth interdental papillae – freely stippled and pointed tight

against the tooth.
• Advancing age – shortening the papillae and by raising gingival

line, selecting long teeth, contouring the wax and positioning the
teeth properly to suggest recession (Fig. 10.11).
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FIGURE 10.11 Age changes on denture base: (A) young
adults and (B) advanced age.
Ridge relations
Principles of individual teeth arrangement according to ridge relations
in centric occlusion can be classified into the following types:
1. Teeth relation for class I ridge relation
2. Teeth arrangement for class II ridge relation
3. Teeth relation for class III ridge relation
Teeth arrangement for class I ridge relation

Anterior teeth arrangement
Arrangement of maxillary central incisor

Its long axis inclines slightly towards the vertical axis when viewed
from the front. The incisal edge contacts the occlusal plane (Fig.
10.12A).
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FIGURE 10.12 (A) Arrangement of maxillary central incisor
(frontal view). (B) A 15° angulation of central incisor (side
view). (C) Central incisor set along arch form (palatal view).
The maxillary teeth slopes labially about 15° when viewed from the
side (Fig. 10.12B). The 15° angulation is more pronounced in the
incisal half of the central incisor and the cervical margin should be
within the occlusal rim. The position of the central incisor when
viewed lingually (Fig. 10.12C) is not straight but follows the arch
form.
Arrangement of maxillary lateral incisor

Its long axis slopes more towards the midline, when compared to the
central incisor the incisal edge is about 1 mm short of the occlusal
plane (Fig. 10.13A). A mesiolabial rotation usually looks good in a
female or delicate patient and is called a ‘soft’ lateral. This makes the
tooth look narrower and enlarges the embrasures.
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FIGURE 10.13 (A) Arrangement of maxillary lateral incisor
(frontal view). (B) 20° angulation of lateral incisor (side view).
(C) Lateral incisor set along arch form (palatal view).
For a man and for a more vigorous effect, try a mesiolingual

rotation, called a ‘hard’ lateral. This makes the tooth look wider. Place
the lateral incisors higher than the centrals depending on age. This
begins the ‘smile line’.
It is inclined labially about 20° when viewed from the side (Fig.
10.13B). The lingual view reveals distal margin overlap of the central
incisor by the mesial surface of lateral incisor due to its inclination.
The distal surface of lateral incisor follows the curvature of the arch
(Fig. 10.13C).
Arrangement of maxillary canine

Its long axis is parallel to the vertical axis when viewed from both
front and side (Fig. 10.14A). The cervical margin of the canine is more
prominent when compared with central and lateral incisors. It is less
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for patient with a square face and more if the face is tapering. The tip
of the canine contacts the occlusal plane. When viewed from front
only the mesial slope of canine is visible.
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FIGURE 10.14 (A) Arrangement of maxillary canine (frontal
view). (B) Parallel to vertical axis (side view). (C) Follows the
arch form (palatal view).
It is parallel to the vertical axis when viewed from the side (Fig.
10.14B). The bulbous cervical half of the tooth provides its
prominence. When viewed from the buccal side only the distal slope
of the canine is visible. On palatal view, the arrangement follows the
arch form (Fig. 10.14C).
Similarly the teeth are arranged on the opposite side of the rim (Fig.
10.15A). Maxillary anterior teeth arrangement is thus completed (Fig.
10.15B).
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FIGURE 10.15 (A) Opposite side of maxillary rim is
completed. (B) Completed maxillary anterior teeth
arrangement. (C) Glass plate relation of maxillary anterior
teeth. (D) Arch symmetry checked with a metal scale.
Glass plate relation of maxillary anteriors is shown in Fig. 10.15C.

The cervical margin of the canine is higher than that of the central and
lateral incisors. Arch symmetry is shown in the arrangement on either
side of the midline (Fig. 10.15D).
Mandibular anteriors
Arrangement of mandibular central incisor

Its long axis also inclines slightly towards the vertical axis when
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viewed from the front (Fig. 10.16A). The incisal edge is about 2 mm
above the occlusal plane.
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FIGURE 10.16 (A) Arrangement of mandibular central incisor
(frontal view). (B) Mandibular central incisor slopes labially
(buccal view). (C) Follows the arch form (occlusal view).
It slopes labially when viewed from the side (Fig. 10.16B).The

inclination is more pronounced in the incisal half of central incisor
and cervical region within the occlusal rim. From incisal view, it
follows the arch form (Fig. 10.16C).
Arrangement of mandibular lateral incisor

Its long axis inclines to the vertical axis when viewed from the front.
The incisal edge is 2 mm above the occlusal plane (Fig. 10.17A).
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FIGURE 10.17 (A) Arrangement of lateral incisor (frontal
view). (B) Mandibular lateral incisor slopes labially but less
steep than centrals. (C) Follows the arch form (occlusal view).
When viewed from side its slopes labially (Fig. 10.17B) but not as
steep as the central incisor. From incisal view, it follows the arch form
(Fig. 10.17C).
Arrangement of mandibular canine

Its long axis leans slightly towards the midline when viewed from the
front (Fig. 10.18A). The cervical margin is more prominent than
incisors. The incisal margin is 2 mm above the occlusal plane.
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FIGURE 10.18 (A) Mandibular canine leans towards midline
(frontal view). (B) The SPACE incisal half of the canine is
slightly lingually tilted (side view). (C) Follows the arch form
(occlusal view). (D) All the teeth are in the same plane except
canines (frontal view). (E) All teeth curve along the arch
(occlusal view).
From lateral view, the incisal half of the canine is slightly lingually
tilted and the cervical half is more prominent when viewed from the
side (Fig. 10.18B). From incisal view, the cusp is slightly more than 2
mm above the occlusal plane. The arrangement follows the arch form
(Fig. 10.18C).
Similarly the teeth are arranged on the other side of the arch. The
incisal edges of all the teeth from canine to canine are in the same
plane (Fig. 10.18D).
From incisal view of the mandibular anteriors, the arrangement
reveals the incisors follow the arch form. The incisors do not form a
straight line but curve according to the curvature in the arch (Fig.
10.18E).
The overjet and overbite (Fig. 10.19A) are approximately 1–2 mm in
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class I. The canine relationship of the maxillary and mandibular teeth
in case of class I arrangement is that the mesial slopes of maxillary
canine comes in relation to the distal slopes of mandibular canine.
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FIGURE 10.19 (A) Overjet (1–2 mm) of anterior teeth. (B)
Complete arrangement of anterior teeth.
The completed frontal view of the anterior teeth arrangement is

shown in Fig. 10.19B. This is followed by arranging the posterior teeth.
Posterior teeth arrangement
Arrangement of maxillary first premolar

The long axis is parallel to the vertical axis when viewed from the
front and the side (Fig. 10.20A). Its buccal cusp contacts the occlusal
plane. The palatal cusp is slightly above the occlusal plane. The buccal
surface of the premolar is in line with the labial surface of the canine
(Fig. 10.20B).
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FIGURE 10.20 (A) Maxillary first premolar parallel to vertical
axis (side view). (B) Buccal surface of the premolar is in line
with labial surface of the canine.
Arrangement of maxillary second premolar

Its long axis is parallel to the vertical axis similar to first premolar.
Both the buccal cusp and palatal cusp contacts the occlusal plane (Fig.
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10.21A). From occlusal view, the buccal surfaces of the first and
second premolars are in line with the labial surface of the canine (Fig.
10.21B).
FIGURE 10.21 (A) Long axis is parallel to the vertical axis

(side view). (B) The first and second premolars are in line
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(palatal view).
Arrangement of maxillary first molar

When viewed from front, the long axis slopes buccally. When viewed
from side, long axis slopes distally. Only the mesiopalatal cusp
contacts the occlusal plane and mesiobuccal in close cusp is close to
the occlusal plane (Fig. 10.22A). From occlusal view, the buccal
surfaces of two premolars and first molar are in line with the labial
surface of the canine (Fig. 10.22B).
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FIGURE 10.22 (A) Only the mesiopalatal cusp contacts the
occlusal plane. (B) Buccal surfaces of two premolars and first
molar are in line (occlusal view).
Arrangement of maxillary second molar

When viewed from the front, it slopes more buccally than first molar.
When viewed from side it slopes more distally than first molar. None
of the cusps is in contact with the occlusal plane but mesiopalatal cusp
is close to the occlusal plane (Fig. 10.23A). The mesial surface of the
second molar should be in line with the distal surface of first molar
(Fig. 10.23B).
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FIGURE 10.23 (A) None of the cusps is in contact with the
occlusal plane for maxillary second molar. (B) Occlusal view
reveals the buccal surface of maxillary posteriors in line with
the distal slope of canine except the distobuccal cusp of the
second molar. (C) Completed teeth arrangement of maxillary
arch.
From occlusal view, the buccal surface of the maxillary posteriors is

in line with the distal slope of canine except the distobuccal cusp of
the second molar. The occlusal view of maxillary trial base after teeth
arrangement is shown in Fig. 10.23C.
The glass plate relation of maxillary teeth showing the cuspal
contact on the glass plate is shown in Fig. 10.24A and B.
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FIGURE 10.24 (A) Glass plate relation (frontal view). (B)
Glass plate relation (side view).
The trial denture base with the maxillary teeth arranged is placed
on the articulator with the frontal view revealing the correct
placement of maxillary central incisor (Fig. 10.25A and B).
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FIGURE 10.25 (A) Maxillary teeth arranged and placed on
the articulator (side view). (B) Maxillary teeth arranged and
placed on the articulator (frontal view).
Arrangement of mandibular first molar

Long axis leans lingually when viewed from the front view and
mesially when viewed from the buccal side (Fig. 10.26A). All cusps are
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at a higher level above the occlusal plane than those of the second
premolar. The distal cusp will be higher when compared with other
cusps.
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FIGURE 10.26 (A) Long axis leans mesially (buccal side
view). (B) Buccal and distal cusps are higher for mandibular
first molar. (C) Key of occlusion: mesiobuccal cusp of
maxillary I molar resting on buccal groove of mandibular I
molar.
The buccal and distal cusps are higher than the mesial and lingual
because of the inclination (Fig. 10.26B).
Occlusion: The mesiopalatal cusp of maxillary should rest on the
central fossa of the mandibular first molar to establish the buccal
overjet. The mesiobuccal cusp of the maxillary first molar should rest
on the buccal groove of the mandibular first molar (Fig. 10.26C). This
is one of the ‘keys of occlusion’.
Arrangement of mandibular second premolar

The long axis is parallel to the vertical plane when viewed from both
the front and the side (Fig. 10.27A). Both cusps are about 2 mm above
the occlusal plane and follow arch form (Fig. 10.27B).
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FIGURE 10.27 (A) Mandibular second premolar long axis
parallel to the vertical plane. (B) Follows the arch form
(occlusal view). (C) Mandibular second premolar in occlusion.
Occlusion: The buccal cusp tip contacts the mesial marginal ridge of
the maxillary second premolar. The mesiolingual ridge contacts the
distal slope of the lingual cusp of maxillary first premolar (Fig.
10.27C).
Arrangement of mandibular second molar

Lingual and mesial inclination of the long axis is more than that of the
first molar. Inclination of the distal and buccal cusps is more than the
mesial and lingual. Long axis is parallel to the vertical plane when
viewed from the front and follows the arch form (Fig. 10.28A). Lingual
cusp is below the horizontal plane.
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FIGURE 10.28 (A) All teeth follow the arch form (occlusal
view). (B) Mandibular second molar in occlusion.
Occlusion: Contact with maxillary second molar is similar to

occlusion between the first molars (Fig. 10.28B).
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Arrangement of mandibular first premolar
The buccal cusps or the central groove of the mandibular posteriors
should coincide with the crest of the residual alveolar ridge which is
finally placed (Fig. 10.29A).
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FIGURE 10.29 (A) Mandibular first premolar is finally placed.
(B) Mandibular first premolar in occlusion. (C) All the posterior
teeth are in a straight line. (D) Completed teeth arrangement.
(E) Completed arrangement in occlusion.
Occlusion: Buccal cusp should contact the mesial marginal ridge of

the maxillary first premolar (Fig. 10.29B).
The remaining mandibular posteriors are arranged in the similar
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fashion on the other quadrant. Note that the central fossae of all the
posterior teeth are in a straight line on the ridge crest (Fig. 10.29C).
Fig. 10.29D and E shows the completed teeth arrangement in class I
ridge relation.
Key of occlusion
The mesiobuccal cusp of maxillary first molar rests on the mesiobuccal
groove of the mandibular first molar in centric occlusion.
Teeth arrangement for class II ridge relation

In class II the maxilla is prognathic or mandible is retrognathic with
an increased overjet of 5–6 mm. The same principles of teeth
arrangement is followed, with slight modifications.
1. The teeth arrangement principles for the maxillary anteriors (Fig.

10.30A) are similar for both classes I and II and are governed by the
aesthetics and dentogentic concepts.
2. The mandibular anteriors are placed with increased overjet of 5–6

mm and overbite of 2 mm (Fig. 10.30B and C).
3. Due to retruded position of the mandibular ridge with less space for
teeth, one premolar is removed in the mandibular arch (Fig. 10.31A),
while all the teeth are arranged in the maxillary arch (Fig. 10.31B).
4. Fig. 10.32 A and B shows the completed teeth arrangement for a

class II ridge relation.
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FIGURE 10.30 (A) Glass plate relation of maxillary anterior
teeth. (B) Increased overjet (5–6 mm). (C) Increased overjet
(5–6 mm).
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FIGURE 10.31 (A) Mandibular first premolar removed. (B)
Glass plate relation of maxillary teeth.
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FIGURE 10.32 (A) Completed teeth arrangement in class II.
(B) Completed class II teeth arrangement showing the
occlusion.
Teeth arrangement for class III ridge relation

In class III, the mandible is prognathic or the maxilla is retrognathic;
thus, the overjet and overbite are reduced to almost 0–1 mm. The
same principles of teeth arrangement is followed, with slight
modifications.
In case of anterior teeth arrangement, the teeth arrangement
principles are the same except for the overjet which is virtually
eliminated (edge-to-edge bite) (Fig. 10.33A) and the overbite which is
also minimized (Fig. 10.33B). In order to provide space for the
maxillary posterior teeth, usually one premolar is trimmed
mesiodistally or removed from the maxillary arch (Fig. 10.33C).
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FIGURE 10.33 (A) Edge-to-edge relation of anterior teeth.
(B) Minimized overbite. (C) Class III maxillary first premolar
removed. (D) Completed class III teeth arrangement in
occlusion.
Fig. 10.33D shows the completed arrangement for class III ridge
relation.
Developing balanced occlusion

Once the centric balance is achieved using the basic setting principles
as discussed before, the teeth arrangement is modified to achieve
eccentric balance – protrusive and lateral. For this, it is essential to
programme the articulator to set the horizontal condylar inclination
(HCI) using protrusive records and the lateral condylar inclination
(LCI) using lateral records or by using the Hanau formula. Hence, at
least a semi-adjustable articulator is mandatory. This has been
discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.
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Developing balanced occlusion in protrusion
In a protrusive occlusion, the anterior teeth are edge-to-edge (this is
done by releasing the locking screws and rotating the track forwards
or backwards in semi-adjustable articulator – a working occlusion),
and contacts should be simultaneously established in the posterior
teeth (Fig. 10.34).
FIGURE 10.34 Protrusive balance – contact of both anterior

and posterior teeth.
To achieve this, when we consider the factors affecting balance, HCI

is obtained from the patient, hence it cannot be altered. As discussed
in Chapter 8, the incisal guidance should be as flat (close to 0 degree)
as aesthetics and phonetics will permit, so it can be manipulated
limitedly. The occlusal plane is governed by anatomical and
functional consideration and also cannot be altered. The other two
factors – compensating curves and cuspal inclination need to be
adjusted to achieve protrusive balance. The cuspal inclination also
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needs to be lesser than the condylar inclination. Cuspal inclination is
predetermined by the selection of artificial teeth, but it can also be
adjusted to a certain extent by grinding the teeth. The anteroposterior
curve (curve of Spee) influences the protrusive balance. On
protrusion, with anterior teeth in edge-to-edge contact, the mesial side
of maxillary posteriors is tilted down while the distal side of
mandibular posteriors is tilted up until contact is made to create the
compensating curve (Fig. 10.35). This compensates for the
Christensen’s phenomenon. Steeper the condylar inclination, steeper
should the compensating curve with low cuspal inclination. This
achieves protrusive balance but care should be taken not to loose the
centric contact in the process.
FIGURE 10.35 Protrusive balance achieved using incisal

guidance, cuspal inclination and compensating curve.
Developing balanced occlusion in lateral

excursions
To achieve lateral balance, buccal cusps of the maxillary and
mandibular posterior teeth should contact on the working side, while
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the mandibular buccal and maxillary palatal cusps of the posterior
teeth should contact on the nonworking side (Fig. 10.36).
FIGURE 10.36 Lateral balance contacts.
Similar to achieving protrusive balance, the LCI is dictated by the

joint morphology and is obtained by the patient, which cannot be
altered. The factors that can be modified are compensating curve and
cuspal inclination. The mediolateral curves are used to achieve lateral
balance by tilting the posterior teeth buccolingually. Cuspal
inclination can be grounded to incorporate the compensating curves
and thereby achieve lateral balance.
Neutral zone technique

Definition: The potential space between the lips and cheeks on one
side and the tongue on the other; that area or position where the
forces between the tongue and cheeks or lips are equal (GPT8).
The loose and unstable mandibular complete denture is one of the
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most common and challenging tasks faced by the dentist. In order to
overcome this, teeth need to be arranged such that the forces exerted
by the tongue, cheek and lips are neutralized and the teeth along with
the polished surfaces of the denture remain in a ‘zone of equilibrium’.
If the denture is fabricated outside this neutral zone, it will result in
instability of the denture during functions like swallowing, speech
and mastication. The neutral zone technique helps to minimize these
displacing forces of the surrounding oral musculature on the
mandibular complete denture.
Indications
• Atrophic mandibular ridge.
• Denture fabrication undertaken after a long period of

edentulousness leading to tongue/cheeks/lips partially occupying
the usual denture space.
• Enlarged tongue, e.g. Down syndrome.
• Abnormal anatomy, e.g. hemimandibulectomy.
Muscles involved
The muscles of the lower lips, cheeks and tongue are major displacing
factors for mandibular denture instability. The major muscles
involved are
1. Buccinator
The buccinator plays a major role in determining the neutral zone and
extends from the pterygomandibular raphe anteriorly, and converges
with the other muscles, at the modiolus. The main function of this
muscle is to position food on the occlusal surfaces of the teeth during
mastication, in coordination with the tongue.
2. Modiolus
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The group of muscles converging at the angle of the mouth is known
as modiolus. These are the orbicularis oris buccinator, risorius,
zygomaticus major, and the levator and depressor anguli oris. It plays
a vital role in positioning of the premolar teeth and establishing the
contour of the polished denture surface in that region.
3. Orbicularis oris and mentalis

The movement of the lip and the tongue helps in determining the
position of the mandibular anterior teeth. If the teeth are positioned
too labially, lip contraction would cause posterior displacement of the
denture. In highly resorbed ridges, the mentalis muscle may displace
the neutral zone lingually.
4. Tongue
The tongue is in constant contact with the mandibular denture at rest
and function, and is composed of a powerful group of intrinsic and
extrinsic muscles. If the teeth are positioned lingually, they will
encroach the tongue space and the denture will be displaced during
function. Appropriately contoured polished surface of denture is also
important for normal tongue movement.
Clinical procedure
Impressions
The preliminary impressions are made in stock tray with a
mucocompressive impression material like as impression compound
or alginate (Fig. 10.37A). Secondary impression is made in a custom-
made tray with a low viscosity mucostatic impression material like
zinc oxide eugenol impression paste (Fig. 10.37B). The impression
should be extended adequately to obtain maximum support and to
record the functional depth and width of the sulcus that represents the
activity of the muscles.
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FIGURE 10.37 (A) Primary impression in alginate. (B)
Secondary impression in zinc oxide eugenol impression
paste. (C) Vertical projections in autopolymerizing resin. (D)
Low-fusing compound moulded by muscle activity. (E)
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Articulated mandibular neutral zone record. (F) Wax occlusal
rim replacing the low-fusing compound record guided by
plaster index. (G) Neutral zone index. (H) Processed dentures
with teeth arranged and polished surface contoured using
index.
Jaw relation record

Wax occlusal rims are fabricated using stabilized heat cured acrylic
bases for improved stability. Wire loops can be embedded in the
record base to facilitate retention of rim. These rims are evaluated for
its extension, comfort and stability and a tentative jaw relation is
recorded.
Recording the neutral zone

Following articulation, wax from the mandibular record base is
removed. Vertical projections are fabricated in the premolar region
using autopolymerizing denture base material. These provide occlusal
stops at the established vertical dimension of occlusion and provide
for the support of the neutral zone impression material (Fig. 10.37C).
These vertical acrylic projections must be evaluated so that they do
not interfere with the cheeks, lip or tongue. Various designs have been
suggested for the projections and any design can be used provided
they satisfy the objectives.
Prior to making the mandibular neutral zone impression, the
maxillary occlusal rim is inserted to support the facial muscles and
allow the tongue to be placed comfortably on the palatal contours
during function. For recording neutral zone impressions, low-fusing
impression compound is mostly used, as it can be moulded by
functional muscle activity (Fig. 10.37D). Materials such as waxes, ZOE
paste, Putty impression material, autopolymerizing acrylics and tissue
conditioners, can also be used. A minimal quantity of the material
required to achieve the purpose should be used so that the sulci are
not distorted. The material is manipulated by hand and adapted onto
the mandibular record base.
The rim is softened and patient is asked to perform a range of
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functional movements – smile, pout or purse lips, speak, swallow,
slightly protrude the tongue and lick the lips. Following 10 min of this
functional activity and allowing the material to set, the centric record
is made and the casts are articulated (Fig. 10.37E).
Arranging artificial teeth in neutral zone

The neutral zone impression is then indexed by placing plaster or
silicone putty around the impression material. The index will preserve
the space of the neutral zone record. The low-fusing compound is
then removed from the record base and replaced by wax to aid setting
of the artificial teeth (Fig. 10.37F). Teeth can then be arranged guided
by the index (Fig. 10.37G). The posterior teeth may require to be
trimmed lingually so that they fit into the index space. The polished
surfaces of the denture are also contoured to replicate the record.
Processing and insertion of the dentures

After completion of the wax try-in, the dentures are processed,
trimmed and finished (Fig. 10.37H). Care should be taken while
finishing to preserve the contours established by the neutral zone
record. The final dentures will enhance the stability and retention
during function.
SUMMARY
Arrangement of artificial teeth plays a pivotal role in the success of
complete denture fabrication. It is not a mechanical process
performed on devices, but needs to be correlated with biologic
factors, function and aesthetics.
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CHAPTER
11
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Try-in
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 184
Definitions 184
Evaluation of mandibular trial denture 184
Peripheral extension 184
Stability 185
Tongue space 185
Height of occlusal plane 186
Evaluation of maxillary trial denture 186
Peripheral outline including posterior palatal
seal 186
Stability 187
Retention 187
Evaluating both dentures together 187
Occlusion and jaw relation 187
Aesthetics 188
Phonetics 190
Approval of appearance by the patient 190
Summary 190
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Introduction
Definitions
Try-in: The process of placing a trial denture in the patient’s mouth
for evaluation (GPT8). It is also referred to as ‘trial placement’.
Trial denture: A preliminary arrangement of denture teeth that has
been prepared for placement into the patient’s mouth to evaluate
aesthetics and maxillomandibular relationships (GPT8).
The trial dentures need to be tried in the mouth following teeth
arrangement and waxing. This is mandatory as it is very difficult and
painstaking to make corrections in the processed denture.
Trial placement of waxed dentures can be evaluated as follows:
• The complete arrangement of artificial teeth is made in balanced

occlusion and the trial dentures are evaluated.
• The anterior teeth are arranged and an aesthetic trial is performed

followed by the arrangement of posterior teeth and a complete try-
in.
• The artificial teeth are arranged in centric occlusion and after a try-
in, eccentric check records are obtained during this stage and the
teeth are arranged in balanced occlusion and only this aspect is
verified later.
Whichever method is adopted, as there are many areas that need to

be verified, a definitive systematic approach will ensure that all the
essential attributes are checked. A methodical sequence of evaluation
is described in the chapter.
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Evaluation of mandibular trial denture
The mandibular denture is first evaluated individually for the
following.
Peripheral extension
The periphery of the denture is checked for adequate extension –
whether it is under- or overextended.
• Buccal and labial borders are checked by moving cheek and lips
upwards and inwards, simulating chewing movement (Fig. 11.1).
Overextension in this area should be trimmed if denture rises from
the ridge.
• Lingual extension is evaluated by protruding the tongue to moisten

the lips to check extension of lingual pouch (Fig. 11.2) and then to
put the tip of the tongue at the back of the palate to evaluate lingual
frenum (Fig. 11.3). The denture should not lift up during these
movements.
• Posterior extension is evaluated by checking the extension of

denture onto retromolar pad region.
• Underextension of the denture should also be evaluated for the

presence of gap in between the denture and the tissue reflection.
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FIGURE 11.1 Manipulation of cheek to evaluate extension of
buccal flange.
FIGURE 11.2 Evaluation of lingual pouch.
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FIGURE 11.3 Evaluation of lingual frenum.
Stability
To evaluate the stability of lower denture apply pressure on premolar
and molar region on one side of arch, rise of denture on the other side
indicates instability (Fig. 11.4).
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FIGURE 11.4 Applying pressure on one side of arch to
evaluate stability.
The causes could be:
• Teeth set outside the ridge or lack of adaptation of denture base on

pressure side.
• Underextended flange on the nonpressure side.
Tongue space
The lower posterior teeth should be placed in the ‘neutral zone’
between the cheeks and tongue. Lack of tongue space is evaluated by
asking the patient to raise the tongue after inserting the lower denture
(Fig. 11.5).
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FIGURE 11.5 Lateral border of tongue making passive
contact with the lingual surface of teeth and polished surface
on insertion of trial denture.
Immediate movement of denture indicates lack of tongue space.

This should be differentiated from lingual overextension where the
movement occurs after tongue rises to some distance.
Causes
• Lower posterior teeth set lingual to the ridge (Fig. 11.6).
• Upper posterior teeth set on the ridge crest.
• Buccolingually broader molar teeth.
• Lingual tilting of mandibular molar teeth (Fig. 11.7).
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FIGURE 11.6 Lack of tongue space caused by placement of
lower posteriors lingual to ridge crest.
FIGURE 11.7 Lack of tongue space caused by lingual tilting

of mandibular posteriors.
Height of occlusal plane

The height of the lower occlusal plane should be slightly below the
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tongue for stability. This must be evaluated. Fig. 11.8 shows pictures
of incorrect and correct occlusal plane.
FIGURE 11.8 (A) Incorrect occlusal plane. (B) Correct

occlusal plane
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Evaluation of maxillary trial denture
The maxillary denture is evaluated individually for the following.
Peripheral Outline including posterior palatal seal

• Buccal and labial borders are checked by moving cheek downwards
and inwards, simulating chewing movement (Fig. 11.9).
Overextension in distobuccal flange area is evaluated by asking the
patient to open mouth wide. Underextension is evaluated similar to
the lower denture (Fig. 11.10).
• The posterior palatal seal area is then evaluated for extension by

marking it intraorally. If the ‘functional scraping technique’ of
recording the seal area is planned, it has to be developed during try-
in. (Also see Chapter 4.)
FIGURE 11.9 Labial flange evaluation.
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FIGURE 11.10 Underextension is evaluated by checking for
space between the denture border and tissue reflection.
Stability
• Evaluated similar to lower denture.
Retention
Retention is evaluated as follows:
• Trying to pull down the denture vertically by holding the denture in

the incisor region using thumb and forefinger (Fig. 11.11A).
• To check retention in posterior seal area, forefinger is placed on the

palatal surface of the upper anterior teeth and an outward force is
applied (Fig. 11.11B).
• Applying upward and outward force on canine region to check

retentiveness of denture in the maxillary tuberosity and
pterygomaxillary notch region of the opposite side (Fig. 11.12).
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FIGURE 11.11 (A) Evaluating retention of maxillary denture
by pulling denture down vertically by holding anterior part of
denture between thumb and forefinger. (B) Posterior palatal
retention is evaluated by applying an outward force with
forefinger on palatal surface of anterior teeth.
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FIGURE 11.12 Evaluating retentiveness of maxillary
tuberosity region of opposite side by applying an upward and
outward force on the canine.
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Evaluating both dentures together
Occlusion and jaw relation
Horizontal relation
Patient is guided into centric relation using any method to retrude the
mandible (Chapter 6). Error in centric relation is observed if:
• Space exists between upper and lower posterior teeth at first contact
(Fig. 11.13).
• Lower teeth slide over upper teeth on first contact.
• Shift of lower midline from upper midline (indicating lateral shift of

mandible while recording of centric) (Fig. 11.14).
FIGURE 11.13 Error in recording CR is evident when a

space exists between the upper and lower posterior teeth
when the patient closes in CR.
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FIGURE 11.14 Error in CR is evident when upper and lower
midlines do not coincide when the patient closes in CO.
Interocclusal check records can then be used to verify the relation or

make a new centric relation record (see also Chapter 6).
Vertical relation
Vertical dimension is evaluated using the methods described in
Chapter 6. In case of discrepancy, the posterior teeth are removed,
replaced by wax occlusal rims and a new record is made.
Evenness of occlusal contact

Contact of teeth with equal pressure on either side of arch is essential
for harmonious occlusion. This is evaluated as follows:
• Place Mylar strip on either side of the arch in the molar region and
ask the patient to bite (Fig. 11.15). Try to remove the strip and
observe whether the force required to remove the strip is similar
bilaterally. Repeat the procedure in the premolar region.
• To observe whether anterior region of denture rises from ridge

when posterior teeth are occluding, place wax knife between upper
and lower incisor teeth and apply a wedging force as posterior teeth
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are contacting (Fig. 11.16A). Any definitive movement indicates
excessive contact in molar region.
FIGURE 11.15 Using Mylar strip to check evenness of

occlusal contact.
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FIGURE 11.16 (A) Checking for excessive contact in molar
region. (B) Correction of uneven contact by adding softened
wax on the deficient side until there is even contact.
The unevenness is corrected by adding softened wax on deficient

side until there is even contact on the opposite side of the arch (Fig.
11.16B).
Causes of uneven contact
• Resistant material used to record centric relation.
• Error when sealing the rims or during articulation.
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• Warpage of record base.
Balanced occlusion
• This is verified following evaluation of all of the above.
• First it must be checked if the denture base lifts to create a balanced

contact during protrusive and lateral movements.
• Causes for this problem may be:
○ Inaccurate facebow transfer.
○ Incorrect condylar path registration.

Then the balanced contacts are verified first in the articulator and then
in the patient’s mouth using articulating paper.
• If the errors are considerable, the eccentric records are repeated and
casts remounted.
• If minor, it may be better to perform selective grinding during

insertion of the processed denture.
Aesthetics
Midline
Coincidence of facial midline and dental midline of both arches
evaluated. Long axis of anterior teeth should be parallel to the long
axis of the face (Fig. 11.17).
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FIGURE 11.17 Coincidence of dental and facial midline.
Anterior plane
The incisal edges of the upper anterior teeth form a symmetrical curve
which should be in harmony with lower lip when the patient smiles
(Fig. 11.18).
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FIGURE 11.18 Incisal edge of upper anterior following lower
lip curvature.
Shape, size and shade of teeth

These should conform to the guidelines discussed in Chapter 9.
Independent judgment along with the patient’s opinion should be
taken into consideration.
Lip form in profile

This should be evaluated for excessively distended or sunken
appearance. If distended remove some wax from the flange or check
the position of front teeth whether it needs to be set further in. If
sunken, consider resetting the anteriors further forward (Fig. 11.19A–
C).
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FIGURE 11.19 (A) Excessively distended lips. (B) Normal
appearance of lips. (C) Sunken appearance of lips.
Amount of tooth visibility

The high and low lip lines should be in harmony with the amount of
tooth visible (Fig. 11.20A and B).
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FIGURE 11.20 (A) Low lip line. (B) High lip line.
Individualization
Patient’s desire should be considered to provide any minor
irregularities in tooth arrangement like overlapping or tilting.
Characterization of dentures should also be planned now.
Phonetics
Phonetics is used to evaluate the position of the anterior teeth and the
vertical dimension. The following sounds are evaluated:
• Sibilant ‘s’: The upper and lower anterior teeth should be just out of
contact as the patient pronounces ‘s’ (Fig. 11.21).
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FIGURE 11.21 Verifying position of upper anterior teeth
using phonetics. Correct position of the upper [5] anteriors
when’s’ is pronounced.
Labiodental ‘f’ and ‘v’: The incisal edges of the maxillary central
incisors should contact the vermilion border of the lower lip at the
junction of moist and dry mucosa, without posterior tooth contact,
when patient pronounces ‘f’ and ‘v’ (Fig. 11.22A).
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FIGURE 11.22 (A) Verifying position of upper anterior teeth
using phonetics. Correct position of the upper anteriors when
‘v’ is pronounced. (B) Position of the anterior teeth (with
space) when bilabial sounds are pronounced.
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Bilabial ‘p’ and ‘b’: The lips should touch and there should be a space
between the teeth when patient pronounces ‘p’ (Fig. 11.22B).
Approval of appearance by the patient

It is mandatory for the dentist to obtain patient’s approval or consent
for the appearance of the trial denture. It may be advisable to ask the
patient to bring a close relative or friend during try-in and the
approval and suggestions of this person can also be considered, if
realistic and reasonable.
SUMMARY
Try-in is an important step in complete denture fabrication. It is
usually neglected and restricted to evaluation of anterior teeth
appearance in routine dental practice. Sequential and thorough
evaluation is essential to avoid costly and time-consuming errors
during denture insertion. Patient consent to appearance is also
mandatory following the evaluation.
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CHAPTER
12
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Processing and remounting
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Definitions 191
Waxing 191
Requirements of waxing 192
Procedure 192
Flasking 194
Separating medium 196
Dewaxing 198
Packing 198
Curing (polymerization) 200
Deflasking 201
Remounting 202
Laboratory remounting 202
Selective grinding or occlusal reshaping 203
Recovering denture from the cast 205
Finishing 205
Polishing 206
Summary 207
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Definitions
Denture processing: (i) The means by which the denture base
materials are polymerized to the form of a denture. (ii) The conversion
of the wax pattern of a denture or a portion of a denture into resin or
other material (GPT8).
Waxing: The contouring of a wax pattern or the wax base of a trial
denture into the desired form (GPT1).
Festooning: Festooning is defined in dentistry as, carvings in the base
material of a denture that simulate the contours of the natural tissues
that are being replaced by the denture (GPT8).
Separating medium: A coating applied to a surface and serving to
prevent a second surface from adhering to the first (GPT8).
Flasking: The process of investing the cast and a wax replica of the
desired form in a flask preparatory to moulding the restorative
material into the desired product (GPT8).
Packing: The act of filling a mould (GPT8).
Denture packing: The act of pressing a denture base material into a
mould within a refractory flask (GPT8).
Remounting (remount procedure): Any method used to relate
restorations to an articulator for analysis and/or to assist in
development of a plan for occlusal equilibration or reshaping (GPT8).
Selective grinding: The modification of the occlusal forms of teeth by
grinding at selected places marked by spots made by articulating
paper (GPT). It can also be termed as ‘occlusal reshaping’,
‘enameloplasty’ and ‘spot grinding’.
Finishing: The refinement of form prior to polishing (GPT8).
Polishing: The act or process of making a denture or casting smooth
and glossy (GPT8).
Following try-in, the waxed dentures are converted to the desired
denture base material by a series of laboratory procedures, which
need to be sequential and performed with care to achieve consistent
results minimizing errors. The most commonly used material is heat-
polymerizing (curing) denture base acrylic resins. A ‘compression
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moulding technique’ is the most commonly employed method used to
process the resin and it will be discussed in this chapter in detail. An
‘injection moulding technique’ may also be used. Following denture
processing, a remounting and selective grinding is performed on the
articulator to correct any occlusal error due to processing. The denture
is then finished and polished.
The entire process involves various laboratory steps which are
described here in detail.
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Waxing
Waxing develops the polished surfaces of the denture. The polished
surface influences retention, stability and tissue tolerance. Hence, the
contour of the polished surface is an important consideration. The
flange contour (polished surface) should be compatible with the
contour and movement of cheeks, lips and tongue.
An adequately waxed denture also reduces the time required to
finish and polish the processed denture.
Requirements of waxing
1. It should duplicate the covered soft tissue as accurately as possible.
2. The borders both labial and buccal should fill the vestibule to
increase the retention and stability.
3. Notches should be provided to accommodate the frenum both in

size and direction.
4. The contour of denture flanges should be compatible with the

cheeks and lips.
5. The contour of lingual flanges should be compatible with the

tongue.
6. The palatal section of the maxillary denture should be nearly the

reproduction of the patient’s palate and rugae.
Procedure
Steps in waxing up the maxillary trial denture

Buccal surface
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1. Adapt two sheets of softened wax on the facial and labial flanges. It
should extend from the neck of the tooth to the flange of the trial base.
The wax is added in slight excess so as to allow carving (Fig. 12.1A).
2. A thin roll of wax is added above the necks of the teeth to contour a
gingival bulge simulating the attached gingiva (Fig. 12.1B). The bulge
is more prominent posteriorly.
3. Add a little more bulk in the canine region to simulate the canine
prominence. Molten wax is added to merge the prominences with the
rest of the contoured portion and smoothened (Fig. 12.1C). It will be
observed that wax would have spilled over the tooth structure also.
4. Gingival carving is done to remove the wax from the facial and
buccal surfaces of the teeth. It will create the gingival margin and
zenith. It is best achieved by holding the Lecron carver or No. 7 wax
spatula at 60° to the anterior teeth and 45° to the posterior teeth (Fig.
12.1D).
5. The carver should penetrate the wax and contact the tooth, then
follow the finish lines around the necks of the remaining teeth to
create the gingival margin (Fig. 12.1E).
6. The interdental papilla is contoured by placing a wax spatula at 45°

to the long axis of the tooth in this region. It should be convex in both
dimensions, buccolingually and cervicoapically. The carving should
also expose the entire contact area.
7. The waxed denture is now smoothened with a wet nylon cloth or

Turkish towel and brought to a high gloss by running it over a flame,
minimally softening the superficial wax and again polished (Fig.
12.1F). For most of the aged patients with poor inclination and ability
to thoroughly clean the denture, this wax finishing would suffice.
8. For better aesthetics and characterization, it is necessary to create

the root extensions (festooning) and also stippling.
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9. Triangular markings are placed on the waxed denture in between
the teeth to form the root extensions (Fig. 12.1G). The root extension
carvings can be a little less prominent for premolars and least for
molars. Merge the elevations and depressions to form a smooth
surface (Fig. 12.1H).
10. Stippling can be done on the attached gingival portion, especially

the interdental areas by using the periodontal brushes or toothbrush.
Stippling is less pronounced in the posterior teeth. It is flamed to bring
to a gloss polish (Fig. 12.1I).
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FIGURE 12.1 (A) Wax added on facial surface in excess. (B)
Additional wax added above the margin to create the gingival
roll. (C) Canine prominence added and the wax is blended.
(D) Showing the angulation (45°) for gingival carving
anteriorly. (E) Technique of wax removal to carve the
margins. (F) Interdental papilla finished and wax polished. (G)
Triangular markings on wax for carving root portion. (H) Root
prominences carved. (I) Stippling with a brush. (J) Showing
correct thickness and contour of the palatal and buccal
surfaces. (K) The wax should blend smoothly with the teeth
on the palatal surface with less prominent margins. (L)
Showing correct (a) and incorrect (b) contour of the polished
surfaces of a mandibular denture. (M) Finished wax up.
Palatal surface
1. The palatal surface of the maxillary denture should be contoured to

accommodate the tongue, and should be about 2.5 mm in thickness. It
should not be too thick as it can interfere with speech (Fig. 12.1J).
2. Wax is adapted on the palatal surface of the tooth and the flange so
as to create a smooth curve and a least prominent margin (Fig. 12.1K).
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Steps in waxing up the mandibular trial denture
Buccal surface
1. The waxing procedure for the mandibular denture is similar to the

maxillary denture.
2. The gingival carving and the root extension carving is also similar
but is less pronounced.
3. Stippling is normally restricted to anterior teeth only.
4. The distobuccal flange should be concave to accommodate the

muscle and enhance retention (Fig. 12.1L).
Lingual surface
1. The lingual surface of the mandibular denture may be made slightly

concave without the concavity being extended under the lingual
surface of the teeth. A projection of the tooth beyond the polished
surface acts as an undercut into which the patient’s tongue will slip,
thereby causing the denture to be unseated (Fig. 12.1L).
2. The polishing is done as for the maxillary trial denture.
Fig. 12.1M shows the completed waxing for the maxillary and
mandibular trial dentures.
Once the wax try-in is completed, the trial dentures are ready for
processing. Processing involves the following clinical steps:
1. Flasking
2. Dewaxing
3. Packing
4. Curing
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5. Laboratory remounting
6. Trimming and polishing
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Flasking
• The trial denture bases are sealed to the casts prior to dearticulation
to avoid entrapment of dental plaster during flasking procedure.
• Wax strip of 2 mm width is adapted on the maxillary cast from the

hamular notch area on one side to the other side. The wax strip is
also adapted on the posterior palatal seal area. It is adapted within
the confines of the land area. The wax strip is sealed to the cast and
record base with a hot wax spatula (Fig. 12.2).
• In the mandibular cast, wax strips are adapted from the retromolar
pad area on one side to the other side and also along the lingual
border. A wax spatula is similarly heated and used to fuse the wax.
• The maxillary and mandibular casts are removed from their

articulator mountings (dearticulated) by placing a wax knife at the
junction of the cast and mounting and gently tapping with a
hammer (Fig. 12.3). Care should be taken not to destroy the indexed
portion of the plaster mount (Fig. 12.4). The index guides in
reorientation of the master cast during laboratory remounting
procedure. If remounting plates have been used for articulation,
then dearticulation is a simple process.
• After the casts are dearticulated, they are ready to be flasked. A 2-

pour or 3-pour technique is used for flasking depending on the
number of layers of investing plaster. A 3-pour technique is
recommended as it eases deflasking.
• The parts of a dental flask are base, body and lid (Fig. 12.5).
• A thin layer of Vaseline is applied on the base of the dental flask and
base of the cast including indexed keys (Fig. 12.6). This is to
facilitate easy retrieval of cast during deflasking procedure.
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• The casts are soaked in clear slurry water for a few minutes for
adequate wetting of dental plaster during flasking procedure.
• The base of the flask is filled with plaster and the cast is settled into
the mix such that it is centred in the flask with occlusal plane
parallel to the base. The dental plaster should merge along the land
area and it slopes towards the rim of the flask (Fig. 12.7A and B).
The outer rim of the flask base must be exposed for proper
orientation of the body of the flask. This is the first pour.
FIGURE 12.2 Wax strip used to seal the trial base to the
cast.
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FIGURE 12.3 Dearticulation – to remove the cast from the
mount, a wax knife is placed at the junction and tapped lightly
with a hammer.
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FIGURE 12.4 Indexing is preserved to enable remounting.
FIGURE 12.5 Parts of a flask: (A) body, (B) lid and (C) base.
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FIGURE 12.6 Thin layer of Vaseline is applied only on the
base and key areas of the cast.
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FIGURE 12.7 (A) Maxillary denture flasking (first pour).
Plaster slopes from land area of cast to rim. (B) Mandibular
denture flasking (first pour). Denture centred in the flask.
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Separating medium
Definition: A coating applied to a surface and serving to prevent a
second surface from adhering to the first (GPT8).
Purpose
• To enable easy separation of the cast and its mould for open
dewaxing and then packing the resin.
• To prevent liquid monomer from penetrating the mould surface

during processing – affects fit and appearance of denture.
• To prevent water from the mould surface to diffuse into the resin
during processing – affects rate of polymerization, optical and
mechanical properties of the denture.
Types
• Tin foil: Widely used in the past, but due to its time consuming
manipulation and laborious technique, it has been replaced by tin
foil substitutes.
• Tin foil substitutes: A variety of alternate separating medium were

introduced instead of tin foil, hence they were called ‘tin foil
substitutes’.
○ Cellulose lacquers
○ Aqueous solutions of sodium silicate
○ Calcium oleate
○ Soaps and starches
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○ Water-soluble alginate solutions: sodium and
ammonium alginate. The alginate solutions are
currently most popular and commonly used.
• Sodium alginate solution: also called ‘cold mould seal’.
Composition: 2% sodium alginate in water, glycerin, alcohol, sodium

phosphate and preservatives.
Mode of action: When applied on gypsum surfaces, they react with
the calcium sulphate to form a thin insoluble film of calcium alginate.
This film prevents direct contact of denture base resins and the
surrounding dental stone.
Manipulation: A small amount of separator is dispensed into a
disposable container. A fine brush is used to spread the separating
medium onto the exposed surfaces of a warm, clean stone mould. The
separating medium is carefully guided into interdental regions. The
mould is inspected to ensure that a thin, even coating of separating
medium is evident on all stone surfaces. Subsequently, the mould
sections are oriented to prevent ‘pooling’ of separator and the solution
is permitted to dry.
Precautions:
• Separator should not contact exposed portions of acrylic resin teeth,

since its presence interferes with chemical bonding between acrylic
resin teeth and denture base resins.
• The film is fragile and can easily be scuffed off. If this occurs,
remove the entire film and repaint.
• Place the acrylic resin to the cast within 1 h of painting the film on
the cast to avoid deterioration.
Advantages over tin foil:
• Uniform film thickness permits closer adaptation of acrylic resin to
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gypsum cast.
• Easy to manipulate, takes less time.
• Separating medium (sodium alginate or cold mould seal) is applied

with a paint brush on the plaster surface (Fig. 12.8) and exposed
land areas of the cast after the first pour is completely set.
Separating medium is not applied on the waxed surface and acrylic
teeth of the trial denture base.
• A surface tension reducing agent may also be applied over the wax
to enhance its wettability to the plaster.
• When the separating medium sets, the body of the flask is fitted on
the lid. Dental stone is mixed and first painted or applied on the
labial, buccal and palatal surfaces of the trial denture base (Fig.
12.9). This is done to avoid entrapment of air bubbles and for
accurate reproduction of the waxed areas in complete denture
prosthesis. The rest of the mixed stone is poured into the flask to
cover the occlusal surfaces of the teeth. The occlusal surface should
be exposed. This is the second pour (Fig. 12.10). When this sets,
separating medium is applied again on the gypsum surfaces, and
plaster is mixed and poured over the occlusal surfaces to
completely fill the flask. This is the third pour (Fig. 12.11). If a 2-
pour technique is used, then the 2nd and 3rd pours in this
technique are combined into a single pour.
• Once the third pour is completed, the lid of flask is placed and the
dental flask is checked for proper closure. Note excess dental plaster
escaping outside the holes on the lid (Fig. 12.12). The excess plaster
is removed and the dental flask is placed on the clamp and
tightened to ensure complete closure (Fig. 12.13). The third pour is
allowed to set and then dewaxing is commenced.
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FIGURE 12.8 Application of separating medium on exposed
gypsum surfaces.
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FIGURE 12.9 Dental stone applied on buccal and palatal
surface.
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FIGURE 12.10 Second pour exposing the occlusal surfaces
of the artificial teeth.
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FIGURE 12.11 Third pour with dental plaster.
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FIGURE 12.12 Excess plaster escaping through lid.
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FIGURE 12.13 Flask tightened with clamp.
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Dewaxing
• The flask is removed from the clamp and placed in boiling water for
5 min to soften the wax. The flask is then opened from the base and
the softened wax and denture base are discarded.
• The mould is flushed with clean boiling water to which some

detergent has been added. A brush is used with a detergent solution
to completely clean the mould and cast surfaces (Fig. 12.14). Finally,
the moulds are flushed with clean boiling water to remove all traces
of the detergent (Figs 12.15A and B). During dewaxing, it must be
ensured that the denture teeth remain in the flask and if any of them
come loose, they can be kept aside until the procedure is complete
and repositioned before packing the acrylic material. The flask is
then allowed to cool.
• Failure to eliminate the wax completely will result in an incomplete

polymerization between the denture base and teeth. As a result the
teeth separate from the denture after processing. Also dewaxing for
a prolonged period in boiling water will cause leaching of wax into
the plaster.
• Diatorics may be made in the ridge lap portion of the artificial teeth
to improve attachment with the denture base resin (see Fig. 9.25 in
Chapter 9, Page 158). A No. 4 or 6 round bur is used for this
preparation.
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FIGURE 12.14 Detergent to remove impurities from mould
surface.
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FIGURE 12.15 (A) Maxillary cast and mould in flask after
dewaxing. (B) Mandibular cast and mould in flask following
dewaxing.
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Packing
• Packing involves placement and adaptation of denture base resin
within the dewaxed mould space. It is a very important procedure
in the processing of the denture. Overpacking (too much material)
leads to excessively thick denture base with shift in position of
denture teeth. Underpacking (too little material) leads to porosity.
• Separating medium (soluble alginate solution) is applied with a

paintbrush on the gypsum areas, while the mould is still warm. In
the interdental areas it is applied with a thin brush.
• Heat cure acrylic resin consists of two components – powder

(polymethylmethacrylate – polymer) and liquid
(monomethylmethacrylate – monomer). The monomer is first
dispensed in a porcelain jar and then the polymer is added in a ratio
of 1:3 by volume (Fig. 12.16). The polymer is added slowly such that
it is completely wetted by monomer. It is mixed homogenously and
allowed to polymerize by closing the jar. This prevents monomer
evaporation during polymerization. Use of too much monomer will
increase the polymerization shrinkage of resin while use of less
monomer will cause porosity.
• There are five stages of polymerization – as the material is

polymerizing in a closed chamber, the stages can be verified by
using a spatula to pick up the resin. In the first stage (sandy) the
material is ‘grainy’, in the second stage (stringy) it is ‘sticky’ (Fig.
12.17A), while in the third stage (dough like) it is no longer tacky
and becomes pliable (Fig. 12.17B). The material should be
manipulated and inserted into the mould space (packed) in this
stage. In the fourth stage (rubbery), material no longer flows freely
and so cannot be moulded into the desired shape. In the fifth stage
(stiff), material is dry and resists mechanical deformation. Hence, it
cannot be manipulated in the 4th and 5th stages.
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• Dough forming time – the time required for the
material to reach a dough-like stage is less than 10
min for most heat-activated resins.
• Working time – the time for which a material

remains in the dough-like stage is 5 min. It is
affected by ambient temperature, less the
temperature more is the working time.
• The material is best manipulated during late stringy

stage or early dough stage and packed in the dough
stage. Kneading is done using cellophane sheet to
improve the handling characteristics (Fig.12.18).
• The kneaded material is spread and placed in the

mould space to fill it and a cellophane sheet is
placed over the material (Fig. 12.19A and B).
• Trial closure – the body and base of the dental flask

is then approximated, checked for rim-to-rim
contact and tightened slowly in a bench press (Fig.
12.20). The excess resin flows along the rim of the
dental flask. The flask is reopened, cellophane sheet
is removed and the excess material is trimmed from
the borders using a scalpel or carver (Fig. 12.21).
The excess material is termed as flash and the
procedure used to remove the excess material is
termed as trial closure. This procedure is repeated
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until all the excess material is removed. When no
flash is evident, final closure of the flask is done
without any cellophane sheet. The flask is then
clamped and allowed to bench cure at room
temperature for 30 min.
• Bench curing – a stage of resin processing that

allows a chemical reaction to occur under the
conditions present in the ambient environment
(GPT8). This is done to ensure uniform distribution
of pressure in the mould space and to provide
adequate wetting of resin teeth with monomer.
FIGURE 12.16 Polymer is added to the monomer in a
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porcelain jar and mixed homogenously.
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FIGURE 12.17 (A) Stringy stage – material sticks to the
finger. (B) Dough-like stage – material is not sticky and can
be moulded into a desired shape.
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FIGURE 12.18 The material is kneaded using cellophane
sheet.
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FIGURE 12.19 (A) Kneaded material placed in the
mandibular mould space and covered with cellophane. (B)
Kneaded material placed in the maxillary mould space and
covered with cellophane.
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FIGURE 12.20 Flask tightened in bench press and excess
material flowing out.
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FIGURE 12.21 Flask opened and flash trimmed from the
borders.
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Curing (polymerization)
• The process by which the denture base materials are hardened to the
form of a denture mould. Obviously in heat-activated resins, heat is
used to polymerize the material. The heating process employed to
control the polymerization is termed as polymerization cycle or curing
cycle. The amount of heat and its rate must be controlled as the
reaction is exothermic and the boiling point of monomer is 100.8°C.
Uncontrolled temperature rise will lead to boiling of monomer and
subsequently denture porosity. One of these two curing cycles can
be used:
○ Heating at 70°C for 9 h.
○ Heating at 74°C for 2 h, raising the temperature to

100°C and processing for 1 h.
• Following polymerization the flask should be bench cooled slowly
to room temperature. Rapid cooling can result in distortion of the
denture. Ideally, the flask can be bench cooled for 30 min and then
immersed in cool tap water for 15 min (Fig. 12.22). The processed
denture is then deflasked.
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FIGURE 12.22 Flasks immersed in tap water for cooling.
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Deflasking
• The entire gypsum mould and cast containing the denture is first
retrieved from the flask (Fig. 12.23). This is best achieved using a
deflasker. The lid of the flask is removed using a wax knife. The
flask is placed bottom side up in the deflasker, and thumbscrew is
tightened till it contacts the plate. Pry bars are placed on either side
to engage slots in the flask. The pry bars are pressed down and then
up to separate the flask from the gypsum moulds. Alternately, the
mould can be retrieved by prying out the base and lid of flask using
a wax knife at their junctions with the body (Figs 12.24 and 12.25)
and then lightly tapping on the top, bottom and sides of the mould
using a wooden hammer. This runs the risk of damage to the flask
and denture and should be done carefully.
• Once the mould is separated, a wax knife is placed at the junction of

the 2nd and 3rd pours and tapped with a wooden or plastic
hammer. This separates the 3rd pour from the rest of the mould
exposing the occlusal surfaces of the denture teeth (Figs 12.26 and
12.27). Three cuts are made with a saw on the investing stone
(where the 2nd pour was made) using a fretsaw, two on the
distobuccal corners and one in the centre anteriorly (Fig. 12.28). A
plaster knife is placed in the cuts to pry out the stone from the
buccal, anterior and posterior sections. The stone is removed from
the palate or tongue area by first removing the stone adjacent to the
teeth and then gently lifting it away from the denture posteriorly
(Fig. 12.29). The stone is also removed from the cast and the index
grooves are cleaned. It is to be noted that at no point of time the
denture is removed from the cast. The cast with the denture is now
ready for remounting (Fig. 12.30).
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FIGURE 12.23 The entire gypsum mould and cast retrieved.
FIGURE 12.24 The lid is removed by prying with wax knife.
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FIGURE 12.25 Base removed.
FIGURE 12.26 Tapping at junction of second and third pours.
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FIGURE 12.27 The third pour removed exposing the teeth.
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FIGURE 12.28 Cuts made with saw, two on distobuccal
corners and one anteriorly.
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FIGURE 12.29 Denture with cast retrieved by prying the cuts
with a plaster knife.
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FIGURE 12.30 Deflasked denture attached to the casts.
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Remounting
Remount procedure is any method used to relate restorations to an
articulator for analysis and/or to assist in development of a plan for
occlusal equilibration or reshaping (GPT8).
Remounting can be of two types:
• Laboratory remount
• Clinical remounting (discussed in Chapter 13).
Laboratory remounting
This should be routinely performed after the processing of complete
denture and before they are finished, polished and inserted in the
patient’s mouth. Occlusal errors result from inevitable dimensional
changes in the denture base material during processing due to
polymerization shrinkage of the resin. The processing errors reflect an
increase in vertical dimension with concomitant discrepancies in
occlusion.
The deflasked dentures with their casts are mounted back on the
articulator using the preserved index keys on the original plaster
mounting. They can be attached with sticky wax (Fig. 12.31). If a semi-
adjustable articulator is used the condylar elements are locked in
centric. Now, when the articulator is closed, if the occlusal vertical
dimension is increased, the incisal pin will not touch the incisal guide
table (Fig. 12.32) and the vertical dimension has to be re-established by
selective grinding of occlusal surfaces of the teeth.
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FIGURE 12.31 Casts remounted on articulator showing
discrepancy in centric occlusion.
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FIGURE 12.32 Incisal pin raised following remounting.
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Selective grinding or occlusal
reshaping
• This procedure is done to recover the desired form of the tooth and
occlusion developed prior to processing.
• First errors in centric are corrected by locking the condylar elements

of the articulator in centric (if a semi-adjustable articulator is used).
• Articulating paper is placed bilaterally on both sides and the

prematurities are verified (Fig. 12.33) and corrected till the incisal
pin contacts the centre of the incisal table (Fig. 12.34).
• If a balanced occlusion in eccentric positions has been provided,

then the prematurities in protrusion and lateral excursions are
verified. The incisal pin should smoothly and evenly contact the
incisal table during these movements. Care should be taken not to
grind the centric contacts by using articulating paper of a different
colour for checking eccentric prematurities.
• In general, BULL rule (buccal upper, lingual lower) which advocates

grinding of the mentioned cusps without modifying the functional
cusps should be used while performing the corrections. More
specific errors in centric and eccentric positions and their
rectification are given below.
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FIGURE 12.33 Articulating paper used to check the occlusal
prematurities.
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FIGURE 12.34 Centric occlusion re-established with
selective grinding and incisal pin also touching the centre of
incisal table.
Rectification of errors in centric occlusion (fig. 12.35)
Error 1
A pair of opposing teeth is too long, keeping the other teeth out of
occlusal contact.
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FIGURE 12.35 Centric errors, their rectification. (A) Error 1 –
too long teeth, (B) Error 2 – edge-to-edge contact of the tooth
and (C) Error 3 – greater horizontal overlap.
Rectification: Deepening of the fossa.
Error 2
Maxillary and mandibular posterior teeth are in edge-to-edge contact.
Rectification: This error is corrected by grinding the inclines of the
cusps in such a way to move upper cusps buccally and lower cusps
lingually, broadening the central fossa. This is accomplished by
grinding the lingual incline of palatal cusp of maxillary tooth and the
buccal incline of the buccal cusp of the mandibular tooth. The cusps
are not reduced in height.
Error 3
Buccal positioning of maxillary posterior teeth in relation to
mandibular teeth.
Rectification: The maxillary palatal cusp is narrowed by widening of
central fossae (grinding the buccal incline of the palatal cusp) and
mandibular buccal cusp is moved buccally by grinding the palatal
incline of the buccal cusp, thereby widening the central fossae.
Rectification of errors on working side

Occlusal errors on working side can be in sagittal and frontal plane.
Following are the errors in frontal plane (Fig. 12.36).
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FIGURE 12.36 Working side errors in frontal plane and
rectification. (A) Error 1 – longer buccal cusp of one tooth
along with longer lingual cusp of its antagonist, (B) Error 2 –
long buccal cusp and (C) Error 3 – long lingual cusp.
Error 1
Maxillary and mandibular posterior lingual cusps are too long.
Rectification: Maxillary buccal cusp and mandibular lingual cusps are
reduced.
Error 2
Presence of only buccal cusp contact.
Rectification: Maxillary buccal cusp (palatal incline) is reduced.
Error 3
Presence of only lingual cusp contact.
Rectification: Mandibular lingual cusp is reduced by grinding their
buccal incline.
Errors in sagittal plane (fig. 12.37)
Error 1
Maxillary buccal or lingual cusps are placed mesial to their maximal
intercuspal position.
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FIGURE 12.37 Working side errors in sagittal plane and its
rectification (A) Error 1 – maxillary buccal and lingual cusp
are mesial to maximum intercuspation, (B) Error 2 – maxillary
buccal and lingual cusp distal to maximum intercuspation.
Rectification: Grinding the mesial inclines of the maxillary buccal

cusp and the distal inclines of mandibular buccal cusp.
Error 2
Maxillary buccal and lingual cusps are placed distal to their maximal
intercuspal position.
Rectification: Grinding of distal inclines of maxillary cusp and the
mesial inclines of the mandibular cusp.
Error 3
No occlusal contact on the working side.
Cause: Excessive contact on the nonworking side.
Rectification: The paths are ground over the mandibular buccal cusp
to reduce the incline of the part of the cusp that is preventing the tooth
contact on the working side.
Rectification of nonworking side errors
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This can be due to a lack of contact or excessive contact preventing
contact on working side. This is when working side errors are
corrected as explained previously.
Rectification of errors in protrusion

Reducing distolingual inclines of maxillary buccal cusps and
mesiobuccal inclines of mandibular lingual cusps.
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Recovering denture from the cast
• A saw is used to make cuts on the base of the cast in several
directions (Fig. 12.38). Care should be taken to avoid damaging the
borders of the denture. A plaster knife is inserted into the cuts to
gently separate and remove the stone sections (Fig. 12.39).
• Alternately, a shell blaster, which uses crushed walnut shells under

air pressure to blast the stone without affecting the acrylic, can also
be used.
FIGURE 12.38 Cuts made on cast base.
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FIGURE 12.39 Cast separated from denture.
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Finishing
Finishing involves the following procedures:
• Removing excess acrylic resin (flash) in the borders – using an arbor

band on a lathe or a large bur mounted on lab micromotor (Fig.
12.40).
• Removing gypsum around the teeth – using a round bur mounted

on a straight handpiece or chisel (Fig. 12.41).
• Removing acrylic nodules from the impression surface – using a

round bur mounted on a straight handpiece or small acrylic stones
(Fig. 12.42).
• Frenal relief – provided with a straight fissure bur (Fig. 12.43).
• Smoothening the denture surfaces and borders – using large acrylic

stones and rubber points (Fig. 12.44). Sandpaper mounted on a
mandrel is then used to remove the finer scratches (Fig. 12.45).
FIGURE 12.40 Flash from borders removed with a large bur
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mounted on a lathe.
FIGURE 12.41 Plaster is removed with a round bur.
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FIGURE 12.42 Acrylic nodules removed with small acrylic
stones.
FIGURE 12.43 Frenal relief with a straight fissure bur.
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FIGURE 12.44 Smoothening using large acrylic stones.
FIGURE 12.45 Smoothening with sandpaper mounted on a

mandrel.
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Polishing
• A rag wheel is used with a slurry of pumice and water to polish the
• Areas not accessible by the rag wheel (palate) are polished using
prophy cup or brush with pumice (Fig. 12.47).
• Stippling the denture may be done using a round finishing bur at

slow speed using random circular movements. The stippled area is
then pumiced (Fig. 12.48).
• Denture is polished to a high shine using a soft chamois wheel and

gold rouge (Fig. 12.49).
• The denture surface is cleaned with soap to remove the polishing

material and stored in a container in water.
FIGURE 12.46 Polishing using a rag wheel with pumice and
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water.
FIGURE 12.47 Prophy cup and pumice for polishing

inaccessible areas.
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FIGURE 12.48 Stippling can be created with round bur.
FIGURE 12.49 Dry polishing with a woollen buff.
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SUMMARY
The processing of complete dentures is a very important procedure to
ensure correct application and transfer of clinical procedures. The
sequence of procedures mentioned should be followed diligently to
minimize errors. Gross errors during this step will be expensive and
time-consuming to rectify.
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CHAPTER
13
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Denture insertion
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 208
Denture inspection 208
Denture insertion 208
Adaptation 208
Borders and peripheral extensions 208
Retention and stability 209
Aesthetics 209
Occlusion 209
Instructions to patient 212
Denture insertion and removal 212
What to expect from dentures 212
How to use dentures 212
Care for dentures 213
Recall and maintenance 214
Denture adhesives 214
Summary 215
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Introduction
This is probably the most eagerly anticipated appointment for the
patient in complete denture fabrication. The physical, physiologic and
psychological needs of the patient should be addressed. Again, a
planned sequence of procedures will help to verify all the aspects.
This appointment involves not only clinical procedures but also
counselling of the patient in the use and care of the dentures. A
sequential approach to denture insertion is discussed in the chapter.
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Denture inspection
The following aspects of the denture are inspected before the insertion
appointment:
1. Tissue or fitting surface: For imperfections, nodules, sharp edges

and plaster.
2. Borders: Rounded with no sharp angles (Fig. 13.1).
3. Polished surface: Smooth without scratches and no plaster on

gingival crevice.
FIGURE 13.1 Denture inspection. Fitting surface – checked

for imperfections. Borders – rounded, polished surface –
smooth.
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Denture insertion
During the insertion appointment the completed dentures are
evaluated using a sequence of procedures as follows.
Adaptation
• The adaptation of the dentures to the tissues is verified individually.
The dentures are inserted and the patient is queried for any pain or
discomfort during insertion. Pressure indicating paste (PIP) is
painted onto the tissue surface of the denture with a stiff-bristled
brush, and seated by applying pressure in the first molar areas on
either side.
• It is removed after 1 min and the surface is inspected for the

following (Fig. 13.2):
○ Complete removal of paste – indicates pressure spot

and needs to be trimmed.
○ Brush streaks remaining – no contact, other areas

may have more pressure.
○ Paste remaining with no streaks – proper contact.
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FIGURE 13.2 Pressure spots in mandibular denture detected
using pressure indicating paste (PIP).
Borders and peripheral extensions

After ensuring adaptation of the dentures individually, the borders
are evaluated and corrected for overextension. The same procedure is
adopted using PIP. The frenal areas are checked for relief and the
posterior palatal seal area is also verified (Fig. 13.3).
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FIGURE 13.3 Frenal areas are checked for relief.
Retention and stability

The dentures are checked individually for retention and stability as
described for try-in. It must be kept in mind that generally the lower
denture will not be as retentive as the upper. Also, retention can
improve after the patient has worn the denture for a few days due to
better soft tissue adaptation.
Aesthetics
As discussed during try-in, the various factors affecting aesthetics are
verified again and patient consent is again taken.
Occlusion
Occlusal harmony is important for the complete denture to function
efficiently, be comfortable and to preserve the tissues.
Causes of occlusal discrepancy

Even after lab remounting and selective grinding can be due to:
• Errors in jaw relation records.
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• Errors in mounting casts on articulator.
• Changes in supporting tissues since impressions were made.
• Differences in tissue adaptation between record bases and processed

denture bases.
• Realeff (resiliency like effect)
○ When a passive recording material is used for

impression making the maxillomandibular relation
changes in the final denture leading to occlusal
discrepancy (premature contact).
Occlusal correction can be done:
• Intraorally
• Extraorally (clinical remounting)
Intraoral correction
Articulating paper can be used to check the occlusion intraorally. It
should be placed bilaterally (Fig. 13.4), as placement on one side may
induce the patient to close away from that side and high points
checked both in maxillary (Fig. 13.5A) and mandibular denture (Fig.
13.5B).
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FIGURE 13.4 Articulating paper placed bilaterally.
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FIGURE 13.5 (A) High points in maxillary denture. (B) High
points in mandibular denture.
Disadvantages of articulating paper
• It will colour a tooth even if it only touches it – areas which are not
in occlusion tend to get marked.
• The fossa fail to be marked, cusps are marked better.
• Difficult to place bilaterally and at the same time ensure dentures do

not shift.
○ Occlusal wax is a better choice for checking

occlusion. Strips are placed bilaterally and patient
is instructed to close in centric (Fig. 13.6A). Points
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of wax penetration are marked with pencil and
relieved (Fig. 13.6B and C).
• Whichever material is used, it must be ensured that there is
simultaneous and even contact of all the posterior teeth in centric
occlusion after the correction. The eccentric occlusion is then
verified.
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FIGURE 13.6 (A) Occlusal wax placed bilaterally. (B) Points
of wax penetration. (C) High points marked and relieved.
Disadvantages of intraoral correction
• The resiliency and displaceability of the supporting soft tissues will
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mask the premature contacts.
• It is impossible to observe the discrepancy from all aspects with the

dentists’ naked eye.
• Patients also do not identify and quote the problem immediately.
• Occlusal interferences can cause pain which makes the patient avoid
the same, giving false markings.
Extraoral – clinical remounting

• Clinical remounting is the better method for checking occlusal
errors. This involves remounting the processed denture on an
articulator and adjusting the occlusion extraorally.
• Advantages:
○ Permits dentist to view occlusion better from all

sides including lingual.
○ Reduces patient participation.
○ Provides a stable foundation without shifting bases.
○ Absence of saliva makes the markings more

accurate.
○ Clinical time and adjustment appointments are

reduced.
• Procedure:
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○ The clinical remounting is performed using
interocclusal check records (as described in Chapter
6).
○ If the original final casts are intact, the dentures are

just remounted on the articulator with the new
interocclusal check record and the centric relation is
verified by adjusting the condylar controls (as
described in Chapter 6). If necessary, the lower cast
is mounted again on the articulator in the new
position.
○ If the original final casts are destroyed, then

remount casts are made.
Remount cast
A cast formed on prosthesis for the purpose of mounting the
prosthesis on an articulator (GPT8).
Procedure of fabricating a remount cast

The undercuts present in the tissue surface of the dentures are blocked
(Fig. 13.7) out with plasticine or wax.
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FIGURE 13.7 Undercuts blocked in the denture.
The tissue surface of the denture is coated with a separating

medium like petroleum jelly. Quick setting plaster is vibrated onto the
tissue surface, such that it captures the peripheral roll, but it should
not cover the external surface as it may become difficult to remove the
denture from the cast (Fig. 13.8).
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FIGURE 13.8 Plaster vibrated onto tissue surface without
extending over external surface.
The maxillary cast can be mounted with a remounting jig (if

fabricated after laboratory remount and selective grinding).
Alternately, it can be mounted on the articulator using a new facebow
transfer (Fig. 13.9).
• The mandibular cast is mounted using the interocclusal check

record (Fig. 13.10).
• Selective grinding procedures using BULL law (buccal cusp of

upper [Fig. 13.11A] and lingual cusp of lower [Fig. 13.11B]) are
performed to correct occlusal discrepancies using articulating
paper, as described in Chapter 12.
• Any area of the denture that is trimmed during denture insertion

should be polished.
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FIGURE 13.9 Maxillary cast is mounted using facebow
transfer.
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FIGURE 13.10 Mandibular cast mounted using interocclusal
check record.
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FIGURE 13.11 (A) Buccal cusp of maxillary teeth trimmed.
(B) Lingual cusp of mandibular teeth trimmed.
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FIGURE 13.12 Correct tongue position.
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This is more important for patients who are having dentures inserted
for the first time. It consists of instructions regarding:
• Denture insertion and removal
• What to expect from dentures
• How to use dentures
• Care for dentures
Denture insertion and removal

The patient is taught to insert and remove the denture. It is usually
preferable to wear the upper denture first followed by the lower
denture as upper is more retentive and larger. Again for the same
reason, it is preferable to remove the lower denture followed by the
upper denture.
What to expect from dentures

The patient should be instructed that dentures are artificial substitutes
and can have limitations. The following are initial normal reactions to
a new denture and these will get better as the tissues adapt:
• Awkward feeling in the beginning.
• Appearance seems changed.
• Speech seems altered.
• Feeling of mouth being full.
• Excessive salivary flow.
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• Lower denture may be dislodged during speech and eating.
How to use dentures
Tongue position
• The tongue position needs to be trained to stabilize the dentures,
particularly the mandibular denture. The patient must practice
mouth opening and closing with the tongue in forward position
resting against the inside of the denture flange and lower front teeth
(Fig. 13.12). The same position should be maintained while opening
the mouth to receive any food. This is important to prevent a
retracted tongue position, which can destabilize the lower denture.
• If the maxillary denture feels loosened, patient should be advised to

close the mouth and swallow which will elevate the tongue and
reseat the denture.
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FIGURE 13.13 (A) Denture brush with tapered bristles on
one end to reach deep areas. (B) Cleaning of denture with a
vessel filled with water below to prevent breakage.
Eating
Patient should be advised that eating efficiently requires training and
patience and it usually requires 6–8 weeks to chew comfortably.
The following methods are adopted initially:
• Food should be cut into small pieces, placed on the back teeth and
chewed slowly using both sides simultaneously.
• They should begin with soft, nonsticky food rather than fibrous
food.
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• Biting with front teeth is avoided till chewing with posterior teeth is
mastered.
Speech
Patients can expect speech problems initially, due to the presence of
palatal plate, initial feeling of bulk and excessive saliva. But the
adaptability of tongue is such that patients overcome this problem
quickly. They should be encouraged to read loudly and repeat words
that give trouble.
Sneezing and coughing

Patients should be instructed that extreme and sudden movements
like sneezing and coughing can dislodge the dentures and cause
embarrassment. This can be avoided by covering the mouth with a
handkerchief.
Tissue rest
• They should be advised to remove the dentures at night to provide
rest to the tissues from the stresses during the day. Failure to do this
can lead to soreness, irritation, increased chances for candidiasis
and bruxism.
• In case of any pain, patient should not be encouraged to wear the

dentures and should get back to the dentist at the earliest.
Care for dentures

• Dental plaque is a cause for denture stomatitis, candidiasis,
inflammatory papillary hyperplasia, bad odour and bone loss. It
must be removed.
• Patients should be instructed to rinse their mouth and dentures after

every meal, if possible.
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• At night, the dentures should be brushed gently using a soft denture
brush (Fig. 13.13A) to remove the plaque. While brushing, the
dentures should be held over a container of water (Fig. 13.13B) so
that the water cushions the impact if they slip out of the hand and
fall.
• Then they are soaked in any commercial denture-cleansing agent

(Fig. 13.14) and allowed to remain overnight. Hot water should never
be used as it will distort the denture.
• A simple denture cleanser can be made with the following:
○ Sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) (15 cc) –

provides a bleaching and germicidal action.
○ Water softener like Calgon (4 cc) – softens and

loosens food deposits.
○ Water (115 cc).

• Sonic cleaners can also be used for cleansing.
• Again in the morning, the dentures should be brushed and worn.

The surface of the residual ridges should also be brushed gently or
massaged with a washcloth. This will increase the circulation and
help in removing plaque. It greatly reduces tissue inflammation.
• To remove calculus, dentures can be soaked overnight in white

vinegar, which contains acetic acid to decalcify calculus deposits.
Occasional soaking in the solution can prevent calculus formation.
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FIGURE 13.14 Dentures soaked in a commercially available
denture-cleansing tablet.
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Recall appointments may be scheduled as follows:
First recall : 1–3 days
Second recall : 1 week after first visit
Third recall : 3–4 months after second visit
Maintenance : Every 1 year
This is a general recall programme, which may need to be modified
depending on the postinsertion problems, after the first recall
appointment.
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Denture adhesives
Denture adhesives are an important adjunct in providing retention to
dentures. The patient must be educated in the appropriate use of the
material so that they understand their limitations.
Definition: A material used to adhere a denture to the oral mucosa
(GPT8).
Mechanism of action
They enhance retention by:
• Increasing the adhesive and cohesive properties and viscosity of the

saliva between the denture base and tissues.
• Eliminating voids between the denture base and tissues.
Composition
• Previously denture adhesives were based on vegetable gums like

Karaya. These were highly water soluble and retained their
adhesive properties only for a short time and had allergic potential.
• Currently synthetic materials are used. The main ingredient is a

mixture of salts of short-acting and long-acting polyvinyl methyl
ether maleate. Other ingredients are given in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1
Composition of denture adhesives
Ingredient Function
Petrolatum, mineral oil, polyethylene oxide Binder
Silicon dioxide, calcium stearate Minimize slumping
Menthol, peppermint oil Flavouring
Sodium borate and methylparaben Preservatives
Red dye Colouring agent
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FIGURE 13.15 A commercially available denture adhesive
paste applied on denture.
Indications
• Patients with conditions which compromise retention like:
○ Xerostomia – denture should be moistened with

water after application of adhesive
○ Neurological disorders like facial paralysis
○ Orofacial dyskinesia
○ Resective oral surgery
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○ Extremely resorbed ridges
• Patients with well-made complete dentures that do not satisfy their
perceived expectations.
• To stabilize record bases while recording jaw relations and during

try-in.
• To train an apprehensive new denture wearer.
• To provide a sense of security for high profile patients.
Contraindications
• Not indicated for improperly fabricated or poorly fitting dentures.
• Patients allergic to adhesive – some patients have reported allergic

reactions to adhesives using Karaya.
Advantages
• Increased incisal bite force.
• Decreased frequency of denture dislodgement while chewing.
• Decreased movement of the denture during mastication and speech.
• Increased security and confidence while chewing.
Disadvantages
• Can increase vertical dimension and occlusal discrepancies with

improper use.
• Cannot be used as a remedy for pain and discomfort.
• May be messy, grainy and difficult to remove for some patients.
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Usage
• They are dispensed as soluble powders or creams/gels. (The various

insoluble materials available commercially like paper cloth and
pads, cushions and home repair kits are not recommended and are
not considered here.)
• Powders are less retentive and effect is not as lasting as creams. But
powders can be used in small quantities, easier to clean, not messy
and initial retention is achieved sooner.
• For both, the least amount of material that will offer effective
retention is used.
• While using powders, the dentures are cleaned, moistened and a

thin, even coating of adhesive is applied on the entire tissue surface
of denture. The excess is shaken off and denture is seated firmly.
• While using creams, the dentures are dried and then 1 cm beads of
adhesive are dispensed in the incisor, molar and midpalatal areas.
Alternately, small spots of cream are applied at 5 mm intervals
throughout the denture (Fig 13.5). The denture is again seated
firmly.
• Patients must be instructed to remove the adhesive daily using a

brush or gauze under running water.
• Patient should be advised that denture discomfort would not be

corrected by using adhesives. They should seek professional
consultation in this regard.
• An increase in the quantity of adhesive used by patients, suggests

that they need professional help.
SUMMARY
The denture insertion appointment is very important in delivering a
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functional and aesthetic denture to the patient. More important is the
need for the patient to understand the limitations of denture service,
and to comprehend the use and care of dentures. The dentist is solely
responsible to educate the patient in this regard. Time spent by the
dentist in this appointment will go a long way towards the successful
use of dentures by the patient.
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CHAPTER
14
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 216
Causes for postinsertion problems 216
Postinsertion complaints (denture complaints)
216
Looseness 216
Decreased retentive forces 217
Increased displacing force 219
Support problems 220
Discomfort 221
Related to impression surface 221
Related to polished surface 221
Related to occlusal surface 221
Poor appearance 222
Insufficient or excessive tooth visibility 222
Creases at corner of mouth 222
Miscellaneous 222
Speech problems 222
Difficulty in eating 222
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Clattering of teeth while eating and speaking
223
Altered taste 223
Nausea and gagging 223
Summary 223
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Introduction
Recall appointments postinsertion of the complete denture is
important for the purpose of eliminating problems faced by the
patient in the wearing of the dentures. The dentist must listen, examine
and treat the condition. The patient generally states the problems and
hence it is only appropriate that they be categorized in the words of
the patient. This chapter will deal with all the common complaints
seen following denture insertion and their treatment.
Causes for postinsertion problems

Even though we take enough care in each and every step of complete
denture fabrication, problem arises because of the inaccuracies in each
step.
Border moulding in open mouth technique

In this technique, the vertical dimension and support to the muscles
are not established. It will reduce the force of the muscle acting on the
impression material during border moulding. So, the denture flanges
tend to be overextended.
Jaw relation recording

The recording can be at fault, if (i) inaccurate record bases are used,
(ii) tissue over the ridge is flabby and displaceable, (iii) use of existing
dentures deforming and traumatizing the tissues, (iv) excessive or
unequal pressure during registering of jaw relations or (v) the patient
may not be in a position to give proper registration due to TMJ
problems, age or decreased muscle tone.
Mounting
Mounting errors can be due to (i) record bases not properly seated in
position, (ii) interferences in the heel of casts and (iii) occlusal rims are
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not properly keyed in correct orientation position.
Laboratory processing
Of all the phases, more errors occur during the processing stage, like
(i) displacement of teeth during processing, (ii) incomplete closing of
flask resulting in distortion, (iii) overheating during polishing causing
warpage and (iv) shrinkage of the acrylic.
Postinsertion complaints (denture complaints)

Postinsertion complaints can be broadly categorized as follows:
• Looseness
• Discomfort
• Poor appearance
• Miscellaneous
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Looseness
Loose dentures can elicit the following symptoms:
• Speech is affected, falls on speaking
• Falls while opening mouth, laughing
• Food entrapment under denture
• Pain
Causes for loose dentures
• Decreased retentive forces
• Increased displacing forces
• Support problems
Decreased retentive forces

Causes
• Lack of seal
• Air beneath impression surface
• Xerostomia
• Poor neuromuscular control
Lack of seal
Causes
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• Underextended borders (depth or width)
○ Due to improper border moulding, the accurate

depth of sulcus is not recorded (Fig. 14.1).
○ Border underextension in width is due to improper

tooth arrangement and usually affects the
distobuccal of maxilla and lower buccal shelf areas
(Fig. 14.2A and B).
• Incorrect posterior palatal seal
○ Underextension – loose denture.
○ Overextension – denture becomes loose while

talking.
○ Insufficient depth – denture becomes loose while

eating. This can be checked by wetting the denture
and inserting. Shows egress of air bubbles
posteriorly.
• Inelasticity of cheeks – may be due to ageing, scleroderma or
submucous fibrosis, which can lead to lack of seal if the borders
were moulded using passive methods.
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FIGURE 14.1 Underextended borders.
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FIGURE 14.2 (A) Upper distobuccal area – left shows
improper teeth setting (maxillary posteriors placed on crest of
ridge) and subsequent underextension in width of upper
distobuccal flange. Right shows correct arrangement (slightly
buccal to ridge crest). (B) Lower buccal shelf area – left
shows improper teeth setting (lingual to crest) and
subsequent underextension in width of lower buccal shelf
area. Right shows correct arrangement (crest of ridge).
Treatment
Lack of seal can be checked as follows (Fig. 14.3A–D):
• For underextended borders – soft tracing compound is added to

relevant border and processed with new resin material (Fig. 14.4).
• For incorrect posterior palatal seal – check the border for its correct
placement at junction with mobile tissue of soft palate. Border
moulding should be done in PPS and are processed with new
material.
• For inelasticity of cheeks – border moulding should be done in
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increments as the functional movements are performed.
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FIGURE 14.3 (A) Checking seal in the maxillary labial area.
(B) Checking seal in the posterior palatal area. (C) Checking
seal in the maxillary canine region. (D) Checking seal of the
lower denture.
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FIGURE 14.4 Adding material to an underextended border in
depth.
Air beneath impression surface

Causes
• Poor fit.
○ Deficient impression
○ Damaged cast
○ Warped denture
○ Overadjustment of impression surface (Fig. 14.5)

• Undercut ridge – dentures are overtrimmed for insertion. Hence,
impression surface is not closely adapted (Fig. 14.6).
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• Excessive relief
FIGURE 14.5 A gap seen between the mucosa and

impression surface due to overtrimming.
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FIGURE 14.6 Undercut present on left side (unilateral). A
rotational path is used to inert denture avoiding trimming the
denture to relieve the undercut.
Trapped air expands as denture moves away from supporting tissues

until it reaches the borders and eventually the seal is broken leading
to loss of retention.
Treatment
• For poor fit – the area should be identified using pressure indicating
paste (PIP) and relined if possible. Denture may need to be remade
if there is too much correction involved.
• With undercut ridges – a rotational path of insertion will prevent

this problem if undercut is present unilaterally (Fig. 14.6);
otherwise, soft liners may be used.
• Providing excessive relief in the relief areas can also cause loss of
retention. The area may need to be relined.
Xerostomia
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Causes
• Diabetes
• Drugs (e.g. atropine, phenothiazine, ephedrine, chlorpromazine)
• Menopause
• Irradiation
• Vitamin deficiency (vitamins A, B12, B2 and folic acid)
• Sialolithiasis
Treatment
Treatment depends on the presence or absence of glandular function.
No glandular function
• Artificial saliva substitutes, soups, intermittent sips of water and

coating of the tissue surface of the denture with tissue conditioners
may also help.
Some glandular function
• Pilocarpine hydrochloride, sucking on sour candy.
Poor neuromuscular control

Causes
• Incorrect denture shape.
• Tongue unable to control denture.
• Change in shape relative to old dentures.
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• Upper/lower motor neuron disorder.
Treatment
• The polished surface should occupy the neutral zone between the
cheeks and tongue (Fig. 14.7). Thus active muscular forces double
the retention provided by physical forces. The contour of the
polished surface is described in Chapter 12. This should be verified
and corrected appropriately.
• The position of the tongue is important to control the denture as

described in Chapter 13. This should be verified and if necessary,
patient should be trained to position the tongue.
• In rare instances, patients may be unable to adapt to the shape of

new dentures, as they are accustomed to the old one for a long time.
This generally happens due to advanced age. Duplication of old
dentures may be necessary, provided occlusion and vertical
dimension do not need to be changed.
• Patients suffering from upper or lower motor neuron disorders may

also face problems in neuromuscular control. Denture adhesives can
be used to augment retention.
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FIGURE 14.7 Denture should occupy the neutral zone.
Increased displacing force

Causes
• Overextended borders (Fig. 14.8).
• Poor fit.
• Denture not in optimal position.
• Occlusal problems.
○ Anterior and posterior prematurities (Fig. 14.9).
○ Maximum intercuspal position (MIP) not coinciding

with CR in the following situations:
▪ Patients unable to control mandibular movement
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▪ Poor ridge
▪ Skeletal class II
▪ Nonanatomic teeth
○ Last tooth placed too far posteriorly – last tooth can

be removed.
○ Lack of occlusal balance.
○ Incorrect plane of occlusion – dentures move while

eating. Commonly associated with large
tuberosities (Fig. 14.10).
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FIGURE 14.8 Overextension of the labial flange, encroaching
on the lip and displacing the denture.
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FIGURE 14.9 Occlusal premature contacts. (A) Improper
occlusion causing increased displacing force. (B) Prematurity
detected. (C) After correction. Note approximation of molars
and canines.
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FIGURE 14.10 Incorrect occlusal plane causes instability.
Treatment
• As discussed in Chapter 11, PIP is applied to the borders and

appropriate correction is made (Fig. 14.11).
• Poor fit and position of dentures were discussed under decreased

retentive forces.
• Intraoral correction or correction using clinical remount procedures

are recommended to correct occlusal problems as described in
Chapter 13.
• Incorrect occlusal plane due to larger tuberosities may be corrected
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by removing the second molars.
FIGURE 14.11 PIP showing the overextension borders in

mandibular denture.
Support problems
Lack of support can also cause displacement of dentures.
Causes
• Fibrous displaceable ridge
• Lack of ridge
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• Bony prominence
Treatment
Areas of bony prominence can be relieved. Denture adhesives can be
recommended with poor ridge situations.
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Discomfort
Discomfort while using complete dentures can elicit the following
symptoms:
• Pain
• Altered sensation
• Difficulty in swallowing
• Difficulty in chewing
Causes for discomfort can be classified as:
• Related to impression surface
• Related to polished surface
• Related to occlusal surface
Related to impression surface

Causes
• Sharp acrylic nodule on fitting surface.
• Undercut areas and attachments not relieved.
• Overextension.
• Deep postdam – sore throat, difficulty in swallowing.
• Lower knife-edged ridge.
Treatment
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These can be corrected by using PIP (pressure indicating paste) to
identify the area causing the problem and trimming the same. In case
of a lower knife-edged ridge, a permanent soft liner may be
considered to cushion the impact (see Chapter 15).
Related to polished surface

Cause
Thick distobuccal flange of upper denture – coronoid process
interferes while opening, yawning and moving mandible from side to
side.
Treatment
PIP is applied to this area and the patient is asked to make the
concerned movements. The area is trimmed (Fig. 14.12A and B).
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FIGURE 14.12 (A) Thick distobuccal flange. (B) Area
identified with PIP by actively border moulding the area.
Related to occlusal surface

Causes
• Pain on eating is usually due to premature contacts present

anteriorly and posteriorly, and sometimes due to lack of balanced
occlusion.
• Pain/ulceration lingual to lower anterior ridge is due to CR and MIP

not coinciding, resulting in a slide from CR to MIP.
• Pain/ulceration on labial aspect of lower ridge and incisive papilla is

due to insufficient incisal overjet.
• Excessive vertical dimension.
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• Cheek/lip biting is due to insufficient overjet in anteriors and
posteriors respectively or decreased VD.
• Tongue biting is due to teeth placed lingual to lower ridge.
Treatment
• Pain on eating is corrected using articulating paper or occlusal wax

to identify the offending area (see Chapter 13).
• Pain/ulceration lingual to lower anterior ridge: CR to MIP should be

made to coincide with the help of selective grinding.
• Pain/ulceration on labial aspect of lower ridge and incisive papilla:

If not due to undercut or sharp acrylic, the labial aspect of lower
anteriors are trimmed.
• The problems of excessive VD have been discussed in Chapter 6. If

the VD is increased by greater than 2 mm, it is better to remake the
dentures.
• Cheek or lip biting: posteriorly the buccal cusps are rounded or reset
and anteriorly the lower incisors are corrected to give better incisal
guidance.
• Tongue biting: Remove lower lingual cusps, or reset teeth, rearrange

the teeth.
In the presence of pain and ulceration, the best method to heal the ulcer
following correction of the cause, is to advise the patient against wearing the
denture for one day.
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Poor appearance
Problems with appearance will usually be related to:
• Insufficient or too much tooth visibility
• Creases at corner of mouth
Insufficient or excessive tooth visibility

Causes
• Improper orientation of occlusal plane.
• Improper vertical dimension.
• Improper labiolingual and labiopalatal positioning of anterior teeth.
Treatment
It is very difficult to correct the appearance without remaking the
dentures. Minor corrections in vertical dimension can be made but the
scope for extensive changes is not available. This reiterates the need to
verify and take patient consent for aesthetics at the time of try-in.
Creases at corner of mouth

Causes
• Decreased labial fullness.
• Decreased vertical dimension.
Treatment
These causes are again difficult to correct and should have been
checked during try-in; may be necessary to remake the dentures.
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Miscellaneous
Speech problems
It will take some time, usually a few days for the patient to get
accustomed to speaking with new dentures. This should be kept in
mind before starting any correction.
Problems with sibilants ‘s’

• If there is tooth contact when patient pronounces ‘s’ it can be due to:
○ Increased vertical dimension
○ Excessive overbite
• Difficulty in pronouncing ‘s’ can be due to excessive overjet (Fig.
14.13).
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FIGURE 14.13 Increased overjet causes difficulty in
pronouncing ‘s’.
Problems with bilabial sounds ‘p’ and ‘b’

• Incorrect vertical dimension and incisor position (Fig. 14.14).
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FIGURE 14.14 Incorrect VD causes difficulty in pronouncing
bilabial and labiodental sounds.
Problems with labiodental ‘f’ and ‘V’

• Incorrect vertical dimension and incisor position (upper anteriors
placed too far back [Fig. 14.14]).
It is very difficult to correct these problems, most of the time dentures

have to be remade if problem persists.
Difficulty in eating
Causes
• Instability.
• Posterior teeth trimmed too much.
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• Increased and decreased vertical dimension.
Treatment
The cause is identified and corrected if possible.
Clattering of teeth while eating and speaking

Causes
• Increased vertical dimension.
• Increased incisor overlap.
• Loose dentures.
• Cuspal interference and lack of balance.
• Use of porcelain teeth.
Treatment
The cause is identified and corrected if possible.
Altered taste
• The denture actually does not cover many taste buds; hence, there is
no physiological basis for this problem.
• It may be due to the nature of the acrylic itself which has to be made
thick and has reduced thermal conductivity.
• Denture can be remade with a metal base to enhance the

conductivity.
Nausea and gagging

Causes
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• Loose dentures.
• Poor occlusion.
• Thick distal termination of upper denture.
• Palatal placement of upper posteriors.
• Low occlusal plane.
• Overextended retromylohyoid area.
• Underextended denture borders.
• Psychogenic – refusing to swallow for fear of aspirating dentures.

Saliva accumulates and triggers gag reflex.
Treatment
• Correction of cause.
• Prescribing a combination of atropine and a mild sedative during

initial period of denture use.
• Referring patient to a psychiatrist if condition persists, all other

factors being normal.
SUMMARY
It is very important to identify and correct postinsertion problems in
complete dentures as it will boost the confidence of the patient once
the problem is solved. The first time, denture wearer is already
apprehensive regarding the function of the prosthesis and it is
important to allay his/her fears and restore confidence. The patient
should not be made to wait with the problem and recall.
Appointments should be scheduled at close intervals till the problems
are corrected.
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CHAPTER
15
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Refitting and repair
CHAPTER CONTENTS
REFITTING 224
Introduction 224
Tissue conditioners 224
Rationale 224
Composition 224
Uses 224
Procedure 225
Recall and maintenance 225
Resilient liners 226
Definition 226
Requirements 226
Composition 227
Uses or indications of permanent soft liner 227
Limitations 227
Relining and rebasing 227
Definitions 227
Indications 227
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Contraindications 227
Preparatory phase 228
Procedure 228
REPAIR 233
Introduction 233
Causes 234
Denture factors 234
Patient factors 234
Procedure 234
Denture base repair 234
Refixing broken teeth 236
Summary 237
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Refitting
Introduction
Refitting the tissue surface of the denture may involve several reasons
and procedures. All these are aimed at prolonging the life of the
denture without making new ones. The following materials and
procedure are commonly used in complete denture fabrication for
varying reasons to resurface the tissue surface of the denture. These
are
• Tissue conditioners
• Resilient liners
• Relining and rebasing
Tissue conditioners
The most effective method of treating abused tissues under complete
dentures is to discontinue use of dentures for a period of time. But for
social reasons it may not be possible for a number of patients to do
this. Tissue conditioning materials basically accomplish this purpose
of rehabilitating abused and compromised tissues without continuous
removal of patient’s dentures.
Rationale
• Tissue conditioners are soft, resilient materials, which flow under
pressure.
• They form an intervening cushion between the denture base and

basal seat tissues.
• Thereby transmission of masticatory forces to the mucosa is
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equalized eliminating isolated pressure spots.
• Only as long as material remains soft, it will have a rehabilitating

effect. Hence, prolonged use may cause trauma.
• Their use is limited to reversible tissue changes like tissue abrasion,

ulceration, displacement and swelling.
• They do not have any direct effect on irreversible changes like tissue
hyperplasia and hypertrophy.
• Occlusal disharmonies and improperly extended borders should be

corrected before initiating tissue conditioning.
Composition
• Powder: poly(ethylmethacrylate)
• Liquid: mixture of aromatic ester and ethyl alcohol
The powder dissolves in the liquid to form a gel. The gelation is

essentially a physical process, without polymerization.
Uses
Their main use is to treat chronic soreness due to dentures.
Adjunct uses
1. Conditioning the tissues during fabrication of new complete

dentures
Tissue conditioners can be used with the old dentures to relieve and
equalize pressure, and allow tissues to recover.
They can also be used in old dentures while making new denture
for patients with the following conditions:
• Bruxism
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• Papillary hyperplasia
• Depressed areas associated with suction cups and discs
• General debilitating disease and avitaminosis
2. Temporary obturator
Tissue conditioners may be used as a temporary obturator by adding
them to an obturator following surgery. Temporary obturation is
usually required for 7–10 days after surgery and it is important that
the obturator produce minimal pressure and no irritation during this
period. The use of these materials protects the tissues and enhances
healing.
3. Stabilize surgical splints or stents

Tissue conditioners may be used to line surgical stents or splints after
maxillary or mandibular vestibuloplasties or resections. They provide
close adaptation to the healing tissues and prevent trauma to the
tissues.
4. Stabilization of record bases

They can be added to undercut areas of record bases to prevent
breakage of cast and to enhance the stability, retention and comfort of
recording bases during registration of jaw relations. This will
minimize errors during this procedure.
5. As an impression material
As described in Chapter 4 Page 77, they can be used to make closed-
mouth functional impressions for atrophic ridges.
6. To help determine the potential benefits of a permanent

resilient liner
At times, patients with well-fitting dentures cannot wear them
comfortably due to chronic soreness. By using a tissue conditioner
temporarily, it can be determined if the patient will benefit from the
use of a permanent resilient liner or not.
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Procedure
The procedure is described for the main use of tissue conditioner –
conditioning traumatized denture-bearing tissues.
Preparation of denture
The following should be ensured in the denture prior to conditioning:
• Adequate extension
• No occlusal discrepancy
• Correct horizontal and vertical relations
All undercuts are removed from the tissue surface and this surface
is reduced to a depth of 1 mm. The borders should not be trimmed
and are retained as vertical stops. Basically space is provided for the
conditioning material in the denture to allow recovery of the
traumatized tissues.
Manipulation and placement
• If both maxillary and mandibular arches need to be conditioned,

each should be treated separately. The arch with the most stable
denture is used as a guide and the other is treated first.
• The armamentarium required for the procedure is shown in Fig.

15.1A. A lubricant may be applied on denture areas where the
conditioning material is not supposed to contact, to ease removal of
the material later (Fig. 15.1B).
• The powder and liquid are mixed in a glass jar according to the
manufacturer’s instructions.
• While the material is creamy and fluid, it is poured into the denture,
covering the entire denture base area (Fig. 15.2).
• When material stops flowing and reaches a dough stage, it is
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inserted in the patient’s mouth and the patient is instructed to close
in centric, maintaining vertical dimension. This position is
maintained for 5–7 min, following which active and/or passive
border moulding is performed.
• The denture is removed and excess trimmed (Fig. 15.3).
• Small amount of material can be added if required and procedure is

repeated till the entire surface is covered.
• The patient is asked to use the denture with the conditioning

material.
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FIGURE 15.1 (A) Armamentarium. (1) Mixing spatula. (2)
Dropper for monomer. (3) Mixing jar. (4) Powder measure. (5)
Polymer. (6) Monomer. (7) Lubricant. (B) Application of
lubricant on polished and occlusal surface.
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FIGURE 15.2 Entire impression surface of denture is covered
with the mixed conditioning material.
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FIGURE 15.3 Tissue conditioner covers the impression
surface uniformly and the excess is trimmed.

• Patient should be instructed to avoid hard food for the first 8 h and
is instructed to come the next day for inspection and correction of
any pressure areas.
• The procedure has to be repeated every 3–4 days till the tissues have
fully recovered.
• A soft brush is used to clean the material under cold running water.
It should not be scrubbed with a hard brush and should not be
soaked in denture cleanser.
Commercial examples
• COE comfort
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• GC Soft liner
• Viscogel
Resilient liners
Definition
They are elastomeric polymers used in the prevention of chronic
soreness from dentures and preservation of supporting structures
(Winkler).
• These are also called soft liners or permanent liners.
• They are heat processed to the hard denture bases.
• Duration of use ranges from 6 months to 5 years depending on need

and material.
• Their usage is to prevent denture soreness while tissue conditioners

are used to treat denture soreness.
Requirements
• Biologically inert.
• Resilient and capable of maintaining this characteristic – the average

period of satisfactory service for a denture is 7 years.
• Dimensionally stable and insoluble in oral fluids to maintain proper

tissue contact.
• Colour stable.
• Resist abrasion and thereby allow the practice of proper hygiene of

the surface.
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• Maintain their bond to the denture base without damaging it.
• Relatively easily to work.
Composition
Two categories of materials are used as resilient soft liners:
• Acrylics (plasticized acrylics)
• Silicones (siloxane polymers)
The acrylics are generally referred to as temporary reline materials

and are used as ‘tissue conditioners’. They have been discussed
earlier.
The silicones are referred to as ‘permanent soft liners’ and are
added to the denture base during processing. They are more durable
and suitable for long-term use. Commercial example is Molloplast B.
Uses or indications of permanent soft liner

Permanent soft liners provide comfort by reducing the impact of
forces during function and are used to prevent chronic soreness from
the dentures and preserve the supporting structures. They have been
used in the following situations:
1. Ridge atrophy or resorption
2. Bruxism
3. Undercut areas
4. Restoration of congenital or acquired oral defects
5. Xerostomia
6. Edentulous arch opposing natural teeth
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It is important to understand that these materials should not be
used to compensate for inadequacies in complete denture fabrication.
Limitations
• Not easy to clean and maintain.
• Difficult to trim and adjust.
• Lack bonding to the denture base.
• Ineffective in thin sections, thickness should be at least 1.5–2 mm,

hence cannot be used in maxillary dentures.
In conclusion, soft liners have good application as ‘tissue conditioners’

on a temporary basis. To use them as a definitive denture base for
prolonged period of time has not been successful as patients continue
to experience discomfort and the properties of the current materials
are far from ideal for use in these situations.
Relining and rebasing

Resorption of the residual ridge is inevitable and progressive.
Additionally, the denture base changes over time due to distension
and abrasion of the acrylic resin. The net result is a denture that
becomes unstable and eventually loosens to the point where the
denture wearer feels uncomfortable and inconvenienced.
These changes cannot be entirely avoided, and the need for
servicing complete dentures to keep pace with the changing
foundations becomes mandatory which involves a refitting of the
impression surface of the denture by means of a reline or rebase
procedure.
Definitions
Reline: The procedures used to resurface the tissue side of a
removable dental prosthesis with new base material, thus producing
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an accurate adaptation to the denture foundation area (GPT8).
Rebase: The laboratory process of replacing the entire denture base
material on an existing prosthesis (GPT8).
Hence relining is performed for minimal or moderate tissue
changes and a thin layer of acrylic is added to existing denture base
following impression procedures.
Rebasing is performed for more extensive tissue changes and the
entire denture base is changed following impression procedures. The
clinical and laboratory procedures involved in both relining and
rebasing is similar and they will be considered together.
Indications
Indications for relining or rebasing in general:
• Adaptation of the denture bases to the ridges is poor due to

resorption of the residual alveolar ridges.
• Patients with complaint of looseness or instability of dentures

following a long-standing history of comfort and satisfaction with
the dentures.
• Three to 6 months after construction of immediate dentures.
• For geriatric or chronically ill patients when the construction of new

dentures can cause physical or mental stress.
• When the patient cannot afford the cost of new denture.
• Porous and discoloured denture base (rebasing is indicated).
• With porcelain artificial teeth rebasing is indicated.
Contraindications
• Excessive ridge resorption – make new dentures.
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• Presence of abused soft tissues – relining/rebasing is not indicated
until the tissues recover and return as closely as possible to normal
form.
• Temporomandibular joint problems – until accurate diagnosis and

treatment of the problem has been accomplished, relining or
rebasing is contraindicated.
• Dentures with poor aesthetics or unsatisfactory jaw relationships.
• Dentures with major speech problem.
• Presence of severe osseous undercuts.
Preparatory phase
Tissue preparation
• Oral mucosa should be free of any irritation.
• The dentures should be left out of the mouth at least 2 or 3 days

before making the final impression.
• Any excessive hypertrophic tissue should be surgically removed.
• Removal of dentures at night and massaging of soft tissues, though

recommended (see Chapter 13), should be reiterated.
Denture preparation
• Border extension is checked and corrected.
• Undercuts are relieved.
• Occlusal disharmony is corrected by selective grinding.
• Pressure spots are adjusted.
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• Accurate posterior palatal seal is established.
Procedure
The procedure for relining and rebasing involves the following
processes.
Impression making
• The static and functional methods of relining and rebasing involve

impression making clinically using the existing denture followed by
conversion of the impression material to denture base material in
the laboratory.
• Static methods can be open- or closed-mouth techniques, where the

existing denture is used as a custom tray to make the impressions,
with border moulding and final impressions using conventional
static methods. In closed-mouth technique, the patient is made to
bite or close in centric while the impression is made, whereas in the
open-mouth technique, they are not asked to close while
impressions are made.
• The functional technique involves using tissue-conditioners to make

functional impressions for the reline.
• Rarely, when time is a constraint, autopolymerizing acrylic resin is

used to reline the denture directly in the mouth. This is called
chairside technique.
• Whichever method is used, it is recommended to make maxillary

and mandibular reline impressions separately.
Static methods
Open-mouth techniques
• Proposed by Boucher in 1973.
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• Dentures are used as special tray for making the final impression.
• Tissue stops are prepared in the denture using low-fusing

compound to maintain vertical dimension, occlusal plane and
aesthetic position of anterior teeth.
• The tissue surface and borders of the denture are trimmed by 1 mm

(Fig. 15.4).
• Borders are moulded with low-fusing green stick compound (Fig.

15.5).
• Final impression is made with ZOE impression paste.
• Impression of maxillary denture is made followed by mandibular.
• New CR record is made using interocclusal check methods.
FIGURE 15.4 Denture border marked for trimming.
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FIGURE 15.5 Open-mouth technique – border moulding with
green stick compound.
Advantages
• Selective pressure impression is made without any occlusal

interference.
• Operator need not worry about jaw relation while making

impressions, as a separate record is made.
• The CR record is verifiable.
Disadvantages
• Chances of increase in vertical dimension even though tissue stops

are provided.
• High possibility of denture moving forward.
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• Demanding and laborious technique.
• Requires more clinical and laboratory time.
Closed-mouth techniques
• Dentures are used as special tray for making the final impression.
• The tissue surface and borders of the denture are trimmed by 1–2
mm, except for posterior border of maxillary denture (similar to
described in open-mouth technique).
• Borders are moulded with low-fusing green stick compound.
• Final impression is made with ZOE impression paste.
• The patient closes in centric occlusion on the opposing denture

during border moulding and impression making (Fig. 15.6).
FIGURE 15.6 Closed-mouth impression technique.
Advantages
• Less chances of increased vertical dimension as patient closes in
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centric occlusion.
• Takes less time.
• Chances of denture moving forward during impression are less.
Disadvantages
• Existing errors in centric occlusion can produce pressure points and

an inaccurate impression.
• Hydrostatic pressure in palate during impression making and

packing of acrylic can still cause increase in vertical dimension.
To alleviate the above disadvantages, the following modifications were

suggested:
1. Making a new CR record before making the impressions and then

asking the patient to close in the CR record as the impressions are
made.
2. Palatal portion is modified to reduce hydrostatic pressure during

impression making and packing (a section of palatal portion is
prepared to be removed during processing. Outline of the area is
grooved on polished surface – holes are drilled at 5–6 mm intervals on
the groove) (Fig. 15.7).
3. Labial and buccal flanges of denture are perforated which will

decrease pressure during impression making and packing.
4. Use of impression wax instead of ZOE impression paste has been

suggested to make final impression, but wax is difficult to work with
and there is possibility of distortion.
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FIGURE 15.7 Perforation of denture.
Functional technique
• Simple, practical and popular method.
• Tissue conditioners are used as an impression material. The method

is similar to that described for tissue conditioners.
• The areas of the denture (like occlusal surface), which are not to be
contacted by the fluid resin, are painted with a lubricant (Fig.
15.1B).
• The powder and liquid of the soft liner are mixed according to the
manufacturer’s instructions and allowed to polymerize in the
mixing cup.
• While the material is creamy and fluid, it is poured onto the tissue
surface of the denture, covering the entire denture base area (Fig.
15.4). When material stops flowing and reaches a dough stage, it is
inserted in the patient’s mouth and the patient is instructed to close
in centric, maintaining vertical dimension. Active and passive
methods of border moulding are performed and the patient is also
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instructed to perform functional movements like swallowing,
speaking, smiling until the impression reaches a more stable rubber-
like state, which will normally take about a minimum of 15 min.
• After removal from the mouth, the excess tissue conditioner is

trimmed, voids are corrected with new material and procedure is
repeated (Fig. 15.3).
• The patient is asked to use the denture with the conditioning

material. This will further functionally mould the material.
• Recall and maintenance is similar to that described for ‘tissue

conditioners’.
• When the patient returns after 3–5 days, the underextensions,

denuded areas and pressure spots are corrected by trimming and/or
adding new material.
• The material is changed periodically till the tissues return to a state

of health and then the patient is scheduled for final impressions.
• A ZOE impression paste or light-body wash impression is then

made over the conditioning material and verified. This method is
similar to the ‘functional reline technique’ of making complete
denture impressions.
Chairside technique
Autopolymerizing acrylic resins are used for relining dentures
directly in the mouth. They are added to the denture base after
necessary trimming, and allowed to polymerize in the mouth. This is
called instant chairside reline.
Disadvantages
• Material is porous and has an unpleasant odour.
• The excess monomer that leaches out may also irritate the mucosa.
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• The exothermic heat produced can burn the mucosa.
• Poor colour stability.
• If not positioned correctly, it can lead to gross discrepancies.
Because of all these problems, this technique is not recommended

except for replacing a very small part of the denture.
The process of replacing the impression material with acrylic resin is
the same for either the static or the functional approach.
The difference in relining (Fig. 15.8A and B) and rebasing is in the
amount of old denture base removed and replaced. For rebasing (Fig.
15.9), the entire denture base is eliminated excepting the teeth and
may be 2 mm of adjoining denture base.
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FIGURE 15.8 (A) Showing trimming of borders for relining.
(B) Flasked denture for relining with intact denture base.
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FIGURE 15.9 Trimming of the entire denture-bearing surface
except for teeth for rebasing.
One of the following methods can be used:
• Flask method
• Articulator method
• Jig method
Flask method
• The relined impression is poured with dental stone.
• The master cast is poured around the impression similar to the
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original master cast made by beading and boxing (Fig. 15.10A and
B).
• This cast provides the surface against which the denture is relined
by embedding it in a processing flask (Fig. 15.11).
• The flask is warmed to soften the impression compound before

opening it to remove the impression material (Fig. 15.12).
• Separating medium is applied on the plaster and stone moulds, and

heat-polymerized denture base resin is packed into the mould. The
flask is closed and clamped to ensure maintenance of occlusal
vertical dimension. The acrylic is then processed.
• After processing, the flask is cooled slowly and the denture is

retrieved from the stone mould, finished and polished (Fig. 15.13).
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FIGURE 15.10 (A) Relined impression. (B) Master cast
poured on the relined impression.
FIGURE 15.11 Flask method. Right – master cast embedded

in flask, left – relined impression with denture.
FIGURE 15.12 Flask method. Left – impression softened and

removed.
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FIGURE 15.13 Relined denture after processing.
Articulator method
• A master cast is poured similar to the previous method. The cast is

not separated from the impression.
• A layer of plaster is arranged in platform fashion on the lower

member of the articulator.
• As the plaster is setting, the cast with the relined impression is

placed on the wet plaster platform such that the teeth penetrate the
plaster surface to a depth of 2 mm and the occlusal plane is parallel
to the floor (Fig. 15.14). This forms an index or key of the teeth on
the plaster platform which allows repositioning of the teeth
maintaining the distance and relation with the cast (Fig. 15.15).
Once the plaster platform sets, additional plaster is placed on the
base of the cast and it is mounted on the upper member of
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• When the mounting sets, the articulator can be opened and the
denture with impression is separated from the cast.
• At this point one may elect to rebase or reline the denture. It differs
only in the amount of trimming of denture (Figs 15.8A and 15.17).
• The denture base is waxed (Fig. 15.18), cast and denture are
removed from the mounting, flasked and processed with heat-cure
denture base acrylic resin (Fig. 15.19).
FIGURE 15.14 Relined denture with cast stabilized on a

platform of plaster to form an index.
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FIGURE 15.15 Key or index of denture teeth.
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FIGURE 15.16 Completed mounting of relined impression
with cast on the articulator with formation of index for the
denture teeth.
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FIGURE 15.17 Showing trimmed denture for rebasing.
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FIGURE 15.18A, B Waxing of denture.
FIGURE 15.19 Processed denture.
Jig method
Definition: Jig – a device used to maintain mechanically the correct
positional relationship between a piece of work and a tool or between
components during assembly or alteration (GPT8).
• Procedure is similar to that using an articulator. Seat the occlusal

surface of the denture on the plaster platform on lower member of
relining jig.
• After the stone index is made, mount the denture with the cast to
the upper member in reline jig similar to articulator method (Fig.
15.20).
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• Open the jig, remove the teeth from denture base and adapt
baseplate wax on the cast and wax the denture.
• After processing, replace the cured denture, check and correct

occlusion using the indentation made in the jig during mounting of
denture.
• Alternatively a Hooper’s duplicator can also be used. It is similar to

the Jig method.
FIGURE 15.20 (A) Upper member of reline jig. (B) Relined

denture mounted. (C) Plaster platform.
Insertion, recall and maintenance

The insertion procedure for a relined or rebased denture is similar to
evaluating any new complete denture during its insertion. Since
patient is an old denture wearer, much time need not be spent on
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patient instructions. Recall and maintenance is also similar.
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Repair
Introduction
Fractured dentures are commonly encountered in clinical practice.
Though the most common cause is due to patient dropping the
dentures, some dentures break in the mouth. Repair of the denture
without determining the cause of the breakage, results in repeated
breakage, which is more common when the dentures break within the
mouth. The most common reasons for denture repair are fracture of
maxillary denture in midline and debonding of teeth. The various
causes and the procedure for repair are discussed in this chapter.
Causes
Fractures or cracks can be categorized as:
1. Denture factors
(i) Fracture of the denture base
(ii) Fracture of a tooth or teeth on the denture

2. Patient factors
(i) Accident
(ii) Anatomical factors
(iii) High occlusal load

Causes for these fractures are as follows.
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Denture factors
Fracture of the denture base
The denture base can fracture due to two main reasons:
1. Poor fit
The following factors contribute to poor fit and fracture of dentures:
(i) Alveolar resorption

The alveolar resorption will cause the denture to be unevenly
supported and cause fracture. This is especially true for dentures
which have been worn for some considerable time, or which were
made shortly after the extraction of the teeth.
(ii) Warpage
Dimensional changes in acrylic resin of repaired dentures cause poor
fit and fracture.
(iii) Relief
Both inadequate and excessive relief can cause fracture. Failure to
relieve bony prominences like tori and thin mucosa can cause denture
to flex and fracture. Excessive relief can make the denture thin and
fracture.
(iv) Inaccurate impression or cast

Inaccurate impressions or cast can induce considerable stresses in the
denture base during mastication owing to the unevenness of its
support, and eventually the base will crack. The length of time before
this happens depends on the stresses induced and also on the physical
properties and thickness of the material used.
(v) Inclusions in denture

Inclusions such as porosity, plaster dust, nylon filaments and metal
meshes contribute to stress concentrations and rapid growth of crack.
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2. Incorrect tooth position
The most common cause is setting upper teeth outside the ridge,
which will lead to midline fracture of upper denture. This is because
the force of mastication is applied outside the axis of the ridge and the
ridge becomes a fulcrum point, causing a large component force to be
transmitted to the midline of the denture.
The problem can be countered by:
• Wide extension of the denture base to ensure a retentive force on the

contralateral side, which shifts the fulcrum and distribute the load
more evenly.
• Arranging teeth in balanced occlusion.
• Use of metal denture base.
Fracture or debonding of a tooth or teeth

Fracture or debonding of a tooth or teeth happens due to the
following reasons.
Cuspal interference
• Where the pressure is heavier on one tooth than elsewhere, it will

frequently cause the tooth to split, especially when it is confined to
one tooth.
• An anterior tooth may fracture if there is excessive overbite with

insufficient overjet.
• In old dentures, upper anteriors are often chipped– due to ridge

resorption, the lower denture shifts forwards resulting in traumatic
anterior contact.
Excessive grinding of a tooth
• Excessive and incorrect grinding of the artificial teeth can also cause
teeth to come off from the denture due to reduced area for
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attachment with denture base.
Patient factors
Accident
Accidental dropping of the denture by the patient is the most common
cause of fractured denture due to impact.
Anatomical factors
Anatomical problems like high labial frenum will require a deep labial
notch, which can result in stress in the area leading to midline fracture
of upper denture.
High occlusal loads

This is present in patients with powerful muscles of mastication,
bruxers and single complete dentures.
Procedure
Denture base repair

• Reassemble the individual pieces carefully and lute them with sticky
wax reinforced with wooden sticks (Fig. 15.21A and B).
• Pour stone cast into reassembled denture (Fig. 15.22).
• After the cast is set, place grooves and dovetails to strengthen the
repair joints (Fig. 15.23).
• Bevel the cut outward to increasing the bonding area.
• Place wire to strengthen the fracture joint (Fig. 15.24).
• Paint the cast with separating medium, replace the denture carefully
on the cast, and mix and flow autopolymerizing acrylic resin into
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the groove (Fig. 15.25).
• Secure the denture to the cast with rubber band and cure it for 30
min in pressure container. The denture is removed from the cast,
finished and polished (Fig. 15.26).
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FIGURE 15.21 (A) Fractured denture. (B) Stabilized with
wooden stick and sticky wax.
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FIGURE 15.22 Stone is poured on the impression surface of
the reassembled denture.
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FIGURE 15.23 Grooves (yellow lines) are placed
perpendicular to fracture site (red line).
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FIGURE 15.24 Wires can be placed for reinforcement.
FIGURE 15.25 The groove is filled with autopolymerizing

resin.
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FIGURE 15.26A, B Repaired denture finished and polished.
Refixing broken teeth

• Grind out any remaining portion of broken tooth from the denture
base to enable the bonding of resin (Fig. 15.27).
• In case of anterior teeth, trim the replacing teeth and stabilize with
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sticky wax at the incise edge (Fig. 15.28A and B) and make plaster
index of the tooth along with adjacent teeth (Fig. 15.29).
• In case of posterior teeth, articulate the denture, so that occlusal

discrepancy is avoided.
• Replace the index (Fig. 15.30) and tooth on denture and paint
autopolymerizing resin from lingual or palatal side (Fig. 15.31A and
B).
• Secure the denture to the index with rubber band and cure it for 30
min in pressure container (Fig. 15.32). The denture is removed from
the index, excess trimmed and polished.
FIGURE 15.27 Remaining portion of broken teeth ground out

from denture base.
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FIGURE 15.28 Replacing denture tooth is selected and
trimmed to fit the space (A) stabilized with sticky wax (B).
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FIGURE 15.29 (A) Plaster index on denture. (B) Plaster
index.
FIGURE 15.30 Replacing teeth placed in index and placed in

denture.
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FIGURE 15.31 (A) Acrylic applied from palatal aspect. (B)
Defect in labial aspect applied with acrylic resin.
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FIGURE 15.32 Finished denture.
SUMMARY
Residual ridge resorption is an inevitable process with complete
dentures. It is very important that the patient is educated on this
aspect and the need for constant refitting of the denture over a period
of time. Relining is done when the tissue changes are mild to
moderate, while rebasing is done for more extensive changes. Various
techniques are employed to make reline impressions, but the
functional reline method is most commonly used as it also heals the
abused tissues. Cracked denture and debonded teeth are common
denture repair problems and the clinician should be aware of the
causes and the procedure for correcting the same since, these can be
performed in a routine clinical setting.
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CHAPTER
16
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Single complete denture
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 238
Disadvantages 238
Indications 238
Prevalence 239
Maxillary single complete denture 239
Diagnosis and treatment planning 239
Impressions and jaw relations 241
Balanced setting 242
Try-in, insertion, recall and maintenance 242
Mandibular single complete denture 242
Combination syndrome 243
Features 243
Sequence 243
Summary 244
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Introduction
Definition: A single complete denture is a complete denture that
occludes against some or all of the natural teeth, a fixed restoration, or
a previously constructed removable partial denture or a complete
denture.
The primary consideration for a single complete denture is
preservation. By opposing the natural teeth, the magnitude of force
transmitted to the denture and arrangement of artificial teeth will be
the major considerations while planning the denture. These will be
discussed in this chapter.
Disadvantages
The unfavourable force distribution by the natural teeth can cause the
following adverse changes:
1. Extensive morphological changes in denture foundation.
2. Jaw relationship extremes which make it difficult to arrange

artificial teeth for the denture along the line of support (Fig. 16.1).
3. Excessively displaceable denture-bearing tissue (flabby ridges).
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FIGURE 16.1 Insufficient interocclusal space due to enlarged
tuberosities with resultant altered occlusal plane and jaw
relationship.
Indications
A single complete denture may be desirable when it is to oppose any
one of the following conditions:
• Natural teeth sufficient in numbers not to necessitate a fixed or

removable partial denture.
• A partially edentulous arch in which the missing teeth have been or

will be replaced by the fixed partial denture.
• A partially edentulous arch in which the missing teeth have been or

will be replaced by a removable partial denture (Fig. 16.2).
• An existing complete denture.
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FIGURE 16.2 Single complete denture opposing natural
teeth and removable partial denture.
Prevalence
The mandibular canines are documented to be retained for the longest
time followed by the mandibular incisors (Fig. 16.3). Hence, the
maxillary single complete denture opposing lower natural teeth is a
more frequent occurrence and will be discussed in detail.
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FIGURE 16.3 Longest time retained mandibular canine and
incisors.
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Maxillary single complete denture
Diagnosis and treatment planning
Edentulous arch: This is evaluated similar to any complete edentulous
situation.
Dentulous arch: The teeth are evaluated for the following:
• Number of teeth present.
• Position and condition of teeth to assess, endodontic, restorative and

periodontal condition.
Mouth preparation
Apart from treating the natural teeth, the occlusal plane is assessed
and corrected by selective grinding to achieve a harmonious occlusion
with the artificial teeth.
Occlusal plane correction

Indications
• Malposed teeth
• Severely tipped teeth
• Supraerupted teeth (Fig. 16.4)
• Irregular occlusal plane
• Less space for teeth
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FIGURE 16.4 Supraerupted premolars deranging the
occlusal plane.
Methods
Swenson’s technique
• Maxillary and mandibular casts are mounted at an acceptable VD

with a CR record.
• The teeth are arranged and the occlusal discrepancies are corrected
and marked with pencil on the diagnostic cast.
• With this as a guide, the natural teeth are modified.
Yurkstas technique
• A ‘U’-shaped metallic occlusal template, which is slightly convex on

the lower surface, is placed on the occlusal surfaces of the
remaining natural teeth and cusps to be adjusted are identified (Fig.
16.5).
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• The stone cast is modified to a more acceptable occlusal relationship
and the modifications are marked with a pencil.
• Necessary alterations are done on the natural teeth using this as a

guide.
FIGURE 16.5 Occlusal plane correction – Yurkstas

technique.
Bruce technique
• Maxillary and mandibular casts are mounted at an acceptable VD

with a CR record.
• Necessary modifications are made on the stone cast.
• Acrylic resin template fabricated on the stone cast (altered).
• The natural teeth are modified accordingly till the template seats
properly (Fig. 16.6).
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FIGURE 16.6 Occlusal plane correction – Bruce technique.
(A) Stone model with occlusal discrepancies. (B) Reduction of
occlusal discrepancies in the cast. (C) Acrylic template made
from altered stone model. (D) Try-in of template in patient
mouth. (E) Reduction of natural teeth using template as a
guide.
Boucher’s technique
• Artificial porcelain teeth are arranged on the maxillary edentulous

cast in centric occlusion establishing occlusal plane, after maxillary
and mandibular casts are mounted at an acceptable VD with a CR
record.
• The porcelain teeth are moved over the mandibular teeth in stone
and occlusal interferences are ground by the porcelain teeth (Fig.
16.7).
• The ground areas are marked on the cast, and the natural teeth
altered using this as a guide.
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FIGURE 16.7 Occlusal plane correction – Boucher’s
technique, the maxillary porcelain teeth will remove the
interferences of the mandibular natural teeth.
Impressions and jaw relations

• For the edentulous arch, the condition of the residual ridge and
philosophies of complete denture impression making dictate the
method used.
• For the dentulous arch, impressions are made with irreversible

hydrocolloid, following occlusal plane correction if needed.
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• Jaw relations are recorded using the techniques described for
complete dentures – vertical dimension of occlusion is recorded
using Niswonger method and a static registration is used to record
the centric relation.
Teeth selection
Materials available for occlusal posterior tooth forms to oppose
natural teeth are as follows:
1. Porcelain
Advantages
• Maintains vertical dimension.
• Wears very slowly.
Disadvantages
• Fracture, wearing and chipping of natural teeth.
• Difficult to equilibrate.
• Cannot be used when interocclusal distance is less.
2. Acrylic resin
Advantages
• Does not wear opposing natural teeth.
• Easy to equilibrate.
Disadvantages
• Loss of vertical dimension.
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• Poor wear resistance.
3. Gold occlusals
Advantage
• Best to oppose natural teeth.
Disadvantage
• More time consuming and expensive.
4. Acrylic resin with amalgam stops
• Recommended by Winkler.
• After the acrylic teeth have been balanced, occlusal preparations are
made in the acrylic teeth, extending to include as much of the
articulating paper tracing as possible. Amalgam is condensed into
the preparations and eccentric movements are made. Thus, the
centric holding area and some of the excursions are recorded in
amalgam by the articulator (Fig. 16.8).
• Has better wear resistance than acrylic.
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FIGURE 16.8 Acrylic resin teeth with amalgam stops.
5. Interpenetrating (IPN) resin
• Consists of an unfilled highly cross-linked, interpenetrating polymer

network.
• Has good wear resistance.
Balanced setting
The following methods are used to achieve eccentric balance.
Functional chew-in technique

• Most accurate method of recording occlusal patterns.
• Record bases should have good stability.
• Patient should have good neuromuscular control.
The following techniques are suggested:

1. Stansbury’s technique (1928)
This was the first functional chew-in technique.
• Compound maxillary occlusal rim is trimmed buccally and lingually

so that occlusion is free in lateral excursions.
• Carding wax is added buccally and lingually and the patient is

instructed to perform eccentric chewing movements.
• Carding wax gets functionally moulded, whereas the compound rim

in the central fossa maintains the vertical dimension.
• Stone is vibrated onto the wax record occlusally, and the stone
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record is secured to the lower member of the articulator.
• The denture teeth are first arranged to the lower cast of the patient’s
teeth.
• After aesthetics is approved at the try-in, the stone record of lower is

secured and balance in eccentric positions is obtained.
2. Vig’s technique (1964)
• It is similar to Stansbury’s technique, except that a fin of acrylic resin

is maintained at the vertical dimension instead of the compound
rim (Fig. 16.9).
FIGURE 16.9 Vig’s technique.
3. Sharry technique
• Uses softened wax rim in increased vertical dimension.
• Eccentric chewing movements are made such that wax is abraded

generating the final paths of the lower cusps.
• It is continued until the correct vertical dimension is achieved.
4. Rudd’s technique
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• This technique is similar to Stansbury’s technique.
• Uses a combination of baseplate wax and red counter wax instead of

carding wax to make eccentric registration.
• But suggests using two maxillary bases, one for recording the
generated path and the other for setting the teeth. It decreases the
number of appointments.
Articulator equilibration method

• Most commonly used as it is similar to obtaining balance with
conventional complete dentures.
• Used when denture bases are not stable and neuromuscular control
of the patient is poor.
• After mounting the casts, teeth are arranged in centric occlusion. It

has to be decided if the lower buccal or lingual cusp is the centric
holding cusp depending on the relationship of the upper arch.
• During try-in, eccentric records are obtained to adjust the condylar

settings on the articulator and teeth are arranged in eccentric
balance. The cusps are modified depending on the centric holding
cusp.
Try-in, insertion, recall and maintenance

These procedures are similar to conventional complete dentures.
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Mandibular single complete denture
• Causes:
○ Irradiation therapy
○ Trauma
• Greater challenge than maxillary single denture due to the
following:
○ Difficult to stabilize lower denture
○ Mandible is the movable member
○ Proximity to tongue
○ More resorption than maxilla
○ Limited availability of good quality mucosa

• Osseointegrated implants supported prosthesis is best in this
situation.
• If patient cannot afford, conventional single denture is made, where

the procedure is similar to that described for maxilla (Fig. 16.10).
Patient should be educated about the potential problems.
• Some clinicians recommend use of resilient liners (see Chapter 15) in

this situation to prevent soreness.
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FIGURE 16.10 Mandibular single complete denture.
Complications of single complete denture:
• Combination syndrome
• Wear of natural teeth
• Fracture of denture
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Definition: The characteristic features that occur when an edentulous
maxilla is opposed by natural mandibular anterior teeth, including
loss of bone from the anterior portion of the maxillary ridge,
overgrowth of the tuberosities, papillary hyperplasia of the hard
palate’s mucosa, extrusion of the lower anterior teeth and loss of
alveolar bone and ridge height beneath the mandibular removable
dental prosthesis bases – also called anterior hyperfunction syndrome
(GPT8).
It was described by Kelly in 1972.
Features
The above definition can be broken down to elicit the features (Fig.
16.11).
• Loss of bone in anterior maxilla with subsequent replacement by

flabby fibrous tissue.
• Down growth of the tuberosities.
• Papillary hyperplasia of the hard palate.
• Supraeruption of lower anterior teeth.
• Bone loss under the lower distal extension removable prostheses.
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FIGURE 16.11 Combination syndrome. (1) Bone resorption
in anterior maxilla. (2) Papillary hyperplasia of hard palate. (3)
Enlarged maxillary tuberosities. (4) Supraeruption of lower
anteriors. (5) Bone loss under distal extension prosthesis.
Saunders et al. (1978) added six more additional features:
• Loss of vertical dimension.
• Occlusal plane discrepancy.
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• Anterior spatial repositioning of the mandible.
• Loss of stability and refabrication of the existing dentures.
• Epulis fissuratum.
• Periodontal problems of the remaining teeth.
Sequence
The sequence has been described in Flowchart 16.1.
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FLOWCHART 16.1 Sequence of combination syndrome
Treatment planning
Systemic and dental considerations
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1. Systemic factors
Systemic factors like diabetes and osteoporosis increase the rate of
resorption of the bone.
2. Dental factors
• In case of class III jaw relationships, there will be increased pressure

in the anterior maxilla.
• When lower anteriors are retained for a long time, the patient is
accustomed to biting in the anterior region.
• Presence of parafunctional habits increases bone resorption.
• Type of occlusal scheme also has direct effect on the development of

the syndrome.
Rationale
• Prevention of rapid resorption of the bone under the lower
removable prosthesis by increasing stability through extension up
to retromolar pad.
• Prevention of excessive load in the anterior region by providing a

stable occlusal scheme.
○ Posterior occlusion free of interfering contacts

during centric and eccentric movements.
○ Minimum contact in the anterior region even in

protrusive movement.
○ Anterior teeth to be used only for phonetics and

aesthetics.
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• Education of the patient.
Prevention
• Retaining weaker posterior teeth by using combined endodontic
and periodontal techniques.
• Fabricating a fixed prosthesis in the lower posterior region using

endosseous implants.
• Planning for tooth-supported overdenture in the lower arch.
• Regular recall visits and checks with frequent relining to

compensate for the resorption especially in the lower distal
extension prosthesis.
SUMMARY
The single complete denture opposing natural or restored arches is a
greater challenge than the conventional complete denture for the
clinician. This is mainly due to the differences in support mechanisms
of the natural and artificial teeth. The problems must be recognized
and appropriate treatment should be provided to ensure a stable and
comfortable prosthesis, which will preserve the supporting tissues.
The patient should also be educated regarding the uniqueness of this
treatment modality.
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CHAPTER
17
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Immediate dentures
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 245
Definition and types 245
Advantages and disadvantages 245
Indications 246
Conventional immediate denture 246
Diagnosis and treatment planning 246
Impressions 246
Jaw relation records 247
Teeth selection and posterior teeth arrangement
248
Try-in 248
Arranging the anterior teeth 248
Waxing and processing the denture 248
Insertion of dentures 249
Postinsertion care 249
Interim immediate dentures 250
Advantages 250
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Procedure 250
Comparison of conventional and interim immediate dentures
251
Summary 252
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Introduction
Patients who have extracted all of their natural teeth in one or both
jaws have to wait for at least 6–8 weeks after teeth are extracted before
a conventional complete denture can be fabricated. The extraction
sites heal during this period accompanied by a rapid period of
alveolar bone remodelling. Consequently, the patient suffers the social
indignity and functional difficulty of going without teeth for several
weeks. The immediate denture offers a solution to this problem
because it is constructed before and placed immediately following the
extraction of natural teeth. It is more challenging than conventional
dentures because a try-in is not possible to verify the arrangement of
anterior artificial teeth.
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Definition and types
Two types of immediate dentures are recognized:
• Conventional immediate denture
• Interim immediate denture
Immediate denture: Any removable dental prosthesis fabricated for

placement immediately following the removal of a natural tooth/teeth
(GPT8).
Interim denture: A removable dental prosthesis designed to enhance
aesthetics, stabilization and/or function for a limited period of time,
after which it is to be replaced by a definitive prosthesis.
The conventional immediate denture is indicated when only the
anterior teeth remain and posterior residual ridges are well healed.
Following extraction of anterior teeth an immediate denture is
provided, which only needs to be relined after the healing period.
The interim immediate denture is indicated when both anterior and
posterior teeth are to be extracted at the same time and immediate
dentures are provided. New complete dentures are fabricated after the
healing period.

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of any
immediate complete denture.
Advantages
• Maintenance of patients’ appearance as they are not without teeth
even for 1 day.
• Acts as a bandage or splint to control bleeding.
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• Less postoperative pain as extraction site is protected.
• Vertical dimension, jaw relationship, muscle tone, face height and

tongue position is maintained.
• Speech and chewing habits and digestive function are not

compromised and nutrition is maintained.
• Adjustment to the new dentures is quicker than with conventional

complete dentures.
• Patient’s social, professional and psychological status is not

hampered.
• Artificial teeth can be arranged in same position occupied by the

natural teeth.
• There is less resorption and better preservation of residual ridges as

they are subjected to early function. The ridges are better adapted to
support a denture.
Disadvantages
• Anterior try-in not possible, patient has no idea how the denture
will look on the day of insertion.
• Requires more chairside time, additional appointments and cost.
• Bone resorption and shrinkage of unhealed soft tissues is greater

and faster than the changes in healed tissues. These changes may
require frequent relining.
• As the jaw relations are recorded with the natural teeth in varying
numbers and locations, inaccurate centric and vertical records are
possible.
• Cannot restore the stimulation that was supplied to bone by the
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natural teeth.
• Anterior ridge undercut, commonly present when only anterior

teeth remain, may produce inaccurate impressions.
• There will be a temporary impairment in speech and mastication.
Indications
• A dentulous or partially edentulous patient, whose remaining
natural teeth are indicated for extraction.
• Patients for whom complete extractions are required and aesthetics

cannot be compromised even for a short period due to social and
professional commitments.
Contraindications
• Patients with poor general health or debilitating disease.
• Patients who are poor surgical risks – multiple extractions might be

unwise because of systemic conditions like cardiac disease,
uncontrolled diabetes, blood dyscrasias and those with slow healing
potential.
• Emotionally disturbed individuals with psychological disorders.
• Uncooperative patients.
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Conventional immediate denture
Diagnosis and treatment planning
• Similar to any complete denture patient.
• Posterior teeth are extracted and impression procedures are started

after a healing period of 6–8 weeks.
• To ensure optimal aesthetics and occlusion, if upper and lower

immediate dentures are planned, they should be fabricated
simultaneously.
Impressions
• Preliminary impressions are made with irreversible hydrocolloid.
• Preliminary cast is poured (Fig. 17.1) and custom tray is fabricated.
• Final impressions can be made using two methods:
○ Single impression technique using a custom tray

covering the teeth and edentulous ridges.
○ Dual impression technique using a custom tray

covering only the edentulous space and lingual
surface of anterior teeth.
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FIGURE 17.1 Preliminary cast.
Single impression technique

• Custom tray is fabricated in autopolymerizing acrylic resin as
follows:
○ Spacer: One sheet of baseplate wax (2 mm) covers

the edentulous ridges, while two sheets of wax (4
mm) cover the natural teeth (Fig. 17.2).
○ Stops: One anteriorly and two posteriorly on either

side – in first molar area (Fig. 17.3).
○ Peripheral extension – 2 mm short of vestibule.
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• Border moulding of the entire border is performed using low fusing
green stick compound.
○ The interdental spaces between the anterior teeth

are blocked out with wax.
○ Final impression is made with regular/medium

body elastomeric impression material (Fig. 17.4A
and B).
FIGURE 17.2 Preliminary cast with spacer.
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FIGURE 17.3 Stops placed in the wax.
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FIGURE 17.4 (A) Custom tray fabrication. (B) Final
impression.
Dual impression technique

• Similar to the pick-up impressions described for removable partial
dentures.
○ Custom tray is fabricated covering only the

edentulous space and lingual surface of anterior
teeth (Fig. 17.5).
○ Custom tray is inserted and only the edentulous

section is border moulded with green stick low
fusing compound (Fig. 17.6).
• Final impression is made of the edentulous area and lingual part of
the anterior teeth with zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) impression paste
or regular/medium body elastomeric impression material (Fig. 17.7).
• After this material sets, the impression is removed from the mouth
and the tray handle is cut off:
○ The impression is reseated in the mouth and a

second impression is made over the edentulous
impression and anterior teeth with a stock tray
using irreversible hydrocolloid (Fig. 17.8).
• A master cast is made and record base with occlusal rim is
fabricated for the edentulous posterior regions.
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FIGURE 17.5 Custom tray for edentulous area.
FIGURE 17.6 Border moulding of edentulous ridge.
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FIGURE 17.7 Impression of edentulous area.
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FIGURE 17.8 Impression of teeth using irreversible
hydrocolloid.
Jaw relation records

• Similar to conventional CD.
• Facebow transfer used to mount maxillary cast.
• A static centric record is obtained at vertical dimension of occlusion

and lower cast is articulated (Fig. 17.9).
• Eccentric records as applicable are also obtained to adjust the

condylar guidance on an articulator.
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FIGURE 17.9 Articulated casts using centric record.
Teeth selection and posterior teeth arrangement

• The teeth are selected using the existing teeth as guide for size and
shape. Acrylic resin denture teeth are indicated as they are easier to
trim and adjust.
○ Posterior teeth are arranged with tight, multiple

centric contacts in centric relation. Bilateral
balancing contacts are given in eccentric
movements (Fig. 17.10).
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FIGURE 17.10 Posterior teeth setting.
Try-in
• A try-in of the posterior teeth is scheduled. Centric relation, vertical
dimension and occlusion are verified.
Arranging the anterior teeth

• Depends on whether the patient wants to duplicate the existing
arrangement or not.
• If the patient desires to have his anterior teeth in the original

position, alternate teeth are cut away on the cast and the labial
portion of each root is excavated to a depth of 1–2 mm on the labial
side and flush with the gingival margin of the lingual or palatal
side. The selected teeth are placed in their specific positions and
modified. By removing only one tooth at a time, the dentist can
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position the teeth in its original position.
• If the existing arrangement is not required, the casts are made

edentulous and the desired tooth arrangement is created
irrespective of where the natural teeth were (Fig. 17.11).
• The method of removing the existing natural teeth on the cast is

shown in Fig. 17.12.
FIGURE 17.11 Completion of maxillary anterior teeth setting

after removing maxillary teeth from cast.
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FIGURE 17.12 Steps in removing existing natural teeth from
cast. Source: Courtesy: Jerbi FC. Trimming the cast in the
construction of immediate dentures. J Prosthet Dent
1966;16(6):1047–53.
Waxing and processing the denture

• The waxing is completed (Fig. 17.13A) and the dentures are
processed, and resultant changes in occlusion are corrected before
removal of the dentures from their casts for final finishing. The
dentures are then finished and polished.
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FIGURE 17.13 (A) Waxing completed. (B) Denture inserted
immediately following teeth extraction.
Insertion of dentures
• The teeth are extracted with a minimum of trauma.
• A clear acrylic surgical guide fabricated on a duplicated model of

the master cast after removing the existing teeth can be used to
evaluate the surgical site and demonstrate areas of pressure. Areas
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that require adjustment will be shown as blanched tissue through
the guide, so that the denture can be adjusted or the alveolar bone
and soft tissue modified surgically if necessary to accommodate the
denture.
• After the surgical procedures are completed, the denture is inserted

(Fig. 17.13B). Denture borders are checked for overextension and
corrected. Gross occlusal irregularities are then corrected. Final
correction is done after initial healing at recall appointments. Tissue
conditioners can be used if the retention or adaptation is poor, after
protecting the surgical site.
• The patient is instructed to wear the denture for next 24 h and is

recalled the next day. If denture is removed during this period,
tissue inflammation and oedema will prevent reinsertion of denture
for several days.
• Patient is also instructed to avoid expectorating, gargling, smoking,

hot liquids and alcohol. Cold packs are suggested with soft diet and
cold drinks for that day.
• Appropriate medications are prescribed.
Postinsertion care
• The patient is seen 24 h after the denture insertion.
• The denture is removed and cleaned. The patient is asked to rinse

with a mouth wash. The denture is evaluated for overextension and
pressure spots, which are corrected. Again, only gross occlusal
discrepancies are corrected. Patient is shown how to insert and
remove the denture and instructed to rinse after every meal and
clean the dentures. They are advised to wear the denture during
night for 1 week till the postoperative swelling subsides.
• The patient is next seen after 1 week and now definitive occlusal
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correction is done. Tissue conditioners are used to reline the
denture and are replaced every week.
• Patient is then recalled after 1 month and a clinical remount can be

done to refine the occlusion and subjective complaints are
addressed.
• Usually it takes 8–12 months for complete healing following

extraction. Practically, it is possible to reline the denture in 6
months, but patient should be made aware that areas will continue
to remodel and further relining may be needed.
• A functional technique (see Chapter 15) is used to perform a

definitive relining.
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Interim immediate dentures
Usually indicated with periodontally involved natural teeth which can
be removed without any surgical trauma.
Advantages
• Similar to advantages of conventional immediate dentures.
• Can be worn during the construction of new dentures.
• Patient has the benefit of having a spare denture.
• Provides information about jaw relations and aesthetics during

construction of conventional complete dentures.
• The procedure is quick as patient’s existing teeth or old partial

dentures are used to replicate the artificial teeth.
Procedure
• Maxillary and mandibular impressions are made using irreversible
hydrocolloid after blocking out the interdental spaces with wax.
• Two sets of casts are poured.
• Baseplate wax is melted and poured into the impressions of the

teeth up to gingival margin. After the wax hardens, the rest of the
impression is poured in dental stone (Fig. 17.14A). This cast will be
used to process the denture maintaining the shape of the patient’s
original teeth.
• After the first cast sets (Fig. 17.14B), it is carefully removed from the
impression and a second cast is poured entirely in dental stone. This
is used to make record base for jaw relations and also as a reference
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cast while making the new dentures.
• As most of the natural teeth may be present anteriorly and

posteriorly, sometimes hand articulation of cast may be sufficient. If
not, record bases are made with occlusal rims and static centric
record is obtained similar to that for removable partial dentures
(Fig. 17.15).
• The casts are articulated and missing teeth are arranged using
denture acrylic teeth.
• Waxing is done using baseplate wax to cover the flanges up to the

vestibule and the palate. Gingival margins of the wax teeth are
sharply demarcated (Fig. 17.16) so that tooth colour resin can be
clearly delineated from the pink denture base resin during packing.
• The casts are flasked and dewaxed. All the teeth will be made with
tooth coloured acrylic resin. So if any denture teeth are present, they
are removed and tooth coloured resin of appropriate shade is mixed
and poured into the space provided by the wax teeth up to the
margin (Fig. 17.17A). The pink denture base resin is now packed
into the mould and cured (Fig. 17.17B).
• The denture is deflasked, undercuts are trimmed and borders

shortened, thinned but rounded. The dentures are finished and
polished (Fig. 17.18).
• Extraction of all teeth is done atraumatically and the dentures are

inserted at the same time. Relining with tissue conditioner may be
necessary.
• All other instructions are similar to conventional immediate

dentures
• A new set of complete dentures is fabricated after 4–6 months.
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FIGURE 17.14 (A) Teeth areas filled up with wax in the
impression. (B) Replica of patient teeth in wax following
retrieval of cast from impression.
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FIGURE 17.15 Articulation of cast and arranging missing
teeth.
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FIGURE 17.16 Waxed up models, and gingival carving being
done to demarcate pink and tooth coloured acrylic.
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FIGURE 17.17 (A) Tooth coloured heat cure acrylic resin of
appropriate shade is poured on the dewaxed teeth portion.
The denture teeth will be replaced with resin. (B) Pink heat
cure acrylic is packed over the tooth coloured material.
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FIGURE 17.18 Completed immediate denture made with
custom acrylic teeth.
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Comparison of conventional and
interim immediate dentures
Table 17.1 compares the conventional immediate denture with the
interim immediate denture.
Table 17.1
Differences between conventional and interim immediate
dentures
Conventional immediate denture Interim immediate denture

Definitive or long-term prosthesis, as it is only relined after Transitional or short term – new
healing dentures are made after healing
Costs less – denture and relining Costs more – two dentures
Time to provide immediate denture is longer as posterior teeth if Less time as all teeth are extracted in
present have to be extracted and area is healed the same time
Aesthetics cannot be changed Aesthetics can be changed as a new
denture is made
Vertical dimension may not be maintained as posterior teeth are Vertical dimension is maintained as
removed posterior teeth are not removed
At the end of treatment, the patient has one denture At the end of treatment, the patient has
two dentures
SUMMARY
Immediate dentures are an important treatment modality as they
provide instant aesthetics and function to the patient after extraction
of all natural teeth. More importantly, they provide a psychological
support to the patient at the time of this debilitating loss. It is time
consuming and expensive and patient should also understand the
limitations of this service.
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SECTION 2
Removable Partial Dentures
OUTLINE
18. Introduction
19. Sequelae of partial edentulism
20. Classification of partially edentulous arches
21. Component parts
23. Surveying
24. Principles and design
26. Secondary impressions and master cast
27. Fabrication of removable partial denture
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30. Forms of removable partial dentures
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CHAPTER
18
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Introduction
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 255
Definitions 255
Indications and contraindications 257
Indications 258
Steps in fabrication of a clasp-retained cast removable partial
denture 259
Component parts of removable partial denture 263
Summary 263
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Introduction
The study of removable partial denture is not just about the
fabrication of restorations but more importantly about promotion of
oral health, preservation of remaining oral structures and restoration
of oral function with an aesthetically pleasing result. There are various
types of removable partial dentures and the clasp retained cast partial
denture will be discussed in detail in this section as it is commonly
used and meets the objectives. Some of the introductory terminologies
along with indications and steps in the fabrication of this type of
denture are dealt within this chapter.
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Definitions
Removable prosthodontics: The branch of prosthodontics concerned
with the replacement of teeth and contiguous structures for
edentulous or partially edentulous patients by artificial substitutes
that are readily removable from the mouth (GPT8).
Removable partial denture (RPD): It is defined as any prosthesis
that replaces some teeth in a partially dentate arch. It can be removed
from the mouth and replaced at will – also called partial removable
dental prosthesis (GPT8).
Basically there are two types of RPDs:
1. Acrylic partial dentures: These are made of acrylic resin with clasps
of wrought wire. They are commonly referred to as ‘flippers’. They
are entirely tissue supported and cause gingival recession with long-
term use. Hence, they are commonly termed as ‘gum strippers’ and
should be used only as temporary dentures (Figs 18.1 and 18.2).
2. Cast partial dentures: These are mainly fabricated by the lost wax
casting method and hence the name. The teeth and denture base are
made of acrylic resin. These are of two types.
i. Clasp retained – uses cast metal clasps for

retention (Fig. 18.3).
ii. Attachment retained partials – uses

prefabricated attachments for retention (Figs 18.4
and 18.5).
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FIGURE 18.1 Acrylic partial denture without clasps.
FIGURE 18.2 Acrylic partial denture with clasps.
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FIGURE 18.3 Clasp retained cast partial denture.
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FIGURE 18.4 Attachments placed on 14 and 25 crowns.
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FIGURE 18.5 Attachment-retained cast partial denture.
An RPD may be intracoronal or extracoronal depending on its type

of retention. This is discussed in Chapter 21.
Temporary RPD: They are used where tissue changes are
imminent. They may be of three types:
1. Interim denture: Used to enhance aesthetics, stabilization and/or

function for a limited period of time, after which it is to be replaced by
a definitive dental prosthesis.
2. Transitional denture: A removable dental prosthesis serving as an

interim prosthesis to which artificial teeth will be added as natural
teeth are lost and that will be replaced after postextraction tissue
changes have occurred.
3. Treatment denture: A dental prosthesis used for the purpose of
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treating or conditioning the soft tissues that have been abused by ill-
fitting prosthesis. May also be used after surgery to protect a surgical
site or reposition soft tissues. These are discussed in Chapter 30.
Tooth-supported RPD: A dental prosthesis or part of a prosthesis

that depends entirely on the natural teeth for support (Fig. 18.6).
FIGURE 18.6 Tooth-supported removable partial denture.
Distal extension base RPD: A removable dental prosthesis that is

supported and retained by natural teeth only at one end of the
denture base segment and in which a portion of the functional load is
carried by the residual ridge (Fig. 18.7).
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FIGURE 18.7 Distal extension removable partial denture.
Appliance: Refers to devices (such as splints, orthodontic

appliances and space maintainers) worn by the patient in the course of
treatment (Fig. 18.8). This is often incorrectly used interchangeably
with the term prosthesis that is an artificial replacement of a missing
body part.
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FIGURE 18.8 Removable orthodontic appliance with labial
bow and clasps.
Abutment: Any tooth or a portion of a tooth that serves to support

and/or retains prosthesis. A fixed partial denture (FPD) is cemented
over the abutments, whereas the RPD is attached to abutment by clasp
assembly (direct retainers).
Retainer: The fixation device, or any form of attachment applied
directly to an abutment tooth and used for fixation of prosthesis.
Example: direct retainer.
Retention: Is the quality inherent in denture that resists the vertical
forces of dislodgement (e.g. the forces of gravity, the adhesiveness of
foods or the forces associated with the opening of the jaws).
Support: The resistance to displacement towards the basal tissue or
underlying structures.
Stability: Defined as the quality of the prosthesis to be firm, stable
or constant and to resist displacement by functional, horizontal or
rotational stresses.
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Cast: An accurate reproduction of maxillary or mandibular dental
arch.
Model: It is the reproduction for demonstration or display
purposes, accuracy is not implied.
Cross-arch stabilization: Resistance against dislodging or rotational
forces obtained by using a partial removable dental prosthesis design
that uses natural teeth on the opposite side of the dental arch from
edentulous space to assist in stabilization (Fig. 18.9).
FIGURE 18.9 Cross-arch stabilization – teeth on opposite

side of edentulous space used for stabilization of prosthesis.
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The treatment of choice for the partially edentulous patient when all
factors are favourable is normally an FPD. However, certain situations
necessitate the use of RPDs. With the advent of dental implants
combined with the success and comfort of fixed restorations, generally
the RPDs may not be the first line of treatment for partial edentulism.
Indications
They can be divided into extraoral and intraoral factors and are
summarized in Table 18.1.
Table 18.1
Indications for removable partial dentures
Extraoral factors Intraoral factors

Age Distal extension situations
Sex Long edentulous span
General health Reduced periodontal support
Occupation and economic status Cross-arch stabilization
Patient desires and attitude Excessive residual ridge resorption
Time factor Aesthetics
Immediate replacement of teeth
Obturation of intraoral defects
Alteration of vertical dimension
Poor prognosis for complete dentures
Extraoral factors
Age
The teeth of patients under the age of 17 have large pulp chambers
and lack clinical crown height. Tooth preparation runs the risk of
exposing the pulp and less crown height decreases retention, thereby
contraindicating an FPD. Similarly in an old patient with frequent
health problems an expensive FPD that requires tedious procedures
like tooth preparation may not be indicated. RPD is indicated in these
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conditions.
Sex
In general, women tend to have a greater vanity index, i.e. to place
greater values on the aesthetic excellence of the prosthesis, than does
the male. Generally, it is said that the female is more apt to equate loss
of teeth with the process of ageing or the state of old age. Accordingly,
she may insist on retaining the natural teeth of dubious value long
after her male counterpart has accepted and grown accustomed to his
complete dentures.
General health – physical and emotional

Patient who is in poor health should be spared the trauma of long
dental procedures required for FPD. Radical disruption of the oral
status should be avoided until the health of such a patient can be
returned to a normal status. Interim partial denture is the prosthesis of
choice in preference to the complete denture and the temporary
partial denture instead of the FPD, in these situations.
Occupation and economic considerations

Patients with lower occupational levels, i.e. labourers and
housemaids, may prefer RPDs due to their financial condition.
Immaterial of occupational levels an RPD is indicated in patients with
poor oral hygiene until normalizing their condition and giving
appropriate oral hygiene instructions. Similarly, individuals who
engage in contact sports should be given special consideration when
prescribing a prosthetic service, because swallowing or aspirating
prosthesis, as a result of sudden impact, has been known to occur and
is fraught with serious implications. The removable prosthesis has the
advantage of readily being removed from the mouth, while the person
is engaged in the sport.
Patient desires and attitude

Generally individuals with scant respect for remaining teeth with
poor oral hygiene status should be treated with removable prostheses.
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Sometimes patients may insist on RPDs instead of FPD to avoid
preparation of sound healthy teeth and economic reasons.
Time factor
If time is the factor dictating prosthodontic services, interim partial
denture is the treatment of choice until the patient can afford to spend
the time required for definitive prostheses.
Intraoral factors
Distal extension situations
In distal extension situations when a patient cannot afford dental
implants, an RPD is indicated, as there are no posterior abutments for
support. In selected instances, a cantilever FPD may be planned when
only one tooth is to be replaced posteriorly and opposing occlusion is
also made of artificial teeth.
Long edentulous span

In such situations, an RPD is indicated as the partial denture derives
support from both the abutment teeth and the underlying soft and
hard tissues. This also dissipates forces over a wider area minimizing
damage to abutment teeth and soft tissues. Ante’s law is generally
used to assess the periodontal support available for replacement with
FPD.
Reduced periodontal support of remaining teeth

In patients with reduced periodontal support of the existing teeth, an
RPD is indicated as the support can then be distributed between the
teeth and the ridge.
Cross-arch stabilization
Wherever anteroposterior and lateral stabilization is required
especially after treatment of advanced periodontal disease, an RPD is
indicated. FPD only provides limited lateral stabilization.
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Excessive residual ridge resorption
Whenever there is excessive bone loss of the edentulous ridge, may be
due to trauma, the replacement of all the lost tissues is difficult to
achieve with FPD. Also the teeth may look very lengthy and ideal
buccolingual position cannot be achieved. So an RPD is an ideal
alternative with the flange of denture base establishing normal facial
contours by providing necessary support to the cheeks and lips.
Aesthetics and replacement of multiple anterior teeth

Denture teeth more often provide a more lifelike appearance than the
flat and dull look of an FPD pontic as it looks to emerge from the
gingiva, like natural teeth. They can also be arranged more easily to
satisfy phonetic and support requirements.
Immediate replacement of teeth following extraction

Immediately after extraction of natural teeth an interim partial
denture is a better option, as it will simulate the natural contour and
appearance of the lost portion. It will also act as a splint and facilitate
healing of the underlying residual ridge. Further, relining is possible
as resorption occurs with healing. After healing is completed, the
definitive prostheses can be planned depending on the existing
clinical condition.
Obturation of intraoral defects

Any intraoral defect, e.g. palatal cleft, is better closed with removable
prostheses. Most of the patients with defects have compromised
dentition, which requires salvaging. A partial denture in these
patients not only provides support (tooth–tissue borne) and cross-arch
stabilization but also obturates the defect thereby preventing
regurgitation of food and also provides better aesthetics and
phonetics.
Abutments with questionable prognosis

In some patients abutment teeth with questionable prognosis
requiring extraction may have to be retained either due to health or
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financial reasons. In these patients, removable prostheses in the form
of transitional prostheses depending on the clinical situation are
preferred.
Alteration of vertical dimension

Vertical dimension has to be altered gradually. The required change
has to be accomplished in two or three increments. So this is better
accomplished by making a removable prosthesis giving the necessary
time to the patient to adjust to each increment. Better control can be
achieved with removable prostheses in adjusting the required vertical
dimension and also in subsequent alterations.
Poor prognosis for complete dentures

This is most often seen in patients with retrognathic jaw relation.
Retaining some mandibular teeth and giving RPD to patient are of
extreme importance, as a CD will pose more problems.
Contraindications
There are no contraindications for an RPD and this type of prosthesis
can be given in almost all clinical situations, but wherever possible
fixed prostheses are preferred. However, an RPD may be avoided in
the following situations:
1. Patients who lack the dexterity to insert prosthesis.
2. Patient who do not care to maintain oral hygiene.
3. Epileptic patients where there is a danger of swallowing the

denture during an attack.
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Steps in fabrication of a clasp-retained
cast removable partial denture
The following clinical and laboratory procedures are required to
fabricate a clasp-retained cast RPD. Each of these is explained in detail
in the relevant chapters of this book in the subsequent chapters.
1. Examination: This usually requires two appointments. It involves

collection of diagnostic data, patient details – attitude and
expectations, general health, intra- and extraoral examination,
radiographic examination and making diagnostic impressions.
Irreversible hydrocolloid is the material of choice for making this
impression (Fig. 18.10A and B).
2. Diagnostic casts – survey and design: Diagnostic casts are poured

and analysed by mounting on surveyor (Fig. 18.11A). The most
favourable path of insertion is determined by considering guide
planes, retentive undercuts, interferences and aesthetics. The type of
denture that best suits the needs of the patient is designed and
planned (Fig. 18.11B).
3. Preparation of mouth: These include all procedures to eliminate

pain, interferences and those which act as an adjunct to the success of
the prosthesis. Procedures include extractions and surgeries,
restorations and endodontic treatment, periodontal treatment, interim
prosthesis and FPDs. It would be appropriate to wait for at least 6
weeks if any surgical preprosthetic procedures have been performed
before making preliminary impressions and casts to fabricate custom
trays. If no procedures are indicated for preparing the mouth, the
diagnostic casts will serve as the preliminary casts and custom trays
(if needed) are fabricated on this. If some procedures have been
performed, a preliminary impression is made, casts poured and
custom trays are fabricated (as indicated).
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4. Preparing the abutment teeth: The abutments are prepared to
receive rests, guide planes and other planned modifications (Fig.
18.12A and B).
5. Secondary impressions and master cast: Following abutment

preparation, secondary impressions are made and master cast is
poured (Fig. 18.13A and B). Generally, custom trays are indicated for
functional impressions. Putty-wash impressions using stock trays can
be used for anatomical impressions. A tentative jaw relation is recorded
to ensure that framework does not interfere with the opposing dentition.
6. Survey of master cast – design transfer, relief, blockout and

beading: The planned design of the partial denture is transferred from
the diagnostic cast to the master cast by surveying. Appropriate relief,
blockout and beading (only indicated for maxillary dentures) are
performed on master cast (Fig. 18.14A).
7. Duplication of master cast: The master cast is duplicated using

reversible hydrocolloids (material of choice) (Fig. 18.14B) and a
refractory cast is poured.
8. Refractory cast: The refractory cast is obtained by duplicating the

master cast and it is made of a material (usually investment material)
which can withstand the high heat involved in casting procedures
(Fig. 18.15).
9. Waxing of framework: The planned design of the partial denture

framework is waxed on the refractory cast (Fig. 18.16). The wax
pattern is sprued and then invested.
10. Casting of framework: The invested wax pattern is burnt out in a

burnout furnace and cast with appropriate metal. Induction casting is
preferred for these large castings. The cast metal framework is fitted
on the master cast, trimmed and polished (Fig. 18.17).
11. Try-in of framework: The framework is tried in the patient’s

mouth to verify fit and any interferences (Fig. 18.18).
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12. Jaw relation record: A jaw relation is obtained to articulate the
casts (Fig. 18.19).
13. Trial denture: The artificial teeth are arranged and the trial
denture is checked in the patient’s mouth (Fig. 18.20).
14. Denture insertion: The waxed denture is processed in acrylic

resin, finished and polished and then inserted in the patient’s mouth
(Fig. 18.21).
15. Maintenance and recall: Patient is instructed regarding the

maintenance of the denture and appropriate recall appointments are
scheduled.
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FIGURE 18.10 (A) Examination of the clinical situation. (B)
Diagnostic impressions (preliminary impressions).
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FIGURE 18.11 (A) Diagnostic cast mounted and analysed on
a surveyor. (B) Designed diagnostic cast.
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FIGURE 18.12 (A) Preparation of abutment teeth – making
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guide planes. (B) Rest seat preparation.
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FIGURE 18.13 (A) Secondary impressions. (B) Master cast.
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FIGURE 18.14 (A) Design transferred to master cast with
surveyor followed by relief, blockout and beading. (B) Master
cast duplicated with agar.
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FIGURE 18.15 Refractory cast.
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FIGURE 18.16 Waxed framework.
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FIGURE 18.17 Finished framework.
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FIGURE 18.18 Try-in of framework.
FIGURE 18.19 Jaw relation recorded.
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FIGURE 18.20 Artificial teeth arranged and trial denture
verified.
FIGURE 18.21 Denture inserted.
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Component parts of removable partial
denture
Flowchart 18.1 enumerates the component parts of a cast RPD. Also
see Fig. 18.22.
FLOWCHART 18.1 Component parts of a cast removable

partial denture
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FIGURE 18.22 Component parts: a, major connector; b,
minor connector; c, rest; d, retentive arm; e, reciprocal arm; f,
denture base; g, replacement teeth; h, indirect retainer.
SUMMARY
This chapter familiarizes us with the different types of cast partial
dentures and individual components which go into the making of a
removable prosthesis and also shed light on the laboratory
procedures and various steps involved in the construction of the
same, thus providing a solid foundation for a successful treatment.
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CHAPTER
19
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 264
Sequelae of partial edentulism 264
Aesthetics 264
Speech 264
Drifting and tilting of adjacent teeth 264
Tipped molars 264
Supraerupted teeth 265
Overloading of remaining teeth 266
Loss of masticatory efficiency 266
Loss of vertical dimension 266
Mandibular deviation 266
Loss of alveolar ridge 267
Combination syndrome 267
Summary 267
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Introduction
Edentulism is the condition of being toothless to at least some degree;
it is the result of tooth loss. Loss of some teeth results in partial
edentulism. Tooth loss is normal with baby teeth, where at some point
in a child’s life, a tooth becomes loose and then falls off, but is later
replaced by an adult tooth. Otherwise losing a tooth is unfavourable
and if it happens with adult teeth, it is the result of injury, tooth decay
or disease. It directly affects self-esteem as tooth loss not only
impinges on smile and the way the face looks but also affects speech
and mastication.
Some of the consequences of partial teeth loss are
1. Aesthetics
2. Speech
3. Drifting and tilting
4. Supraerupted teeth
5. Overloading of remaining teeth
6. Loss of masticatory efficiency
7. Loss of vertical dimension
8. Mandibular deviation
9. Loss of alveolar bone
10. Combination syndrome
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Aesthetics
There is a significant aesthetic impact due to the loss of the teeth
especially in the anterior region of the mouth. It is the most frequent
cause of patients seeking treatment. This will depend on the value
placed on the appearance of missing teeth in a given community or
society.
Loss of teeth causes the cheeks to exhibit a ‘sunken-in’ appearance
and wrinkle lines to form at the commissures. Additionally, the
anterior teeth, when present, serve to properly support the lips and
provide for certain aesthetic features, such as an acute nasolabial
angle. Loss of muscle tone and skin elasticity due to old age, when
most individuals begin to experience edentulism, tends to further
exacerbate this condition (Fig. 19.1A and B).
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FIGURE 19.1 (A) Lack of upper lip support without maxillary
anterior partial denture. (B) Upper lip support restored with
denture.
Speech
The teeth play a major role in speech. Phonation of some alphabets
requires the lips and/or tongue to make contact with the teeth for
proper pronunciation of the sound, and lack of teeth will obviously
affect the way in which an edentulous individual can pronounce these
sounds. The problem of anterior tooth loss affects a variety of speech
sounds. Sibilant sounds (‘s’, ‘sh’) and labiodental sounds (‘f’, ‘v’) are
the most obvious of these.
Drifting and tilting of adjacent teeth

Teeth on either side of an edentulous space may tilt towards the gap;
teeth opposing may continue to erupt into the gaps (Fig. 19.2). When
the teeth move, there will be a considerable disruption in normal
function of the system. Replacement of lost teeth may be difficult
when there is discrepancy in occlusal scheme.
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FIGURE 19.2 Drifting and tilting of adjacent teeth due to
tooth loss.
Tipped molars
Presence of tipped molars poses a variety of problems in designing
RPD (Fig. 19.3). They interfere in the placement of major and minor
connectors, particularly mandibular lingual bar, and placement of
clasp assembly and create food trap. The problem is directly
proportional to the degree of severity of tipping. They are often tipped
mesially and provide a high mesial survey line. Undercuts located
mesially in tipped molars go for an assembly which approaches the
undercut distally. Maxillary molars are generally tipped buccally;
mandibular molars have a lingual tilt. The design requires the
selective grinding of teeth 5–10° for moderately tilted teeth, 15° or
more for severe tilted teeth. Severely tilted molars can be
orthodontically best repositioned.
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FIGURE 19.3 Tipped molars.
Supraerupted teeth
Extruded teeth cause defect in occlusal plane when posterior teeth are
lost (Fig. 19.4) and affect aesthetics when anterior teeth are lost. The
problems encountered by supraerupted teeth are insufficient space in
positioning the opposing teeth and occlusal trauma.
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FIGURE 19.4 Supraerupted teeth.
Classification of supraerupted teeth

Class I
Supraerupted teeth pose no appreciable problems in positioning the
teeth in opposing arch and no potential for creating occlusal trauma.
Hence, no treatment is needed.
Class II
Supraerupted tooth poses definite problem but can be successfully
managed by enameloplasty to reduce height of crown (incisal edge,
cusp tips).
Class III
Supraerupted tooth poses moderately severe problems which can be
successfully managed by altering the teeth to such a degree that
enamel is penetrated and teeth require a cast restoration.
Class IV
The tooth is severely extruded. Extraction is permissible if tooth is
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nonessential or useless to success of RPD. In class IV(E), if the tooth is
nonessential for bracing or retention but desirable for support,
endodontic therapy is indicated and tooth may be used as abutment
for removable partial overdenture. Extruded teeth are considered
nonessential for support in eliminating distal extension RPD. In class
IV(O), tooth is considered essential for bracing, retention and support, its
repositioning by means of surgery or surgical orthodontics is indicated.
Overloading of remaining teeth

If there is advanced loss of periodontal support or if only a few teeth
are remaining to withstand functional and parafunctional demands,
the remaining periodontium can be overloaded. Excessive wear and
mobility of remaining teeth may occur (Fig. 19.5).
FIGURE 19.5 Overloading of remaining teeth.
Loss of masticatory efficiency

Physiologically, teeth provide for greater chewing ability. They allow
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us to masticate food thoroughly, increasing the surface area necessary
to allow for the enzymes present in the saliva, as well as in the
stomach and intestines, to digest our food. An index of food reduction
is known as ‘masticatory efficiency’. It is strongly correlated with the
occlusal contact. Loss of molar teeth has more impact on the
masticatory performances, so the efficiency with which the food is
broken up deteriorates and patient tends to swallow larger particles,
which leads to digestive system problems.
Loss of vertical dimension

Loss of contacts because of loss of teeth changes the vertical
dimension. This is commonly seen when posterior teeth are lost (Fig.
19.6). The height can be maintained by the anterior teeth in some
patients, who manage to compensate for the loss of posterior support
without wearing down the remaining teeth excessively.
FIGURE 19.6 Loss of vertical dimension.
Mandibular deviation
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Disruption of normal occlusal scheme can result in mandible to take a
pathway to avoid deflective occlusal contacts (Fig. 19.7). This
deviation and loss of occlusal support lead to pain and discomfort in
masticatory system, which manifest as pain in muscles of mastication
and in temporomandibular joint (TMJ). Extraction of teeth leads to
loss of periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. Loss of residual bone
continues throughout the life at varying rates in different individuals.
In partially edentulous state, this continuous resorption causes
problems in placing the components of denture in edentulous areas
that have different heights and different capacities to support loads.
FIGURE 19.7 Mandibular deviation.
Loss of alveolar ridge

Extraction of teeth leads to loss of periodontal ligament and alveolar
bone (Fig. 19.8). Loss of residual bone continues throughout the life at
varying rates in different individuals. In partially edentulous state,
this continuous resorption causes problems in placing the components
of denture in edentulous areas that have different heights and
different capacities to support loads.
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FIGURE 19.8 Loss of alveolar ridge.
Specific oral destructive changes are often seen in patients with a
maxillary complete denture and a mandibular distal extension partial
denture. These changes have been referred to as the ‘combination
syndrome’ and identified by Kelly in 1972. It is discussed in detail in
Chapter 16.
SUMMARY
Failure to replace a missing posterior tooth is assumed to disrupt the
balance of the stomatognathic system and trigger a host of adverse
consequences. These consequences which include extrusion of
opposing teeth, tilting of adjacent teeth and disturbances in the health
of the supporting structures – also are thought to hasten the loss of
remaining teeth. Extrusion of an unopposed tooth into the edentulous
space may disrupt occlusion and complicate replacement of the
missing tooth. Tilting or ‘collapse’ of the teeth adjacent to the
edentulous space may lead to periodontal problems or heightened
risk of caries development. It may also complicate restoration of the
space; it could prompt the need for orthodontic uprighting or
necessitate increased reduction in abutment teeth with corresponding
negative effects on pulpal health and prosthesis retention, if a fixed
partial denture was placed.
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CHAPTER
20
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Classification of partially
edentulous arches
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 268
Need for classification 268
Requirements of classification 268
Classification systems 268
Kennedy’s classification system 268
Cummer’s classification 272
Bailyn’s classification 273
Neurohr’s classification 273
Mauk’s classification system 277
Godfrey’s classification 277
Beckett’s classification 278
Friedman’s classification 280
Austin–Lidge classification 280
Skinner’s classification system 280
Swenson’s classification 280
ACP classification 281
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Class IV 283
Summary 284
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Introduction
Classification of partially edentulous arches is essential for
diagnosing, conveying, writing or discussing the existing clinical
condition precisely and to arrive at an optimum design or treatment
plan for that specific condition for the rehabilitation of the patients. A
number of classification systems have been proposed by different
authors some of which are simple and some relatively complicated.
Most of the classification systems could not identify or diagnose
underlying conditions nor could they help in designing or treatment
of specific conditions due to wide range of partially edentulous
combinations in the partially edentulous patients. Till date Kennedy’s
system of classification is the most simple and widely used system.
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Need for classification
Partially edentulous arches need to be classified for the following
reasons:
1. To communicate the condition of the oral cavity.
2. To create an order from innumerable possible combination of teeth

present and the edentulous spaces.
3. To contribute to learning the fundamentals of design and to

anticipate the difficulties that commonly occur for that particular
design.
4. To design a denture according to the occlusal load usually expected

for a particular group.
5. To formulate a good treatment plan.
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Requirements of classification
Any classification should satisfy the following requirements:
1. Should allow visualization of the type of partially edentulous arches

being considered.
2. Should permit differentiation between tooth-supported and tooth–

tissue-supported partial dentures.
3. Serve as a guide to the type of design to be used.
4. The classification should be simple and universally acceptable.
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Classification systems
Though the Kennedy’s system is most commonly used, an overview
of other systems gives an insight into the development of classification
systems. Relevant systems are discussed below.
Kennedy’s classification system

This is the most commonly used classification system which was
proposed by Edward Kennedy in 1923. It is based on the relationship
of the edentulous spaces to the abutment teeth. He divided all
partially edentulous arches into four main types.
1. Class I: Bilateral edentulous areas located posterior to the remaining

natural teeth (Fig. 20.1).
2. Class II: Unilateral edentulous areas located posterior to the

remaining natural teeth (Fig. 20.2).
3. Class III: Unilateral edentulous area with natural teeth both anterior
and posterior to it (Fig. 20.3).
4. Class IV: Single, bilateral edentulous area located anterior to the

remaining natural teeth (Fig. 20.4).
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FIGURE 20.1 Kennedy’s class I.
FIGURE 20.2 Kennedy’s class II.
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FIGURE 20.3 Kennedy’s class III.
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FIGURE 20.4 Kennedy’s class IV.
The sequence of the classification is partly based on the frequency of

occurrence – class I is most common and class IV is least common. The
sequence is also based on design principles – class I, class II and long-
span class IV are designed as tooth and tissue supported prosthesis,
class III is designed as fully tooth-supported prosthesis.
Applegate’s rules for Kennedy’s classification

It would be difficult to apply the Kennedy’s classification to every
clinical situation. Applegate provided the following eight rules to
govern the application of Kennedy’s system.
1. Rule 1: Classification should follow rather than precede any

extractions of teeth that might alter the original classification.
As shown in Fig. 20.5, if extractions of all the molars

on left side are planned and executed, a class III
situation becomes a class II.
2. Rule 2: If a third molar is missing and not to be replaced, it is not
considered in the classification (Fig. 20.6).
3. Rule 3: If a third molar is present and is to be used as an abutment,

it is considered in the classification (Fig. 20.7).
4. Rule 4: If a second molar is missing and is not to be replaced, it is

not considered in the classification (Fig. 20.8) (e.g. if the opposing
second molar is likewise missing and is not to be replaced).
5. Rule 5: The most posterior edentulous area (or areas) always

determines the classification.
As shown in Fig. 20.9, the most posterior edentulous
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area is a class I on the right side, which will
determine the classification. The other will be a
modification space.
6. Rule 6: Edentulous areas other than those determining the
classification are referred to as modification spaces and are designated
by their number (Fig. 20.10A and B).
7. Rule 7: The extent of the modification is not considered, only the

number of additional edentulous areas (Fig. 20.11A and B).
8. Rule 8: There can be no modification areas in class IV arches. The

other edentulous will have to be posterior to this edentulous space
and will hence determine the classification (rule 5) (Fig. 20.12).
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FIGURE 20.5 Applegate’s rule 1 – extractions can change
the classification.
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FIGURE 20.6 Applegate’s rule 2 – missing third molar need
not be considered.
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FIGURE 20.7 Applegate’s rule 3 – third molar to be used as
abutment is considered.
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FIGURE 20.8 Applegate’s rule 4 – missing second molar not
being replaced is not considered.
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FIGURE 20.9 Applegate’s rule 5 – most posterior space
always determines the classification.
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FIGURE 20.10 (A) Class III mod 1 – there is only one
edentulous space other than that determining the
classification. (B) Class III mod 2 – there are two edentulous
spaces other than that determining the classification.
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FIGURE 20.11 (A) Class II mod 1(one missing tooth). (B)
Class II mod 1 (multiple missing tooth). For modifications,
only the number of edentulous spaces (areas) is considered,
not the number of missing teeth.
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FIGURE 20.12 Class III mod 1.
Merits
1. The classification is simple and universally acceptable.
2. It allows to clearly communicate, to write or to diagnose the

condition of the oral cavity in which missing teeth are to be replaced.
3. It permits visualization of the type of partially edentulous arches

being considered.
4. Classification is based on the relationship of the edentulous spaces

to the abutment teeth so type of support can be easily determined.
5. The number and location of edentulous spaces can be identified but
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does not indicate the number of missing teeth in each edentulous area.
6. This classification provides design for each class. Guidelines and

principles for each class have been proposed.
Demerits
1. Does not assess the choice, number, location and condition of the
abutment teeth.
2. Assessment of the hard and soft tissue status not possible.
3. Does not indicate the position of individual tooth.
4. Does not permit assessment of occlusion.
Applegate–Kennedy classification
Applegate (1960) attempted to expand the above classification based
on the condition of abutments. He added two more groups – class V
and class VI. Acceptance to this has not been universal.
Class V: An edentulous area bounded anteriorly and posteriorly by
natural teeth but in which the anterior abutment (e.g. lateral incisor) is
not suitable for support (Fig. 20.13).
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FIGURE 20.13 Applegate’s class V.
Removable prosthesis with bilateral design with a free end base

which extends anteriorly is planned in this situation.
Class VI: An edentulous area in which the teeth adjacent to the
space are capable of total support of the required prosthesis. This does
not require any tissue support. It would occur most frequently in a
young adult for whom a fixed partial denture is indicated but possible
damage to the dental pulp might occur if crown preparation were
attempted (Fig. 20.14).
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FIGURE 20.14 Applegate’s class VI.
Some of the other classifications are given below. Each had its own
merits and demerits and was not universally accepted.
Cummer’s classification
This classification was proposed by Cummer in 1920; this was the first
system to receive recognition. He classified partially edentulous
arches into four classes based primarily on the position of the direct
retainers.
1. Class I (diagonal): A partially edentulous arch in which two

diagonally opposite teeth are chosen as abutment teeth for the
attachment of direct retainers with an indirect retainer as an auxiliary
attachment (Fig. 20.15).
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2. Class II (diametric): A partially edentulous arch in which two
diametrically opposite teeth are chosen as abutment teeth for the
attachment of the direct retainers with an indirect retainer as an
auxiliary attachment (Fig. 20.16).
3. Class III (unilateral): A partially edentulous arch in which one or

more teeth on the same side are chosen as abutment teeth for the
attachment of the direct retainers with or without an indirect retainer.
This class includes most fixed and removable partial denture designs
(Fig. 20.17).
4. Class IV (multilateral): A partially edentulous arch in which three

or more teeth are chosen as abutment teeth for the attachment of the
direct retainers in a triangular or quadrilateral relationship (Fig.
20.18).
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FIGURE 20.15 Cummer’s class 1 (diagonal).
FIGURE 20.16 Cummer’s class II (diametric).
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FIGURE 20.17 Cummer’s class III (unilateral).
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FIGURE 20.18 Cummer’s class IV (multilateral triangular).
Bailyn’s classification
This classification was proposed by Bailyn in 1928; this classification
system is based on support – whether the prosthesis is tooth-borne,
tissue-borne or combination. He divided all removable partial
dentures into:
1. Anterior restorations (A) where saddle areas (denture bases) are

anterior to the first bicuspids.
2. Posterior restorations (P) where saddle areas (denture bases) are

posterior to the cuspids.
These were divided into three classes:
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1. Class I: Bounded saddle, replacing not more than three teeth – tooth
supported.
2. Class II: Free end saddle, no posterior abutment – tooth–tissue

supported.
3. Class III: Bounded saddle, replacing more than three teeth – tooth–
tissue supported.
The designations could be AI PII, AII PI, AI PII depending on the

combination of available edentulous spaces (Figs 20.19–20.24).
FIGURE 20.19 Bailyn’s class PI.
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FIGURE 20.20 Bailyn’s class P II.
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FIGURE 20.21 Bailyn’s class P III.
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FIGURE 20.22 Bailyn’s class AI, PII.
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FIGURE 20.23 Bailyn’s class PI, PII.
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FIGURE 20.24 Bailyn’s class AI, PI, PII.
Neurohr’s classification
This classification was proposed by Neurohr in 1939; this classification
was also based on the type of support. Because of its complexity, it is
not commonly used.
Class I: Tooth bearing

A unilateral or bilateral case falls under this classification when there
are teeth present posterior to all spans, and when there are no more
than four teeth missing in any space.
There could be two variations in this class:
1. Variation 1: Missing posteriors predominate.
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A. Posterior teeth are missing, anteriors are present
(Fig. 20.25).
B. Posterior teeth are missing, and some anteriors

are also missing (Fig. 20.26).
2. Variation 2: Missing anteriors predominate.
A. Anterior teeth are missing and posteriors are

present (Fig. 20.27).
B. Anterior teeth are missing, and some posteriors

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FIGURE 20.25 Neurohr’s class I, variation 1A.
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FIGURE 20.26 Neurohr’s class I, variation 1B.
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FIGURE 20.27 Neurohr’s class I, variation 2A.
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FIGURE 20.28 Neurohr’s class I, variation 2B.
Class II: Tooth and tissue bearing

A unilateral or bilateral partial denture situation falls under this
classification when there are no teeth posterior to one or more spans
or when there are more than four teeth (including a cuspid) in one or
more spans.
This is further subdivided into divisions with variations in each.
1. Division I: When there are no teeth posterior to one or more spans:
i. Variation 1: Missing posteriors predominate:
A. Posterior teeth are missing, anteriors are present
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(Fig. 20.29).

ii. Variation 2: Missing anteriors predominate:
A. None (Fig. 20.31).

2. Division II: Has teeth posterior to all spans, but there are more than
four teeth missing (including a cuspid) in one or more spans.
i. Variation 1: Missing posteriors predominate:
A. None (Fig. 20.33).

ii. Variation 2: Missing anteriors predominate:
A. Anteriors missing, posteriors are present (Fig.

20.35).

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FIGURE 20.29 Neurhor’s class II, division I, variation 1A.
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FIGURE 20.30 Neurhor’s class II, division I, variation 1B.
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FIGURE 20.31 Neurhor’s class II, division 1, variation 2A.
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FIGURE 20.32 Neurhor’s class II, division 1, variation 2B.
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FIGURE 20.33 Neurhor’s class II division II, variation 1A.
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FIGURE 20.34 Neurhor’s class II division II, variation 1B.
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FIGURE 20.35 Neurhor’s class II division II, variation 2A.
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FIGURE 20.36 Neurhor’s class II division II, variation 2B.
Class III: Tissue bearing complete dentures
Mauk’s classification system

This was proposed by Mauk in 1942 and was based on the following:
• Number, length and position of the spaces.
• The number and position of the remaining teeth.
1. Class I: Bilateral posterior spaces and teeth remaining in a segment

in the anterior region (Fig. 20.37).
2. Class II: Bilateral posterior spaces and one or more teeth at the
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posterior end of one space (Fig. 20.38).
3. Class III: Bilateral posterior spaces and one or more teeth at the
posterior end of both spaces (Fig. 20.39).
4. Class IV: A unilateral posterior space with or without teeth at the

posterior end of the space. The arch is unbroken on the opposite side
(Fig. 20.40).
5. Class V: An anterior space only. The posterior part of the arch is

unbroken on either side (Fig. 20.41).
6. Class VI: Irregular spaces around the arch. The remaining teeth are
single or in small groups (Fig. 20.42).
FIGURE 20.37 Mauk’s class I.
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FIGURE 20.38 Mauk’s class II.
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FIGURE 20.39 Mauk’s class III.
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FIGURE 20.40 Mauk’s class IV.
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FIGURE 20.41 Mauk’s class V.
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FIGURE 20.42 Mauk’s class VI.
Godfrey’s classification
This classification was proposed by Godfrey in 1951; it was based on
location and extent of the edentulous spaces. The main classes have no
subdivisions or modifications.
1. Class A: Tooth-borne denture bases in the anterior part of the

mouth. It may be an unbroken five-tooth space, broken five-tooth
space or an unbroken four-tooth space (Fig. 20.43).
2. Class B: Mucosa-borne denture bases in the anterior part of the

mouth. It may be an unbroken six-tooth space, unbroken five-tooth
space or a broken five-tooth space (Fig. 20.44).
3. Class C: Tooth-borne denture bases in the posterior part of the

mouth. It may be an unbroken three-tooth space, a broken three-tooth
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space, an unbroken two-tooth space or a broken two-tooth space (Fig.
20.45).
4. Class D: Mucosa-borne denture bases in the posterior part of the

mouth. It may be an unbroken four-tooth space, a three-tooth, two-
tooth, or single-tooth space (Fig. 20.46).
FIGURE 20.43 Godfrey’s class A.
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FIGURE 20.44 Godfrey’s class B.
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FIGURE 20.45 Godfrey’s class C.
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FIGURE 20.46 Godfrey’s class D.
Beckett’s classification
Beckett’s classification was proposed by Beckett in 1953 based on
Bailyn’s classification. He considered the following factors to
determine the proportionate amount of support provided by the teeth
and tissue:
1. The quality of abutment support.
2. The magnitude of occlusal support.
3. The harmony of the occlusion.
4. The quality of the mucosa and residual ridge.
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Class 1
Saddles (denture bases) that are entirely tooth supported. These are
bounded saddles with sound abutment teeth which can completely
support the prosthesis (Fig. 20.47).
FIGURE 20.47 Beckett’s class I.
Class 2
Saddles that are entirely mucosa supported. These may be of two
types:
1. Free end saddle.
2. Bounded saddle where the length of the saddle or condition of the
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abutment teeth contraindicates a tooth-borne saddle.
Class 3
Saddles that are tooth-borne but abutment teeth are not capable of
providing total support (Fig. 20.48). This may be due to poor health of
the abutments, long edentulous spans and poor mucosal and alveolar
bone condition.
FIGURE 20.48 Beckett’s class 3.
Beckett stated that these three basic classes of saddles frequently

appeared in combination. Thus, partial dentures which would contain
both class I and class II denture bases were designated as class 1.2
dentures. Similarly, there were class 1.3 dentures, class 2.3 dentures
and class 1.2.3 dentures. Thus, partial dentures could be classified into
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seven groups from a functional point of view.
Friedman’s classification
In 1953, Friedman introduced the ABC classification system based on
three essential segment types occurring either as discrete or
continuous segments (Fig. 20.49). These areas are designated as:
1. Anterior space
2. Bounded posterior space
3. Cantilever situation (posterior free-end).
FIGURE 20.49 Friedman’s classification – combination of all

three C-A-B space.
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Each of these is further subclassified into:
1. Single missing tooth
2. Two or more continuous missing teeth.
Austin–Lidge classification
This classification was proposed in 1957 by Austin and Lidge. Based
on the position of the teeth, they designated partially edentulous
spaces as:
1. Anterior space or spaces (A)
2. Posterior space or spaces (P)
3. Bilateral spaces (Bi)
A combination of any of these could be present in a given clinical

situation.
Skinner’s classification system

This classification system was proposed in 1957 by Skinner, based on
the relationship of the abutment teeth to the supporting residual
alveolar ridge. He reasoned that the value of a removable partial
denture was directly related to the quality and degree of support
which it received from the abutment teeth and the residual ridge. He
stated that there were 131,072 possible combinations of partially
edentulous arches.
1. Class I: Abutment teeth are present anterior and posterior to the

edentulous space (Fig. 20.50). May be unilateral or bilateral,
constituting 14% of all classes.
2. Class II: All the teeth are present posterior to the denture base
which functions as a partial denture unit (Fig. 20.51). May be
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unilateral or bilateral, constituting 8.5% of all classes.
3. Class III: All abutment teeth are anterior to the denture base which
functions as a partial denture unit (Fig. 20.52). May be unilateral or
bilateral, constituting about 72% of all classes.
4. Class IV: Denture bases are located anterior and posterior to the
remaining teeth (Fig. 20.53). May be unilateral or bilateral,
constituting about 3% of the total classification.
5. Class V: Abutment teeth are unilateral in relation to the denture

base, constitute about 2.5% of the total classification (Fig. 20.54).
FIGURE 20.50 Skinner’s class I.
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FIGURE 20.51 Skinner’s class II.
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FIGURE 20.52 Skinner’s class III.
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FIGURE 20.53 Skinner’s class IV.
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FIGURE 20.54 Skinner’s class V.
Swenson’s classification
This classification was proposed by Swenson and Terkla in 1955. The
four primary classes represent only slight modifications of the
Kennedy’s system, whereas the modifications of these four primary
classes were changed more drastically.
1. Class I: An arch with one free-end denture base.
2. Class II: An arch with two free-end denture bases.
3. Class III: An arch with an edentulous space posteriorly on one or

both sides of the mouth but with teeth present anteriorly and
posteriorly to each space.
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4. Class IV: An arch with an anterior edentulous space and with five
or more anterior teeth missing.
Subdivisions: The four main classes are subdivided without

denoting the exact missing tooth (Figs 20.55–20.57).
1. Anterior region (A)
2. Posterior region (P)
3. Anterior and posterior (AP)
FIGURE 20.55 Swenson’s class IA.
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FIGURE 20.56 Swenson’s class IIA.
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FIGURE 20.57 Swenson’s class IVP.
ACP classification
In 2002, the American College of Prosthodontics (ACP) proposed a
classification system based on diagnostic findings. Four categories of
partial edentulism are defined, class I to class IV, with class I
representing an uncomplicated clinical situation and class IV
representing a complex clinical situation. Each class was differentiated
by specific diagnostic criteria. These guidelines were intended to help
determine appropriate treatments for patients.
Diagnostic criteria to be evaluated for the classification of partially
edentulous patients were:
1. Location and extent of the edentulous area(s)
2. Condition of abutments
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3. Occlusion
4. Residual ridge characteristics
The above criteria with subclassifications are organized into an

overall classification system for partial edentulism as follows.
Class I
It is characterized by ideal or minimal compromise in the diagnostic
criteria which are favourable (Fig. 20.58):
1. The location and extent of the edentulous area are ideal or

minimally compromised. The edentulous area is confined to a single
arch. The edentulous area does not compromise the physiologic
support of the abutments. The edentulous area may include any
anterior maxillary span that does not exceed two incisors, any anterior
mandibular span that does not exceed four missing incisors, or any
posterior span that does not exceed two premolars or one premolar
and one molar.
2. The abutment condition is ideal or minimally compromised, with

no need for preprosthetic therapy.
3. The occlusion is ideal or minimally compromised, with no need for

preprosthetic therapy; maxillomandibular relationship. Class I molar
and jaw relationships. Residual ridge morphology conforms to the
class I complete edentulism description, i.e. residual bone height of 21
mm measured at the least vertical height of the mandible on a
panoramic radiograph. Residual ridge morphology resistant to
horizontal and vertical movement of the denture base; type A maxilla.
Class I maxillomandibular relationship.
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FIGURE 20.58 ACP class I – ideal or minimally compromised
edentulous area, abutment condition, and occlusion. There is
a single edentulous area in one sextant. The residual ridge is
considered type A.
Class II
It is characterized by moderately compromised location and extent of
edentulous areas in both arches, abutment conditions requiring
localized adjunctive therapy, occlusal characteristics requiring
localized adjunctive therapy, and residual ridge conditions (Fig.
20.59).
1. The location and extent of the edentulous area are moderately

compromised: Edentulous areas may exist in one or both arches. The
edentulous areas do not compromise the physiologic support of the
abutments. Edentulous areas may include any anterior maxillary span
that does not exceed two incisors, any anterior mandibular span that
does not exceed four incisors, any posterior span (maxillary or
mandibular) that does not exceed two premolars, or one premolar and
one molar or any missing canine (maxillary or mandibular).
2. Condition of the abutments is moderately compromised:

Abutments in one or two sextants have insufficient tooth structure to
retain or support intracoronal or extracoronal restorations. Abutments
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in one or two sextants require localized adjunctive therapy.
3. Occlusion is moderately compromised: Occlusal correction

requires localized adjunctive therapy. Maxillomandibular
relationship: Class I molar and jaw relationships.
4. Residual ridge morphology conforms to the class II complete

edentulism description: Residual bone height of 16–20 mm measured
at the least vertical height of the mandible on a panoramic radiograph.
Residual ridge morphology is resistant to horizontal and vertical
movement of the denture base; type A or B maxilla. Class I
maxillomandibular relationship.
FIGURE 20.59 ACP class II – edentulous areas in two

sextants in different arches.
Class III
It is characterized by substantially compromised location and extent
of edentulous areas in both arches, abutment condition requiring
substantial localized adjunctive therapy, occlusal characteristics
requiring reestablishment of the entire occlusion without a change in
the occlusal vertical dimension, and residual ridge condition (Fig.
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20.60A–C).
1. The location and extent of the edentulous areas are substantially

compromised: Edentulous areas may be present in 1 or both arches.
Edentulous areas compromise the physiologic support of the
abutments. Edentulous areas may include any posterior maxillary or
mandibular edentulous area greater than three teeth or two molars, or
anterior and posterior edentulous areas of three or more teeth.
2. The condition of the abutments is moderately compromised:

Abutments in three sextants have insufficient tooth structure to retain
or support intracoronal or extracoronal restorations. Abutments in
three sextants require more substantial localized adjunctive therapy
(i.e. periodontal, endodontic or orthodontic procedures). Abutments
have a fair prognosis.
3. Occlusion is substantially compromised: Requires reestablishment

of the entire occlusal scheme without an accompanying change in the
occlusal vertical dimension. Maxillomandibular relationship: Class II
molar and jaw relationships.
4. Residual ridge morphology conforms to the class III complete

edentulism description: Residual alveolar bone height of 11–15 mm
measured at the least vertical height of the mandible on a panoramic
radiograph. Residual ridge morphology is with minimum influence to
resist horizontal or vertical movement of the denture base; type C
maxilla. Class I, II or III maxillomandibular relationship.
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FIGURE 20.60 ACP Class III – the edentulous area(s) are
located in both arches and multiple locations within each arch.
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There are teeth that are extruded and malpositioned. The
occlusion is substantially compromised because
reestablishment of the occlusal scheme is required without a
change in the occlusal vertical dimension: (A) frontal view, (B)
right lateral view and (C) left lateral view.
Class IV
It is characterized by severely compromised location and extent of
edentulous areas with guarded prognosis, abutments requiring
extensive therapy, occlusion characteristics requiring reestablishment
of the occlusion with a change in the occlusal vertical dimension and
residual ridge conditions (Fig. 20.61A–C).
1. The location and extent of the edentulous areas results in severe

occlusal compromise: Edentulous areas may be extensive and may
occur in both arches. Edentulous areas compromise the physiologic
support of the abutment teeth to create a guarded prognosis.
Edentulous areas include acquired or congenital maxillofacial defects.
At least one edentulous area has a guarded prognosis.
2. Abutments are severely compromised: Abutments in four or more

sextants have insufficient tooth structure to retain or support
intracoronal or extracoronal restorations. Abutments in four or more
sextants require extensive localized adjunctive therapy. Abutments
have a guarded prognosis.
3. Occlusion is severely compromised: Reestablishment of the entire

occlusal scheme, including changes in the occlusal vertical dimension,
is necessary. Maxillomandibular relationship: Class II division 2 or
class III molar and jaw relationships.
4. Residual ridge morphology conforms to the class IV complete

edentulism description: Residual vertical bone height of 10 mm
measured at the least vertical height of the mandible on a panoramic
radiograph. Residual ridge offering no resistance to horizontal or
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vertical movement; type D maxilla. Class I, II or III maxillomandibular
relationships.
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FIGURE 20.61 ACP class IV edentulous areas are found in
both arches, and the physiologic abutment support is
compromised. Abutment condition is severely compromised,
necessitating adjunctive therapy. The occlusion is severely
compromised, necessitating reestablishment of occlusal
vertical dimension and a proper occlusal scheme: (A) frontal
view, (B) right lateral view and (C) left lateral view.
SUMMARY
This chapter explains about the various classification systems for
partial edentulism which is based on the most objective criteria
available to facilitate uniform use of the system. Such standardization
may lead to improved communications among dental professionals
and third parties.
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CHAPTER
21
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Component parts
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 285
MAJOR CONNECTORS 285
Maxillary major connectors 288
Beading 288
Relief 289
Types of maxillary major connectors 289
Mandibular major connectors 292
Lingual bar 293
Lingual plate 293
Double lingual bar 294
Labial bar 296
MINOR CONNECTORS 298
Classification 298
Clasp assembly minor connector 298
Indirect retainer or auxiliary rest minor
connector 298
Denture base minor connector 298
Approach arm minor connector 301
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RESTS AND REST SEATS 301
Classification 301
Based on relation to direct retainer 301
Based on area of placement 302
DIRECT RETAINERS 306
Classification 306
Intracoronal direct retainer 306
Extracoronal direct retainers 307
INDIRECT RETAINERS 319
Forces acting on partial denture 319
Principle of indirect retainer 320
Factors influencing the effectiveness of indirect retainers 321
Functions of indirect retainers 321
Types of indirect retainers 322
Auxiliary occlusal rest 322
Canine extension from occlusal rest 322
Canine rests 322
Continuous bar retainers and linguoplates 322
Modification areas 323
Rugae support 323
Direct-indirect retention 323
DENTURE BASE 323
Types of denture bases 323
Acrylic 323
Combination of metal–acrylic 323
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Metal 324
Tooth replacements 324
Denture teeth 324
Facings 325
Tube teeth 325
Reinforced acrylic pontics (RAPs) 325
Metal pontic 326
Summary 326
Introduction
Each of the component parts of a removable partial denture
contributes to specific functions of the prosthesis and the name is most
often descriptive of its function. The names are the same for maxillary
and mandibular removable partial dentures. They come in different
forms or types as indicated for varying clinical situations. This chapter
will describe all the component parts, their types, structural
requirements and function.
Major connectors
Definition
The part of a partial removable dental prosthesis that joins the
components on one side of the arch to those on the opposite side
(GPT8).
All other components of the partial denture are attached to it either
directly or indirectly.
Classification
1. Maxillary and mandibular – depending on where it is used
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2. Acrylic and metal – depending on the material used
3. Rigid and non-rigid – depending on the movement of denture base
Requirements
1. Should be rigid: This allows stresses that are applied to any part of
partial denture to be distributed over entire supporting area. Other
component parts can be effective only if major connector is rigid.
2. Must avoid impingement of free gingival margin: This is a highly

vascular area which can get injured by pressure. Definitive distance
must be maintained between the border of the major connector and
the free gingival margin. It should be at least 6 mm for the maxillary
major connector and 3 mm for the mandibular major connector (Fig.
21.1A–D). In case of difficulty in obtaining this clearance, the major
connector could cover the free gingival margin with adequate relief,
e.g. lingual plating.
3. The border of major connector should run parallel to gingival

margins (Fig. 21.2A and B): If margin must be crossed, the crossing
should be at right angles to produce least contact and relief must be
provided (Fig. 21.2C and D).
4. Provide vertical support and hence protect the soft tissue.
5. Provide indirect retention where indicated.
6. Provide for positioning of denture bases where needed.
7. Should be self-cleansing and not cause food entrapment.
8. Maintain patient comfort and should not interfere with speech and
phonation – the following factors should be considered to achieve this:
i. Edges should be rounded and tapered towards
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the tissues. The anterior border of a maxillary
major connector should end in the valley
between rugae crests and not on the crest (Fig.
21.3A–C).
ii. Border outlines should be inconspicuous to

tongue and hence should be curved and rounded
(Fig. 21.4A and B).
iii. Tooth embrasures should be used to hide metal

extension onto teeth from major connectors (Fig.
21.5).
iv. It should be symmetrical and cross the palate in

a straight line (Fig. 21.6A and B).
v. Should not cross or cover bony prominences like

tori. Relief could be given if small, otherwise
surgical excision. Design can also avoid the tori
(Fig. 21.7).
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FIGURE 21.1 (A and B) Maxilla – minimum 6 mm distance
between border of major connector and free gingival margin.
(C and D) Mandible – minimum 3 mm distance between
border of major connector and free gingival margin.
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FIGURE 21.2 (A and B) Borders of a major connector should
run parallel to the gingival margins. (C and D) Major
connector should cross the gingival margin at 90.
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FIGURE 21.3 (A) Margins should taper towards the tissues,
(B) rounded margins (C) should end in the valleys of rugae.
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FIGURE 21.4A, B Borders should be curved and
inconspicuous to tongue.
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FIGURE 21.5 Tooth embrasures used to hide metal
extension onto teeth.
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FIGURE 21.6A, B Major connector should be symmetrical
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and cross the palate in a straight line.
FIGURE 21.7 Maxillary major connector can be designed to

avoid the tori.
Maxillary major connectors

These are major connectors used in the fabrication of maxillary partial
dentures. They should satisfy the following additional requirements.
Beading
The maxillary major connector should be beaded along the posterior
border to form a seal that contacts the soft tissue with a slight
displacement of the tissue (Fig. 21.8). This prevents the entry of food
under the denture from the posterior aspect, provides a visible finish
line for technician to finish and polish the framework and makes the
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junction of metal and soft tissue less noticeable to tongue. The beading
is done on the master cast before duplication and should have a width
and depth of 0.5–1.0 mm. The depth should be reduced in the areas
where the tissues are thin and it should fade out 6 mm away from the
gingival margin. Spoon excavator or small round bur is used for
making beading on the master cast.
FIGURE 21.8 Beading.
Relief
This is not provided in maxillary major connectors except in the
presence of small palatal tori and a prominent midpalatine suture.
Close adaptation of connector to soft tissue is necessary for retention
and stability and for the same reason tissue side of the major
connector is not polished.
Types of maxillary major connectors
• Palatal bar
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• Palatal strap
• Anteroposterior, or double palatal bar
• Horseshoe-shaped, or U-shaped connector
• Closed horseshoe, or anteroposterior palatal strap
• Complete palate
Palatal bar
It is a bar running across the palate which is a narrow half oval in
cross-section with its thickest point in the centre (Fig. 21.9).
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FIGURE 21.9A, B Palatal bar.
Indication
1. Interim partial denture.
2. Kennedy’s class III limited to replacing one or two teeth on each

side of arch.
Disadvantages
1. Most difficult for patient to get adjusted as to maintain rigidity it

has to be bulky.
2. Narrow anteroposterior width derives little support from palate;

hence, it should be positively supported by rests on remaining teeth.
3. Should be placed no further anteriorly than second premolar

position due to tongue interference.
4. Should never be used in a distal extension situation or in class IV.
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Palatal strap
It is a wide, thin band of metal that runs across the palate
unobtrusively (Fig. 21.10A and B). A minimum width of 8 mm is
essential to derive the palatal support and for maintaining the rigidity
of the connector. It is the most versatile major connector.
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FIGURE 21.10A, B Palatal strap.
Indications
1. Unilateral distal extension partial dentures (class II).
2. Tooth-supported short-span bilateral edentulous areas (class III).
Advantages
1. Offers great resistance to bending and twisting forces because it is

located in three planes (horizontal – palatal vault; vertical – lateral
slopes of palate; sagittal – anterior slope of palate).
2. Produces greater rigidity with less bulk of metal.
3. It can be kept thin, increasing patient comfort.
4. Retention through adhesion and cohesion is enhanced by intimate

contact.
5. Also contributes some indirect retention.
Disadvantages
1. Patient may complain of excessive palatal coverage – borders

should be properly placed to avoid this.
2. Strap must avoid crossing a torus or a prominent midpalatine

suture.
3. Can cause papillary hyperplasia.
Anteroposterior or double palatal bar

It has basically two bars – one placed anteriorly and the other
posteriorly, connected by flat longitudinal elements on each side of
lateral slope of palate (Fig. 21.11A and B). The flat anterior bar is
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narrower than palatal strap and should be positioned in the rugae
valleys. The posterior bar is similar to palatal bar but less bulky.
FIGURE 21.11A, B Double palatal bar.
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Indications
1. Patients with large inoperable tori.
2. Anterior and posterior abutments are widely separated.
3. Patients who want less palatal coverage.
4. Class II and class IV.
Advantages
1. Rigidity.
2. Limited soft tissue coverage.
3. Strong L-beam effect contributes to good resistance.
Disadvantages
1. Less palatal support, hence cannot be used when periodontal

support of remaining teeth is poor.
2. Not indicated with high narrow palatal vault as anterior bar

interferes with phonetics.
3. Multiple borders make it uncomfortable for patient.
Horseshoe or u-shaped connector

It is a thin band of metal running along the lingual surface of posterior
teeth. Anteriorly it covers the cingula and posteriorly it extends 6–8
mm onto the palatal tissues. The lateral borders should be at the
junction of the horizontal and vertical slopes of the palate (Fig. 21.12).
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FIGURE 21.12A, B Horseshoe-shaped connector.
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Indications
1. Anterior teeth replacement (class IV).
2. In patients with tori and prominent mid palatine suture.
3. Excessive vertical overlap of anterior teeth.
4. Need to stabilize anterior teeth.
Advantages
1. Reasonably strong.
2. Derives some vertical support and indirect retention from palate.
Disadvantages
1. Less resistance to flexing and movement at open end – hence cannot

be used in distal extension bases and for providing cross arch
stabilization.
2. Greater bulk in anterior part is required to avoid flexing –

interference in phonetics and patient comfort.
Closed horseshoe or anteroposterior palatal strap

Basically two palatal straps – one anterior and the other posterior,
connected by flat longitudinal elements on each side of lateral slope of
palate (Fig. 21.13A and B). The thickness of metal in the straps should
be uniform. All the requirements for placing borders anteriorly,
posteriorly and laterally, are applicable.
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FIGURE 21.13A, B Anteroposterior palatal strap.
Indications
1. When numerous teeth are to be replaced and torus is present.
2. Kennedy’s class I and II with anterior tooth replacement.
Advantages
1. Rigid with less thickness.
2. Good palatal support.
3. Strong, L-beam effect.
Disadvantages
Interference with phonetics and patient comfort in some cases.
Complete palate
The uniform metal coverage extends over the entire palate or
simulating the anatomic replica of hard palate. Posterior border
extends to junction of soft and hard palate (Fig. 21.14). The posterior
palatal seal that is used in complete dentures should not be used in removable
partial dentures as it is not effective. Beading of posterior borders as
with all maxillary major connectors is sufficient.
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FIGURE 21.14A, B Complete palate.
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Indications
1. Kennedy’s class I where length of span is long with anterior

modification.
2. Kennedy’s class II with anterior and posterior modification spaces.
3. When opposing arch consists of a full complement of mandibular

teeth and patient has well-developed muscles of mastication,
complete palate provides the needed extra support against vertical
displacement.
4. Flat, flabby ridges or shallow palatal vault, complete palate

provides best stabilization.
5. Cleft palate patients with narrow, steep palatal vault.
Advantage
Best rigidity, support and strength.
Disadvantages
1. Adverse soft tissue reactions because of extensive coverage.
2. Problem with phonetics.
If the palatal coverage is made with acrylic resin instead of metal,

the removable partial denture is a temporary, transitional or interim
prosthesis, used to get the patient accustomed to complete palatal
coverage or as surgical stents when future relining is predicted.
Maxillary major connectors indicated for kennedy’s classification

The following major connectors are generally used for the given
Kennedy’s classification:
1. Class I: Closed horseshoe, complete palate
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2. Class II: Palatal strap, closed horseshoe
3. Class III: Palatal strap, palatal bar
4. Class IV: Horseshoe, closed horseshoe, complete palate
Mandibular major connectors

These are major connectors used for mandibular removable partial
dentures. Apart from the general consideration for major connectors,
they should satisfy the following additional specific requirements for
mandibular major connectors:
1. They should be rigid without being bulky as they have to be long

and narrow because of space limitations caused by floor of mouth,
lingual frenum, tongue and mandibular tori.
2. Relief is always given. It is more for distal extension bases than for
tooth-supported partial dentures as they tend to rotate more. More
relief is also given if lingual soft tissues slope towards the tongue than
if they are vertical (Fig. 21.15). Because of the need for relief, beading
is not indicated in mandibular major connectors.
3. The inferior border should not impinge on the tissues in the floor of
the mouth. The available space is measured as follows:
i. Patient is asked to touch the vermilion border of

the upper lip with tongue, when height of the
floor of the mouth is measured with a
periodontal probe in relation to lingual margins
of adjacent teeth (Fig. 21.16). These readings may
then be transferred to diagnostic or master cast
(Fig. 21.17).
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ii. The second method is to make a custom tray
with its lingual borders 3 mm short of elevated
floor of the mouth and then use an impression
material to record the area as the patient licks the
lips. The resultant cast will give the available
space. Of the two, the first method is more
consistent and clinically acceptable.
FIGURE 21.15 More relief given when soft tissues slope

towards tongue (bottom) than when they are vertical (top).
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FIGURE 21.16 Height of floor of the mouth is measured
intraorally.
FIGURE 21.17 Transferred to cast.
Lingual bar
It is the most commonly used mandibular major connector. It is a half-
pear shaped bar with the superior border located below the gingival
border and the gingival margin (Figs 21.18 and 21.19).
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FIGURE 21.18A, B Lingual bar.
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FIGURE 21.19 Lingual bar – half-pear shaped in cross-
section.
It requires at least 8 mm of vertical space between the floor of the

mouth and gingival margins of the teeth (5 mm for the connector and
3 mm space between the superior border and the gingival margin).
Indications
It is always used unless others offer a definite advantage for a given
situation.
It is indicated in Kennedy’s class III situation and its modifications.
Advantages
1. Simple, easy to design and fabricate.
2. Has minimal contact with oral tissue.
3. No contact with teeth, so no decalcification of teeth.
Disadvantages
1. Causes food entrapment and patient discomfort if it is placed over
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an undercut.
2. Cannot be used when tori are present.
3. Chances of making it thin and flexible in cases of insufficient

vestibular depth.
Sublingual bar major connector is a modification of lingual bar. It is

kidney-shaped, placed deeper into the anterior lingual sulcus when
adequate space is not available for lingual bar (Fig. 21.20).
FIGURE 21.20 Cross-section of sublingual bar.
Lingual plate
Also termed linguoplate, it is basically a pear-shaped lingual bar with
superior border extending onto the lingual surfaces of teeth as a thin
solid plate of metal. The superior border is scalloped, with intimate
contact on teeth above the cingula and knife-edge margins (Fig.
21.21A and B). This reduces the wedging effect on teeth and prevents
food from packing into the area.
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FIGURE 21.21 (A) Lingual plate. (B) Cross-section of lingual
plate.
In case of gingival recession and spacing in the anteriors, cut back

or step back of the plate can be done to prevent visibility of metal (Fig.
21.22).
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FIGURE 21.22 Cut back of plate.
The anterior lingual plate must always be supported at each end by

rests no further posterior than mesial fossa of first premolars, whether
indirect retention is needed or not (Fig. 21.23).
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FIGURE 21.23A, B Mesial rests on first premolars.
Indications
1. When lingual frenum is high or space available for lingual bar is

insufficient.
2. Kennedy’s class I where residual ridges have undergone excessive

vertical resorption.
3. For stabilizing periodontally weak teeth.
4. When future replacement of one or more anterior teeth is predicted,

addition of retention loops to lingual plate will facilitate this.
5. Presence of inoperable mandibular tori.
6. To help prevent supraeruption of mandibular anteriors in

retrognathic jaws by placement of incisal rests.
Advantages
1. Most rigid and provides good support and stabilization.
2. Provides indirect retention with rests on premolars.
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3. Better patient comfort and phonetics.
Disadvantages
1. Extensive coverage of teeth may cause decalcification.
2. Soft tissue irritation.
Double lingual bar

It is also termed as Kennedy’s bar or continuous bar retainer.
It differs from lingual plate in that the middle portion is removed
and the remaining is a superior and inferior bar (Fig. 21.24). The lower
bar is similar to a lingual bar, pear-shaped in cross-section. The upper
bar should be half-oval in cross-section, 2–3 mm high and 1 mm thick
(Fig. 21.25).
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FIGURE 21.24A, B Double lingual bar.
FIGURE 21.25 Cross-section of double lingual bar.
Just like the lingual plate, the upper bar should dip into the
embrasures and if a diastema is present, a step-back design is used
(Fig. 21.26).
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FIGURE 21.26 Double lingual bar with step back design.
The two bars are joined by minor connectors placed between canine
and premolar. Rests must be placed at each end of upper bar, no
posterior than mesial fossa of premolars (Fig. 21.27).
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FIGURE 21.27A, B Rests on mesial surface of premolars.
Indications
1. When a lingual plate in otherwise indicated but axial alignment of

anterior teeth entails excessive blockout, e.g. crowding.
2. Periodontal disease resulting in large interproximal embrasures.
3. Wide diastemas in lower anteriors.
Advantages
1. Provides good indirect retention.
2. Horizontal stabilization.
3. As gingival tissues are not covered, marginal gingiva receives

natural stimulation.
Disadvantages
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1. More annoyance to tongue than lingual plate.
2. Food entrapment.
Labial bar
It is half-pear shape in cross-section similar to lingual bar, but running
across the labial or buccal mucosa (Fig. 21.28). The height, thickness
and length of the labial bar are greater than the lingual bar.
FIGURE 21.28 Labial bar – major connector placed labially.
Indications
1. Malposed and lingually inclined teeth (Fig. 21.29).
2. Severe and abrupt lingual tissue undercuts.
3. Large inoperable mandibular tori.
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FIGURE 21.29 Labial bar is indicated when mandibular
anterior teeth are lingually inclined preventing the use of
lingual major connectors.
Advantages
The only choice of major connector when lingual tissues do not
support the prosthesis design.
Disadvantages
1. Unaesthetic
2. Distortion of lower lip
3. Patient discomfort
A modification of the labial bar is the ‘hinged continuous labial bar’
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incorporated in the ‘swing-lock’ partial denture. It is discussed in
Chapter 30.
Major connectors are summarized in Tables 21.1 and 21.2.
Table 21.1
Maxillary major connectors
Table 21.2
Mandibular major connectors
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Minor connectors
Definition
The connecting link between the major connector or base of a partial
removable dental prosthesis and the other units of the prosthesis, such
as the clasp assembly, indirect retainers, occlusal rests, or cingulum
rests (GPT8).
Functions
1. Joins major connector with other component parts.
2. Transfers and distributes functional stress to the abutment teeth and

residual ridge.
3. Transfers effect of retainers, rests and stabilizing components to the

remainder of the denture.
Classification
It is classified into four basic types:
1. Clasp assembly – minor connector
2. Indirect retainer or auxiliary rest minor connector
3. Denture base minor connector
4. Approach arm minor connector
Clasp assembly minor connector

This connects the clasp assembly to the major connector.
It must be rigid with sufficient bulk, but the bulk must be
concealed. May be of two types:
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1. Located in the proximal surfaces of the teeth adjacent to the
edentulous area. Here it should be broad buccolingually and thin
mesiodistally. The thickest portion should be at lingual line angle of
the tooth and it should taper evenly to its thinnest portion at buccal
line angle area (Fig. 21.30).
2. If clasp assembly is not placed adjacent to edentulous area, minor

connector is placed in the embrasure between two teeth (Fig. 21.31).
FIGURE 21.30 Minor connector adjacent to edentulous

space.
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FIGURE 21.31 Minor connector in embrasure.
Minor connector should never be placed on the convex lingual

surface of the tooth.
Indirect retainer or auxiliary rest minor connector

It connects the indirect retainer and auxiliary rest to the major
connector (Fig. 21.32).
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FIGURE 21.32 Indirect retainer minor connector.
It should form a right angle with major connector, but junction

should be gentle curve. It is designed to lie in the embrasures so as to
make it inconspicuous.
Denture base minor connector

This joins the denture base to the major connector, i.e. provides a
mechanism of retention for the denture base made of acrylic resin.
It must possess sufficient strength and rigidity to anchor the
denture base securely and must not interfere with tooth arrangement.
In maxillary distal extension bases, it must extend to cover the
tuberosity, and in the mandibular distal extension bases, it should
extend two-thirds the length of residual ridge.
This is of the following types:
1. Latticework construction
2. Mesh construction
3. Bead, wire or nail head construction
Latticework construction
It consists of two struts of metal running longitudinally along the
edentulous space, with smaller struts running across the crest of the
ridge connecting the longer struts (Fig. 21.33).
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FIGURE 21.33 Latticework denture base minor connector for
mandibular arch.
In the mandibular arch, there will be two longitudinal struts – one

buccal and other lingual (Fig. 21.33), whereas in the maxillary arch,
the border of the major connector palatally acts as second strut (Fig.
21.34). The longitudinal strut should not be placed on the crest of the
ridge, as it will interfere with tooth arrangement and also set up a
splitting action on denture base which can ultimately fracture the
base.
• The connecting or cross struts should be positioned such that there

is no interference in tooth arrangement. Generally one cross strut is
placed between each of the teeth to be replaced.
• Relief is given between the struts and underlying ridge, so acrylic

could flow around and through the latticework to provide retention
of the denture base.
• The latticework construction provides the strongest attachment of

acrylic resin denture base compared to all other denture base minor
connectors.
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• It is also the easiest to reline if required.
• It is indicated when multiple teeth need replacement.
FIGURE 21.34 Maxillary latticework – border of major

connector acts as a longitudinal strut.
Mesh construction
• Consists of a thin sheet of metal with multiple small holes extending

similar to latticework construction. It also requires relief (Fig. 21.35).
• Indicated when multiple teeth need replacement.
• Does not provide a strong attachment for the acrylic resin as holes
are smaller.
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FIGURE 21.35 Mesh.
Both of the above minor connectors require acrylic resin to flow

around and through the construction with space also provided
underneath the connector in the form of relief. A tissue stop is
necessary to achieve this objective as discussed below.
Tissue stop
• Used in all distal extension partial dentures using latticework or

mesh retention.
• Provide stability and prevent distortion to framework during

packing and curing of acrylic resin.
• Made by removing 2 mm square of relief wax where the posterior

end of minor connector crosses centre of the ridge (Fig. 21.36).
• It is waxed as a projection of the framework and will contact the

ridge after casting (Fig. 21.37).
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FIGURE 21.36 Tissue stop.
FIGURE 21.37 Waxed projection of tissue stop under the

denture base minor connector.
Bead, wire or nail head

These are used with a metal denture base. No relief is provided. The
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acrylic resin is attached only to the superior surface of metal base and
retention is achieved by projections in the form of beads, wires or nail
heads (Fig. 21.38). As metal directly contacts the soft tissue instead of
acrylic, there is better tissue response to this major connector.
• It is indicated on tooth-supported well-healed ridges where relining

is not anticipated.
• Disadvantage: It has the weakest attachment to denture base and

cannot be relined.
FIGURE 21.38 Bead minor connector.
The above-mentioned minor connectors – latticework, mesh and

bead – support and retain the acrylic resin of denture base. It is
important that the resin is not finished to a thin edge and must join
the major connector in a smooth, even, butt joint. These butt joints are
referred to as finish lines.
Finish lines
The planned junction of different materials (GPT8). In the context of
removable partial dentures, it denotes the junction of acrylic resin
denture base and metal major connector. It may be internal or
external.
Internal finish line
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Wax is used to provide relief (space for acrylic resin) in the master cast
made for framework fabrication. The margin of the relief wax
becomes the internal finish line and the ledge thus created must be
sharp and definite (Fig. 21.39). It is the junction of acrylic with the
fitting surface of the major connector. There is no internal finish line
for bead, wire or nail head minor connector as acrylic resin is not
present under the connector and contact of ridge is only by metal.
FIGURE 21.39 Internal finish line – blue line.
External finish line

This is the junction of acrylic resin with the polished surface of major
connector. It is formed while making the wax pattern of framework on
refractory cast. It should also be sharp and definite, but should be
slightly undercut – less than 90°, to help lock acrylic to major
connector. It extends from the lingual aspect of the rest seat and
continues along the minor connector on the proximal tooth surface
(Figs 21.40 and 21.41).
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FIGURE 21.40 External finish line on cast metal framework.
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FIGURE 21.41 External finish line – after processing of
acrylic resin.
Approach arm minor connector

This serves as an approach arm for a bar clasp (vertical projection
clasp), supports the direct retainer and engages the undercut from the
gingival margin (Fig. 21.42).
• It is the only minor connector that is not required to be rigid.
• It should have a smooth even taper from start to finish.
• It must not cross a soft tissue undercut.
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FIGURE 21.42 Approach arm minor connector.
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Rests and rest seats
Definition
Rest: It is a rigid extension of a removable dental prosthesis that
prevents movement towards the mucosa and transmits functional
forces to the teeth (GPT8).
Rest seat: The prepared recess in a tooth or restoration created to
receive the occlusal, incisal, cingulum, or lingual rest (GPT8).
Functions
1. Support: The primary function of the rest is to provide support to
the removable partial denture, thereby preventing movement of
denture towards the tissues.
2. Force transfer: The rest aids in transferring the forces along the long
axis of the teeth.
3. Indirect retention: The rests are positioned anterior or posterior to

the axis of rotation to prevent the unsupported distal extension
denture base from lifting away from the edentulous ridge.
4. Positional maintenance: The rigidity of the rest helps in

maintaining the clasp assembly in position for proper function of the
other components of removable partial denture.
5. Stability: The thickness and position of rest reciprocates horizontal

forces generated during function and thus assist in stability of the
denture with other components of removable partial denture. In distal
extension partial denture, the rest seat should be shallow and saucer
shaped so that the rest can move slightly like a ball and socket joint,
allowing the horizontal forces to be dissipated.
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6. Establishing occlusal plane: Rest helps in establishing occlusal
plane in situations like tipped molar. An occlusal onlay rest is
designed to establish a more acceptable occlusal plane.
7. Prevent food impaction: The proximal surface of the abutment

teeth close to the edentulous space is prone for food impaction. The
rest placed closed to the edentulous space prevents food impaction in
the abutment minor connector interface.
8. Prevent tooth migration: The smaller partially edentulous spaces

which are difficult to restore cause discontinuity of arch and cause
tooth migration problems. The rest placed on the proximal surface of
teeth adjacent to edentulous space prevents tooth migration and thus
maintains small edentulous spaces.
9. Reciprocation: Planned design of rest along with the minor

connector aids in reciprocating stresses generated by the retentive arm
of clasp assembly on the abutment teeth.
Classification
Based on relation to direct retainer
1. Primary rests: These are attached to the clasp assembly and aid in
support.
2. Secondary rests: These are placed away from the clasp assembly
and primarily aid in indirect retention.
Based on area of placement

Based on the surface of the tooth where the rest is placed, they can be
of the following types:
1. Occlusal rests: Placed on occlusal surface of posterior teeth.
2. Lingual or cingulum rests: Placed on lingual surface of tooth in
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cingulum area, usually canine.
3. Incisal rests: Placed on incisal edge of anterior teeth.
Occlusal rest
Definition
A rigid extension of a partial removable dental prosthesis that
contacts the occlusal surface of a tooth or restoration, the occlusal
surface of which may have been prepared to receive it (GPT8).
Characteristics
The outline form is rounded triangular in shape with the base of
triangle towards the marginal ridge and the rounded apex towards
the centre of tooth. It should follow the shape of the mesial or distal
fossa of the tooth and be smooth with gentle curves (Fig. 21.43).
• The size should be:
○ Mesiodistal: One-third to one-half the mesiodistal

diameter.
○ Buccolingual: One-half the buccolingual width

between the cusp tips.
○ Depth: Deepest part should be in centre of

preparation with base rising gradually to join the
occlusal surface (Fig. 23.44A and B), making it
spoon-shaped or saucer-shaped in cross-section. It
should have a minimum thickness of 0.5 mm and at
least 1–1.5 mm near the marginal ridges (Fig. 21.45).
• The angle formed by the occlusal rest and the minor connector from
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which it originates must be less than 90° to direct the occlusal forces
along the long axis of the tooth (Fig. 23.46A and B). An angle greater
than 90° will also produce slipping of prosthesis away from
abutment and cause orthodontic movement of tooth due to inclined
plane effect (Fig. 21.47A and B).
• Preparing rests on restorations like amalgam, composite or glass

ionomer may best be avoided as they do not possess sufficient
strength and may fracture. It could be done for an interim
prosthesis. Rests on cast restorations – inlays, onlays and crowns –
are indicated and the preparation should be done along with wax
pattern fabrication.
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FIGURE 21.43 Outline of occlusal rest: (A) occlusal view, (B)
proximal view.
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FIGURE 21.44A, B Deepest point in centre.
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FIGURE 21.45A, B Size of rest seat.
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FIGURE 21.46A, B Angulation of rest.
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FIGURE 21.47A, B Inclined plane effect will cause tooth
movement if angle is greater than 90°.
Lingual or cingulum rest
Definition
A metallic extension of a partial removable dental prosthesis
framework that fits into a prepared depression within an abutment
tooth’s lingual surface (GPT8).
Characteristics
• Indicated if an anterior tooth has a gradual lingual slope rather than

perpendicular (Fig. 21.48A and B). Hence, it is used most often on
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maxillary canines than on incisors or mandibular canines. Lingual
rests on incisors are indicated only in case of missing canines but in
this instance multiple incisor teeth must receive rests to distribute
the stresses. To successfully place lingual rests on enamel (natural
teeth), patients’ caries index should be low and they should
maintain good oral hygiene.
• Lingual rest is preferred to an incisal rest for the following reasons:
○ It is placed nearer the centre of rotation of

supporting tooth and so does not tip the tooth (Fig.
21.49A and B).
○ More aesthetic.
○ Less breakage and distortion.

• But whenever possible an occlusal rest is preferred to a lingual rest
because of its mechanical advantages.
• The outline form of lingual rest is half-moon shaped, making a

smooth curve from one marginal ridge to the other, crossing the
centre of the tooth above the cingulum, with the deepest point over
the cingulum (Fig. 21.50A and B).
• The rest seat is V-shaped and has two inclines. The labial incline is
parallel to the labial surface of tooth, while lingual incline begins at
the top of cingulum and converges labiogingivally towards the
centre of the tooth, to meet the labial incline at the apex of rest seat.
• The lingual view shows a ‘broad inverted V’ following the contour

of the cingulum (Fig. 21.50).
• Incisal view shows the rest seat to be broadest at the centre and
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tapering towards the proximal surfaces (Fig. 21.51).
• Proximal view shows the floor of the seat inclined towards the
cingulum (Fig. 21.52).
• Lingual rests can be placed on cast restorations with great success

by just accentuating the cingulum during wax pattern fabrication.
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FIGURE 21.48 (A) Gradually sloping lingual surface. (B)
Perpendicular lingual surface.
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FIGURE 21.49A, B Lingual rest placed nearer the centre of
rotation of supporting tooth and so it does not tip the tooth.
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FIGURE 21.50A, B Lingual rest outline form.
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FIGURE 21.51 Rest seat broadest at the centre and tapers
towards the proximal.
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FIGURE 21.52A, B Floor of seat inclined towards cingulum.
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Incisal rests
Definition
A rigid extension of a removable partial denture that contacts a tooth
at the incisal edge.
Characteristics
• Least desirable position for rest placement. Used on sound tooth

and never on cast restorations as lingual rest is preferred.
• They are mainly used as indirect retainers.
• They are frequently used on mandibular canines, rarely on

maxillary canines if aesthetics is not a problem. In incisors, they are
generally not used, but if required multiple incisal rests are placed
to support the abutments.
• They are placed on the mesioincisal or distoincisal angle of the tooth

depending on whether the tooth is to be clasped. If it is not clasped,
rest is placed on distoincisal angle for aesthetic reasons. If a cast
circumferential clasp is planned on the tooth, rest is placed on
distoincisal angle. If a bar clasp is planned on the tooth, incisal rest
is placed on mesial incisal angle.
• It is a small ‘V-shaped’ notch located 1.5–2 mm from proximoincisal

angle of the tooth (Fig. 21.53). It should extend onto the facial
surface to provide a positive seat for the rest. It should be bevelled
labially and lingually and lingual enamel should be shaped to
accommodate the minor connector.
• It should be 2.5 mm wide and 1.5 mm deep (Fig. 21.54). The deepest
part should be towards the centre of tooth mesiodistally and it
should be smooth.
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FIGURE 21.53 (A) Lingual view showing V-shaped rest. (B)
Labial view.
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FIGURE 21.54 Dimensions of incisal rest. Depth (red line)
1.5 mm, width (blue line) 2.5 mm, distance from line angle
(green line) 1.5–2 mm.
The sequence and technique of tooth preparation for all the types of
rest seats is described in Chapter 25.
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Direct retainers
This component engages the abutment tooth and basically prevents
dislodgement of the denture or provides retention.
Definitions
Direct retainer: That component of a partial removable dental
prosthesis used to retain and prevent dislodgment, consisting of a
clasp assembly or precision attachment (GPT8).
Direct retention: Retention obtained in a partial removable dental
prosthesis by the use of clasps or attachments that resist removal from
the abutment teeth.
Classification
Direct retainers can be broadly classified as:
1. Intracoronal
2. Extracoronal
Depending on their placement inside (within) the abutment tooth or

outside (surrounding) the abutment (Flowchart 21.1).
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FLOWCHART 21.1 Classification of direct retainers
Intracoronal direct retainer

These provide retention through components placed inside (within)
the normal contour of the abutment tooth.
Definition
A retainer consisting of a metal receptacle (matrix) and a closely
fitting part (patrix); the matrix is usually contained within the normal
or expanded contours of the crown on the abutment tooth/dental
implant and the patrix is attached to a pontic or the removable dental
prosthesis framework, precision attachment or internal attachment
(GPT8).
Intracoronal attachments
Any prefabricated attachment for support and retention of a
removable dental prosthesis. The male and female components are
positioned within the normal contour of the abutment tooth (GPT8).
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• These are prefabricated (manufactured) attachments positioned
within the normal contour of the abutment tooth.
• These are also called ‘internal attachments’ or ‘precision

attachments’.
• These were developed by Dr Herman E.S. Chayes in 1906.
• Intracoronal attachment consists of a male and female component.

The female part, also called ‘matrix’, is a receptacle placed in the
abutment tooth, while the male part (patrix) is an insert which is
processed into the denture. The precise fitting of the patrix into the
matrix creates frictional resistance to removal which contributes to
retention of the prosthesis (Figs 21.55 and 21.56).
• Examples: Beyeler (Fig. 21.57), Biloc, Interlock attachments.
FIGURE 21.55 Placement of matrix (female part) into the

abutment.
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FIGURE 21.56 Patrix (male part) in denture.
FIGURE 21.57 Beyeler intracoronal attachment. Matrix –

female part on left, patrix – male part on right.
Advantages
1. Elimination of visible retentive component.
2. Elimination of visible vertical support (rest seat).
3. Provide some horizontal stabilization, but additional stabilization is
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desirable.
4. Greater stimulation to underlying tissues because of intermittent

vertical massage.
Disadvantages
1. Require preparation of abutment tooth and castings.
2. Complicated clinical and lab procedures.
3. Loss of retention due to wear.
4. Repair and replacement is difficult.
5. Difficult to place completely within the tooth.
6. Cost.
Contraindications
1. Presence of large pulp – related to age, placement may cause pulp

exposure.
2. Short or abraded teeth – as they are prefabricated, length may be

insufficient.
3. Distal extension bases – as they do not permit horizontal

movement, all tipping and rotational forces are transmitted directly to
abutment teeth. They require a ‘stress-breaker’ to transfer some forces
to the residual ridge (discussed in Chapter 24) which also has its own
limitations.
Attachments are discussed in greater detail in

Chapter 47.
Extracoronal direct retainers
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These provide retention through components placed outside the
normal contour of the abutment tooth.
They are classified as:
1. Prefabricated attachments
2. Clasp
Extracoronal prefabricated attachments are discussed in detail in

Chapter 47.
Clasps
This is the most commonly used extracoronal direct retainer. The
dentures are referred to as ‘clasp retained partial dentures’ to
differentiate them from ‘attachment retained partial dentures’.
Definitions
Clasp assembly: The part of a removable dental prosthesis that acts as
a direct retainer and/or stabilizer for a prosthesis by partially
encompassing or contacting an abutment tooth-usage. Components of
the clasp assembly include the clasp, the reciprocal clasp, the
cingulum, incisal or occlusal rest and the minor connector.
Clasp: The component of the clasp assembly that engages a portion
of the tooth surface and either enters an undercut for retention or
remains entirely above the height of contour to act as a reciprocating
element. Generally, it is used to stabilize and retain a removable
dental prosthesis.
Undercut: The portion of the surface of an object that is below the
height of contour in relationship to the path of placement.
Height of contour: A line encircling a tooth and designating its
greatest circumference at a selected axial position determined by a
dental surveyor; a line encircling a body designating its greatest
circumference in a specified plane.
Characteristics
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1. Operates on the principle of ‘resistance of metal to deformation’ by
engaging an undercut (infrabulge) area of the abutment at a given
path of insertion and removal for the prosthesis (Fig. 21.58).
2. Dislodging forces like sticky foods or force of gravity act

perpendicular to the plane of occlusion. An undercut must be present
in this position for the clasp to engage and resist dislodgement (Fig.
21.59).
3. The basis of clasp retention originated from ‘Prothero cone theory’

in 1916. He described the crown shape of posterior teeth to be like two
cones sharing a common base. The part of the clasp that ends on the
cervical cone would resist movement in an occlusal direction as it
would be forced to deform to come out of the undercut (Fig. 21.60).
The degree of resistance to deformation determines the clasp
retention.
4. The line at which the two cones meet is called height of contour –
coined by Kennedy. The height of contour will change if the vertical
position of the tooth changes, similar to tipping or tilting a cast.
5. Devan (1955) referred to the surface occlusal to the height of

contour as suprabulge area, and the surface below as infrabulge.
6. Clasps can be of two types:
i. Circumferential or Akers’ clasp – approaches an

undercut occlusally
a. Cast circumferential clasp – all components are

made up of cast alloy (Fig. 21.61).
b. Combination clasp – retentive arm only is made

of wrought alloy, rest of the clasp is made of cast
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alloy.
ii. Vertical projection or bar or roach clasps –

approach the undercut gingivally (Fig. 21.62).
These are discussed in detail in the coming sections.
FIGURE 21.58 Principle of clasp retention.
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FIGURE 21.59 Dislodging forces like sticky foods or force of
gravity act perpendicular to the plane of occlusion. An
undercut must be present in this position for the clasp to
engage and resist dislodgement.
FIGURE 21.60 Prothero cone theory.
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FIGURE 21.61A, B Circumferential clasp.
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FIGURE 21.62A, B Bar clasp.
Component parts of a clasp assembly
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1. Rest
2. Retentive arm:
i. Retentive terminal
ii. Body
iii. Shoulder
3. Reciprocal arm
4. Minor connector
1. Rest
Provides vertical support or prevents tissue ward movement of the
prosthesis. This ensures that the retentive tip of the clasp remains in
the planned depth of undercut (Fig. 21.63). Rests were discussed in
detail in the previous section.
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FIGURE 21.63 Component parts of a clasp assembly: (A)
rest, (B) retentive arm, (C) reciprocal arm and (D) minor
connector.
2. Retentive arm
Part of clasp assembly (Fig. 21.63) comprising of three parts – the
terminal third (retentive terminal) is flexible and engages the undercut
area, middle third (shoulder) which has limited flexibility and may
engage minimal undercut and the proximal third or body, which is
not flexible and is placed above the height of the contour.
i. Retentive terminal
This is the distal third of the retentive arm (Fig. 21.66). It is the only
component that is placed below the height of the contour; hence, it is
also the only flexible component.
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FIGURE 21.66 Parts of the retentive arm: (A) Retentive
terminal, (B) shoulder, (C) body.
ii. Body
The body connects the rest and shoulder to the minor connector (Fig.
21.66). It contacts the guide plane during insertion and removal of
denture.
iii. Shoulder
It connects the body to the clasp terminal (Fig. 21.66). Also provides
some stabilization against horizontal forces.
3. Reciprocal arm
Clasp arm is placed above the height of the contour on the surface of
the tooth opposing the retentive arm (Figs 21.63 and 21.64). It resists
lateral forces exerted by retentive terminal as it passes over the height
of the contour during removal and insertion of the partial denture. To
perform this function, it should contact the tooth before the retentive
arm does and should remain in contact till the retentive terminal
passes over the height of the contour into the undercut (Fig. 21.65). It
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has the following functions:
i. Reciprocation against action of retentive terminal.
ii. Stabilization against horizontal forces.
iii. Contributes also to vertical support and indirect retention.
FIGURE 21.64 Reciprocal arm should be positioned above

the height of contour.
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FIGURE 21.65 Reciprocal arm should contact the tooth
before the retentive terminal passes into the undercut.
Features
• It should be rigid and not tapered.
• Should be positioned on a tooth surface reasonably parallel to the

denture’s path of insertion.
• Placed at the junction of gingival and middle thirds of the tooth

above but as close to the height of contour as possible.
• If the height of the contour is present in occlusal third of tooth and

cannot be changed by reshaping, a lingual plate will provide a
better reciprocation.
4. Minor connector
Minor connector joins the body to the remaining part of the
framework (Fig. 21.67). In the gingivally approaching clasp, it is called
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‘approach arm’ (Fig. 21.68). It has been discussed in this chapter under
section ‘Minor Connectors’.
FIGURE 21.67 Minor connector of circumferential clasp.
FIGURE 21.68 Minor connector (approach arm) of bar clasp.
Requirements of clasps
All clasps must be designed to satisfy the following six functional
requirements:
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1. Retention
2. Stability
3. Support
4. Reciprocation
5. Encirclement
6. Passivity
1. Retention
Definition: Retention is the quality inherent in denture that resists the
vertical forces of dislodgement. Example: forces of gravity, the
adhesiveness of foods or the forces associated with the opening of the
jaws.
The most important function of the clasp is to provide retention to
the prosthesis. Retentive arm of the clasp assembly provides retention.
Factors affecting retention

Amount of retention provided by the clasp depends on:
i. Dimension of retentive undercut
Retentive undercut has three dimensions:
a. Buccolingual depth: It is measured by the

undercut gauge of surveyor and is called angle of
gingival (cervical) convergence. It is the angle
formed by the tooth surface below the height of
the contour with the vertical plane, when the
occlusal surface of the tooth is oriented parallel to
the horizontal plane (Fig. 21.69). The lesser this
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angle, the greater the distance between the height
of the contour and retentive tip to achieve same
amount of retention.
b. Distance between survey line (height of

contour) and retentive tip: It affects the clasp
arm length which in turn affects flexibility (Fig.
21.70). This factor may not be important
practically.
c. Mesiodistal length: The longer is mesiodistal

length more flexible will be clasp and more
important is buccolingual dimension (Fig. 21.71).
ii. Flexibility of clasp arm
Flexibility of clasp arm depends on the following

factors:
a. Length of clasp: Greater the length of the clasp

greater is the flexibility as the flexure is directly
proportional to the cube of length (Fig. 21.72). To
achieve this, a clasp should engage the undercut
in a curved manner rather than a straight line.
Increasing the flexibility also reduces the stresses
transmitted to abutment by retentive tip, but
flexibility should also be not so great that the
clasp’s retentive capability is lost.
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b. Diameter of clasp: Flexibility is inversely
proportional to the diameter. A uniform taper in
thickness and width is essential. It should be half
as thick at the tip as at the origin (Fig. 21.73).
c. Cross-sectional form: A clasp that is round in

cross-section has greater flexibility than a half
round as it flexes in all planes. Hence, a wrought
wire clasp (round) clasp will have greater
flexibility than a cast clasp.
d. Clasp material: Chrome alloys have a higher

modulus of elasticity than gold alloys and are
therefore less flexible. Wrought wire
(combination clasp) has best flexibility. To obtain
the same degree of retention, a chrome alloy
should engage 0.010 inch undercut, whereas the
gold alloy should engage 0.015 inch and wrought
wire engages 0.020 inch undercut.
iii. Type of clasp
Gingivally approaching clasp produces better

retention (push type) than occlusally approaching
(pull type) clasps.
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FIGURE 21.69 Angle of gingival (cervical) convergence
determines the buccolingual dimension of the retentive
undercut.
FIGURE 21.70 Distance between survey line and retentive

tip. It affects the clasp arm length which in turn affects
flexibility.
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FIGURE 21.71 Mesiodistal length. The longer this length,
more flexible will be the clasp.
FIGURE 21.72 Length of clasp.
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FIGURE 21.73 Diameter of clasp – the clasp should be half
as thick at tip compared to the origin.
2. Stability
Definition: The quality of the prosthesis to be firm, stable or constant
and to resist displacement by functional, horizontal or rotational
stresses.
■ All clasp components except retentive terminal contributes to this.
■ Cast circumferential clasp with its rigid shoulder provides greatest

stability compared to combination clasp (wrought wire) and bar
clasp (no shoulder).
3. Support
Definition: The resistance to displacement of prosthesis towards the
basal tissue or underlying structures.
Provided by the occlusal, lingual or incisal rests.
4. Reciprocation
Definition: The mechanism by which lateral forces are generated by a
retentive arm passing over a height of contour is counterbalanced by a
reciprocal arm passing along a reciprocal guiding plane.
It is described in the section on ‘reciprocal arm’.
5. Encirclement
Definition: Property of the clasp assembly to encompass more than
180° of the abutment tooth either by continuous or broken contact to
prevent dislodgement during function.
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• Continuous contact provided by circumferential clasp (Fig. 21.74).
• Broken contact provided by bar clasp – here clasp assembly must

contact at least three different tooth areas – retentive terminal,
occlusal rest and reciprocal terminal (Fig. 21.74).
• Also prevents tooth from moving out of the confines of the clasp
assembly during function.
FIGURE 21.74 Encirclement of clasp: Left – circumferential

clasp provides continuous contact of greater than 180°. Right
– bar clasp provides broken contact of 180°.
6. Passivity
Definition: The quality or condition of inactivity or rest assumed by
the teeth, tissues and denture when a removable dental prosthesis is
in place but not under masticatory pressure.
• Retentive function of clasp should be activated only when

dislodging forces are applied. At all other times, the clasp should be
completely passive.
• If clasp is not seated completely, retentive terminal cannot reach
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undercut depth as planned and a constant force is applied on the
tooth, producing pain.
Types of clasps
1. Circumferential clasp
Definition: A retainer that encircles a tooth by more than 180°,
including opposite angles, and which generally contacts the tooth
throughout the extent of the clasp, with at least one terminal located
in an undercut.
Its basic form consists of a buccal (retentive) and lingual (reciprocal)
arm arising from a common body and engages a tooth undercut from
an occlusal direction.
It has a ‘pull type’ retention compared to ‘push type’ retention of
bar clasps.
I. Cast circumferential clasp
• It is also called Akers’ clasp.
• All components of the clasp assembly are made of cast alloy.
• Retentive terminal should originate above height of contour and

terminate below it.
• Retentive terminal should point towards the occlusal surface, never

towards gingival (Fig. 21.75).
• The retentive tip should only terminate in mesial or distal line angle
of the tooth, never in the middle of facial or lingual surface (Fig.
21.76).
• Clasp arm should be kept as low as possible to gain mechanical

advantage against any lever action on tooth (Fig. 21.77).
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FIGURE 21.75 Retentive tip should point occlusally.
FIGURE 21.76 Retentive tip should not end in middle of the

tooth (Right). It should end near the proximal line angle (left).
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FIGURE 21.77 More effort is required to exert lever like
forces on abutment if clasp is placed low.
Advantages
1. Easiest to design, construct and repair.
2. Excellent support, bracing and retentive qualities.
3. Most logical choice for tooth-supported removable partial dentures.
4. Causes less food retention.
5. Many types available so can be used in most situations.
Disadvantages
1. More coverage of tooth surface which may lead to decalcification

and/or caries of enamel.
2. Alters the morphology of abutment which affects normal food flow

pattern and can lead to damage of gingival tissues due to lack of
physiologic stimulation.
3. If positioned high on abutment, they can increase the width of
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occlusal table which can cause greater occlusal forces to be exerted on
tooth.
4. Difficult to adjust with pliers as with all cast clasps (half round) as
they can be adjusted only in one plane.
Types of cast circumferential clasps

The following are the various types of cast circumferential clasps.
The common features, advantages and disadvantages are applicable
to all. The specific features are discussed here.
1. Simple circlet clasp

• Most versatile and widely used.
• Approaches the tooth undercut from the edentulous area and

engages the undercut remote from the edentulous space (Figs 21.78
and 21.61).
• Clasp of choice for tooth-supported (class III) removable partial

dentures.
• Contraindicated for distal extension partial dentures as it can only

engage mesiobuccal undercut.
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FIGURE 21.78 Simple circlet clasp.
2. Reverse circlet clasp

• Engages the undercut adjacent to edentulous space (distobuccal) by
approaching from mesioocclusal rest (Fig. 21.79).
• Indicated for distal extension situations when bar clasp is

contraindicated. In distal extensions it will move further into
undercut when a force is applied on the denture base just like bar
clasp and when dislodging forces (sticky food) are applied, it
engages the undercut and denture is retained.
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FIGURE 21.79A, B Reverse circlet clasp.
Disadvantages
1. Poor aesthetics as clasp runs from mesial to distal side of facial

surface, hence is not the choice in premolars.
2. Obtaining sufficient clearance for the rest to be placed between

teeth is difficult.
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3. To protect the marginal ridge, an additional rest must be placed
adjacent to edentulous space, which will decrease the releasing action
of the clasp tip.
4. Wedging may occur between the abutment and adjacent tooth, if

occlusal rest is not well prepared.
3. Multiple circlet clasp

• This is a combination of two opposing simple circlet clasps joined at
terminal end of reciprocal arms (Fig. 21.80).
• When principal abutment has lost some of its periodontal support,

this clasp is used to share retention responsibilities among other
teeth.
• It is used in periodontally compromised abutment teeth in distal

extension situations.
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FIGURE 21.80A, B Multiple circlet clasp. Axial and occlusal
views.
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4. Embrasure clasp or modified crib clasp
• Two simple circlet clasps joined at the body (Fig. 21.81).
• Used on the side of the arch where there is no edentulous space.
• It is indicated in Kennedy’s class II and class III without any

modifications. As this is a mechanical disadvantage, embrasure
clasp is used to make the design bilateral by providing cross arch
stabilization.
• It crosses both marginal ridges and engages undercut on opposing

line angles. The occlusal rest must be prepared on both the adjacent
teeth and buccal inclination of cusp is reduced to get the required
strength and rigidity for the clasp.
• If tooth preparation is insufficient, breakage of clasp is common.
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FIGURE 21.81A, B Embrasure clasp.
5. Ring clasp
• It starts on the opposite side of the undercut adjacent to edentulous
space and engages the undercut by encircling the entire tooth
almost from its origin. The retentive arm is an extension of
reciprocal arm (Fig. 21.82).
• Indicated on tipped molars where undercut is present adjacent to

edentulous space. Mandibular molars tip mesiolingually and
maxillary molars tip mesiobuccally. Hence, the clasp engages
mesiolingual undercut on mandibular molars and mesiobuccal
undercut on maxillary molars.
• Because of great length of the clasp, it is usually supported by an

auxiliary bracing arm from the minor connector of denture base to
the centre of reciprocal arm. This is essential for proper
reciprocation and stabilization.
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• An auxiliary occlusal rest on the opposite side prevents further
tipping of the molar.
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FIGURE 21.82A, B Ring clasp.
Contraindications
■ Buccinator attachment lies close to mandibular molar such that

auxiliary bracing arm encroaches on it.
■ Bracing arm will have to cross a soft tissue undercut.
6. Back action clasp

• It is a modification of ring clasp.
• Minor connector is attached to the clasp arm on the lingual surface

unlike other clasps where the minor connectors are attached to the
occlusal rest (Fig. 21.83). If placed on the buccal surface, it is called
reverse back action clasp.
• Indicated in Kennedy’s class I and class II where only a mesiobuccal

undercut is present.
• Its use is not justified as lack of support to occlusal rest can make it
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ineffective.
FIGURE 21.83A, B Back action clasp.
7. Fish hook or hairpin clasp

• This ‘C’ clasp is essentially a simple circlet clasp where the retentive
arm, after crossing the facial surface, loops back in a hairpin turn to
engage the proximal undercut below its point of origin (Fig. 21.84).
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• The upper retentive arm is rigid, while the lower part is flexible and
tapered because it engages the undercut.
• The abutment should have sufficient crown height to accommodate

the two arms. There should also be sufficient space between the
arms for finishing and polishing and to prevent food accumulation.
• It is indicated in distal extension base abutments where distobuccal

undercut is present, and bar clasp and reverse circlet clasp are
contraindicated, because of soft tissue undercut and lack of occlusal
space, respectively.
FIGURE 21.84 Hairpin clasp.
Disadvantages
• Can trap food and cause tooth decay.
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8. Onlay clasp
• It is an extension of occlusal rest with buccal and lingual clasp arms
(Fig. 21.85).
• Indicated when occlusal surface of abutments is below occlusal

plane and the onlay will restore the same.
• As it covers a large amount of tooth, it may lead to enamel

breakdown. Hence, used only in caries free mouth and alloy of
choice is gold alloy (margins can be burnished).
• Metal occlusal surfaces can be lined with tooth coloured acrylic

resin to reduce the wear of opposing teeth.
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FIGURE 21.85A, B Onlay clasp.
9. Half and half clasp

It consists of a circumferential retentive arm arising from one
direction and reciprocal arm arising from another. Since second arm
must arise from a second minor connector, this could be a bar clasp
with or without an auxiliary rest (Fig. 21.86).
FIGURE 21.86A, B Half and half clasp.
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It is originally intended to produce dual retention in unilateral
dentures.
II. Combination clasp

Definition: A circumferential retainer for a removable dental
prosthesis that has a cast reciprocal arm and a wrought wire retentive
clasp (GPT8).
It consists of a wrought wire retentive arm and a cast reciprocal arm
(Fig. 21.87). The combination of a wrought alloy and cast alloy gives it
the name ‘combination clasp’. In fact all other parts of the denture
framework are made of cast alloy except the retentive arm.
FIGURE 21.87A, B Combination clasp – wrought retentive
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arm and cast reciprocal arm.
The wrought wire can flex in all three planes and has greater
flexibility than a cast arm.
It is indicated on an abutment adjacent to a distal extension base
where a mesiobuccal undercut is present. A simple circlet clasp or bar
clasp should never be used to engage this undercut in distal extension
situations as any downward (masticatory) force on the denture base
will make the retentive terminal come out of undercut and create
excessive stresses on the abutment. The use of flexible wrought wire
clasp will help dissipate this functional stress better.
The wrought wire can be incorporated into the framework of low-
heat alloys during the waxing procedure or can be soldered to the
completed framework of high-heat alloys.
Advantages
1. Good flexibility – helps dissipate stresses on abutment.
2. Easy to adjust the clasp as it can flex in all planes.
3. More aesthetically acceptable as it can be placed in gingival third of

facial surface – can be used in premolars and canines.
4. Makes only a line contact with tooth surface and hence collects less
food and is easy to maintain.
Disadvantages
1. Extra lab procedures.
2. Can be easily distorted by careless handling.
3. Poor resistance to horizontal stabilization.
2. Bar clasp
Definition: A clasp retainer whose body extends from a major
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connector or denture base, passing adjacent to the soft tissues and
approaching the tooth from a gingivo-occlusal direction (GPT8).
It is also called vertical projection, Roach and gingivally
approaching clasp.
Arises from denture base minor connector and approaches the
undercut from a gingival direction resulting in ‘push type’ retention
(Fig. 21.88). This is more effective than the ‘pull type’ retention of
circumferential clasp.
FIGURE 21.88 Bar clasp.
The retentive terminal is connected to denture base minor connector

by the ‘approach arm’. Both these have already been discussed in the
section on ‘Minor Connectors’ in this Chapter.
Flexibility of the clasp can be controlled by the taper and length of
approach arm.
Indications
1. Small undercut (0.01 inch) existing in cervical third of abutment

(Fig. 21.89).
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2. Distal extension abutments to engage a distobuccal (adjacent to
edentulous space) undercut.
3. Most tooth-supported partial dentures including modification

spaces where aesthetics is a concern.
FIGURE 21.89 Indication for bar clasp – small undercut (0.01

inch) existing in cervical third of abutment.
Contraindications (fig. 21.90)
1. Severe tissue undercut.
2. Deep cervical undercut in abutment.
3. Severe buccal or lingual tilt of abutment.
4. Shallow vestibule.
5. Never used to engage mesiobuccal undercut of abutment.
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FIGURE 21.90 Contraindications of bar clasp: (A) Tilted
abutment, (B) soft tissue undercut, and (C) shallow vestibule.
Advantages
1. Easy to insert and difficult to remove.
2. It is more aesthetic because of its gingival approach.
3. Variety of bar clasps gives it a wide range of adaptability.
Disadvantages
1. Tends to collect food.
2. Contributes less to bracing and stabilization because of its

flexibility.
Design considerations
1. Tissue side of approach arm should be smooth and polished and

should not impinge on the soft tissue it crosses.
2. Approach arm should cross the gingival margin of abutment at 90°.
3. Minor connector that joins the occlusal rest to framework should be

strong and rigid and provide some bracing.
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4. Retentive terminal should point towards the occlusal surface.
5. Clasp should be placed as low as possible on abutment to prevent

leverages.
Types
Primarily four types depending on the shape formed by the terminals
as they join the abutment:
1. T-clasp
2. Modified T-clasp
3. Y-clasp
4. I-Clasp
The common features, advantages and disadvantages are applicable

to all. The specific features applicable to each type are discussed here.
1. T-clasp
Approach arm extends till the height of contour at which point the
retentive terminal leaves approach arm and engages an undercut (Fig.
21.91). The other terminal is positioned above the height of the
contour.
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FIGURE 21.91A, B T-clasp.
2. Modified T-clasp
• Essentially a T-clasp without the nonretentive (usually mesial)

finger of the T-terminal (Fig. 21.92).
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• It has better aesthetics and is used on canines and premolars.
• It does not possess 180° encirclement.
FIGURE 21.92A, B Modified T-clasp.
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3. Y-clasp
It is used when the height of contour on the buccal surface of
abutment is high near the mesial and distal line angles, but low at the
centre (Fig. 21.93).
FIGURE 21.93A, B Y-clasp.
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4. I-clasp
• Used on distobuccal surface of maxillary canines for aesthetics (Fig.

21.94).
• Compromise on encirclement and horizontal stabilization.
• This is also used in the RPI concept which is discussed in Chapter

30.
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FIGURE 21.94A, B I-bar clasp.
Summary of extracoronal direct retainers

The clasp should conform to the existing undercut and design should
be kept simple. Less desirable clasp forms can be avoided by changing
the form of abutment by recontouring or crowning. Clasp selection is
critical only when abutment tooth is adjacent to distal extension base.
If mesiobuccal undercut is present – combination clasp is used, if
distobuccal undercut is present – bar clasp is used. If bar clasp is
contraindicated, a reverse circlet clasp is used. The differences
between bar clasp and circumferential clasp are summarized in Table
21.3.
Table 21.3
Differences between bar clasp and cast circumferential clasp
Cast circumferential clasp Bar clasp

1. Occlusally approaching Gingivally approaching
2. Push-type retention less effective Pull-type retention more effective
3. Retentive arm attached to a rigid minor connector Approach arm minor connector is more flexible
4. Removal is easy Removal difficult, easy to place
5. Less aesthetic More aesthetic
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6. Better stabilization Poor stabilization
7. Less food accumulation More food accumulation
8. More occlusal load on abutment due to increase in Occlusal load not an issue
width of occlusal table
9. Easy to repair Difficult to repair
10. Can be used in tilted abutments Cannot be used with tilted abutments
11. Can be used in presence of soft tissue undercut Cannot be used in presence of soft tissue
undercut
12. Can be used where there is no edentulous space Cannot be used where there is no edentulous
(embrasures) space (embrasures)
13. More tooth coverage can cause decalcification Less tooth coverage
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Indirect retainers
Definitions
Indirect retainer: The component of a partial removable dental
prosthesis that assists the direct retainer(s) in preventing displacement
of the distal extension denture base by functioning through lever
action on the opposite side of the fulcrum line when the denture base
moves away from the tissues in pure rotation around the fulcrum line.
Indirect retention: The effect achieved by one or more indirect
retainers of a partial removable denture prosthesis that reduces the
tendency for a denture base to move in an occlusal direction or rotate
about the fulcrum line.
Fulcrum line: A theoretical line around which a removable dental
prosthesis tends to rotate (GPT8).
Forces acting on partial denture

A removable partial denture is subject to the following forces during
function. In a tooth-supported situation (Kennedy’s class III),
movement of denture towards the tissue is prevented by occlusal
rests, movement away from the tissues is prevented by retentive arm
of direct retainers and horizontal movements are prevented by
stabilizing components like minor connector and reciprocal arm of
direct retainer. Hence, all forces are well resisted by components on
the abutments itself and will not rotate or dislodge the prosthesis.
In distal extension bases, Kennedy’s class I and II and to a certain
extent in class III and IV that do not have adequate abutment support,
the same forces cannot be adequately resisted by components present
on abutment teeth alone as they are not completely tooth supported.
Hence, we need to look at other mechanisms to control these forces.
The forces acting on a distal extension partial denture and
mechanisms to control these forces are discussed in detail in Chapter
24.
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The distal extension partial denture is subject to rotation around
three principal fulcrum lines. To discuss indirect retainers, it is
important to consider the fulcrum line on the horizontal plane which
runs through the retentive terminal of the abutments. It produces a
rotational movement on the sagittal plane, towards or away from the
tissues, basically an up and down movement (Fig. 21.95).
FIGURE 21.95 Fulcrum line on sagittal plane showing

rotation towards and away from the ridge.
The downward movement of denture base towards the edentulous

ridge is countered by the occlusal rest and the denture base in contact
with the alveolar ridge (Fig. 21.96).
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FIGURE 21.96 Tissueward force resisted by alveolar ridge.
The upward force that tends to dislodge the denture away from the
supporting ridge is due to sticky food, tissues adjacent to denture base
like tongue or buccinator’s muscle when activated by speech, chewing
or swallowing and gravity in case of maxillary prosthesis. The direct
retainer is basically used to counter this force and is assisted by the
indirect retainer in this resistance.
Principle of indirect retainer

Consider a beam or bar which is supported (fulcrum) at one point
along its length. A lifting force will displace the entire beam in the
absence of retainers. With direct retainers at fulcrum, lifting force will
elevate the end where force is applied and depress the other end. If
there is another support at the opposite end (indirect retainer), lifting
force will not displace beam (Figs 21.97–21.100).
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FIGURE 21.97 Beam supported at one point.
FIGURE 21.98 Beam lifts from point of support (fulcrum) in

the absence of any retainer.
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FIGURE 21.99 With direct retainer one end is depressed and
the other elevated.
FIGURE 21.100 No displacement when indirect retainer is

placed along with direct retainer.
In distal extension bases, the indirect retainer in the form of an

occlusal rest uses this same lever principle to move the fulcrum line
farther from the force and prevents displacement of denture away
from the basal seat tissues (Figs 21.101 and 21.102).
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FIGURE 21.101 Lifting of denture without indirect retainer.
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FIGURE 21.102 Lifting resisted by indirect retainer.
Factors influencing the effectiveness of indirect

retainers
1. Effectiveness of direct retainer: The direct retainer must first
prevent denture base and rest from being lifted out (displacement), for
the indirect retainer to function properly. The indirect retainer can
only prevent rotation, not displacement. Hence, effective direct
retention is essential for indirect retainer to be effective.
2. Distance from fulcrum line: The greater the distance between the
fulcrum line and indirect retainer, more effective it will be. This
depends on length of distal extension base, location of fulcrum line
and how far beyond fulcrum line the indirect retainer is placed (Fig.
21.103).
3. Rigidity of connector: Minor connector connecting the indirect

retainer to the major connector should be rigid to get the desired
functions of the indirect retainer.
4. Effectiveness of supporting tooth structure: The indirect retainer

should not be placed on weak teeth or cuspal inclines and should
occupy a definitive rest seat (Fig. 21.104).
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FIGURE 21.103 Indirect retainer should be placed as far
away from fulcrum line as possible for maximum effect.
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FIGURE 21.104 Rest placement: (A) definite rest seat
perpendicular to movement which is best and (B) placement
on incline – not desirable.
Functions of indirect retainers

1. The primary functions of indirect retainer are to assist the direct
retainer in preventing displacement of denture away from the tissues.
2. Other auxiliary functions are:
i. Reduces anteroposterior tilting, leverages on the

principal abutments.
ii. Contact of its minor connector with axial tooth

surfaces aids in stabilization against the
horizontal forces. Such tooth surfaces when
parallel to path of placement may also act as
auxiliary guide planes.
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iii. Acts as an auxiliary or secondary rest to support
the major connector.
iv. Anterior teeth may be splinted against lingual

movement by the supporting indirect retainers.
v. Dislodgement of indirect retainer when denture

base is depressed provides the first indication for
the need to reline distal extension prosthesis.
Types of indirect retainers
Auxiliary occlusal rest

• Commonly used and located on occlusal surface as far away from
denture base as possible. It is placed perpendicular to midpoint of
fulcrum line. In Kennedy’s class I, the perpendicular from fulcrum
line would fall on an incisor tooth, which is weak and has a vertical
lingual surface that cannot support a rest. Hence, bilateral rests on
mesial marginal ridge of first premolar on either side will be
effective as indirect retainer even though they are closer to fulcrum
line (Fig. 21.105).
• In Kennedy’s class II, indirect retainer is placed on the first premolar

of the opposite side, perpendicular to fulcrum line (Fig. 21.106).
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FIGURE 21.105 Indirect retainers placed in first premolars for
class I.
FIGURE 21.106 Indirect retainer placement in class II.
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Canine extension from occlusal rest
It is a finger extension from a premolar rest placed on the prepared
lingual slope of the adjacent canine tooth. It produces indirect
retention by increasing the distance of a resisting element from
fulcrum line (Fig. 21.107).
FIGURE 21.107 Canine extension.
Indicated in Kennedy’s class I where the first premolar is the

primary abutment.
Canine rests
Indicated when mesial marginal ridge of first premolar is too close to
fulcrum line or when teeth are overlapped and fulcrum line is not
accessible.
Continuous bar retainers and linguoplates

The terminal occlusal rests, which are present at either end, function
as indirect retainers. The major connector itself does not perform this
function as they rest on unprepared lingual inclines of anterior teeth
(Fig. 21.108).
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FIGURE 21.108 The auxiliary rests at either end function as
indirect retainers.
When used for distal extension bases, these major connectors

(continuous bar retainer and linguoplate) should never extend above
the middle third of the anterior teeth, to avoid orthodontic forces on
these teeth which may cause them to move.
Modification areas
In a class II with modification space on the opposite side, the occlusal
rest of the direct retainer of the anterior abutment in that side will act
as indirect retainer. The perpendicular from the fulcrum line falls in
the vicinity of this tooth, and hence it is an ideal direct retainer in this
situation (Fig. 21.109).
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FIGURE 21.109 Placement in class II with modification.
If only one tooth is missing on the modification side, then the

second premolar is too close to the fulcrum and then first premolar is
used for indirect retention.
Rugae support
The rugae are firm and positioned well to provide indirect retention
for a Kennedy’s class I denture. This can be specifically utilized while
using a horseshoe major connector as it lacks adequate posterior
retention. But this support is less effective than indirect retention
obtained by positive tooth support with rests.
Direct–indirect retention
In the maxillary arch where only the six anterior teeth remain,
complete palatal coverage is usually necessary. This not only provides
some direct retention by close adaptation to the tissues, it also
provides some indirect retention by covering the anterior tissues.
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Denture base
Definition
The part of a removable partial denture that rests on the basal seat and
to which the teeth are attached (GPT8).
Functions:
1. Supports artificial teeth.
2. Transfers occlusal forces to supporting oral structures.
3. Stimulation of underlying tissues of residual ridge.
4. Adds to the cosmetic effect.
Ideal requirements:
1. Accurate adaptation to the tissues with less change in bulk.
2. Light weight.
3. Sufficient strength.
4. Self-cleansing.
5. Maintain a good finish and polish.
6. Thermal conductivity.
7. Aesthetic.
8. Low cost.
9. Potential for relining.
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Types of denture bases
There are three types of dental bases depending on the type of
material contacting the tissue:
1. Acrylic
2. Combination of metal–acrylic
3. Metal
Acrylic
A denture base made only of acrylic resin is indicated only for interim
or temporary dentures and will carry all the inherent problems of
acrylic resins.
Combination of metal–acrylic
It is the most commonly used dental base. A denture base minor
connector is used to retain the acrylic. Acrylic resin only contacts the
ridge and soft tissues. It is also discussed in the section on ‘Minor
Connectors’.
Indications
1. Distal extension partial dentures, but can be used with any

classification.
2. When denture teeth are indicated as replacement teeth.
Advantages
1. Aesthetic appeal as it can be characterized especially in the anterior

region.
2. Artificial teeth can be placed at their original position regardless of

the amount of ridge resorption, thus restoring the normal contours of
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the ridge.
3. Can reestablish the normal contours of lips and cheek.
4. Can be relined.
Disadvantages
1. More strength in bulk, so space for artificial teeth may be reduced.

Cannot be used when interarch space is less.
2. Less fatigue and abrasion resistant so may break with use.
3. Can distort due to internal strain release.
4. More plaque accumulation.
5. Can irritate soft tissues.
6. Poor thermal conductivity.
Metal
The fitting surface of this dental base is entirely metal.
Indications
1. Tooth-supported dentures.
2. Reduced interocclusal space.
3. High occlusal forces – deep bite.
4. Acrylic allergy.
Advantages
1. Accurately adapts to ridge and maintains this accuracy
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permanently.
2. Intimacy of contact contributes to retention.
3. Resistant to abrasion.
4. Good soft tissue response due to its high density and bacteriostatic
activity.
5. Less plaque accumulation and hence more clean.
6. Better strength, can be made thinner and does not break easily.
7. Excellent thermal conductivity contributes to stimulation of oral

tissues and patient acceptance.
Disadvantages
1. Difficult to reline.
2. Trimming is difficult and hence overextension must be avoided.
3. Difficult to correct underextensions.
4. Less aesthetic.
5. Cannot be used to support lips, cheek and make up for lost bone.
Tooth replacements
The various types of artificial teeth that can be used in a removable
partial denture are as follows:
1. Denture teeth – porcelain and plastic (acrylic)
2. Facings
3. Tube teeth
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4. Reinforced acrylic pontics (RAPs)
5. Metal teeth.
Denture teeth
These may be made up of porcelain or acrylic resin.
Porcelain
Porcelain is not commonly used.
Advantages
1. Excellent aesthetics – available in variety of shades.
2. High wear-resistance and hence maintains vertical dimension.
3. Impervious to stains – high colour stability.
Disadvantages
1. Brittle.
2. Grinding and shaping is difficult, and make it weaker.
3. Mechanical retention to acrylic using pins (anteriors) and diatoric

holes (posterior).
4. Wear of opposing natural teeth especially if unglazed.
5. Used only if partial denture opposes a complete denture and if

adequate interarch space exists.
6. Difficult for single tooth replacements.
Acrylic
It is the most commonly used material for denture artificial teeth (Fig.
21.110).
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FIGURE 21.110 Acrylic denture teeth.
Indications
1. Most anterior spaces.
2. Any replacement where adequate space is present.
3. To restore facial contours.
Advantages
1. High impact strength and adequate strength in small sections.
2. Good aesthetics.
Disadvantages
1. Poor wear and abrasion resistance – anteriors wear labially,

posteriors wear occlusally, causing decrease in vertical dimension.
2. Tendency to stain.
3. Difficult for single tooth replacements.
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Facings
These are also made of porcelain or acrylic resin. The teeth are also
waxed along with the partial denture framework, and only the labial
part which is tooth coloured and made of acrylic or porcelain is
cemented to these metal backings (Fig. 21.111).
FIGURE 21.111 Metal palatal part with acrylic facing

(anteriors).
Indications
1. Single tooth anterior replacements.
2. Limited interocclusal space – deep bite.
Advantages
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1. Strongest and most durable.
2. Can be replaced if needed.
Disadvantages
1. Poor aesthetics as it is backed by metal.
2. Cannot be relined.
3. Cannot be used on resorbed ridges.
4. Metal occlusal surface can wear opposing teeth.
5. Derive little or no support from ridge.
Tube teeth
Denture teeth made of porcelain or acrylic are prepared by drilling a
channel on the base upwards (Fig. 21.112). During waxing of
framework, tooth is positioned and waxed is added in the channel.
Tooth is then removed and the channel (post) is cast as part of
framework. After finishing and polishing, the tooth is cemented onto
the post in the framework.
FIGURE 21.112 Tube teeth.
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Indication
Single tooth replacements, especially premolar.
Advantages
1. Better aesthetics than facings.
2. Opposing teeth occlude with resin.
3. Reduced lab time.
Disadvantages
1. Must have adequate proximal and occlusal space.
2. Require a well-healed nonresorbed ridge.
4. Not used for multiple adjacent teeth replacement.
5. Derives little or no support from ridge.
Reinforced acrylic pontics

Similar to facings and tube teeth. The artificial tooth made of acrylic
resin is processed on projection or loops of metal arising from gingival
half of lingual surface (Fig. 21.113). They are processed after
framework fabrication.
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FIGURE 21.113 Reinforced acrylic pontics.
Indication
Single anterior teeth and maxillary first premolars.
Advantages
1. Excellent strength and aesthetics.
2. Occlusion confined to plastic.
3. Used in restricted space.
Disadvantages
1. Requires a well healed nonresorbed ridge.
2. Derives little or no support from ridge.
Metal pontic
Usage restricted to posteriors teeth. Normally, it is made of same
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metal from which framework is fabricated. If chrome alloy is used,
occlusal surface should be covered with tooth coloured resin, as
otherwise the alloy will wear out the opposing natural teeth. If gold
alloy is used, then there is no problem, but it is expensive (Fig. 21.114).
FIGURE 21.114 Metal pontics – made of same metal as

framework.
Indications
1. Reduced interocclusal space.
2. Reduced mesiodistal space.
Advantages
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1. Good wear-resistance.
2. Good strength.
Disadvantages
1. Poor aesthetics.
2. Restricted to posteriors.
3. Can wear opposing teeth.
Metal pontic with acrylic window, where the buccal surface of

pontic is cut and filled with tooth coloured acrylic resin, can be used
where aesthetics is a concern.
SUMMARY
The component parts of the cast partial denture perform specific roles
in providing retention, stability and support for the prosthesis. Their
judicious use also helps to preserve the health of the tissues. Except
the indirect retainer, all the other components are an integral part of
almost every cast partial denture. Hence, the role of each component
should be thoroughly understood to help design the partial denture
for different clinical situations. Indirect retention is mandatory only
in distal extension situations.
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CHAPTER
22
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planning
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 327
History 327
General history 327
Medical history 327
Dental history 329
Examination 329
Oral examination 329
Radiographic examination 330
Diagnostic impressions and casts 331
Purpose of making diagnostic casts 331
Impression material 331
Diagnostic cast 335
Differential diagnosis 336
Phase I 336
Phase II 336
Phase III 336
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Phase IV 336
Phase V 336
Phase VI 336
Summary 336
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Introduction
Diagnosis and treatment planning for oral rehabilitation of partially
edentulous mouths is an important step and must take the following
into consideration – control of caries and periodontal disease,
restoration of individual teeth, provision of harmonious occlusal
relationships and the replacement of missing teeth by fixed (natural
teeth/implants) or removable prosthesis.
The uniqueness of the ultimate treatment of a partially edentulous
patient occurs through recording patient history and diagnostic
clinical examination including radiographs, mounted and surveyed
diagnostic casts, a definitive oral examination, including periodontal
probing, percussion and vitality test and appropriate medical and
dental consultations. This includes four distinct processes (i)
understanding the patient’s chief complaints/concerns, (ii)
ascertaining the patients’ dental needs through a diagnostic clinical
examination, (iii) developing a treatment plan that reflects the best
management of the desires and needs and (iv) execution of the
treatment plan with follow-up.
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History
The general, medical and dental history is obtained.
General history
Age
• Provides a reference for the physiological status of patient.
• Neuromuscular skills diminish with age and ability to adapt to new

situations is decreased. With age, oral epithelium becomes
dehydrated and loses its elasticity resulting in decreased resistance
to trauma.
• Salivary flow decreases with age leading to greater risk of caries.
Sex
• In females, menopause may be associated with hormonal
imbalances which can cause osteoporosis and atrophy of oral
epithelium.
• Pregnancy can have a bearing on the type of prosthesis.
Occupation
Interim and immediate partial dentures may need to be considered
depending on the occupation.
Medical history
The systemic health and the drugs taken by the patient may affect
removable partial denture treatment.
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Systemic diseases
Common systemic disturbances that can have a significant effect on
the treatment of the patient include the following:
1.Diabetes
Uncontrolled diabetes is characterized by xerostomia, macroglossia
and rapid periodontal breakdown (Fig. 22.1). They also bruise easily
and heal slowly. This significantly reduces the ability of the patient to
wear prosthesis with comfort and increases the possibility that caries
will occur.
FIGURE 22.1 Rapid periodontal breakdown due to diabetes

can affect treatment plans.
2. Arthritis
If arthritic changes occur in the temporomandibular joint, recording
jaw relation can be difficult and changes in the occlusion may occur.
3. Anaemia
These patients have a pale mucosa, sore tongue, xerostomia and
gingival bleeding. Wearing a removable prosthesis will be more
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difficult for them.
4. Epilepsy
Any seizure may result in fracture and aspiration of the prosthesis,
and possibly the loss of additional teeth. Consultation with the
patient’s physician is essential before treatment is initiated. The
construction of removable partial dentures is usually contraindicated
if the patient has frequent, severe seizure with little or no warning. All
material used in the construction of a prosthesis for an epileptic
patient must be radiopaque so that any part of the prosthesis that is
accidentally aspirated or swallowed during a seizure can be located
radiographically. If the patient’s medication includes
diphenylhydantoin (dilation), one must take particular care to ensure
that the removable partial denture does not irritate the gingival
tissues, or hypertrophy of these tissues may result.
5. Cardiovascular disease
Patients with the following symptoms require medical approval
before any dental procedures:
i. Acute or recent myocardial infarction
ii. Unstable or recent onset of angina pectoris
iii. Congestive heart failure
iv. Uncontrolled arrhythmia
v. Uncontrolled hypertension
6. Cancer
Oral complications are also common side effects of radiation and
chemotherapy for malignancies in areas other than the head and neck
(oral malignancy). The most common oral complications are mucosal
irritations, xerostomia, and bacterial and fungal infections. These
symptoms will complicate the construction and wear of a removable
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partial denture.
7. Transmissible disease
Hepatitis, tuberculosis, influenza and other transmissible disease pose
a particular hazard for the dentist, patients and dental auxiliaries.
These diseases may be transmitted by contact with the patient’s blood
or saliva, contaminated dental instruments and aerosol from the
handpiece. Contaminated impression trays, materials, polishing
wheels, pumice as well as grindings from the patient’s prosthesis may
cause aerosol contamination of both the laboratory and the dental
office.
Drugs
Some of the frequently prescribed drugs that can affect prosthodontic
treatment are discussed.
1. Anticoagulants
Postsurgical bleeding could be a problem for patients receiving
anticoagulants who undergo extractions or soft tissue or osseous
surgery. These patients should be referred to an oral surgeon for the
management of the surgical phases of treatment.
2. Antihypertensive agents
The most significant side effect of the antihypertensive drugs is
orthostatic, or postural, hypotension, which may result in syncope
when the patient suddenly assumes the upright position. Therefore,
care must be taken when the patient gets up from dental chair.
Another fact to consider is that treatment for hypertension usually
includes prescription of a diuretic agent, which can contribute to a
decrease in saliva and an associated dry mouth.
3. Endocrine therapy
Patients receiving endocrine therapy may develop an extremely sore
mouth. If the patient is wearing prosthesis, it could incorrectly be
blamed for causing the discomfort.
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4. Saliva-inhibiting drugs
Methantheline bromide (Banthine), atropine and their derivatives are
sometimes used to control excessive salivary secretion, particularly
when it is necessary to make accurate impression. They are generally
contraindicated for use in patients with cardiac disease because of
their vagolytic effect. Other contraindication for this disease includes
prostatic hypertrophy and glaucoma. Saliva should be controlled by
mechanical means in these patients.
Dental history
Dental history provides the following information:
1. Reason for tooth loss: If teeth were lost due to periodontal disease,
prognosis of remaining teeth is not as favourable than if they were lost
due to caries. If the teeth were lost because of caries, special emphasis
will have to be placed on improving the patient’s dietary intake and
oral hygiene procedures.
2. Details of previous prosthesis, patient’s views about the old

prosthesis and reason for seeking new prosthesis give an idea about
the design of prosthesis that best suits the patient.
3. Patient expectations: If too high, may be impossible to fabricate a

removable prosthesis satisfactorily.
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Examination
Examination consists of:
1. Oral examination
2. Radiographic examination
Oral examination
Preliminary oral examination

This is performed in the first appointment. It helps determine the need
for the management of acute conditions and whether a prophylaxis is
required to conduct a thorough oral examination.
Definitive oral examination

This is performed in the second appointment with the aid of
radiographs and mounted diagnostic casts. The following should be
evaluated:
1. Caries evaluation
• The remaining natural teeth are evaluated for the presence of any
caries (Fig. 22.2) and restored teeth (Fig. 22.3) are evaluated with
regard to their number, signs of recurrent caries and evidence of
decalcification.
• The selection of abutment teeth to receive rest seats must be made

before restorative treatment has begun. Amalgam and tooth-
coloured restorative materials are more likely to fail under forces of
occlusion than a cast metal restoration or porcelain, when rest seats
are incorporated.
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FIGURE 22.2 Decayed teeth are evaluated.
FIGURE 22.3 Restorations are evaluated.
2. Periodontal evaluation
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• To assess pocket depths, attachment levels, furcation involvement,
mucogingival problems and tooth mobility (Figs 22.4–22.6).
• Mobility may be due to trauma from occlusion, periodontitis and

loss of support. Mobility due to trauma from occlusion can be
reversed if the occlusion is corrected.
• The periodontal health of the remaining teeth should be restored to

optimum health by performing appropriate treatment like root
planning, gingivectomy, flap surgery and free gingival grafts.
Splinting of abutment teeth is considered when the remaining teeth
have reduced support and when only few widely spaced abutments
remain. This should be done only after restoration of periodontal
health.
FIGURE 22.4 Periodontal evaluation – gingivitis.
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FIGURE 22.5 Periodontal evaluation – gingival recession.
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FIGURE 22.6 Periodontal evaluation – furcation involvement.
3. Residual ridges, soft and hard tissues
• The residual ridge is examined to assess the contour, quality and

load-bearing capacity especially in distal extension base situations.
• The soft tissues are checked for any reactions to the wearing of a
prosthesis like denture stomatitis (Fig. 22.7), papillary hyperplasia,
and for any other pathological changes. The frena are checked for
their location and if positioned too high a surgical correction is
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contemplated.
• The hard tissues are examined for torus, bony exostoses and
undercuts, especially in the mylohyoid ridge and maxillary
tuberosity area. Any surgical correction, relief or change in major
connector design is planned.
FIGURE 22.7 Denture stomatitis.
4. Mounted diagnostic cast

The mounted diagnostic cast (Fig. 22.8) is analysed for the following
along with intraoral examination:
• Interarch space
• Occlusal plane
• Occlusion is checked for any interference and trauma from

occlusion
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FIGURE 22.8 Mounted diagnostic cast.
• This will include panoramic and periapical radiographs (Figs
22.9–22.11). The objectives of radiographic examination are as
follows:
○ Locate areas of infection and any other pathology.
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○ Reveal the presence of root fragments, foreign
objects, bone spicules and irregular ridge
formations.
○ Display the presence and extent of caries.
○ Evaluate existing restorations with respect to

marginal leakage and overhanging gingival
margins.
○ Evaluate root canal fillings.
○ Evaluate periodontal condition, alveolar support of

abutment teeth, the length and morphology of
roots.
FIGURE 22.9 Orthopantomograph (OPG) showing presence

of root fragments and alveolar support of abutment teeth and
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existing restorations.
FIGURE 22.10 OPG to evaluate the alveolar support and

periodontal condition of remaining teeth.
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FIGURE 22.11 Periapical radiograph will provide information
on status of restorations in abutments.
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Diagnostic impressions and casts
Purpose of making diagnostic casts
1. Analysis of the contour of both the hard and soft tissues of the
mouth.
2. Determination of the types of restorations to be placed on the

abutment teeth.
3. Determination of the need for surgical correction of exostoses, frena,

tuberosities and undercuts.
4. Survey and design of diagnostic cast (Fig. 22.12).
5. Analysis of occlusion and interarch space.
6. Presentation of the proposed treatment plan to the patient.
7. Fabrication of special tray.
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FIGURE 22.12 Designed diagnostic casts.
Impression material
The impression material of choice for making diagnostic or
preliminary impressions is ‘irreversible hydrocolloid’ or ‘alginate’.
They are accurate for diagnostic purposes, easy to manipulate, have
pleasant taste and odour and are nontoxic and inexpensive. However,
they provide less surface detail than some other impression materials
and are not dimensionally stable. They must be poured immediately.
If this is not possible, the impressions must be stored in 100%
humidity for not more than 1 h. They can be disinfected using 2% acid
glutaraldehyde solution.
Composition and chemistry

The composition of irreversible hydrocolloid is given in Table 22.1.
Table 22.1
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Composition of irreversible hydrocolloid impression material
Component Function Weight (%)

Potassium alginate Soluble alginate 15
Calcium sulphate Reactor 16
Zinc oxide Filler 4
Potassium titanium fluoride Accelerator 3
Diatomaceous earth Filler 60
Sodium phosphate Retarder 2
When the soluble potassium alginate is mixed with water, it reacts

with calcium sulphate forming an insoluble calcium alginate gel.
Water:Powder – 38 mL:16 g
Setting time: 3–4.5 min, it can be increased by cooling the water
Trays
Stock trays are used for making diagnostic impressions with alginate.
Stock trays are of three types:
• Rim-lock trays (Fig. 22.13)
• Perforated metal trays
• Plastic disposable trays
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FIGURE 22.13A, B Rim-lock trays.
Rim-lock trays and perforated trays are commonly used because

they are rigid an ensure confinement of the impression material.
Disposable plastic trays are too flexible, thus accuracy of the
impression and cast may be compromised.
Extension of maxillary tray

There should be a buccal clearance of 5–7 mm between the inner
flange of the tray and the buccal/facial surfaces of the teeth and
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residual ridges. It should extend up to and cover the maxillary
tuberosity (Fig. 22.14).
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FIGURE 22.14 Extension of maxillary tray. (A) Clearance of
5–7 mm from the facial surfaces of teeth and ridges. (B)
Should cover maxillary tuberosity.
This space is necessary so that in case of undercuts, the impression

can spring over the undercuts.
The drawbacks of selecting a tray that is too large is that it may be
difficult to insert in the patient’s mouth and it may interfere with the
coronoid processes of the mandible.
Extension of mandibular tray

There should be a clearance of 5–7 mm on the buccal and lingual sides
of the remaining teeth and residual ridge. It should cover the
retromolar pad distally (Fig. 22.15).
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FIGURE 22.15 Extension of mandibular tray.
If the tray extends too lingually, it may interfere with the tongue
and floor of the mouth. This can be overcome by bending the lingual
flanges of the stock tray.
The stock tray which has a correct width can be extended to cover the
desired area by using green stick compound or baseplate wax (Fig. 22.16).
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FIGURE 22.16 (A) Stock tray extended with baseplate wax.
(B) Stock tray extended with green stick compound.
Impression making
Position of patient and operator
The dentist should be standing and the patient is made to sit in an
upright position. The chair height should be adjusted such that the
patient’s mouth is at the level of the dentist’s elbow.
When the patient’s mouth is open, the occlusal plane of the arch for
which the impression is being recorded should be parallel to the floor.
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For a right-handed operator:
• When the maxillary impression is being made, the operator should

stand at the right rear of the patient. This allows the operator’s left
arm to encircle the patient and manipulate the patient’s mouth and
cheek of the left side (Fig. 22.17).
• When the mandibular impression is being made, the operator

should stand in front of the patient, holding the impression tray in
the right hand. Using the left hand the operator can manipulate the
patient’s lip and cheek of the right side (Fig. 22.18).
FIGURE 22.17 Position of patient and operator for maxillary

impression.
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FIGURE 22.18A, B Position of patient and operator for
mandibular impression.
Procedure
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Select a suitable, perforated or rim-lock impression tray and extend it
if required.
Water is taken in a clean, dry rubber bowl and the alginate powder
is added according to the recommended water powder ratio. Mixing
may be by hand or mechanical using an alginate mixer. If done by
hand, mixing should begin slowly using a stiff, broad blade spatula.
The spatula should compress the material against the sides to ensure
complete mixing. A figure of eight motion is used. Spatulation time is
45 s.
The material is loaded onto the tray in small increments and forced
under the rim lock or perforations. The tray is filled up to the flanges.
Place some impression material with a syringe on critical areas such
as abutment teeth, rest preparations and the palatal vault.
The tray is first seated on the side away from the operator, then in
the anterior region, followed by the near side, ensuring that the lip
and cheek are retracted at all times.
Hold the tray in position in the premolar regions, without allowing
movement, until the material sets.
The impression is removed quickly, along the long axis of the teeth
ensuring that it does not tear or distort. Fig. 22.19 shows completed
maxillary and mandibular diagnostic impressions using irreversible
hydrocolloid.
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FIGURE 22.19 Diagnostic impression using alginate (A)
Maxillary (B) Mandibular
Rinse the impression and spray with a suitable disinfectant.

Inspecting the impression: This should be done under a good light
source and magnification. The impression should not be dried with
compressed air as it causes a loss of moisture. It should be verified if
all the anatomic landmarks have been recorded accurately. It should
be repeated if voids are present; tears, trapping of lips, cheeks and
tongue are seen; inadequate extension of the impression and granular
appearance.
It is best to pour the cast immediately. If it is not going to be poured
immediately, place it in a humidor to prevent dehydration.
Diagnostic cast
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Pouring the diagnostic cast
The tray is suspended by its handle in a tray holder or a slightly open
drawer. Laying the tray on the table may displace the alginate from
the tray or cause distortion of the alginate.
The pour must begin within 12 min after the impression is removed
from the mouth. A ‘two-pour technique’ is used.
Dental stone, 150 g, is gently sifted into a mixing bowl containing 42
mL of water and hand mixed for 1–2 min or mechanically spatulated
under vacuum for 20–30 s. It is then placed on a vibrator until no air
bubbles rise to the surface. Stone is added in small increments to one
of the posterior extension of the impression, and the impression is
tipped slightly to allow the motion of the vibrator to cause the stone to
flow slowly over to the other side of the impression. This is done until
the entire impression is covered by 6–8 mm of stone.
The surface of the poured stone should be left rough to provide
locking undercuts for the second pour.
After allowing an initial set of 10–12 min, impression is placed in a
bowl of clear slurry water for 4–5 min to thoroughly wet the first pour
of stone.
A second mix of stone with the same water–powder ratio is mixed.
The stone is placed on a glass slab and formed into the approximate
shape of the impression. Remaining stone is vibrated onto the
roughened surface of the first mix of stone. The impression is then
inverted and placed into the stone on glass slab and the base is shaped
with a plaster spatula.
The impression is separated from the cast 45–60 min after the first
pour.
Trimming the diagnostic cast

The base of the cast is trimmed such that the occlusal surfaces of the
teeth are parallel to the base. The base should be trimmed until it is 10
mm thick at its thinnest point, usually the centre of the hard palate for
the maxillary cast and the depth of the lingual sulcus for the
mandibular cast.
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The posterior border of the cast should be perpendicular to the base
and to a line passing between the central incisors.
The sides of the casts should be perpendicular to the base of the cast
and parallel to the buccal surface of the posterior teeth.
A land area of 2–3 mm should be maintained around the entire cast.
The sides and the posterior borders are joined by trimming just
posterior to the hamular notch or retromolar pad (Fig. 22.20).
FIGURE 22.20 Cross-sectional dimensions of a diagnostic

cast and its base.
The anterior borders of the maxillary cast are trimmed differently

from those of the mandibular cast. The anterior borders of the
maxillary cast are formed by trimming from the canine area on each to
a point anterior to the interproximal area of the central incisors. The
anterior border of the mandibular cast is formed by creating a curving
wall from the canine on one side to the canine on the other (Fig. 22.21).
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FIGURE 22.21 Diagnostic casts: (A) maxillary and (B)
mandibular.
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Tongue space should be trimmed flat while preserving the lingual
frenum and alveololingual sulcus.
Nodules of stone caused by voids in the impression can be scraped
from noncritical areas.
Mounting of diagnostic cast

The diagnostic cast is mounted on an appropriate articulator using
jaw relation records. A facebow transfer is indicated when a semi-
adjustable articulator is used.
The use of facebow and procedures involved is described in detail in the
section on CD (Chapter 7).
After mounting the maxillary cast on the articulator with a facebow
transfer, the mandibular cast is mounted with the jaw relation records.
If most natural posterior teeth remain – and if no evidence of
temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disturbances, neuromuscular
dysfunction, or periodontal disturbances related to occlusal factors
exists – the proposed restorations may safely be fabricated in the
maximal intercuspal position (MIP). However, when most natural
centric stops are missing, the proposed prosthesis should be fabricated
such that the maximum intercuspal position is in harmony with
centric relation.
The procedure for recording jaw relations is described in Chapter 27.
The diagnostic cast is surveyed and the design of the partial denture is
drawn on the diagnostic cast (refer to Chapter 23) along with the procedures
required for ‘preparation of mouth’ (refer to Chapter 25).
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Differential diagnosis
Following assimilation of all the diagnostic data, a decision has to be
made whether the partially edentulous condition is to be rehabilitated
with a fixed or removable partial denture. The indications and
contraindications for these two treatment modalities have been
discussed in Chapter 31 and Chapter 18, respectively.
When only a few teeth remain, a decision is to be made regarding
removal of all teeth and construction of complete dentures.
A complete denture may be indicated for the following reasons:
• Poor prognosis of remaining teeth.
• Only anterior teeth remain and they are unaesthetic.
• Patient desires to extract the remaining teeth.
• Malalignment of remaining teeth.
• Economic reasons.
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Treatment planning
The treatment of partially edentulous patient can be divided into six
phases.
Phase I
• Emergency treatment to control pain or infection.
• Collection and evaluation of the diagnostic data – diagnostic casts

and radiographs.
• Developing a design and formulating a treatment plan.
Phase II
• Preparation of mouth.
Phase III
• Preparation of abutment teeth.
• Final impressions and fabrication of master cast.
Phase IV
• Fabrication of removable partial denture.
Phase V
• Denture insertion.
• Postinsertion instructions.
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Phase VI
• Maintenance and recall.
SUMMARY
The actual construction of the removable partial denture is only the
last of many complex procedures, all requiring the dentist to have
knowledge and skill in almost every phase of dental practice. Many
failures in removable partial dentures can be traced to an inadequate
diagnosis leading to an inappropriate or incomplete treatment plan.
Hence, the time spent on patient interview to record history,
ascertaining patient psychology and expectations and collecting the
diagnostic data, is invaluable and forms the most important phase in
the construction of a removable partial denture.
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CHAPTER
23
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Surveying
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 337
Definitions 337
Surveyor 337
Types 337
Parts 337
Uses/purposes of surveyor 339
Surveying 340
Surveying diagnostic cast 340
Tripoding or tripod marking 348
Survey lines 350
Survey of master cast 352
Summary 353
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Introduction
A standard dental arch for which a removable partial denture is to be
constructed is made of remaining natural teeth in varying angulations
and edentulous space/s of varying width and length. The challenge is
to design and fabricate a prosthesis that can be placed smoothly on the
teeth and edentulous ridge, and once in place will resist removal.
Everyone is aware of the difficulty in trimming and fitting acrylic
temporary partials, the same procedure is impossible with cast
partials as it involves metal. In a more definitive prosthesis, such
guesswork will create uncontrolled forces on teeth and ridge. Until
1950s most of the removable partial dentures were designed and
constructed by the time-honoured method of ‘eye balling’, which was
arbitrary. The advent of ‘surveyor’ has made this procedure more
scientific and controlled. Dr A.J. Fortunati is thought to be the first
person to employ a mechanical device to determine the relative
parallelism of tooth surfaces. The first commercial dental surveyor
was manufactured by J.M. Ney Company in 1923 (Ney Surveyor).
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Definitions
Survey: The procedure of locating and delineating the contour and
position of the abutment teeth and associated structures before
designing a removable partial denture.
Surveying: An analysis and comparison of the prominence of
intraoral contours associated with the fabrication of a dental
prosthesis.
Surveyor: A paralleling instrument used in construction of a dental
prosthesis to locate and delineate the contours and relative positions
of abutment teeth and associated structures.
Height of contour: A line encircling a tooth and designating its
greatest circumference at a selected axial position determined by a
dental surveyor.
Survey line: A line produced on a cast by a surveyor marking the
greatest prominence of contour in relation to the planned path of
placement of a restoration.
Path of placement: Defined as the specific direction in which a
prosthesis is placed on the abutment teeth (GPT8).
Guiding planes: Vertically parallel surfaces on abutment teeth
oriented so as to contribute to the direction of the path of placement
and removal of a removable dental prosthesis (GPT8).
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Surveyor
Types
The most commonly used surveyors are
1. Ney surveyor: Horizontal arm is fixed.
2. Jelenko (Wills) surveyor: Horizontal arm can swivel.
3. Williams surveyor: Horizontal arm is split and jointed.
Parts
1. Surveying platform: It is a metal base parallel to the floor onto
which a cast holder and vertical arm are attached (Fig. 23.1).
2. Surveying table: This consists of a base and cast holder. The base
sits on the platform and cast holder is attached to it (Fig. 23.1). The
cast to be surveyed can be secured to this holder. The holder is
attached to the base with a ball and socket joint that permits the cast to
be oriented in various horizontal planes so that the axial surfaces of
the teeth and soft tissue areas of the cast can be analysed in relation to
the vertical plane.
3. Vertical arm: This is attached to the platform and supports the

horizontal arm (Fig. 23.1).
4. Horizontal arm: This extends at right angles to the vertical arm and
the surveying arm is attached to it (Fig. 23.1). The Ney, Jelenko and
Williams surveyors differ in this aspect as mentioned.
5. Surveying arm: It drops vertically from the free end of the

horizontal arm (Fig. 23.1). It can be moved vertically up and down.
The Mandrel, which holds the surveying tools, is attached to its lower
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end. This arm is spring loaded in Jelenko surveyor, while it is passive
in the Ney surveyor.
6. Surveying tools: These are held by the mandrel attached to

surveying arm (Fig. 23.1). The tools are analysing rod, carbon marker,
undercut gauges and wax trimmer.
i. Analysing rod: It is the first tool used in

surveying. It is a cylindrical metal rod that
contacts the convex surface of the teeth to be
analysed, like a tangent contacting a curve,
thereby locating the height of contour (Fig. 23.2). It
helps determine the relative parallelism of one
surface to another and hence is also called as
paralleling tool. It also makes an initial assessment
of the path of insertion.
ii. Carbon marker: It is similar to lead points in a

pencil. It is used to draw the ‘survey line’ by
contacting the teeth similar to the analysing rod
(Fig. 23.3). They are circular in cross-section in
Ney surveyors and triangular in Jelenko
surveyors.
iii. Undercut gauges: Used to determine the

amount and location of retentive undercut on the
surface of an abutment tooth. It consists of a
vertical rod attached to the centre of a circular
metal plate. While the rod contacts the height of
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contour, the circular projection contacts the
undercut (Fig. 23.4). The size of projection can
vary giving the exact amount of undercut.
Generally, it comes as 0.010, 0.020, 0.030 inch
gauge.
iv. Wax trimmer: Used to trim excess wax from

block out areas to make them parallel to path of
insertion and to trim waxed crown restorations to
desirable path of insertion (Fig. 23.5).
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FIGURE 23.1 Parts of a surveyor: (1) surveying platform, (2)
surveying table, (3) vertical arm, (4) horizontal arm, (5)
surveying arm and (6) tools.
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FIGURE 23.2 Analysing rod.
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FIGURE 23.3 Carbon marker – used to mark the height of
contour.
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FIGURE 23.4 Undercut gauges. (A) Available in different
sizes. (B) Used to measure the undercut.
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FIGURE 23.5A, B Wax trimmer in use.
Uses/purposes of surveyor
1. Surveying the diagnostic cast
2. Tripoding
3. Surveying the master cast
4. Contouring wax patterns
5. Contouring crowns
6. Placing internal attachments
7. Placing internal rests
Surveying the diagnostic cast

First the diagnostic cast is surveyed to basically determine ‘the path of
insertion’ or the most favourable tilt. The factors that influence this are
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1. Retentive undercuts
2. Interferences
3. Aesthetics
4. Guide planes
Tripoding
After the path of insertion or final tilt of cast is selected, it must be
recorded on the diagnostic cast. This enables the cast to be oriented
back on the surveyor in the same position. This procedure of
recording the position is called tripoding. The tripod marks are also
transferred to the master cast, so that it can also be positioned
similarly.
Surveying the master cast

The master cast is tripoded in the same position as diagnostic cast by
tripoding. It is surveyed to perform the following procedures:
1. Beading
2. Block out
3. Relief
Contouring wax patterns

• This is performed by the surveying tool – the wax trimmer.
• Indicated when the proposed abutment needs to be crowned.
• When the wax pattern of the crown is prepared, the working cast is
placed on the surveyor in the same position as diagnostic cast, using
tripoding.
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• Guiding planes on all proximal surfaces of wax patterns adjacent to
edentulous areas should be made parallel to the determined path of
insertion.
• The height of contour of the wax pattern may also be adjusted to get
the right amount of undercut for the placement of retention and
reciprocal clasp arms.
Contouring crowns
• The established contours on wax patterns undergo some degree of
change following casting procedures and ceramic application. To
re-establish the original height of contour and guide plane as
developed in the wax pattern, the working cast with the metal
crown or unglazed ceramic crown is returned to the surveyor in the
same orientation using tripoding and the contour is refined.
• This is performed by attaching a handpiece holder to the surveying

arm. This holder then suspends a straight handpiece onto which
mounted cylindrical stones are attached. The guiding planes can be
refined by moving the surveying table so that the mounted stone
contacts the guiding plane of crown or restoration. Final finishing
and polishing or glazing is performed after this.
Placing internal attachments

• The surveyor may be used to position intracoronal retainers or
internal attachments along the path of insertion in the wax crown
pattern of abutment teeth, as the patterns are being formed (Fig.
23.6A and B). Absolute parallelism among the attachments is
necessary.
• The surveyor is first used to verify the space available in the

abutment by making a recess in the stone abutment teeth on
diagnostic cast. If space is adequate (without any pulpal
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encroachment), a recess is carved in wax pattern and attachment is
placed. The path of insertion is again verified after casting by using
the surveyor.
FIGURE 23.6 (A) Recess carved in wax pattern. (B)

Attachment placed.
Placing internal rests

• These are box-shaped exaggerated occlusal rests with vertical walls
and flat floors. They can be created in the wax patterns of
abutments crowns, in harmony with the path of insertion, by using
the straight handpiece of surveyor with appropriate tools.
• It provides good support and stabilization. Depending on the taper

of the walls, retention can be controlled. It is contraindicated with
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distal extension base partial dentures as more torque is applied to
the abutment using this interlocking rest.
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Surveying
The surveying procedure usually involves the following procedures.
Surveying diagnostic cast

This is done before the treatment plan is formulated.
Objective
The main objective of surveying the diagnostic cast is to determine the
most desirable path of placement (insertion) that will eliminate or
minimize the interference to the placement and the removal of
prosthesis.
This basically involves determining the most favourable tilt of the cast
with respect to various factors involved in determining the path of
placement.
Mounting of cast
The cast to be designed, whether maxillary or mandibular, is first
attached to the cast holder such that occlusal plane is parallel to the
base. The anterior teeth should face the vertical arm of the surveyor
and cast is locked in this position. This is called horizontal tilt or 0° tilt
and is the starting point for the surveying procedure (Fig. 23.7).
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FIGURE 23.7 Correct position of cast while mounting on
surveyor – horizontal or zero tilt.
Tilting
Tilting changes the position of the cast, which in turn changes the long
axis of each tooth on the cast relative to the horizontal plane. Tilt is
seen from the view of a person looking at the cast from the rear. Thus,
if anterior part of cast is lowered, it is called anterior tilt. Similarly the
cast can be tilted posterior, right, left or a combination of these (Figs
23.8 and 23.9). Tilting more than 10° from the horizontal should be
avoided as the patient would be unable to open the mouth sufficiently
to accommodate this exaggerated tilt. The final tilt determined after
considering the factors affecting the same will give the final path of
placement of the prosthesis.
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FIGURE 23.8 (A) Anterior tilt. (B) Posterior tilt.
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FIGURE 23.9 (A) Left tilt. (B) Right tilt.
In general, anteroposterior tilts will influence the guiding planes,

while the right and left lateral tilts will change amount of the retentive
undercuts, which in turn will affect placement of retentive and
reciprocal arms.
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Path of placement or insertion
As previously noted, the tilt of the cast determines at what angle the
partial denture will seat over the remaining teeth. This angle is
referred to as the path of placement. All the various factors that
influence this seating of the restoration should be considered to
determine the final path. It will always be parallel to the vertical arm
of surveyor (Fig. 23.10).
• The number of paths of placement may be single or multiple

depending on whether the edentulous space is tooth borne or distal
extensions. If it is completely tooth borne like a class III situation,
then the prosthesis will have a single path of placement (Fig. 23.11).
In case of Kennedy’s class II with a modification on the opposite
side, again there will be a single path as the same is controlled by
the guide planes on the tooth bound side (Fig. 23.12).
• In a class I situation, there will be multiple paths of entry and exit of

prosthesis on the abutments and additional guide planes on lingual
surfaces of other teeth may be needed to restrict the number of
paths (Fig. 23.13). The class IV situation will usually have a single
path parallel to the proximal surface of abutment teeth (Fig. 23.14).
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FIGURE 23.10 Path of placement or insertion.
FIGURE 23.11 Class III – single path of insertion.
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FIGURE 23.12 Modified class II – single path of insertion.
FIGURE 23.13 Class I – multiple path of insertion.
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FIGURE 23.14 Class IV – single path of insertion.
Factors affecting the path of insertion:

It may be impossible to achieve the optimum among all factors
which affect the path of insertion as one or other may need to be
compromised. It is only clinical judgment which finally dictates and
may be compromised without sacrificing the quality of service.
The following four factors should be considered before final path of
placement is selected.
1. Retentive undercuts
• The most important rule to consider is that retentive undercuts must

be present on the abutment teeth at the horizontal or 0° tilt (Fig.
23.7). As dislodging forces are always perpendicular to the
horizontal plane, even if cast is tilted to create undercuts on the
abutments (Fig. 23.15), there will still be no resistance to forces in
this direction. This is first checked using the analysing rod attached
to the vertical arm and examining the buccal surface of the
abutments (Fig. 23.16).
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• If undercuts are not present, they must be created. This can be done
by recontouring the buccal surface if only slight modification is
needed. Otherwise a crown is made on the abutment with the
desired undercut.
• When retentive undercuts are found at horizontal tilt, it may be

changed to alter the amount of undercut on abutments (Fig. 23.17).
Tilting is also used to increase the desirable undercuts and to
decrease undesirable undercuts on abutments. The available
undercuts could be distributed to obtain uniform retention (Fig.
23.18). The right lateral tilt increases undercuts on buccal surfaces of
teeth on right side and vice versa (Fig. 23.9).
• Tilting can also lower the height of contour such that the retentive
arm is placed at the gingival thirds of the abutment and not further
occlusally (Fig. 23.19). As already seen, this position of retentive
arm enhances aesthetics and reduces the rotational forces
transmitted by clasp on the abutments.
• The undercut gauge is then used to get the desired amount of

undercut after the survey line is scribed on the abutment (Fig.
23.4B). A 0.010 inch undercut is ideal for chrome alloys. For gold
alloys and wrought alloys, more undercut can be utilized as already
discussed. The retentive terminal should be placed either at the
distobuccal or mesiobuccal line angle in the gingival third of the
clinical crown of abutment.
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FIGURE 23.15 Dislodging forces are perpendicular to
horizontal plane. So undercuts must be present at horizontal
tilt on the abutments.
FIGURE 23.16 Analysing rod used to check for undercuts at

horizontal tilt.
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FIGURE 23.17 Altering the tilt to increase or decrease the
amount of undercut.
FIGURE 23.18 Tilting the cast can also ensure uniform

distribution of undercuts on the abutments.
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FIGURE 23.19 (A) Position of retentive tip more needs to be
placed more occlusally without tilting. (B) Position of retentive
tip placed more gingivally after tilting.
2. Interferences
Interferences to insertion of partial denture are mainly caused by:
i. Teeth
ii. Soft tissue undercuts
iii. Bony prominences or exostoses
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They have to be eliminated either by tilting the cast or rarely by
surgery.
Interferences in mandible
1. Lingual tori: If possible, relief can be provided under the major

connector to minimize pressure on tori, but this can lead to
compromise in thickness of major connector and tongue interference.
The only other practical option is surgery to remove tori (Fig. 23.20).
2. Lingual tilt of posterior teeth: Remaining teeth in the mandible are

frequently lingually inclined and tend to drift mesiolingually (Fig.
23.21). If unilateral, cast may be tilted to get better path of insertion
and undercut usage. If bilateral, major connector would have to be
placed away from the lingual mucosa to be able to insert the
prosthesis. This results in undesirable tongue interference and food
entrapment. Solutions may be use of labial bar, lingual retention,
recontouring, crowning and orthodontic uprighting of abutment teeth
depending on severity of problem and patient compliance.
3. Area lingual to retromolar pad: If unilateral, lateral tilting of cast

will solve problem (Fig. 23.22). If bilateral, acrylic denture base can be
trimmed to insert the denture or rarely surgery is indicated.
4. Bony prominence or undercuts: Undercuts buccal to premolars and

canine are not uncommon (Fig. 23.23). These interfere with denture
base and placement of bar clasp. If mild – tilting, if severe – surgery.
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FIGURE 23.20 Lingual tori.
FIGURE 23.21 Lingual tilting of posterior teeth.
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FIGURE 23.22 Interference lingual to retromolar pad.
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FIGURE 23.23 Bony prominences.
Interferences in maxilla
1. Palatal torus: Change of major connector design to avoid the torus

or surgery is indicated when interference with a palatal torus occurs
(Fig. 23.24).
2. Bony prominence and undercuts: These occur buccal to posterior

edentulous ridges. If these are relieved, it can lead to food entrapment
in the space created under the denture base and decreased denture
stability (Fig. 23.25). They can be corrected surgically.
3. Facial tipping of posterior teeth: This raises the height of contour to

a more occlusal level, making placement of retentive buccal clasp
arms unaesthetic and at a mechanical disadvantage, increasing forces
on the abutment (Fig. 23.26). Gingival tissues are also undercut in this
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situation contraindicating the use of bar clasp. If the (Fig. 23.27)
tipping is unilateral, titling will lower the height of contour (Fig.
23.28). If bilateral, recontouring of enamel can be performed if tipping
is slight (Fig. 23.29). If severe, crowning may be the only option.
4. Anterior ridge undercut: When an anterior ridge is undercut,

posterior tilting will reduce the same and also help in more aesthetic
positioning of anterior teeth (Figs 23.30 and 23.31). The denture flange
can also be eliminated by placing teeth directly on ridge – ‘gum fit’
FIGURE 23.24 Palatal torus avoided by use of horseshoe

major connector.
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FIGURE 23.25 Relief causes undesirable space.
FIGURE 23.26 Buccal tilting of maxillary posteriors causing

high survey line.
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FIGURE 23.27 A high survey line is contraindicated for bar
clasp due to presence of soft tissue undercut.
FIGURE 23.28 High survey line can be lowered by tilting.
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FIGURE 23.29 Buccal surface can also be recontoured to
lower the survey line.
FIGURE 23.30 Anterior undercut ridge.
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FIGURE 23.31 Eliminated by tilting to change the path of
insertion.
FIGURE 23.32 Placing teeth directly on ridge without denture

flange (gum fit) can also overcome anterior undercut ridge
problems.
3. Aesthetics
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To optimize aesthetics the following should be considered:
i. Metallic clasp arms should be concealed as much as possible. This

can be achieved by:
a. Tilting cast to lower the height of contour so

retentive tip could be placed in gingival third of
abutment (Fig. 23.33).
b. Selection of clasp with less metal display – I-bar

clasp (Fig. 23.34).
ii. Anterior artificial teeth should be placed in most natural position:
a. Mesial drifting or inclination of remaining

anterior teeth occurs when lost anterior teeth are
not replaced immediately. The replacement teeth
will be smaller than the original. The original size
can be restored by recontouring or disking the
proximal surfaces adjacent to edentulous space
with a surveyor. This not only enhances
aesthetics but also creates guide planes to allow
only a single path of insertion. Alternately
crowns can also be planned if recontouring is not
possible.
b. Large undercuts may be seen anteriorly on

proximal surfaces of teeth adjacent to edentulous
space (Fig. 23.35). If path of insertion is vertical,
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removable partial denture will be made with this
space visible (Fig. 23.36). This is unaesthetic and
also causes food entrapment. A posterior tilt will
make the path of insertion more labial and will
eliminate the space making the prosthesis more
aesthetic (Figs 23.37 and 23.38).
FIGURE 23.33 Placing retentive tip in gingival third will

conceal the clasp, enhancing aesthetics.
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FIGURE 23.34 I-bar clasp: displays less metal, hence more
aesthetic.
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FIGURE 23.35 Large anterior undercut.
FIGURE 23.36 RPD made as such will show an unsightly

mesial space.
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FIGURE 23.37 Posterior tilt eliminates undercut.
FIGURE 23.38 Better aesthetics with no space.
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4. Guiding planes
• These are prepared on the proximal or axial tooth surfaces of the

teeth (Fig. 23.39).
• They are created by the contact of the minor connectors and other
rigid components of the partial denture against the prepared
proximal tooth surface.
• They help in insertion and removal of prosthesis without any

undesirable forces on the abutments. Hence, it should be parallel to
the path of insertion.
• Using the analysing rod of surveyor, the proximal surfaces of the

abutments that can be made parallel to each other are identified by
anteroposterior tilting of the cast. The guide planes are then
prepared by recontouring the proximal enamel surface. Rarely
crowning of the abutment may be necessary to create guide planes.
• Sometimes the lingual surface of crowns is made parallel to the path

of placement by creating a ledge in wax pattern. This contact of the
reciprocal component will also create a guiding plane.
• Form: Width should be two-third the distance between the buccal

and lingual cusp tips or one-third the buccolingual width of tooth.
Height should be about two-third the length of the crown from the
marginal ridge cervically. In general, it should be 2–3 mm in height
occlusogingivally.
• Functions:
○ Make insertion and removal of prosthesis easier for

patient.
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○ Provide resistance to horizontal forces.
○ Minimize wedging forces on abutments.
○ Aid in stabilising individual teeth.
○ Minimize space between prosthesis and abutments

and reduce food entrapment.
○ Contribute to retention of prosthesis.
FIGURE 23.39 Guiding planes.
Tripoding or tripod marking

Definition: Those marks or lines drawn on a cast in a single plane
perpendicular to the survey rod to assist with repositioning the cast
on a dental surveyor in a previously defined orientation.
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The final position (tilt) of the cast in relation to the horizontal plane
has to be recorded so that the cast could be placed back on the
surveyor for any later analysis if necessary. This is called ‘tripoding’.
This can be achieved by the following two methods:
Tissue surface indexing

Cast with determined final tilt is locked on surveyor table (Fig. 23.40).
The vertical arm of surveyor is also locked (Fig. 23.41) such that it
contacts the tissue surface of the cast. Horizontal arm can be moved.
FIGURE 23.40 Cast is locked.
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FIGURE 23.41 Vertical arm is locked.
Undercut gauge is attached to the mandrel, and three widely

divergent marks are created on the tissue surface by pressing the
gauge against the cast (Fig. 23.42). These marks are then highlighted
in pencil by making a cross and circling it (Figs 23.43 and 23.44). These
marks should not be placed on areas of cast involved in framework
design (Fig. 23.45). This will establish three points in the same
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horizontal plane and permit the cast to be repositioned precisely (Fig.
23.46).
FIGURE 23.42 Undercut gauge scribes a mark.
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FIGURE 23.43 Mark highlighted with pencil.
FIGURE 23.44 Mark crossed and circled.
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FIGURE 23.45 Placement of three widely divergent marks on
areas of cast not involved in framework design.
FIGURE 23.46 Three marks in same horizontal plane.
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Alternately, the carbon marker can also be used to make the marks
but may cause smudges on the cast (Fig. 23.47).
FIGURE 23.47 Carbon marker used to make the marks.
Art portion indexing

This is the second method to tripod the cast.
Three lines and marks are scribed, one on the posterior, and one
each on the lateral surface of the art portion or base of the cast. This is
done by holding the analysing rod against the side of the cast and
making a mark with a sharp instrument (Fig. 23.48). All other
procedures are the same as before. By tilting the cast until all three
lines are again parallel to the surveyor blade, the original cast position
can be re-established.
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FIGURE 23.48 Art portion indexing.
Transferring tripod marks to another cast

In both the above methods, scoring (making a mark) the cast rather
than just drawing the marks with pencil or carbon marker, has the
advantage that if the cast is duplicated, the marks will also be
transferred from one cast to another. It is thus possible to transfer the
tripod marks from a master cast to a refractory cast.
If the marks successfully are to be transferred from the diagnostic
cast to a master cast, as there is no duplication done here, the
diagnostic cast is first repositioned on the surveyor by using the
tripod markings. Three additional marks are placed on cast on distinct
anatomic landmarks (Fig. 23.49). The commonly used landmarks are:
1. Distal marginal ridge of first premolar on one side.
2. Lingual cusp tip of first premolar of opposite side.
3. Incisal edge of lateral incisor.
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FIGURE 23.49 Additional anatomic landmarks used for
tripoding.
Since these points can be easily marked on any other cast of the
same patient (master cast), it can be repositioned in the same
orientation as diagnostic cast.
Once final path of placement of prosthesis is determined and the same is
tripoded for future reference, the survey line is marked on the cast by the
surveyor.
Survey lines
Definition: A line produced on a cast by a surveyor marking the
greatest prominence of contour in relation to the planned path of
placement of a restoration.
Blatterfein divided the abutment tooth into two halves by a vertical
line through the centre of the tooth. The area adjacent to edentulous
space was termed as near zone and the other area was called far zone
(Fig. 23.50).
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FIGURE 23.50 Near zone and far zone.
Blatterfein’s Classification of Survey Lines
Medium survey line

It passes from middle third of the tooth in the near zone to the
gingival third of the tooth in the far zone (Fig. 23. 51). Preferable to tilt
and produce this survey line whenever possible. Both circumferential
and bar clasps can be used with this survey line.
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FIGURE 23.51 Medium survey line.
Diagonal survey line

It passes from near the occlusal third in the near zone to the gingival
third in the far zone (Fig. 23.52). Commonly found on buccal surface
of canines and premolars. Circumferential reverse circlet and hair pin
clasps can be used or ‘T’ and ‘modified T-bar’ clasp can be used.
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FIGURE 23.52 Diagonal survey line.
High survey line

It is placed in the occlusal third in both near and far zones (Fig. 23.53).
Inclined teeth produce this survey line. A wrought wire combination
clasp can be used to engage this deep undercut. Ring clasp can also be
used on lone-standing abutments which are tilted and have high
survey line. It can be changed to a medium survey line by tilting,
recontouring or crowning.
FIGURE 23.53 High survey line.
Low survey line

It is placed in the gingival third of both near and far zones (Fig. 23.54).
It occurs on the opposite side of a tilted tooth with high survey line. It
is difficult to place any retentive arm. Reciprocal arm can be placed,
better to change contour by tilting, recontouring or crowning.
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FIGURE 23.54 Low survey line.
Following tripoding, the survey line is marked on all the remaining

teeth by fixing the carbon marker on the surveying arm of surveyor
(Fig. 23.55).
FIGURE 23.55 Marking of survey line by carbon marker.
After the survey line is marked, the diagnostic cast is designed taking
into consideration the various components, principles and
philosophies. These are described in Chapter 24.
The designed diagnostic cast is used as a guide for mouth preparation and
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after the same is completed, the master cast is made. The master cast with the
designed diagnostic cast is then sent to laboratory for surveying the master
cast.
Survey of master cast

The following procedures are performed by surveying the master cast.
Retripoding master cast

The master cast is tripoded in the same relation as diagnostic cast
using the procedures previously discussed under ‘tripoding’.
Design transfer to master cast

With the master cast tripoded and locked in the surveyor, the same
procedure used previously to design the diagnostic cast is now used
to transfer the design to the master cast.
Block out
Definition
The process of applying wax or another similar temporary substance
to undercut portions of a cast so as to leave only those undercuts
essential to the planned construction of prosthesis (or) elimination of
undesirable undercuts on a cast.
Material
The following can be used as block out material:
1. Combination of one sheet of baseplate wax and one stick of green

inlay wax.
2. 4½ sheets of baseplate wax, 4½ sticks of gutta percha, 3 sticks of

sticky wax, ½ tsp kaolin and ½ tube lipstick (colour).
3. Any commercially available block out material.
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Technique
The wax is added to the area to be blocked out by a wax spatula and
trimmed parallel to path of placement by attaching the wax trimmer
to the surveying arm. Trimming is facilitated by slightly warming the
wax trimmer.
Types
Depending on use, it is classified into three types:
1. Parallel block out

It could be made with 0°, 2°, 4° tapered styli (trimmer) (Fig. 23.56).
The selection of the parallel (0°) or tapered styli (2/4°) depends on the
need for increased freedom of movement of prosthesis in function. For
tooth bound partial dentures (class III), 0° is indicated. Tapered block
out is indicated for distal extension partials to allow some movement
in function.
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FIGURE 23.56 Different taper of styli.
Generally, this block out is done cervical to guiding plane surfaces

and all undercut areas that will be crossed by major or minor
connector (Fig. 23.57). It will include the following:
• Proximal tooth surfaces.
• Beneath all minor connectors.
• Tissue undercuts crossed by rigid connectors, origin of bar clasps.
• Deep interproximal spaces to be covered by minor connectors or

linguoplates.
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• Beneath bar clasp arms to gingival crevice.
FIGURE 23.57 Block out cervical to guiding planes.
2. Arbitrary block out

Areas of undercut not involved with framework should also be
blocked out with wax (Fig. 23.58). This minimizes distortion during
duplication. This is termed arbitrary as it is not contoured with block
out instrument. It includes the following areas:
• All gingival crevices.
• Gross tissue undercuts situated below areas involved in design of

framework.
• Tissue undercut distal to cast framework.
• Labial and buccal tooth and tissue undercuts not involved in
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denture design.
FIGURE 23.58 Arbitrary block out.
3. Shaped block out

These are ledges made on buccal and lingual surfaces to help place
plastic or wax patterns for clasp arms (Fig. 23.59). Following
duplication, this ledge which is created in refractory cast will help
guide easy placement of retentive clasp patterns. This is not an
essential step and need not be performed by the surveyor.
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FIGURE 23.59 Shaped block out.
Relief
Definition: The reduction or elimination of undesirable pressure or
force from a specific region under a denture base (GPT8). This is also
used for the creation of space for a material.
It involves addition of wax to make framework stand away from
master cast.
As already discussed in Chapter 22 in Section ‘components parts of
removable partial denture’, relief is provided under the denture base
in case of lattice and meshwork constructions to provide space for
acrylic resin and help in its attachment (Fig. 23.60).
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FIGURE 23.60 Relief areas.
Relief is also provided to reduce the pressure from a component

part on the mucosa as follows:
• Beneath lingual bar and bar of linguoplate.
• Areas in which ‘major connector’ will contact thin tissue –

mandibular lingual ridges and median palatal raphae.
SUMMARY
The surveyor is an essential tool in the diagnosis and treatment
planning of removable partial dentures. Surveying helps design a
removable partial denture such that the rigid and nonrigid
components of the prosthesis will go into the mouth as a single unit,
free from interferences, and in the mouth, will resist dislodging
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forces. The procedure involves surveying the diagnostic cast and
master cast. The diagnostic cast is surveyed to determine the path of
placement while considering the factors that influence the same. The
design of the prosthesis is made on the diagnostic cast, and after all
the necessary mouth preparations are performed, the master cast is
surveyed to provide block out and relief. The laboratory procedures
involved in the construction of the framework are continued after this
survey of master cast.
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CHAPTER
24
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Principles and design
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 354
Biomechanical considerations 354
Forces acting on the partial denture 355
Factors influencing the magnitude of stresses
transmitted to abutment teeth 356
Controlling stress by design considerations 358
Principles of design 363
Philosophy of design 363
Essentials of design 365
Design procedure 366
Summary 369
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Introduction
In a properly constructed fixed partial denture, all forces against the
prosthesis are directed towards the long axis of the abutment teeth
and the prosthesis itself does not move in function. This is in direct
contrast to the removable partial denture, where only in a short span
tooth supported or class III edentulous arch most forces are
transmitted down the long axis of the abutment teeth and limited
movement of the prosthesis occurs during function. In class I, II and
IV edentulous arches, the removable prosthesis combines the support
derived from the abutment teeth and soft tissue resulting in greater
stresses during function. These forces need to be controlled by
maximum coverage of the soft tissues and the proper use and
placement of components in the most favourable positions.
The design of the removable partial denture must originate on the
diagnostic cast so that all mouth preparations may be planned and
performed with a specific design in mind. Proper design of the
removable partial denture will contribute to the preservation of
remaining natural teeth, aid in the maintenance of tooth position and
occlusion and will restore mastication, improve phonation and
enhance appearance.
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Biomechanical considerations
Machines are classified as ‘simple’ and ‘complex’. There are six simple
machines – lever, wedge, screw, wheel and axle, pulley and inclined
plane. Complex machines are a combination of simple machines (Fig.
24.1).
FIGURE 24.1 Simple machines.
The removable partial denture in the mouth performs the action of

two simple machines – lever and inclined plane. We have to avoid or
reduce the effect of these two machines while designing the
prosthesis.
Lever is a rigid bar supported somewhere along its length (Fig.
24.2). Support point of the lever is called the fulcrum and lever can
move around the fulcrum.
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FIGURE 24.2 Lever and fulcrum.
There are three classes of levers: class I, II and III (Fig. 24.3).
FIGURE 24.3 R, resistance; F, fulcrum; E, effort.
The distal extension removable partial denture acts as a class I lever

(Fig. 24.4). As downward forces act on the denture base (effort), the
clasp (resistance), supported by occlusal rest (fulcrum) tries to come
out of the undercut due to rotational forces at the fulcrum. This
creates deleterious forces on the abutments and needs to be controlled
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by our design. This is the most efficient and easily controlled lever.
FIGURE 24.4 Class I lever in distal extensions.
The class II lever is seen in indirect retention in removable partial

denture, while the class III lever is not encountered.
The inclined plane effect is typically seen in the movement of minor
connectors and direct retainers against the guiding planes, and with
occlusal rests and their rest seats, if these are incorrectly prepared.
Forces applied in an inclined plane may cause deflection of part
applying the force (denture base), or result in movement in the plane
itself (abutment tooth) (Fig. 24.5).
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FIGURE 24.5 Inclined plane effect.
Forces acting on the partial denture

The tooth-supported partial denture is rarely subject to rotational
stresses. The distal extension prosthesis is subjected to a composite of
forces arising from three principal fulcrum lines.
Horizontal fulcrum line

This fulcrum occurs along the horizontal line joining the rests on the
two main abutments on either side of the arch (Fig. 24.6).
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FIGURE 24.6 Horizontal fulcrum line – fulcrum on horizontal
plane and movement on sagittal plane.
Movement around this fulcrum line occurs in the sagittal plane

resulting in rotation of the denture base away from or towards the
residual ridges. It is difficult to control the movement around this
fulcrum line.
Magnitude of rotational movement is greatest around this fulcrum
but not the most damaging because these are vertical forces on the
abutment teeth directed apically (Fig. 24.7). Fibres of periodontal
ligament are better equipped to resist vertical forces than horizontal
forces.
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FIGURE 24.7 Resultant forces directed apically.
Sagittal fulcrum line

This fulcrum extends from the occlusal rest on the terminal abutment
along the crest of the alveolar ridge on one side of the arch (Fig. 24.8).
In a class I arch, there would be two such fulcrums on either side.
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FIGURE 24.8 Sagittal fulcrum line – fulcrum on sagittal plane
and movement on vertical plane.
Movement around this fulcrum occurs in the vertical plane

resulting in rocking or side-to-side movement of denture base. It is
easier to control this movement.
Though this movement is not of great magnitude, the direction of
the resultant force is more nearly horizontal and not well resisted by
the tissues.
Vertical fulcrum line

This is a vertical fulcrum line located in midline, lingual to anterior
teeth (Fig. 24.9).
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FIGURE 24.9 Vertical fulcrum line – fulcrum on vertical plane
and movement on horizontal plane.
It controls rotational movements of the denture in horizontal plane

(flat circular movements of the denture).
Factors influencing the magnitude of stresses

transmitted to abutment teeth
1. Length of span
2. Quality of support of ridge
3. Clasp
i. Qualities
ii. Design
iv. Length
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v. Material
4. Abutment tooth surface
5. Occlusal harmony
Length of span
The longer the edentulous span (more missing teeth), (Fig. 24.10)
greater will be the force transmitted to the abutment teeth. Every
effort must be made to preserve posterior teeth so the span length is
less.
FIGURE 24.10 Less force will be transmitted to the

abutments supporting edentulous space (A) than (B).
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Quality of support of ridge
Large well-formed ridges are capable of absorbing greater amounts of
stress and also provide good stability. Flat ridges give good support
but poor stability. Sharp spiny ridge provides poor support and poor
to fair stability. Soft, flabby displaceable ridges provide poor support
and poor stability (Fig. 24.11).
FIGURE 24.11 (A) Flat ridge, (B) sharp spiny ridge and (C)
displaceable tissue.
Type of mucoperiosteum also influences the magnitude of stresses

transmitted to abutment teeth. Healthy mucosa, 1 mm thick, absorbs
forces better than a thin atrophic mucosa.
Clasp
1. Qualities of clasp
More flexible the clasp less stress is transmitted to the abutment tooth,
but more force is transferred to the edentulous ridge.
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A wrought wire combination clasp because of its flexibility will
transfer less stress to the abutment tooth, but has poor horizontal
stabilization.
Selection of clasp will depend on whether the abutment or ridge
needs protection. If abutment tooth is periodontally sound, a less
flexible clasp like bar clasp is indicated. If abutment is weak, then a
combination clasp can be used.
2. Clasp design
A clasp should be designed such that it is passive on complete seating,
and during insertion or removal of the prosthesis the reciprocal arm
should contact the tooth before the retentive tip passes over the
greatest bulge of the abutment tooth (Fig. 24.12).
FIGURE 24.12 Reciprocal arm should contact abutment first

to counteract the force created by the retentive terminal
passing over the undercut.
3. Length of clasp
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As already seen, more flexible the clasp less stress it will exert on the
abutment tooth. Flexibility can be increased by lengthening the clasp.
Clasp length may also be increased by using a curved rather than a
straight path on an abutment tooth (Fig. 24.13).
FIGURE 24.13 Increasing length by curving path of clasp to

engage same undercut.
4. Material
Chrome alloy being more rigid will exert greater stress on the
abutment tooth than noble alloys. Clasp arm of chrome alloys is
constructed with a smaller diameter than a gold clasp and will also
engage smaller undercut (Fig. 24.14).
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FIGURE 24.14 (A) Clasp of chrome alloy is of smaller
diameter and engages a smaller undercut than clasp of noble
alloy (B).
Abutment tooth surface

Surface of gold crown or any restoration offers more frictional
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resistance to clasp arm movement than does the enamel surface of the
tooth.
Greater stress is exerted on a tooth restored with gold than on a
tooth with intact enamel.
Occlusal harmony
A disharmonious occlusion with deflective occlusal contacts transmits
destructive horizontal forces to the abutment and ridge.
Partial denture constructed opposing a complete denture will be
subjected to a much less occlusal stress than one opposed by natural
dentition.
Occlusal load applied to the distal end of denture base will result in
more stress transmitted to the abutment teeth than load applied
adjacent to abutment tooth.
Ideally masticatory load should be applied in the centre of the
denture-bearing area, both anteroposteriorly and buccolingually, i.e.
in the second premolar–first molar region (Fig. 24.15).
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FIGURE 24.15A, B Ideally load should be applied in second
premolar–first molar area.
Controlling stress by design considerations

We have seen the forces acting on a distal extension partial denture
and the factors that influence these forces. Every effort must be made
to minimize or control these forces through the design of component
parts of the prosthesis as discussed below.
Direct retention
The retentive clasp arm is responsible for transmitting most of the
destructive forces to the abutment teeth.
Clasp retention should be kept at the minimum yet provide
adequate retention to prevent dislodgement of the denture.
Other factors should be used to contribute to retention so that the
amount of retention provided by clasp can be reduced. The factors are
explained as follows:
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1. Adhesion and cohesion
Adhesion is the attraction of unlike molecules for one another –
attraction of saliva to the denture on one side and tissues on the other.
Cohesion is the attraction of like molecules to each other – internal
attraction of molecules of saliva for each other.
To obtain the maximum use of forces of adhesion and cohesion, the
denture base must cover maximum area and must be accurately
adapted to the mucosa.
2. Atmospheric pressure
This may also contribute to retention, especially when a maxillary
complete palatal plate major connector is used and posterior margins
are sealed by beading.
3. Frictional control
Properly prepared guiding planes enable the minor connectors to
contribute substantially to retention as a result of frictional contact
with adjacent tooth surfaces. Guiding planes should be created on as
many teeth as possible.
4. Neuromuscular control
A properly contoured denture base significantly contributes to the
ability of the patient to retain the denture through the action of the
lips, cheeks and tongue.
Any overextension of denture will impinge on the patient’s
neuromuscular control and lead to loss of retention and increased
stress on abutments.
Clasp position
The position of retentive clasp is more important than the number of
retentive clasp used in any design.
The number of clasps used and their location is determined by
classification. It can be of the following three configurations:
1. Quadrilateral configuration
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Indicated in class III arches particularly when modification space
exists on the opposite side (Fig. 24.16). A retentive clasp is positioned
on each abutment tooth adjacent to the edentulous spaces.
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FIGURE 24.16A, B Quadrilateral clasp position.
When no modification space exists, the goal should be to place one

clasp as far posterior on the dentulous side as possible and one as far
anterior as space and aesthetics permit.
In this design, leverage is most effectively neutralized.
2. Tripod configuration
Indicated in class II arches. When modification exists, all teeth
adjacent to edentulous space are clasped resulting in this
configuration (Fig. 24.17A).
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FIGURE 24.17 (A) Tripod configuration in class II with
modification space. (B) Tripod configuration in class II without
modification.
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If there is no modification space present, one clasp on the dentulous
side of the arch should be positioned as far posterior, and the other, as
far anterior as factors such as interocclusal space, retentive undercut
and aesthetics will permit (Fig. 24.17B).
This design is not as effective as quadrilateral, but is most effective
in neutralizing leverage in class II situations.
3. Bilateral configuration
It is used in class I situations (Fig. 24.18).
FIGURE 24.18 Bilateral configuration.
The terminal abutment tooth on each side of the arch must be

clasped regardless of where it is positioned.
In this configuration, the clasps exert little neutralizing effect on the
leverage-induced stresses generated by the denture base. These
stresses must be controlled by other means.
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Clasp design
1. Cast circumferential clasp
Conventional simple circlet cast circumferential clasp originating from
distal rest and engaging mesiobuccal retentive undercut should be
avoided in distal extension removable partial denture. Every time the
denture base moves down on mastication, the retentive tip will try to
come out of the undercut causing torquing forces on the abutment
(Fig. 24.19).
FIGURE 24.19 Simple circlet clasp causing undesirable

forces on abutment if used in distal extensions.
The reverse circlet clasp engaging a distobuccal undercut is the

preferred cast circumferential clasp in this situation (Fig. 24.20). As the
denture base moves down, the clasp moves further gingivally into the
undercut without contacting the abutment. The clasp may produce
wedging force between the abutment and the adjacent tooth, which
can be countered by preparing a distal occlusal rest on the adjacent
teeth also (Fig. 24.21).
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FIGURE 24.20 Reverse circlet clasp indicated in distal
extensions when distobuccal undercut is present.
FIGURE 24.21 Occlusal rest should be prepared on the

adjacent tooth to prevent wedging of reverse circlet clasp.
2. Bar clasp
Bar clasp functions similar to reverse circlet clasp by engaging the
distobuccal undercut as the retentive terminal moves gingivally (Fig.
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21.91, Chapter 21). T-bar clasp with a distal–occlusal rest and rigid
circumferential arm causes least stress on abutment.
Bar clasp is not indicated with mesiobuccal undercut as then it will
function similar to simple circlet clasp.
Some clinicians use a mesial rest instead of distal as they feel
moving fulcrum anteriorly will direct forces more vertically, but this
can cause food impaction adjacent to edentulous space (Fig. 24.22).
FIGURE 24.22 Mesial rest can cause food impaction.
3. Combination clasp
It is used in distal extension bases when mesiobuccal undercut exists
on an abutment tooth (Fig. 24.23).
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FIGURE 24.23 Wrought wire retentive arm (combination
clasp) indicated when a mesiobuccal undercut exists.
Wrought wire retentive arm being more flexible will exert less stress
on the abutment.
Splinting
Splinting can be fixed or removable.
Fixed splinting
Adjacent teeth may be splinted to increase the periodontal ligament
attachment area and distribute the stress over a larger area of support.
This is achieved by crowning the two teeth and is called fixed splinting
(Fig. 24.24).
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FIGURE 24.24 Fixed splinting with crowns.
An extremely week tooth should not be splinted with a strong

tooth.
Indications for fixed splinting
1. Loss of periodontal attachment by disease or therapy.
2. Abutment has tapered or short roots.
3. When terminal abutment stands alone (Fig. 24.25): Edentulous

space distal to canine and lateral incisor is also missing. The canine is
splinted to central incisor by making a three unit fixed partial denture
replacing lateral incisor. The distal space is replaced with removable
partial denture.
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FIGURE 24.25 Lone-standing abutment (maxillary canine)
should be splinted to central incisor with fixed partial
dentures.
Removable splinting
This is achieved by clasping more than one tooth on each side of the
arch, using a number of rests for additional support and stabilization
of the teeth and prosthesis (Fig. 24.26). Most of the clasp arms will not
be retentive.
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FIGURE 24.26 Removable splinting with clasps.
The main advantage of removable splinting is cross-arch

stabilization.
It should not be attempted if fixed splinting is possible because it is
a compromised treatment.
Indirect retention
It basically assists the direct retainer in preventing displacement of
denture away from the tissues by moving the fulcrum farther from the
force. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 21.
In Kennedy’s class I arches, indirect retainer is mandatory. One on
each side of arch is placed as far anteriorly as possible (Fig. 24.27).
FIGURE 24.27 Indirect retainer in class I arch.
In class II arch, it is not critical as anyway the opposite arch will be

clasped to make a tripod configuration and the most anterior clasp
with its rest will function as indirect retainer (Fig. 24.28). If
modification space exists on the opposite arch, the mesial abutment on
the tooth-supported side, with its rest and clasp assembly will serve as
indirect retainer (Fig. 24.29). If that mesial abutment is not far enough
anteriorly, then another rest seat positioned further anterior may be
used as indirect retainer (Fig. 24.30).
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FIGURE 24.28 Class II – opposite arch will be clasped to
make a tripod configuration and the most anterior clasp with
its rest will function as indirect retainer.
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FIGURE 24.29 Class II with modification – the mesial
abutment on the tooth-supported side, with its rest and clasp
assembly will serve as indirect retainer.
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FIGURE 24.30 Class II with modification – another rest seat
positioned further anterior, may be used as indirect retainer if
mesial abutment of modification is not located too far
anteriorly.
In class III, indirect retainer is not necessary as there are no

rotational forces.
In class IV, the consideration is reverse of class I and II. The indirect
retainer is placed as far posteriorly as possible on either side (Fig.
24.31).
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FIGURE 24.31 Indirect retainer placed bilaterally as far
posteriorly as possible in class IV.
Occlusion
Occlusion should be in harmony with movements of
temporomandibular joint and neuromusculature to minimize the
stress transferred to the abutment teeth and residual ridge.
The initial occlusal contact should always be in the remaining
natural teeth. Mandible should not be guided into protrusive or lateral
movements by the metal or artificial teeth. Contact of the natural teeth
should be same whether denture is in mouth or not.
Reducing the buccolingual width and the number of teeth being
replaced will also reduce the stress transmitted.
Sharp cutting surfaces and sluiceways can help relieve some
unnecessary force during mastication. Steep cuspal inclines on the
artificial teeth should be avoided because they tend to set up
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horizontal forces detrimental to the abutment.
Denture base
It should cover maximum area of the supporting tissue as possible
and flanges should be as long as possible to help stabilize against
horizontal movements. Overextension should be avoided.
Distal extension denture base should cover the retromolar area and
tuberosity of maxilla as these structures absorb stress better.
Accurate adaptation of denture base also lessens movement of the
same and reduces stress.
Contour of the polished surfaces in harmony with the cheeks, lips
and tongue also helps in reducing the stress transmitted.
Major connector
Some major connectors can control stress effectively.
In the mandibular arch, the lingual plate major connector properly
supported by rests aids in distribution of functional stress. It also
supports periodontally weakened anterior teeth. Added rigidity
provided by lingual plate also helps in distributing stress created on
one side of the arch to the other side – cross-arch stabilization.
In the maxillary arch, broad palatal major connector can distribute
stress over a large area by covering hard palate and contributing to
support, stability and retention of the prosthesis.
Minor connector
Intimate tooth to partial denture contact is brought about by contact of
minor connectors with tooth (guiding planes). It offers horizontal
stability to partial denture and abutment tooth against lateral forces.
Rests
These control stress by directing forces down the long axis of
abutment teeth. Periodontal ligament is better suited to withstand
vertical rather than horizontal forces.
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The floor of rest seat must form an angle less than 90° to the long
axis, to hold the tooth in position and to prevent its migration.
In distal extensions, the rest seat should be saucer shaped to allow
some movement of the rest, so that forces are not transmitted to the
abutment.
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Principles of design
These principles were developed by A.H. Schmidt in 1956. While
designing removable partial dentures, the following instructions
should be adhered to:
1. Dentist must have a thorough knowledge of both the mechanical

and biologic factors involved in removable partial denture design.
2. The treatment plan must be based on a complete examination and

diagnosis of the individual patient.
3. Dentist must correlate the pertinent factors and determine a proper

plan of treatment.
4. The prosthesis should restore form and function without injury to

the remaining oral structure.
5. A removable prosthesis is a form of treatment and not a cure.
Philosophy of design
Of the various schools of thought, none is backed by scientific
research or statistics.
They are ideas of dentists who by extensive clinical experience have
formulated rules by which they produce a design.
If the physiologic limits of the supporting tissues are respected, then
almost any design can be successful.
The challenge is primarily in designing class I and II arches and to
some extent in class IV arches and distributing the forces acting on the
removable partial denture between the soft tissues and teeth.
There are three philosophies that drive the design process of
removable partial dentures:
1. Stress equalization
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The proponents of this theory state that resiliency (movement) of the
tooth secured by the periodontal ligament in an apical direction is not
comparable to the greater resiliency and displaceability of the mucosa
covering the edentulous ridge. So if a load was applied to the denture
base, the greater movement of the mucosa would cushion the force,
while the lesser movement of abutment tooth would generate more
stress on the tooth. Therefore, it is believed that a type of stress
equalizer is needed to replace the rigid connection between denture
base and direct retainer and transfer the load from the abutment to the
ridge.
These are also called stress breakers or articulated prosthesis. These can
be of two types and are described as follows:
1. Stress equalizer having a movable joint between the direct

retainer and denture base (Fig. 24.32). They may be hinges, sleeves
and cylinders or ball and socket joints. They allow vertical movement
and hinge action of the distal extension denture base and help transfer
load from the abutment to the ridge. Examples: Dalbo, Crismani and
ASC 52 attachments.
2. Stress equalizer having a flexible connection between the direct

retainer and denture base. They may be wrought wire connectors and
divided major connectors (Fig. 24.33).
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FIGURE 24.32 Hinge attachment allowing movement of
denture base.
FIGURE 24.33 Divided major connector – will allow denture

base to move interdependently without creating stress on the
direct retainer, thereby the abutment.
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Advantages
1. Minimal direct retention is required as denture base acts more

independently.
2. Minimize tipping forces on abutments thus preserving its alveolar

bone support.
3. Proposed that force is evenly distributed between abutment and

ridge.
4. Intermittent movement of denture base against mucosa has a

massaging or stimulating effect on the soft tissues.
5. Splinting of weak teeth possible.
6. If relining is not done when needed, abutment is not damaged as

quickly.
Disadvantages
1. Construction is complex and costly.
2. Constant maintenance is required and it is difficult or impossible to

repair.
3. Vertical and horizontal forces are concentrated on ridge which leads

to rapid resorption of the ridges.
4. If relining is needed but not done, there will be excessive ridge

resorption.
5. Effectiveness of indirect retainer is lost.
6. More food entrapment in the joint and spaces.
7. Can easily distort if not handled properly.
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2. Physiologic basing
The proponents of this theory also believe that there is relative lack of
movement in abutment teeth in an apical direction compared to the
ridge. They advocated distributing the stress by displacing or
depressing the ridge mucosa during the impression making
procedure or by relining the denture base after it has been
constructed. So when an occlusal load is applied on denture base, it
will adapt better and will withstand the force.
The tissue surface is recorded in functional form and not anatomic
form.
Prosthesis constructed from tissue displacing impression will be
above the plane of occlusion when the denture is not in function (Fig.
24.34). To permit vertical movement from rest position to functional
position, the retentive clasps need to have minimum retention and
also their number has to be less.
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FIGURE 24.34 (A) Anatomic position of mucosa. (B)
Functional impression made by depressing mucosa. (C)
Denture in functional position. (D) Denture will rest above
occlusal plane when not in function.
Advantages
1. Intermittent base movement has a physiologically stimulating effect

on the underlying bone and soft tissue.
2. Less need for relining and rebasing.
3. Simple in design and construction with minimal maintenance and
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repair.
4. The looseness of the clasp on the abutment tooth reduces the

functional forces transmitted to the tooth.
Disadvantages
1. Denture is not well stabilized against lateral forces.
2. There will be always premature contact when mouth is closed,

which is uncomfortable for the patient.
3. It is difficult to produce effective indirect retention.
3. Broad stress distribution

The proponents of this philosophy advocated distributing the forces
of occlusion over as many teeth, and as much of the available soft
tissue area as possible. This is achieved by means of additional rests,
indirect retainers, clasps and broad coverage denture bases.
Advantages
1. Teeth can be splinted.
2. Prosthesis is easier and less expensive to construct.
3. No flexible or moving parts so less danger of distorting the denture.
4. Indirect retainers and other rigid components provide excellent

horizontal stabilization.
5. Less relining required.
Disadvantages
1. Greater bulk may cause prosthesis to be less comfortable.
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2. Increased amount of tooth coverage can lead to dental caries if oral
hygiene is not maintained properly.
Out of these three philosophies, stress equalization has few

advocates. Broad stress distribution is the most widely used
philosophy and will be followed in the design procedure.
Essentials of design
A summary of the various components and considerations for all the
Kennedy’s classification types is discussed below. Class I and II will
be considered together as their principles are similar. All the factors
have already been discussed under ‘Controlling Stress by Design
Consideration’ in the previous sections of this chapter and in Chapter
21, and are indicated as such.
Class I and II
1. Direct retention
i. Retention should not be the prime objective.
ii. Proper contour and close adaptation of an adequately extended

denture base, accurate fit of the framework and properly prepared
guide planes should be used to help in retention.
2. Clasps
Simplest type of clasp should be used.
i. Class I prosthesis usually requires two retentive clasp assemblies –

one on each terminal abutment. The type of clasp depends on the
location of undercut, distobuccal – reverse circlet and bar clasp,
mesiobuccal – combination clasp as already discussed in ‘Clasp
design’. Reciprocal arms should fulfil all its requirements.
ii. Class II should have three retentive clasp arms. Type and location
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on distal extension side are similar to class I. On the other side if
modification is present, simple circlet clasp is on the teeth anterior and
posterior to edentulous space. If there is no modification, then one
anterior and one posterior embrasure clasp (Fig. 24.35). Reciprocal
arms should fulfil all the requirements.
FIGURE 24.35 In class II with no modifications, two

embrasure clasps are placed, one anteriorly and other
posteriorly.
3. Rests
Teeth selected for rest preparation should provide maximum possible
support for the prosthesis. Rests should be placed next to the
edentulous space with few exceptions. All other requirements are
already discussed.
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4. Indirect retention
Number, location and type are already discussed in this chapter under
‘Controlling Stress by Design’.
5. Major connectors
These fulfil all the requirements and specifically the requirements for
distal extensions.
6. Minor connectors
These must fulfil all the requirements.
7. Occlusion
If there are sufficient centric stops, then MIP ( Maximal Intercuspal
Position) is utilized. If there are insufficient centric stops, then centric
occlusion is given (MIP at centric relation). All other parameters are
already discussed in this chapter.
8. Denture base
Selective pressure technique is used to record ridge in a functional
form. All other criteria are already discussed.
Class III
1. Direct retention
Retention can be achieved with much less potential harmful effect on
the abutment teeth than with the class l or II arch. The position of the
retentive undercut on abutment teeth and type of clasp is not critical.
2. Clasp
Quadrilateral positioning of clasp arms is ideal. Tooth and tissue
contours and aesthetics should be considered, and the simplest clasp
possible is selected.
3. Rests
Should fulfil all the requirements and are placed adjacent to
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edentulous space when possible.
4. Indirect retention
Indirect retention is not required.
5. Major connectors
These fulfil all the requirements and are used as per indication.
6. Minor connectors
These fulfil all the requirements.
7. Occlusion
Given in MIP and all other parameters are already discussed in this
chapter.
8. Denture base
A functional type impression is not required.
Class IV
Design considerations are unique. To satisfy aesthetics, artificial teeth
may need to be placed anterior to the crest of the residual ridge,
resulting in potential tilting leverages. Planning should begin to
reduce these stresses even before extraction is planned by considering
the following:
i. Preservation of labial alveolar process.
ii. Retaining teeth to serve as an intermediate abutment or as an

overdenture abutment.
iii. Shorter the edentulous span, less will be the tilting leverage.
The quadrilateral configuration, with the anterior clasps placed as

far anterior and the posterior clasps placed as far posterior as possible,
would be the ideal. The major connector should be rigid and broad
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palatal coverage should be used in the maxillary arch.
Indirect retention should be used as far posterior to the fulcrum line
as possible. An ideal quadrilateral configuration of clasping may
preclude the need for an additional indirect retainer. A functional type
of impression may be indicated if the edentulous area is extensive.
Design procedure
Armamentarium
1. Surveyor with its tools.
2. Articulator – plasterless if possible or any simple hinge or mean

value articulator.
3. Colour pencils – red, blue, black, brown.
Colour coding
Colour coding allows for easy understanding of the design marked on
the diagnostic models by the technician and improves the
communication between the dentist and laboratory.
At present no universally accepted colour coding system exists.
Commonly red, black, blue and brown colours are used.
• Red: Means ‘required action’ or the teeth require some preparation.

It marks the teeth and soft tissues which are to be prepared,
recontoured and relieved. Solid red shows where occlusal rest is to
be prepared. Diagonal red lines show where recontouring is
necessary. Tripod marks are also marked in red.
• Black: Denotes survey lines on teeth and soft tissues. Instructions on

cast base on type of tooth replacement, type of clasp, depth of
undercut are also written in black.
• Blue: Denotes portions that will be made of acrylic – mostly denture
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bases and acrylic teeth.
• Brown: Denotes all metallic portions.
Procedure
1. Occluded diagnostic casts
The following procedures are performed on occluded diagnostic casts:
i. Proposed rest areas are marked on the cast base below the tooth
with a short line (Fig. 24.36).
ii. Any cuspal relief needed to provide adequate occlusal clearance for
the rest is marked in red on the tooth to be prepared (Fig. 24.37).
iii. Line marked on lingual surface of upper anterior teeth demarcates

incisal limits of metal extensions and gingivo-occlusal limits of
proposed rests and indirect retainers (Figs 24.38 and 24.39).
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FIGURE 24.36 Proposed rest areas are marked on the cast
base.
FIGURE 24.37 Cuspal relief needed is marked on tooth.
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FIGURE 24.38 Incisal limits of metal extensions.
FIGURE 24.39 Gingivo-occlusal limits of proposed rests and

indirect retainers.
2. Type of tooth replacement

This is indicated by marking the type of replacement on the labial side
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of ridge of the missing tooth (Fig. 24.40). The following symbols are
used:
I. Denture tooth – No symbol
II. Tube tooth – T
III. Facing – F
IV. Metal pontic – M
V. Reinforced acrylic pontic – RAP
FIGURE 24.40 Type of tooth replacement marked on the

labial side of ridge of the missing tooth.
3. Select the final tilt of cast

The final tilt is selected by placing the cast on surveyor at horizontal
tilt and tilting the cast to consider – retentive undercuts, interferences,
aesthetics and guiding planes. The cast is locked in position once the
final tilt is determined. This is discussed in Chapter 23. The areas that
require modification are marked in red.
4. Tripod the cast
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The tilt of cast is recorded by tripoding for future reference (Fig.
24.41).
FIGURE 24.41 Tripoding the cast.
5. Mark the survey lines and soft tissue undercuts

The carbon marker is placed and survey line is marked in black on all
the teeth (Fig. 24.42). Soft tissue undercuts are also scribed for
designing bar clasps (Fig. 24.43).
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FIGURE 24.42 Survey line marked.
FIGURE 24.43 Soft tissue undercut marked.
6. Mark the areas to be prepared in the mouth

Rests and indirect retainers are then marked in red (Fig. 24.44). Areas
to be recontoured are also marked in red as evenly spaced diagonal
lines (Fig. 24.45).
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FIGURE 24.44 Rests and indirect retainers marked.
FIGURE 24.45 Areas to be recontoured.
7. Mark the denture base area

Outline the exact position and extent of the denture base area in blue
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(Fig. 24.46).
FIGURE 24.46 Extent and position of denture base area

marked.
8. Mark the major and minor connectors

The framework with major and minor connectors is marked in brown
to join the already marked rests, indirect retainers, denture base and
replacement teeth (Fig. 24.47).
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FIGURE 24.47 Major and minor connectors marked.
9. Mark the retentive terminal

Desired undercut is measured with undercut gauge and location of
retentive terminal is marked as a red line of 2 mm (Fig. 24.48).
FIGURE 24.48 Retentive terminal marked.
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10. Draw the clasp arms
With a brown pencil, the clasp arms are drawn to the correct size,
shape and location and are connected to the other components (Fig.
24.49). If wrought wire clasp is used, the symbol WW is marked on
the cast base (Fig. 24.50).
FIGURE 24.49 Clasp arm marked.
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FIGURE 24.50 Wrought wire arm marked.
11. Designed diagnostic cast (fig. 24.51)

SUMMARY
Biomechanical principles guide the design of cast partial dentures
depending on the forces acting on the denture. These forces transmit
deleterious forces to the abutment teeth which will affect the
prognosis and can destroy the tissues. Every effort must be made to
select the component parts judiciously to mitigate these forces and
allow the prosthesis to function adequately in the long term. Broad
stress distribution to transfer and share the stress is the design
philosophy of choice.
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FIGURE 24.51 Designed diagnostic cast.
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CHAPTER
25
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Mouth preparation
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 370
Classification 370
Preparation of mouth 370
Preparation of abutment teeth 374
Summary 381
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Introduction
Mouth preparations are procedures that change or modify existing
oral structures or conditions, to facilitate placement and removal of
prosthesis for its efficient physiologic function and long-term success.
This step contributes to the philosophy that prosthesis must not only
replace what is missing but also preserve what is remaining. Mouth
preparation follows preliminary diagnosis and development of
tentative treatment plan and design. Following this, the master cast is
made.
Definition: Mouth preparations are identified as those procedures
that are accomplished to prepare the mouth for the reception of
prosthesis – Renner Boucher.
Objectives
• Establishing state of health in supporting and contiguous tissues.
• Eliminating interferences or obstructions.
• Establishing acceptable occlusal plane.
• Alteration of natural tooth form for the requirements of form and

function of prosthesis.
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Classification
Mouth preparation may be classified basically into two parts:
1. General preparation of the mouth which involves nonprosthodontic

preparation (where no prosthetic procedure is performed) and
prosthodontic preparation (which may involve some prosthetic
procedures like crowns).
2. Specific preparation of abutment teeth to create guiding planes,

retentive undercuts and occlusal rests.
Mouth preparation should be completed before impression

procedures for master cast on which denture is to be constructed.
Oral surgical and periodontal procedures should precede abutment
preparations to allow healing period.
A period of 6 weeks, but preferably 3 months, should be provided
between surgical and restorative procedures.
Preparation of mouth
Procedures involved in mouth preparation are summarized in
Flowchart 25.1.
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FIGURE 25.1 (A) Irregular occlusal plane. (B) Enameloplasty
done to correct the occlusal plane.
FLOWCHART 25.1 Classification of procedures involved in

mouth preparation
Nonprosthodontic preparation
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It includes procedures which do not involve any kind of
prosthodontic treatment.
1. Relief of pain and infection

Teeth that are causing pain or discomfort due to caries or defective
restoration and infection should be treated to eliminate pain.
Large carious lesion which is asymptomatic should be restored with
an intermediate restoration to prevent possibility of any acute pain
during treatment.
Gingival tissues should also be treated early to eliminate acute
infections like abscesses.
2. Oral surgical procedures

Conditions requiring oral surgical procedures should be treated first.
This includes the following processes:
i. Extraction
Regardless of its condition each tooth must be evaluated for its
strategic importance and saved if possible. At the same time, no heroic
attempts should be made to save a seriously affected tooth, which
would contribute little to the success of removable partial denture
(RPD).
Extraction of nonstrategic teeth that are detrimental to the design of
RPD should be part of the treatment plan.
ii. Removal of residual roots

Generally, all retained roots should be removed especially those that
are close to the tissue surface, those associated with pathologies and
those adjacent to abutment teeth.
Removal is accomplished from facial or palatal surfaces to preserve
the ridge height.
iii. Impacted teeth

All impacted teeth should be removed to avoid acute and chronic
infection with extensive bone loss later.
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iv. Malposed teeth
Loss of teeth may lead to extrusion, mesial drifting or combinations of
malpositioning of remaining teeth. Alveolar bone supporting the
extruded teeth is also carried occlusally in some instances.
Surgical repositioning of these teeth is contemplated only after
orthodontic treatment is ruled out.
v. Cysts and odontogenic tumours

Panoramic radiographs should be taken for ruling out unsuspected
pathology. Radiolucencies and radiopacities noted in the radiograph
should be investigated, and the diagnosis should be confirmed
through biopsy.
Surgical removal should be done.
vi. Exostoses and tori

Mucosa covering these bony protuberances is usually thin and liable
to ulcerate. Exostoses approximating gingival margins may
complicate the maintenance of periodontal health and may lead to the
loss of abutment teeth.
Denture design may be modified to accommodate the exostosis but
could result in additional stress to the supporting elements and
compromised function. If so, surgical removal of exostosis and tori is
done.
vii. Hyperplastic tissue

This presents as fibrous tuberosities, soft flabby ridges, folds of tissues
in the vestibule or floor of the mouth and palatal papillomatosis.
Removal of this excess tissue provides a firm base for the denture
and reduces stress on supporting teeth and tissues.
viii. Muscle attachments and freni

With loss of alveolar bone height, muscle attachments may occur near
the alveolar crest. Mylohyoid, buccinator, mentalis and genioglossus
muscles are likely to produce this problem. Ridge extension
procedures can be performed to reposition these attachments.
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Maxillary labial and mandibular lingual freni most commonly
interfere with denture design. These can be easily modified using
surgical procedures.
ix. Bony spines and knife-edge ridges

Sharp bony spicules should be removed and knife-edge ridges should
be rounded. If insufficient ridge support results, then vestibular
deepening should be done.
x. Abnormal lesions
All abnormal soft tissue lesions like polyps, papillomas and
haemangiomas should be excised and pathological investigation
should be done before fabrication of denture.
Investigation of white, red or ulcerative lesions like hyperkeratosis,
erythroplasia and ulcerations should be done regardless of their
relationship to proposed denture. All these lesions should be excised.
xi. Dentofacial deformities

Patients with these deformities have multiple missing teeth and
malocclusion as part of the problem. Correction of the deformity
should form part of the treatment plan to replace teeth and develop a
harmonious occlusion.
xii. Alveolar bone augmentation

Ridge augmentation is done for atrophic ridges, flat palatal vault and
mild-to-moderate anteroposterior ridge relation discrepancy. It is
done with synthetic graft materials like hydroxyapatite and
autogenous bone grafts. It enhances the support and stability of the
denture.
3. Conditioning of abused and irritated tissues

Conditioning of the tissue is required if:
i. Denture-bearing mucosa is irritated or inflamed.
ii. Anatomical structures like rugae, incisive papilla and retromolar
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pad are distorted.
iii. Burning sensation in tongue, ridge area, cheeks and lips.
These are usually associated with ill-fitting dentures, prosthesis

with poor occlusion, bruxism, diabetes, nutritional deficiencies,
endocrine imbalances and blood dyscrasias.
If denture is the problem, patient is advised against wearing them
till the tissues return to normal. If this is not possible, tissue
conditioners are used to provide a soothing and cushioning effect on
the irritated mucosa till mucosa becomes normal. Recommended
home care during this period would include patients rinsing with
saline solution three times in a day, massaging the soft tissues, using
multivitamins and a high protein, low carbohydrate diet.
4. Periodontal preparation
Periodontal preparation usually follows or is performed
simultaneously with oral surgical procedures and is completed before
restorative procedures.
The success of the prosthesis depends on the health and integrity of
the periodontal tissues of the remaining teeth and the following
procedures are performed to achieve this objective.
i. Initial disease control therapy

Initial disease control therapy includes the following procedures:
• Oral hygiene instructions.
• Scaling and root planning.
• Elimination of local irritating factors other than calculus-like

overhanging margins of restorations and open contacts leading to
food impactions.
• Elimination of gross occlusal interferences.
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• Temporary splinting of mobile teeth to allow any periodontal
procedures to be performed.
• Use of night guard as a temporary splint and to stimulate any

unopposed teeth.
ii. Definitive periodontal surgery

After the initial therapy if periodontal problems persist, then
gingivectomy, periodontal flap and reconstructive surgical
procedures, as indicated, may be planned to eliminate periodontal
disease.
iii. Recall maintenance

This is very important in maintaining periodontal health. It includes
reinforcement of oral hygiene measures and thorough scaling and root
planning. The frequency of recall varies with each patient but in
general patients with moderate to severe periodontitis should be
placed on a 3–4 months recall system.
5. Endodontic and restorative treatment

Teeth with pulpal involvement and root end pathology are candidates
for endodontic therapy. Restorative therapy like – crowns, inlays,
onlays, restoration of carious lesions and replacement of defective
restorations should be integrated with endodontic treatment.
6. Orthodontic treatment
Orthodontic preparation is carried out to achieve the following:
• Reduce the need for prosthetic teeth as much as possible.
• Position the teeth to allow the most natural prosthetic replacement

of teeth.
• Create sufficient vertical height to allow room for placement of

artificial teeth.
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• Allow sufficient occlusal guidance on natural teeth.
Unfortunately in many patients a large number of teeth are missing

so there may not be enough remaining teeth to serve as an anchor
from where the moving force can be applied.
Prosthodontic preparation
These procedures may involve prosthodontic treatment in certain
areas of the mouth. It may or may not involve the abutment teeth.
1. Correction of occlusal plane

Uneven occlusal plane is common in partially edentulous situations
due to:
• Supraeruption and infraeruption
• Mesial migration
• Tipping of teeth
• Malrelationship of jaws
To correct the plane of occlusion, one of the following procedures

which range from simple to complex may be employed:
i. Enameloplasty
Definition: The intentional alteration of the surfaces of teeth to
change their form (Fig. 25.1).
Amount of correction that can be achieved by this technique is
limited as complete penetration through enamel is contraindicated
except for the elderly with more secondary dentin.
Anatomy of the tooth should be maintained including grooves and
sluiceways after procedure.
The enamel is contoured using high-speed tapered diamonds and
polished with carborundum wheels or points. Fluoride treatment of
the tooth surface increases its resistance to caries.
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ii. Onlay
It is a conservative method of correcting occlusal plane as minimal
tooth preparation is required compared to a full veneer crown. It
maintains the natural contours of facial and lingual enamel surfaces as
only occlusal surface is prepared.
The occlusal surface of the tooth being prepared should be free of
pits and fissures.
It can be made of chrome or gold alloy. If chrome alloy is used, the
occluding surface should be processed with tooth coloured acrylic
resin to prevent attrition of opposing tooth.
Disadvantages:
• Less retention
• More metal display
iii. Crowns
When the height of contour, retentive undercut or guiding plane
needs to be altered, a full veneer crown is preferred to an onlay to
change the occlusal plane (Fig. 25.2).
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FIGURE 25.2 (A) Irregular occlusal plane with need to
change height of contour in tooth number 15. (B) Tooth
preparation in 25. (C) Crown fixed will correct occlusal plane
& alter height of contour.
A mounted diagnostic cast will be required to gauge the amount of

tooth preparation required so as to decide the need for endodontic
treatment.
iv. Endodontics with crown or coping

Retaining teeth in strategic positions will greatly improve the
prognosis of the partial denture:
Retaining mandibular second or third molars to serve as posterior
abutments will support the prosthesis and will prevent it from being a
more complicated distal extension situation (Fig. 25.3).
FIGURE 25.3 Retaining a distal abutment (left) will prevent a

distal extension situation (right).
Retaining a tooth in the centre of a long anterior edentulous span
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will reduce the vertical movement of the denture.
These important teeth are mostly supraerupted with loss of
periodontal support. Endodontics followed by crown or overdenture
coping will restore occlusal plane and allow the teeth to be retained.
v. Extraction
Although it is desirable to retain teeth as much as possible, some
conditions like severely malposed teeth and teeth interfering with
placement of major connector require extractions to correct occlusal
plane as they compromise the success of treatment.
vi. Surgery
Surgical repositioning of one or both jaws, fully or partly, can be
contemplated to correct occlusal plane. These include osteotomies and
repositioning procedures.
2. Correction of malalignment
Malaligned teeth create the following difficulties:
• Maintenance of oral hygiene.
• Determining a simple path of insertion.
• Establishing guiding planes.
• Placement of clasp arms of direct retainers.
Teeth which are malposed facially or lingually are more difficult to

correct than supraerupted teeth. The following methods can be
adopted for their correction:
i. Orthodontic realignment
• It is the treatment of choice.
• With multiple missing teeth, anchorage may be difficult.
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ii. Crown
• Partial or full veneer crowns may be used.
• Indicated to correct buccal or lingual tipping.
• If tipping is extensive, endodontic treatment followed by a post will

correct the same. However, long axis of crown and root should not
be too dissimilar, as undesirable horizontal forces will occur on
tooth. Hence, severe malposition cannot be corrected by crowning.
iii. Enameloplasty
• This is always considered first, but amount of correction that is

possible is limited.
• Enameloplasty can be used to recontour buccal or lingual surfaces to

eliminate the interferences to the path of placement of major
connector.
3. Provision of support for weakened teeth

It is necessary to provide additional support to teeth with poor
periodontal support by splinting them or using them as overdenture
abutments. Splinting is discussed in Chapter 24.
Overdenture abutments
Teeth strategically positioned in the arch with more than 50% bone
loss can be retained as overdenture abutments. They resist the
tissueward forces and provide support.
Retaining such a tooth distal to edentulous space will convert a
potential distal extension base into a tooth supported situation,
improving the function of denture and patient acceptance.
Preparation of abutment teeth
Objectives
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• Direct stress along the axis of the tooth.
• Eliminate interferences by recontouring of teeth.
• Create retention by simple alteration procedures.
• Allow placement and removal of prosthesis without transmitting

wedging types of stress against teeth with which it comes in contact.
Classification of abutment teeth

1. Abutment teeth that require only minor modifications to their
coronal portions
The following sequence of mouth preparation is followed:
1. Preparation of guiding planes
2. Modification of height of contour
3. Preparation of retentive undercuts
4. Rest seat preparation
The first three preparations require only minor modifications or

reshaping of enamel. The procedure is called ‘enameloplasty’. This is a
conservative procedure as it involves only modification of enamel
surface. If extensive preparations are necessary to accomplish the
desired contours, indirect restorations like crowns are better options.
As already discussed, whenever the enamel is reshaped or contoured,
the procedure involves use of high speed diamonds, polishing with
carborundum wheels or points and fluoride treatment of the tooth
surface to increase its resistance to caries.
i. Preparation of guiding planes

Surfaces of the proximal or lingual surfaces of abutment teeth are
made parallel to each other and to the path of insertion of RPD. They
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can be prepared on abutments as follows:
a. Abutments adjacent to tooth supported segments

The procedure for preparation is as follows:
• Diagnostic cast mounted on surveying table at the desired tilt

should be placed on tray in front of operator. Handpiece with
cylindrical diamond point is positioned over abutment tooth on cast
to visualize the correct angulation. The same is reproduced in the
mouth (Fig. 25.4A and B).
• Tooth is prepared using gentle light sweeping stroke from buccal

line angle to lingual line angle.
• Flat surface created should be 2–4 mm in occlusogingival height

(Fig. 25.5A).
• Reduction should follow curvature of proximal surface (Fig. 25.5B).
• All prepared surfaces are polished as described for enameloplasty.
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FIGURE 25.4 (A) Required angulation is checked on cast.
(B) The same is transferred to the mouth.
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FIGURE 25.5 (A) Flat surface created should be 2–4 mm in
occlusogingival height. (B) Reduction should follow curvature
of proximal surface.
b. Abutments adjacent to distal extension bases
• Occlusogingival height of preparation is 1.5–2 mm (Fig. 25.6A).
• This permits slight rotation around the distal occlusal rest, which
avoids torquing forces on distal abutment tooth (Fig. 25.6B).
FIGURE 25.6 (A) Occlusogingival height of preparation is

1.5–2 mm. (B) Slight rotation around the distal occlusal rest,
which avoids torquing forces on distal abutment tooth.
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c. Lingual surface of abutments
• This is done to provide maximum resistance to lateral stresses.
• Occlusogingival height of preparation is 2–4 mm, located in the

middle third of the crown (Fig. 25.7).
• Contour of gingival third should not be changed because it can

cause damage to marginal gingiva due to improper food deflection.
FIGURE 25.7 Occlusogingival height of preparation is 2–4

mm, located in the middle third of the crown.
d. Anterior abutment teeth

Preparation is similar to that described for any guiding plane and
achieves the following:
• Provides parallelism ensuring stabilization.
• Minimizes wedging action.
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• Reduces undesirable space between denture and abutment teeth
and enhances aesthetics (Fig. 25.8).
• Increases retention through frictional resistance.
• Restores normal width of edentulous space.
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FIGURE 25.8 Guiding planes in anterior teeth reduce
undesirable space between denture and abutment teeth and
enhance aesthetics.
ii. Modification of height of contour
• Enameloplasty to change height of contour is performed to provide

ideal placement of clasp arms and remove interferences for
placement of major connectors.
• Maxillary posterior teeth tend to tip buccally making placement of

retentive terminal unaesthetic. Mandibular posteriors tip lingually
making it difficult to place reciprocal arm and lingual major
connectors (Figs 25.9 and 25.10). In both these situations, height of
contour will be near occlusal surface.
• Amount of correction depends upon thickness of enamel. If dentine

is exposed, placement of restoration is considered.
• Preparation is best done with tapered diamond stones.
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FIGURE 25.9 Height of contour placed occlusally on lingually
tipped molar.
FIGURE 25.10 Level of height of contour decreased after

preparation with tapered diamond.
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iii. Preparation of retentive undercut (dimpling)
Enameloplasty to modify retentive undercuts is termed ‘dimpling’.
• Performed to increase a less than adequate retentive undercut.

Should be avoided if other undercuts exist and can be utilized to
provide adequate design.
• Procedure is successful only when the buccal and lingual surfaces of

abutment are nearly vertical (Fig. 25.11A and B).
• The prepared retentive undercut is in the form of a gentle

depression – dimpling. It should be 0.010 inch deep measured from
a line parallel to the path of insertion. It is placed parallel and close
to gingival margin (Fig. 25.12).
• Preparation is done using small round end tapered diamond stone.

End of stone is moved in an anteroposterior direction near line
angle of tooth. Depression should be 4 mm in mesiodistal length
and 2 mm in occlusogingival height. It should be highly polished.
FIGURE 25.11 (A) Vertical buccal and lingual sides lacking

undercuts. (B) Retentive tip engaging the dimple.
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FIGURE 25.12 Dimpling: right side figure gives correct shape
and position, a pit should not be created like figure on the left.
iv. Preparation of rest seats

The form, functions and types of rests are described in Chapter 21.
Rest seats must always be prepared after preparation of guiding
planes.
Procedure for preparation of rests on enamel and restoration is
described below:
a. Occlusal rest seat in enamel
• Outline form of occlusal rest is triangular with base of triangle at

marginal ridge and apex towards the centre of the tooth (Fig. 25.13).
• A channel of correct depth and desired outline of preparation is

created by small round diamond stone, diameter similar to No. 8
round bur (Fig. 25.14).
• Lower the marginal ridge at either buccal or lingual extent of rest

seat to continue inward towards centre of tooth and then return to
marginal ridge.
• Island of enamel which remains within outline form is then

removed and the floor is spoon shaped or saucer shaped.
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• Deepest portion of rest seat is towards the centre of tooth
preparation and raises gradually towards marginal ridge (Fig.
25.15).
• Adequacy of occlusal rest seats can be checked by:
○ Visual inspection.
○ Direct tactile contact.
○ Asking patient to bite on softened bite wax and

verifying the imprint (Fig. 25.16).
○ Making a check cast.

• Sharp line angles are removed with a No. 4 round steel bur at slow
speed.
• The preparation is smoothed with a rubber disc and polished with

pumice. Fluoride treatment is recommended.
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FIGURE 25.13 Outline form of occlusal rest.
FIGURE 25.14 Preparation with small round diamond.
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FIGURE 25.15 Outline and deepest part.
FIGURE 25.16 Imprint on bite wax checked.
b. Occlusal rest seat in new cast crown restoration
• Should always be placed while making wax patterns.
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• Sufficient occlusal clearance should be created for rest and
restoration.
• A depression is added to the preparation to accommodate rest seat

(Fig. 25.17).
• Rest seat in wax pattern prepared by using No. 4 round steel bur
and then cast.
FIGURE 25.17 Tooth preparation for crown with depression

for rest seat.
c. Occlusal rest in existing crown restoration
• Due to economic reasons, it may be necessary to prepare occlusal

rests on existing crowns. It must be ensured that crown restoration
has adequate marginal integrity and occlusal harmony.
• If perforation of crown occurs during preparation, new restoration

must be made. Patient must be warned of this possibility.
• Procedure similar to rest preparation on enamel.
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d. Occlusal rests in amalgam restorations
• Less desirable, as amalgam alloy tends to flow under constant

pressure.
• Rest seats are prepared using No. 4 round bur, not diamond.
• Proximal portion of amalgam restoration and isthmus should have

sufficient width after preparation to resist fracture.
• Preparation is similar to rest preparation on enamel.
• Polishing is similar to any amalgam restoration.
e. Occlusal rests for embrasure clasps

Embrasure clasps are described in Chapter 21.
• Preparation extends over occlusal embrasures of two adjacent

posterior teeth from mesial fossa of one tooth to distal fossa of other
tooth (Fig. 25.18).
• Small round diamond stone is used to prepare the outline form for a
normal occlusal rest in both the teeth. Marginal ridges should be
reduced equally.
• Contact point between teeth should not be broken.
• Same round diamond stone is used to prepare the buccal and

lingual extension of occlusal rests over buccal and lingual
embrasures (Fig. 25.19). Obtaining sufficient clearance in the
embrasures is important.
• Buccal clearance can also be obtained by using a cylindrical

diamond stone. It is held horizontally from buccal surfaces of teeth
pointing towards lingual surface (Fig. 25.20).
• Clearance can be checked by placing two pieces of 18 gauge side by
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side in embrasure and patient should be able to close mouth
without contacting metal. Clearance can also be checked by making
patient close on soft bit wax and measuring thickness with wax
calipers.
• Preparation should be 1.5–2 mm wide and 1–1.5 mm deep.
• Procedures for finishing and polishing are similar to occlusal rests.
FIGURE 25.18 Preparation extends over occlusal

embrasures of two adjacent posterior teeth from mesial fossa
of one tooth to distal fossa of other tooth.
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FIGURE 25.19 Same round diamond stone is used to
prepare the buccal and lingual extension of occlusal rests
over buccal and lingual embrasures.
FIGURE 25.20 Buccal clearance can also be obtained by

using a cylindrical diamond stone. It is held horizontally from
buccal surfaces of teeth pointing towards lingual surface.
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f. Lingual or cingulum rest
The characteristics of the rest are described in Chapter 21.
• Using flat end large diamond cylinder preparation should begin low
on one marginal ridge, pass over cingulum and pass gingivally to
contact opposite marginal ridge (Fig. 25.21A and B). For a safe side,
0.25 inch diamond disc can also be used for preparation if space
permits.
• Rest seat must be gingival to contact level of opposing tooth.
• Occlusion should be checked for adequate clearance even before

tooth preparation.
• Polishing is done with carborundum-impregnated rubber wheels

and points.
• Cingulum rests on cast crown restorations are preferred to those on

enamel as they can be easily made on wax patterns.
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FIGURE 25.21 (A) Outline form of cingulum rest. (B)
Prepared with cylindrical diamond, showing correct position of
bur.
g. Incisal rest seat preparation

The characteristics of the rest seat are described in Chapter 21.
• It is prepared only on enamel surfaces. If a cast restoration is

planned, cingulum rest is preferred.
• Preparation is made using small safe-sided diamond disc or tapered

cylindrical diamond, parallel to path of insertion (Fig. 25.22).
• First cut is made vertically 1.5–2 mm deep in the form of a notch and
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2–3 mm inside the proximal angle of the tooth. Enamel walls and
base of notch are rounded with small flame-shaped diamonds (Fig.
25.23).
• The groove must be carried slightly over to labial surface to prevent

facial tipping. Groove must be continued part way down the lingual
surface as indentation to accommodate minor connector (Fig. 25.24).
• Preparation is finished and polished with carborundum-

impregnated rubber wheels and points.
FIGURE 25.22 Preparation is made using small safe-sided

diamond disc or tapered cylindrical diamond, parallel to the
path of insertion.
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FIGURE 25.23 First cut is made vertically 1.5–2 mm deep in
the form of a notch and 2–3 mm inside the proximal angle of
the tooth.
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FIGURE 25.24 (A) Labial view and (B) lingual view of
preparation.
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2. Abutment teeth that are to have cast restorations
Cast restorations like inlays, onlays and crowns are planned on
abutments in the following situations:
• If enameloplasty does not achieve usable natural contours, as in

tipping, rotation, malalignment, supra- and infraeruption of
abutment.
• Presence of caries, defective restorations, tooth fracture and

endodontic treatment in abutment tooth.
• The guiding planes, height of contour, retentive undercuts and

occlusal rests are prepared on the wax patterns of these restorations
with mounted casts on the surveyor.
Inlays
• When inlay is the restoration of choice, proximal and occlusal

surface that support minor connectors and occlusal rests require
modification in preparation.
• Buccal and lingual proximal margins must be extended well beyond

line angles of tooth (Fig. 25.25).
• Axial wall is carved to confirm with external proximal curvature of

tooth (Fig. 25.26).
• There should be 1–1.5 mm of restorative material between occlusal

rest and inlay margin (Fig. 25.27).
• The rest is made on the wax pattern of inlay.
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FIGURE 25.25 (A) View of distal surface of MOD onlay
preparation for lower left second premolar showing broad
extension of box, where occlusal rest with minor connector
will be placed. (B) View of mesial surface, not as broad where
there is only contact with adjacent tooth with no rest.
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FIGURE 25.26 Occlusal view showing axial wall curvature in
conformity with external proximal tooth curvature.
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FIGURE 25.27 There should be 1–1.5 mm of restorative
material between occlusal rest and inlay margin.
Crowns
• Three quarter crowns, complete coverage cast crowns and porcelain

veneer crowns can be used. Ideal for partial denture is complete
coverage crown.
• Preparation should be made to accommodate the depth of occlusal

rest, which is seen as a depression in the prepared tooth, in the rest
area.
• If crowns are to be veneered with acrylic resin or porcelain, they are

surveyed again after veneering to confirm the established contours.
With resin veneers, it is better to place the retentive terminal on
metal due to poor abrasion resistance of resin.
SUMMARY
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The success or failure of a RPD depends on how well the mouth
preparations are accomplished. It is only through intelligent planning
and competent execution of mouth preparations that the partial
denture can satisfactorily restore lost dental functions and contribute
to the health of the remaining oral tissues. Table 25.1 summarises &
lists the various procedures for preparing the mouth to receive a cast
partial denture.
Table 35.1
Summary of clinical procedures involved in mouth preparation in
their order of priority.
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CHAPTER
26
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Secondary impressions and
master cast
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 382
Anatomic impressions 382
Procedure 382
Functional impressions 383
Requirements 383
Factors influencing support of distal extension
base 383
Classification 384
Impression procedures 384
Master cast 388
Altered cast technique 388
Summary 389
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Introduction
In tooth-supported removable partial dentures (class III and many
class IV partially edentulous arches), the occlusal forces transmitted to
the abutment teeth are directed vertically along the long axis of the
teeth through the occlusal, incisal or lingual rests. The edentulous
ridges do not contribute to the support of the partial denture. Since
abutment teeth are the sole support of the tooth-supported prosthesis,
they can be constructed on a master cast made from a single, pressure-
free impression that records the teeth and the residual ridge in their
anatomic form (anatomic impressions).
A tooth- and tissue-supported removable partial denture (class I
and class II) obtains support from both the abutment and the residual
ridge. If the prosthesis is constructed on an anatomical impression, it
will exert excess pressure on the abutments as the soft tissue under the
denture base is compressed and moves under occlusal loading. A dual
impression technique is used to distribute the forces to the abutment
teeth and the residual ridge such that support is provided by both.
The impression of the teeth should be made with a material that
captures the teeth in the anatomic form, as teeth do not change
position under function. The impression of the soft tissue, on the other
hand, is made in such a manner so as to record the tissues in their
functional state (functional impressions).
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Anatomic impressions
Anatomic form is the surface contour of the ridge when it is not
supporting an occlusal load.
These are indicated for tooth-supported partial dentures and most
class IV. Most maxillary distal extension bases can also be recorded
with this technique.
A single impression with medium body/regular body/monophase
elastomeric impression material using a custom tray is the preferred
technique. Putty with light body wash in a stock tray can also be used.
Irreversible hydrocolloid – alginates, may also be used. Addition
silicones are preferred.
Procedure
Fabrication of custom tray

1. Outline of the tray is marked on the primary cast. It should extend
up to the vestibule (Fig. 26.1).
2. A wax spacer 2 mm in thickness is adapted on the cast and at least

three tissue stops (one anteriorly and two posteriorly on either side)
are created in noncritical areas to provide space for the impression
material (Fig. 26.2).
3. A custom tray is fabricated with autopolymerizing acrylic resin

(Fig. 26.3).
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FIGURE 26.1 Outline of the tray on the primary cast.
FIGURE 26.2 A wax spacer on the cast.
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FIGURE 26.3 Custom tray fabrication.
Impression making
1. Evaluate the custom tray in the mouth and correct the extension.
2. Impression material is mixed and loaded onto the tray after

application of tray adhesive. In case of alginate, perforations in tray
provide retention.
3. Tray is seated in the mouth and held steady till material sets.
4. Impression is removed, washed and checked for any imperfections

(Fig. 26.4).
5. A master cast is poured after beading and boxing (Fig. 26.5).
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FIGURE 26.4 Evaluate the impression.
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FIGURE 26.5 Master cast.
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Functional impressions
Functional form is the form of the residual ridge recorded under some
loading or compression. This could be achieved by occlusal loading,
finger loading, specially designed individual trays or consistency of
recording medium.
It is indicated for distal extension bases (class I and class II),
especially in the mandibular arch. Maxillary distal extension ridges
are covered by firm mucosa, stress is borne by crest and slopes of the
ridge and hence a functional impression may not be needed.
Another indication for this type of impression is a long span
anterior edentulous ridge (class IV).
A dual impression technique is used along with a combination of
impression materials – one that records the teeth in anatomic form
and the other that records the residual ridge in functional form.
Requirements
1. Record the tissues under the same loading as the teeth.
2. Distribute the occlusal load over a large area.
3. Demarcate accurately the extent of the denture base.
Factors influencing support of distal extension

base
The following factors determine the extent of displacement of the
residual ridges thereby indicating the support.
Quality of soft tissue covering edentulous ridge

• A firm, tightly attached thick mucosa will offer the greatest support.
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• The more displaceable tissue is present over the edentulous ridge,
less is the support.
• Surgical removal of flabby tissue is indicated to increase the

support.
Type of bony architecture of denture-bearing area

• Cancellous bone has less ability to resist vertical forces compared to
cortical bone. This is due to its irregular surface which acts as an
irritant to overlying soft tissue when stress occurs. This results in
chronic inflammation of soft tissues which leads to resorption of the
cancellous bone.
• The crest of the maxillary and mandibular ridge is composed mainly

of cancellous bone and hence should not be considered as a prime
source of support.
Design of partial denture

• Rotational forces on the ridges in distal extension bases can be
controlled by our design considerations (see Page 354, Chapter 24).
• The most efficient method to control rotational stress is by using

indirect retainers.
Amount of tissue coverage of denture base

• The broad stress distribution design philosophy demands that the
denture base must cover the maximum amount of surface area of
the edentulous ridge to effectively distribute the functional stresses.
• Overextension must be avoided, as it can cause soft tissue irritation,

ulceration and even lifting or dislodgement of the base leading to
leverage forces on the clasped abutment teeth.
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Amount of occlusal force
• Greater the occlusal load on a denture base, greater should be its
support.
• A denture base that is opposed by a full complement of natural

teeth requires more support than that opposed by a complete
denture.
• Narrowing the food table of the artificial teeth will help reduce the
load transmitted to the denture base.
• Supplemental grooves and sluiceways on artificial teeth increase the

masticatory efficiency thereby reducing the load transmitted.
Support from denture-bearing area

In the maxillary edentulous ridge:
• Crest of the ridge provides the maximum support and is the

primary stress-bearing area.
• The buccal slopes of the ridge, though covered by a layer of cortical

bone, is not placed perpendicular to the vertical forces, so it offers
little resistance to them. It will, however, resist lateral forces,
reducing the total force.
• Hard palate also provides some resistance to vertical displacement.
In the mandibular edentulous ridge:
• Buccal shelf area, composed of very dense cortical bone, bordered

by the external oblique ridge, is an excellent primary stress-bearing
site. The soft tissue covering the cortical bone in this region is also
firm and dense. It is also positioned perpendicular to the vertical
occlusal stresses.
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• The slopes of the residual ridge contribute to resisting horizontal
forces.
Fit of denture base

To derive optimum support from stress-bearing areas, accurate fit of
denture is mandatory.
Type of impression registration

Impression plaster and zinc oxide eugenol impression paste are best
suited to record the ridges in the resting or anatomic state because of
their low viscosity, though it can also be recorded by other materials
like elastomeric materials and hydrocolloids. This largely depends on
the fit of the tray and the thickness of the spacer.
Functional impressions to compress the tissues are better made with
higher viscosity materials like waxes, impression pastes and
elastomers.
Classification
Functional impression procedures can be classified as follows:
1. Physiologic impressions: Those impressions which record the

residual ridge under generalized compression.
i. Pick-up impressions
a. Mclean’s technique
b. Hindels’ technique
ii. Functional reline impressions
iii. Ridge correction technique using fluid wax
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2. Selective pressure impressions: Those which selectively compress
the stress-bearing tissues.
Impression procedures
Pick-up impressions
1. Mclean’s technique
• Custom tray is fabricated only for the distal extension base area with
wax occlusal rims (Fig. 26.6).
• Functional impression is made of the residual ridges with zinc oxide

eugenol impression paste or polyvinylsiloxane (PVS), by recording
the impression with patient biting on the occlusal rims (Fig. 26.7).
• After this impression has set, without removing the same, a second
impression is made over the functional impression and the teeth, in
a stock tray with alginate. It is called as overimpression or pick-up
impression as the first impression made with custom tray is
contained in it. While making the overimpression, finger pressure is
applied posteriorly to push the first impression down towards the
ridge, to its functional biting position (Figs 26.8 and 26.9).
• A master cast is poured after beading and boxing.
• Disadvantage: Finger pressure on second impression will not

produce the same amount of functional displacement of the tissue
that biting forces produced in the first impression. Hence
compression of the tissues will not be the same and the functional
impression will not be recorded as per the patient’s biting force.
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FIGURE 26.6 Custom tray fabrication.
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FIGURE 26.7 Simulated functional impression made of the
residual ridge, by recording the impression with patient biting
on the occlusal rims.
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FIGURE 26.8 Overimpression or pick-up impression making.
FIGURE 26.9 Showing pick-up impression.
2. Hindels’ technique
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• Hindels and coworkers developed this technique to overcome the
disadvantage of Mclean’s technique.
• The first impression of the edentulous ridge was an anatomic

impression made in a custom tray with tissue stops so that pressure
could not be applied to the ridge. The impression was made with
zinc oxide eugenol impression paste.
• Hindels and coworkers developed stock trays with a large hole on

either side posteriorly so that finger pressure could be directly
applied to the first impression through the holes on the tray (Fig.
26.10). With the set anatomic impression in the mouth, the second
overimpression was made in the specially designed stock tray with
alginate, maintaining finger pressure till the material sets.
• It was contended that the finished impression is related to the teeth

and the ridge as if masticatory forces were taking place on denture
base.
• A master cast is poured after beading and boxing.
• Disadvantages of both Mclean’s and Hindels’ technique:
○ As tissues are recorded in compressed state, if clasp

retention is good, even at rest position (when
patient is not biting) the soft tissues are constantly
displaced as the clasps will maintain the denture in
this position. This will lead to interruption of blood
supply to the ridges and bone resorption.
○ If clasp retention is not adequate, the denture will

always remain slightly occlusal to the functionally
recorded position. Hence the artificial teeth will
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first come into contact with the opposing teeth,
when patient applies biting force. This will
produces premature contacts which is
uncomfortable to the patient.
FIGURE 26.10 Hindels’ stock tray with a large hole on either

side posteriorly for application of finger pressure.
Functional reline technique

• This is done after fabrication of the metal framework and denture
base. It consists of adding a new layer to the fitting or tissue surface
of the denture base.
• The procedure may be performed before the insertion of the partial

denture, or it may be done at a later date to any cast partial denture,
if because of bone resorption, the denture base no longer fits the
ridge adequately and relining is necessary. The first method is
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discussed here.
• A cast partial denture is fabricated using an anatomic impression as

described before. To allow some space for the reline material, a
layer of relief metal (ash metal), is added to the ridge area of the cast
prior to packing the acrylic resin denture base material. Space can
also be provided by trimming the tissue surface of the denture base,
but metal spacer provides a uniform thickness. After processing, the
metal spacer is attached to the acrylic resin.
• The partial denture is tried in the mouth and once the fit is
confirmed, the metal spacer is removed and functional reline
impression procedure carried out.
• Low-fusing green stick impression compound is flowed onto the

tissue surface of denture base, tempered and placed in the patient’s
mouth. This procedure is performed several times along with
border moulding so that an accurate impression of the ridge as
compressed by the impression compound is obtained. The tissue
surface of the low-fusing compound impression is trimmed
uniformly by 1 mm and final impression is made with zinc oxide
eugenol impression paste, fluid wax or medium body elastomeric
impression materials. It is like making a primary impression with
green stick compound and a final wash impression with the other
materials. If fluid wax is used to produce a functional reline, green
stick compound is eliminated and only wax is used for making the
impressions.
• The amount of soft tissue displacement can be controlled by the

amount of relief given to the green stick compound before the final
impression is made. The greater the relief, the less will be the tissue
displacement.
• Patient must keep the mouth half open during the impression
procedure to:
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○ Control the border tissues, cheek and tongue.
○ Enable the operator to ensure proper placement of

framework on teeth during the procedure.
• Master cast is poured using the altered cast technique, as described
later in the chapter, and the reline area is processed in heat cure
denture base acrylic resin.
Disadvantages
1. Occlusion may be altered by reline procedure and needs

adjustment.
2. A visible junction may be created between new acrylic and old

denture base.
3. May be difficult to maintain correct position of framework on teeth

during impression making.
Ridge correction technique using fluid wax

This impression of the ridge is made after fabrication of the
framework, but before denture base is processed.
Following fabrication of framework using an anatomic impression,
special tray is made for the distal extension segment attached to the
denture base major connector (Fig. 26.11).
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FIGURE 26.11 Special tray made for distal extension
segment.
Fabrication of special tray

Framework is placed on master cast after checking in the mouth.
Outline of tray is marked on cast and uniform relief of 1–2 mm is
provided with a spacer of baseplate wax.
Cast is coated with separating medium and autopolymerizing
acrylic resin is mixed to a dough consistency and adapted over the
edentulous ridge and denture base minor connector.
The tray is trimmed 2 mm short of its estimated functional length.
In the mandible, it should cover retromolar pad and extend onto
buccal shelf, and in maxilla it should extend up to hamular notches.
Impression technique using fluid wax

Fluid wax: These are waxes that flow at mouth temperature and are
firm at room temperature. Frequently used are Iowa Wax – developed
by Dr Smith and Korrecta Wax No. 4 – developed by Drs O.C. and
S.G. Applegate. Korrecta wax has more fluidity than Iowa wax.
Tray extension is checked for any overextension by manipulating
the border tissues. Wax in a container is placed in a water bath
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maintained at 51–54°C, which makes it fluid. The fluid wax is
uniformly painted onto the tissue surface of a dry special tray with a
brush.
The tray is placed in the mouth and border moulding is performed.
At all times correct positioning of framework on teeth is ensured by
finger pressure on the abutments. The wax is allowed to remain for 5
min with mouth half open.
Framework is removed and impression is dried and inspected.
Areas in good functional contact with tissues will appear glossy, while
insufficient contact will be dull. Wrinkled areas indicate insufficient
time for wax to flow, and areas of tray exposure need to be relieved.
After all the corrections are made and impression shows complete
tissue contact, the prosthesis is reinserted and left in the mouth for 12
min to ensure that wax has completely flowed and released any
internal strains.
The final cast is poured using the altered cast technique.
The procedure can also be performed by using low-fusing green
stick compound for border moulding and making final impression
with zinc oxide eugenol impression pastes and medium body
elastomeric impression materials. The amount of tissue compression
depends on the thickness of spacer provided and viscosity of
impression material.
Selective pressure impressions

This technique directs forces to areas of ridge capable of withstanding
stress and protects areas of ridge unable to absorb stress by relieving
them.
As discussed earlier, only mandibular distal extension ridges
require functional impressions. The buccal shelf area is the primary
stress-bearing area, but the crest of the ridge is not a stress-bearing
area and hence needs to be relieved (Fig. 26.12).
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FIGURE 26.12 Stress-bearing areas and relief areas in
mandible are outlined.
This procedure is similar to the ridge correction technique described

previously, except for the spacer provided for the special tray. In this
technique no spacer is provided and a close fitting special tray is
fabricated on the distal extension ridge on the denture base minor
connector.
The tissue surface of the tray is relieved in the ridge crest area by
trimming the tray by 1 mm. The buccal shelf area of special tray is
trimmed very slightly so direct contact will be maintained and more
pressure can be transferred here. The lingual slope of ridge should be
trimmed similar to buccal shelf as it may offer some support. If the
soft tissue covering the ridge is very soft and displaceable, relief holes
may be made in the special tray to dissipate the pressure even more.
After border moulding with low-fusing green stick compound (Fig.
26.13), final impression can be made with a free flowing impression
material like zinc oxide eugenol impression paste. This is the material
of choice when residual ridge is free from undercuts and when soft,
flabby tissue is involved.
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FIGURE 26.13 Border moulding of distal extension segment
with green stick compound.
Other impression materials like medium body elastomeric materials

can also be used to make the final impression (Fig. 26.14). These are
indicated for patients with undercuts in the edentulous ridges. They
have higher viscosity than impression pastes.
FIGURE 26.14 Final impression with medium body

elastomeric impression material.
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The amount of pressure placed on the ridge will depend on the
viscosity of the impression material and relief should be given
accordingly.
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Master cast
Pouring the cast for anatomic and pick-up impression is similar to
making a cast with dental stone for diagnostic casts and master cast
for complete dentures. This has been discussed in Chapter 4.
For the functional reline, ridge correction and selective pressure
impressions, an altered cast technique is desirable which is discussed
here.
Altered cast technique

This involves altering only the distal extension part of the master cast
after a functional impression is made of the residual ridges.
As discussed previously, the framework is fabricated on an
anatomic impression in a refractory cast duplicated from the first
master cast. The framework fitted to the master cast is sent to the
dentist by the laboratory (Fig. 26.15).
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FIGURE 26.15 Framework fitted on master cast.
A special tray is made for the distal extension segment attached to

the denture base major connector (Fig. 26.11). A functional impression
is then made of the ridge area. The master cast is then altered to
accommodate the functional impression as follows:
The area to be altered is outlined on the master cast. It consists of
two lines one buccolingual and other anteroposterior along each distal
extension ridge.
The buccolingual line is made 1 mm posterior to the distal abutment
at right angles to the long axis of the ridge. The anteroposterior line is
drawn at right angles to the first, just lingual and parallel to the
lingual sulcus. The outlined area is cut and removed with a handsaw
(Fig. 26.16).
FIGURE 26.16 Portions of master cast to be removed are

outlined and cut with a handsaw.
Longitudinal retention grooves are made on the cut surface of the

cast to provide mechanical retention for the attachment of new stone
to the old (Fig. 26.17).
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FIGURE 26.17 Retention grooves on cast.
The framework with the functional impression is placed on

sectioned master cast (Fig. 26.18). Impression must not have any
contact on the cast.
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FIGURE 26.18 Framework with functional impression seated
on cast.
The framework is secured firmly to the cast with sticky wax after
ensuring correct position of all components on the cast (Fig. 26.19).
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FIGURE 26.19 Framework secured with sticky wax.
The impression area is beaded with utility wax and boxed with
boxing wax (Fig. 26.20). The cast is immersed in slurry water for 10
min to provide saturation of dry stone.
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FIGURE 26.20 Impression beaded and boxed.
The functional impression is poured with low-expansion dental

stone without much of vibration so that the framework is not
disturbed.
After final set, cast is trimmed and is ready for completion of the
denture base part of the cast partial denture (Fig. 26.21).
FIGURE 26.21 Showing final altered cast.
SUMMARY
Impression making is an important aspect of any prosthesis as the
tissues need to be recorded accurately to ensure proper fit. In cast
partial dentures, an anatomic impression will suffice in most clinical
situations. When the load on the abutments needs to be transferred to
the residual ridges, a functional impression is essential, in long-span
edentulous spaces and distal extensions. Altered cast technique is the
method of choice to make master casts with functional impressions.
Once the master cast is poured, the prosthesis design is transferred
and fabrication of the framework is commenced.
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CHAPTER
27
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Fabrication of removable partial
denture
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 390
Framework fabrication 390
Survey of master cast 390
Beading 390
Duplication and fabrication of refractory cast
390
Waxing the framework 394
Spruing 396
Investing 398
Burnout 398
Casting 399
Finishing and polishing 400
Framework try-in 400
Examination of framework 400
Framework fits cast but not mouth 400
Clinical try-in 400
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Record bases and occlusal rims 402
Record bases 402
Occlusal rims 402
Jaw relations and articulation 403
Functionally generated path 403
Static method 403
Articulation 403
Selection of teeth and denture base 403
Arrangement of artificial teeth and occlusion 404
Anterior teeth arrangement 404
Posterior teeth arrangement 405
Occlusion 405
Try-in 406
Aesthetic (anterior) try-in 406
Verification of jaw relation records 406
Waxing and processing the denture base 406
Summary 406
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Introduction
After making the master impression, it is sent to the laboratory along
with a tentative jaw relation record. The framework, as designed on
the master cast is fabricated in metal alloy of choice, by the lab and
sent back to the clinician to try-in the framework and record the jaw
relation. After articulation, the lab then arranges the artificial teeth. A
clinical trial is performed in the patient’s mouth; the denture base is
processed and inserted. The various procedures involved in this
process are discussed in this chapter.
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The following procedures are performed after fabricating the master
cast.
Survey of master cast

The following procedures are performed by surveying the master cast:
• Retripoding master cast
• Design transfer to master cast
• Blockout
• Relief
All of the above procedures are discussed in the Chapter 23.
Beading
Definition: Scribing of a shallow groove on the maxillary master cast
to provide intimate contact between the prosthesis and soft tissues.
Purpose
1. To transfer the design to the refractory cast.
2. To provide a visible finish line for casting.
3. To ensure intimate tissue contact of major connector.
Beading is performed only for maxillary major connectors and

never for mandibular, as the mucosa in mandible is thin and cannot
take the pressure. The procedure is discussed under the section ‘Major
Connectors’ in Chapter 21.
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Duplication and fabrication of refractory cast
After the above procedures are performed on the master cast, it is
duplicated. An impression is made of the master cast and a new cast is
poured in a different material. This is done because, while casting the
wax pattern for a removable partial denture, the entire cast along with
the wax pattern is invested, unlike the fixed partial denture where the
wax pattern is removed from the master cast or die and then invested
separately. So the cast on which the RPD wax pattern is made and
invested should be of a material which can withstand high
temperatures. Hence, the master cast is duplicated and poured in
refractory material (withstand high temperature). On this refractory
cast the wax pattern of framework is fabricated and the entire cast
along with wax pattern is invested for casting the metal.
Definition: The procedure of accurately reproducing a cast is
termed as duplication.
Duplicating material
Reversible hydrocolloids (agar), silicones and irreversible
hydrocolloids (alginate) can be used for duplication.
Reversible hydrocolloid (agar) is the material of choice as it can be
reused and is accurate. But it needs to be poured immediately due to
syneresis. Silicones are expensive, but very accurate and multiple
models can be poured. Alginates are rarely used.
Duplicator
An equipment that is used for mixing the duplicating material is
called duplicator.
In case of agar, this equipment consists of an upper compartment
where the material is heated to its sol state and stored at a specific
temperature. This liquefied material is poured into a flask containing
the cast to be duplicated by opening a nozzle attached to the upper
compartment. The flask with the cast is placed under the nozzle on a
horizontal platform attached to the base of the duplicator (Fig. 27.1).
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FIGURE 27.1 Agar duplicator.
For silicones, the base and catalyst liquids can be mixed manually
(Fig. 27.2) or an equipment similar to any automixer is used, which
mixes the base and catalyst and again dispenses it through a nozzle.
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FIGURE 27.2 Silicone duplicating base material (pink) is
mixed with the catalyst (white) in equal amount in a clean
bowl and mixed.
Duplicating flask
The original duplicating flasks were designed for agar duplication.
They are used to support the cast and confine the hydrocolloid, since
it aids in controlling shrinkage. It is a simple design, consisting of
three pieces – the base, the body and the reservoir ring. Holes in the
top surface of the body permit air to escape as the duplicating material
fills the flask. The reservoir ring helps in compensating for shrinkage.
Duplicating flasks can be made of metal, formica or plastic.
The modern agar duplicating flask is shown in Fig. 27.3.
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FIGURE 27.3 On the left is a plastic flask and on the right is
an aluminium flask for agar duplication.
Procedure
• Immerse the cast in slurry water at room temperature (30°C) for 4

min prior to duplication.
• Centre the cast on the base of the flask, and secure it with three
small pieces of modelling clay (plasticine). There should be at least
0.25 inch clearance in all directions (Fig. 27.4).
• Place the body on top of the base and the reservoir ring on the body
of the flask (Fig. 27.5).
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• The new hydrocolloid material is chopped or cut into small pieces
(Fig. 27.6). Any material being reused should also be treated
similarly.
• The agar can be liquefied using the following methods:
○ Heating in a double boiler.
○ Heating in a microwave oven using a ceramic

pressure pot.
○ Heating in a duplicator.
In any method, the agar is liquefied at 100°C (Fig.

27.7), and the temperature is brought down to
about 50–60°C, to pour the agar into the flask. In
case of the duplicator, this is done automatically
with the storage unit (Fig. 27.8).
• Fill the duplicating flask with agar hydrocolloid duplicating
material (Fig. 27.9). If the storage unit is used, centre the duplicating
flask under the nozzle, and open the valve.
• After covering the teeth of the cast with the material, the flask is
filled within 3 mm of the top. If the modern agar duplicating flasks
are not used, the reservoir ring is placed on the body and the
material is poured up to the top of the ring (Fig. 27.10).
• The material is then allowed to cool and set in the flask. In the
duplicator, a fan placed below the base of the unit enables cooling.
If other methods of liquefying the agar have been used, the flask can
be placed in a tray filled with cool running water such that it covers
only the base of the flask.
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• After the agar cools, the flask is inverted and base of the flask is
removed, exposing the base of the cast (Fig. 27.11). The cast is
loosened from the material with gentle blasts of air, and then
removed from the set duplicating material (Figs 27.12 and 27.13).
• The refractory cast is poured immediately into the space created by

the master cast in the duplicating material (Fig. 27.14). The
investment material used for making the refractory cast depends on
the alloy to be used for fabricating the cast partial denture.
Generally, gypsum-bonded investments are used for type IV gold
alloys, while phosphate-bonded investments are used for chrome–
cobalt and other base metal alloys.
• The set refractory cast is removed from the duplicated mould by

breaking the mould. The cast should neither be trimmed on a model
trimmer nor should be rinsed at all. It should be hand trimmed and
dried in an oven or preheating furnace at 80–90°C for 60–90 min. It
is then removed and lightly sprayed with a plastic model spray.
Instead of model spray, it could also be dipped in beeswax at 138–
149°C for 15 s. This produces a smooth, dense surface on the
refractory cast, allows better adherence of wax pattern and helps
prevent damage to the cast during handling (Fig. 27.15).
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FIGURE 27.4 Cast secured with plasticine on base of cast.
FIGURE 27.5 Body placed on the base.
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FIGURE 27.6 Agar cut into small pieces.
FIGURE 27.7 Agar heated in a polymerizing bath.
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FIGURE 27.8 Agar heated in storage bath of duplicator.
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FIGURE 27.9 Flask being filled with agar.
FIGURE 27.10 Agar allowed to cool.
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FIGURE 27.11 Base of flask is removed exposing cast.
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FIGURE 27.12 Cast is removed from the material.
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FIGURE 27.13 Impression of master cast on the duplicating
material.
FIGURE 27.14 Refractory material mixed and poured into the

duplicated mould.
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FIGURE 27.15 Refractory cast.
The master cast is thus duplicated and on the refractory cast the wax
pattern is fabricated.
Waxing the framework

Design transfer: The framework design on the master cast is
transferred to the refractory cast even without surveyor. A common
soft lead pencil can be used. The relief, blockout and beading on the
refractory cast will guide the design transfer.
Materials: Prefabricated patterns for waxing the framework are
available in wax and plastic, in a variety of shapes, sizes and thickness
(Fig. 27.16). The thickness is measured as ‘gauge’. Table 27.1 gives the
approximate value of gauges in millimetres. The sheets are available
in adhesive and nonadhesive varieties and also in soft and hard types.
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FIGURE 27.16 (A) Prefabricated clasp patterns. (B)
Prefabricated denture base minor connectors. (C) Wax sheets
and bars.
Table 27.1
Gauge conversion in millimetre
Gauge mm (approx.)
34 0.16
32 0.20
30 0.25
28 0.32
26 0.40
24 0.51
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22 0.64
20 0.81
18 1.02
16 1.29
14 1.62
12 2.05
Procedure
Maxillary framework
One sheet of casting wax or plastic with the required thickness is cut
and adapted to the approximate outline of the major connector (Fig.
27.17). Soft blue casting wax is flowed along the borders to seal the
sheet to the outline. The wax is finished to a thin edge when it goes
onto the teeth, and is left slightly rounded on the border of the major
connector (Fig. 27.18).
FIGURE 27.17 Wax sheet adapted to the major connector

outline.
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FIGURE 27.18 Sealing the borders.
The tissue stops are then waxed (Fig. 27.19), following which the
denture base minor connector is then waxed. This is made depending
on the type of the connector. For making a latticework design, the
outer strut is waxed first using a 12- or 14-gauge half round wax. After
sealing, the cross struts are waxed using 16- or 18-gauge half round
wax. For meshwork design, prefabricated mesh wax is adapted to the
desired area (Fig. 27.20).
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FIGURE 27.19 Tissue stops being waxed.
FIGURE 27.20 Meshwork type of minor connector adapted.
The clasp is then adapted and waxed. It should be placed over the
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clasp outline, guided by ledging. Tip of the clasp is positioned first,
followed by the body and shoulder of the clasp (Fig. 27.21).
FIGURE 27.21 Placement of clasp pattern.
The occlusal rests and other minor connectors are then filled by
flowing casting wax according to the requirements of the components
(Fig. 27.22).
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FIGURE 27.22 Waxing of occlusal rests (A) and minor
connectors (B).
The external finish lines are then developed with half round wax
wire and the wax pattern is smoothed, polished and completed (Fig.
27.23).
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FIGURE 27.23 External finish lines developed and wax
pattern completed.
A similar sequence is followed to make a wax pattern for a

mandibular cast partial denture (Fig. 27.24).
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FIGURE 27.24 Photo of a waxed up lower denture.
Spruing
After the wax pattern is fabricated on the refractory cast, it is sprued
to enable casting procedure. The actual spruing technique depends on
the instructions provided by the manufacturer of the alloy system. A
commonly used technique will be discussed here.
Sprue: The channel or hole through which plastic or metal is
poured or cast into a gate or reservoir and then into a mould (GPT7).
Sprue former: A wax, plastic or metal pattern used to form the
channel or channels allowing molten metal to flow into a mould to
make a casting (GPT7).
Basically the channel that is formed is termed as sprue and the
material that is used to form the channel is called the sprue former.
Purpose
1. To direct the molten metal into the mould space or cavity.
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2. To provide a reservoir of molten metal which compensates for
solidification shrinkage of casting.
General rules of sprue attachment
1. Sprues should be large enough so that they do not solidify before

the casting.
2. Sprues should leave the crucible from a common point and should
always be attached to bulky sections of the wax patterns.
3. They should be as short and as direct as possible. Abrupt changes in

direction and T-shaped junctions should be avoided.
4. All sprue junctions should be reinforced and rounded.
Types
1. Single sprue: Limited to maxillary frameworks with palatal plate,

disadvantage is use of extra long investment ring.
2. Multiple sprues: Most often used, main sprue should be 8- to 12-

gauge round wax wire; auxiliary sprue should be 12–18 gauge.
Auxiliary/secondary sprues are placed in areas separated from the
bulk of the framework by long spans of retentive meshwork and to
support heavy metal pontics.
Procedure
Multiple spruing procedure is similar for all mandibular and
maxillary castings apart from palatal plate.
1. The cast base is trimmed to 12 mm thickness and tapered towards

the base.
2. A 9 mm hole is drilled through the cast centrally on a line joining

the distal ends of the major connector on each side.
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3. A roll of pink baseplate wax is inserted into the hole and is
projected into the tissue surface of the cast by 10 mm (Fig. 27.25A).
The auxiliary sprues are attached about 5 mm below the tip of this
main sprue to dissipate the turbulence from molten metal. The portion
of rolled wax projecting from the underside of cast will serve as a
handle during investing.
4. Three pieces of 8-gauge round wax is attached to the main sprue.

They are extended radially to the lower border of lingual bar major
connector. Direct one piece centrally and other two anterior to the
finish lines on either side. Other 12-gauge round wax is attached to
the body of each direct retainer assembly (Fig. 27.25B).
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FIGURE 27.25 (A) Baseplate wax inserted into hole in base
of cast and sprues are attached to it. (B) Multiplesprues
placed on the mandibular wax pattern.
Investing
The sprues are attached; the refractory cast with the wax pattern and
sprue is invested with an investment material. As in spruing, the
investment procedures are also dependant on the alloy used and is
hence controlled by the alloy manufacturer. A general procedure will
be discussed.
Definition: The process of covering or enveloping wholly or in
parts an object such as a trial denture tooth, wax pattern or crown
with an investment material before curing, soldering or casting is
called investment.
Purpose
1. Provides the required strength to withstand forces from the entry of

molten metal till it solidifies.
2. Provides a smooth surface for the mould space.
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3. Provides an escape route for gases entrapped in mould space by the
entering molten metal.
4. Provides compensation for casting shrinkage of metal.
Types of investing flasks

Metal, ringless (Fig. 27.26).
FIGURE 27.26 Investment flask.
Procedure
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1. Before placement in the casting/investment ring, the refractory cast
is soaked in room temperature slurry water for 4 min to ensure good
bonding with investment material. The wax pattern is then sprayed
with wetting agent (debubblizer) to reduce the surface tension of wax
thereby enhancing the adherence of investment to pattern.
2. Investment material is selected according to the alloy to be used and

manufacturer’s instructions. First the material is painted onto the
waxed refractory cast for a thickness of about 6 mm and allowed to set
for 10 min.
3. The casting/investing ring large enough to hold the refractory cast

and painted investment is selected depending on the alloy and
manufacturer’s instructions. A ring liner is used to line the inner
surface in case a metal casting ring is used. The liner is soaked in
water after placement and it allows escape of hot gases.
4. Place the waxed refractory cast in the ring, make a fresh mix of
investment in a vacuum mechanical mixer and pour the investment
slowly until it completely fills the ring.
5. Allow the investment to set for an hour.
Burnout
This is also called wax elimination. The invested waxed refractory cast
is placed in a furnace and heated to a specified temperature to
eliminate the wax and create a mould space for casting.
Definition: The removal of wax from a mould, usually by heat.
Purpose
1. Removes moisture from mould.
2. Eliminates wax pattern.
3. Expands the mould to compensate for casting shrinkage of metal.
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Furnace
The burnout furnace (Fig. 27.27) can be electric or gas and should be
vented to allow the resulting gases to escape. Modern furnaces are
electronically controlled such that time–temperature relationship can
be set according to the alloy manufacturers requirements.
FIGURE 27.27 Burnout furnace.
Procedure
The time and temperature needed to eliminate the wax is dependent
on the expansion required for the alloy and the type of investment. It
is controlled by the alloy manufacturer’s specifications.
Generally the procedure is as follows:
1. The mould should be moist when placed in furnace to ensure

uniform heating. Hence, if burnout is not carried out immediately
after investing, the mould could be placed in a plastic bag to prevent
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them from drying or they could be soaked in water for a few minutes
prior to placement in furnace.
2. The mould should be placed in the furnace with the sprue hole
down.
3. Burnout should begin with a nearly cold furnace.
4. For low-heat gypsum-bonded investments, the mould should be

heated slowly to a temperature of 1250°F/680°C over a period of 2 h.
This temperature should be maintained for 30 min to ensure uniform
heat penetration, also called ‘heat-soaking’. More time should be
given for plastic patterns.
5. Insufficient burnout time will not allow the moisture to be

eliminated completely and result in porosities in casting. Overheating
will result in mould breakdown and loss of expansion.
Casting
Induction casting is now most commonly used for removable partial
dentures. Although the machine is expensive, the ease of procedure
and safety (lack of open flame) make it a method of choice. It also
works on the same centrifugal casting principle, but the metal is
heated electrically instead of using a flame.
Procedure of induction casting
1. Alloy manufacturers’ instructions are followed for deciding the

amount of alloy and the heat required.
2. The mould is placed in the casting machine following burnout and

balance of casting arm must be ensured by placing counter weights on
the opposite end of the mould (Fig. 27.28A). The number of
revolutions of the centrifugal casting machine is set according to the
alloy manufacturer’s instructions. Most machines revolve at 600 rpm.
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3. The alloy pellets are placed in the crucible and is heated electrically
by a coil of copper tubing around it. The heating of metal is viewed
through a dense blue lens and each alloy has its own distinctive
appearance when it is ready to cast (Fig. 27.28B). When it is ready to
cast, a lever is manually released to start the rotation of centrifuge.
4. After the casting is completed, it is allowed to cool for 8–12 min

according to manufacturer’s instructions. The coil in the machine is
cooled automatically by a flowing water source running through it.
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FIGURE 27.28 (A) Induction casting machine: (a) Casting
ring with mould, (b) crucible where metal is heated, (c)
weights for counter balance, (d) heating element (coil of
copper). The centrifuge is rotated to place the crucible under
the heating element before commencement of casting. (B)
The heating of metal is viewed through a dense blue lens.
Casting with centrifuge using flame for melting alloy is described

under the FPD section in Chapter 40; the metal is melted using a gas –
oxygen or oxyacetylene blow torch depending on the melting
temperature of alloy.
Recovery of framework
The bulk of the investment is removed by tapping with a wooden
mallet or by using a devesting machine. Gold alloys are quenched in
water to break surface investment, cleaned and then pickled, while for
base metal alloys like cobalt–chromium, sandblasting with aluminium
oxide is used to remove the investment adhering to the surface.
Finishing and polishing

Framework finishing consists of smoothening the metal with
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progressively finer abrasive agents to remove scratches and rough
areas to give a high lustre.
1. The sprues are cut using carborundum discs on a high speed lathe.
2. Surface irregularities are removed with tungsten carbide burs.
3. Coarse to fine stone are used to finish the framework, followed by

rubber wheels and points.
4. The framework is then placed on master cast to check the fit. To

determine areas causing the interference commercially available
special powdered sprays or liquid disclosing media are used. The
disclosing medium will be removed from the interfering areas,
allowing exact trimming of such portions. The trimming is done using
appropriately shaped carbides and the checking and grinding is
continued till the rests seat completely on the cast.
5. Occlusal interference with opposing arch especially on occlusal and

incisal rests is checked after mounting the casts with a jaw relation
record.
6. The final polishing is done with polishing compounds

recommended for the particular alloy, and with rag and felt wheels on
high speed lathe. Wire brush works well to shine bead retention and
nail heads.
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Framework try-in
The finished framework is sent to the clinician to be tried in the
patient’s mouth (Fig. 27.29). The clinician will check the frame as
follows.
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FIGURE 27.29 The framework is examined on the master
cast.
Examination of framework
On the master cast, the framework is examined for the following:
1. Design
2. Fit
3. Occlusion
4. Finishing and polishing
Framework fits cast but not mouth

This may be due to:
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1. Incorrect impression.
2. Improperly poured cast.
3. Cast has been abraded during fitting of framework in laboratory.
4. Teeth have changed position after making master impression – can

happen if adequate time has not be given following any surgery or
extractions.
Clinical try-in
This involves three steps: The framework is first adjusted to fit in the
patient’s mouth, then the occlusion is checked and corrected and
lastly the ground areas are finished and polished.
Fitting framework
1. The fitting surface of the framework is painted with commercially
available pressure indicating paste or disclosing wax and tried in the
mouth. Framework is aligned over the abutments and mild finger
pressure applied along the planned path of insertion. Areas where the
disclosing medium is eliminated indicate interference, and is trimmed
appropriately. The procedure is repeated till the occlusal rests seat
accurately on the rest seats (Fig. 27.30A–E).
2. Sometimes the retentive clasp may need to be adjusted to remove

an obstruction or increase retention. Pliers with smooth beaks should
be used as otherwise the clasp arm may be scratched and weakened.
In case of cobalt–chromium alloys, the desired position of clasp is
achieved by a series of minute bends by application of moderate
controlled force.
3. If the discrepancies in fit are such that suitable adjustment will not
correct the same, a new impression must be made and the framework
should be repeated.
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FIGURE 27.30 (A) Framework tried in the mouth reveals
improper fit – occlusal rests not seating fully. (B) Framework
tried in after applying pressure indicating paste. (C) Areas
where the disclosing medium is eliminated indicate
interference. (D) The interfering areas are trimmed
appropriately. (E) Occlusal rests seat accurately ensuring
proper framework fit.
Correcting occlusion
1. It must be ensured that natural teeth contact first and guide the
occlusion in centric and eccentric closures. The framework is first
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checked for centric occlusal interference. If partial dentures are being
constructed for both upper and lower arches, the frames should be
checked for occlusal discrepancy, one at a time, and then together.
2. The occlusion of natural teeth without the framework is first noted.

Framework is positioned in the mouth and articulating paper held
with holder or forceps is placed over the teeth on one side of arch.
Patient is asked to gently tap on the teeth with vertical force. This is
repeated on the opposite side. Mark produced by the paper on
framework shows interference and should be trimmed outside the
mouth. After correcting centric occlusal discrepancies, lateral and
protrusive interferences are checked similarly (Fig. 27.31).
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FIGURE 27.31 Metal framework should not interfere with the
natural dental occlusion during centric as well as eccentric
positions. (A) Right lateral view, (B) Frontal view and (C) Left
lateral view.

The corrected (ground) parts of the framework should be finished and
polished as previously described.
The checked framework is then returned to the laboratory for
fabrication of record base and occlusal rims. In distal extension
situations which require altered cast impressions, the framework is
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sent for appropriate modification depending on the technique
planned and following the impression making, the record base and
occlusal rims are fabricated.
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Record bases
The record base is fabricated over the saddle area on the denture base
minor connector. The most commonly used material is
autopolymerizing acrylic resin as it is stable.
Procedure
1. Outline of record base is marked on cast.
2. Undercut on the ridge part of cast is blocked out with modelling

clay or baseplate wax.
3. Tin foil substitute or any suitable separating medium is applied on

the cast.
4. After the separating medium has dried, the framework is placed on

cast.
5. A sprinkle-on method is used to mix the monomer and polymer

and a uniform thickness of 2 mm is obtained (Fig. 27.32). After
polymerization, the base is trimmed and polished.
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FIGURE 27.32 Record base made with self-cure acrylic
resin.
Occlusal rims
Most commonly used material is medium baseplate wax. Modelling
plastic may also be used. They should be so shaped that they
represent the lost teeth and supporting structures. It should be centred
over the crest of the ridge (Fig. 27.33).
FIGURE 27.33 Metal framework with occlusal rims.
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Detailed description of making occlusal rims is given in Chapter 5.
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Jaw relations and articulation
If only few teeth are to be replaced, especially in class III removable
partial dentures, hand articulation is sufficient to establish jaw
relation.
In most situations, however, a jaw relation record is essential. It is
determined twice during the construction of the partial denture.
First, a jaw relation record is obtained following secondary
impression and construction of master cast to begin the fabrication of
denture framework. The record base and occlusal rims are constructed
on the master cast as described in Chapter 5.
A second jaw relation record is obtained after fitting the framework
in the mouth by constructing a record base and occlusal rim on the
saddle area of the framework as previously described.
There are two methods used to record the jaw relation thereby
establishing occlusal relationship of artificial teeth:
1. Functionally generated path technique
2. Static method
Functionally generated path

This technique records all possible functional movements of the teeth
opposing the edentulous span, and the artificial teeth are set
accordingly so that they remain in harmony with their antagonist in
all times. The pathways are generated by the patient on a wax occlusal
rim.
Procedure
1. A hard wax occlusal rim attached to an acrylic resin record base is
constructed on the metal framework slightly higher than the normal,
approximately 0.5–0.75 mm. The buccolingual width of the rim should
be more than that of the opposing tooth.
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2. It is then inserted in the patient’s mouth and the patient is
instructed to simulate chewing movements for a period of 20–30 min.
Alternately, the patient is instructed to take the framework home and
wear it continuously for 24 h except when eating and consuming hot
or chilled drinks.
3. Whichever method is used, patient will invariably perform all

possible jaw movements that will be recorded in the form of
indentations and pathways on the wax rim.
4. The wax pattern thus obtained from the patient is then boxed and
poured in dental stone. This provides a record of the opposing teeth
with the functionally generated pathways.
5. The stone record with the opposing wax pathway on the framework
is then mounted on an articulator and the artificial teeth are set
accordingly.
Static method
1. Most widely used and preferred method.
2. The occlusal rims fabricated on the framework as previously

described are inserted in the patient’s mouth.
3. The patient is instructed to close in maximal intercuspal position.

The rims are reduced in height until it is just out of occlusal contact.
The jaw relation record is made by injecting a recording material
between the occlusal rim and opposing natural teeth (Fig. 27.34A and
B). This material should be uniformly soft on placement and set to a
hard state. The recommended material is zinc-oxide eugenol
impression paste. Other materials that can be used are impression
plaster, modelling plastic and soft baseplate wax.
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FIGURE 27.34 (A) Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste
being injected between the occlusal rims. (B) Jaw relation
recorded at maximum intercuspal position (MIP). (C)
Articulation of casts.
When no occlusal contact exists between the remaining natural

teeth, such as a complete denture opposing a removable partial
denture, the procedure of recording is similar to that described for
complete dentures.
Articulation
1. The casts with the jaw relation record is then mounted on an
articulator (Fig. 27.34C).
2. The simplest articulator to accomplish the desired purpose is

selected.
3. A simple hinge or nonadjustable articulator is sufficient for class III

arches. For most of the other situations, a semi-adjustable instrument
is indicated. Facebow transfer is performed depending on the
articulator selected.
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The procedure for facebow record and articulation is described in
Chapter 7.
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Selection of teeth and denture base
The various types of artificial teeth and denture base are described in
Chapter 21. A selection is made depending on their indications. The
most commonly used artificial teeth are the denture teeth made of
acrylic resin. Most commonly used denture base is the combination of
metal and acrylic.
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Arrangement of artificial teeth and
occlusion
Following teeth selection, the artificial teeth are arranged. The general
setting principles are similar to those for complete dentures as
discussed in Chapter 10. Specific considerations for a partial denture
are discussed below.
Anterior teeth arrangement

It is directly associated with aesthetics of the prosthesis and hence
very important. Denture acrylic teeth are the most aesthetic tooth
type, available in any shade, size or contour.
Mould and shade selection
• The selected teeth should be in harmony with the patient’s features

and remaining natural teeth.
• The opposing and adjacent teeth are also considered.
• Preferably, shade guide of the manufacturer of the artificial teeth

that is selected, should be used (Fig. 27.35A and B).
• Shade guide tooth is moistened and selection is made in natural

light if possible. Colour corrected light can also be used.
• Shade should be taken quickly as first impression will be most

accurate.
• In cases of long standing edentulousness, there is diminished

mesiodistal space for setting the teeth due to the mesial
migration/tilting of the adjacent natural teeth. To overcome this
problem, if narrower teeth are chosen it will produce an artificial
appearance. Proximal contouring of the teeth to regain space should
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be considered during mouth preparation. Overlapping the artificial
teeth should also be considered. Sometimes if the patient possesses
diastemas before extraction, more space may be present for the
teeth. Slightly large sized teeth can be chosen or the diastemas can
be recreated.
• The temporary denture bases constructed on the framework for jaw

relation should be removed before setting teeth.
• If the missing teeth cross the midline, it is essential that the central
incisors be set first to re-establish the midline. The fullness and lip
support should be verified.
• It is almost always necessary to reshape the ridge-lap portion of an

artificial tooth to position it over the acrylic resin retentive minor
connector. An anterior denture tooth should be positioned as nearly
as possible where the original natural tooth was located.
• As an anterior denture tooth is positioned adjacent to a natural

tooth, the proximal surface of the artificial tooth may be
recontoured for better and close adaptation with the natural tooth.
• The denture base flanges should be contoured and smoothened to

give a natural pleasing appearance.
• An aesthetic try-in phase should be scheduled to verify the

appearance in patient’s mouth.
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FIGURE 27.35 (A) Shade guide (courtesy VITA Zahnfabrik).
(B) Mould guides.
Posterior teeth arrangement

• The universal teeth setting principles should be applied to set these
teeth also.
• Posterior teeth must not only fit into the available space, they
should also be in harmonious occlusion with the opposing teeth.
• Denture acrylic teeth are most commonly used.
Mould selection
1. The tooth size or mould is dictated by the length of the edentulous

span.
2. Posterior denture teeth are selected on the basis of measurement

from the distal surface of the canine to the beginning of the upward
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incline of the ramus of mandible.
3. The occlusogingival height also plays a major role. Aesthetics is

compromised if the artificial tooth with little occlusogingival height is
placed adjacent to a natural tooth with long clinical crown. To correct
this, it may be necessary to trim and place the teeth directly butting
against the mucosa.
○ As a general rule the classic pattern of

intercuspation of maxillary and mandibular teeth
should be followed. However, these rules although
cannot be accurately followed because of the
presence of natural opposing teeth. To obtain a
good interocclusal anatomy, it may be necessary to
set the teeth around 0.5–0.75 mm higher than the
correct vertical dimension. The excessive vertical
height can then be corrected by selective grinding
to achieve a harmonious occlusion.
Positioning tooth adjacent to the clasp
Artificial tooth adjacent to the clasp has to be in harmony with the
opposing teeth, the residual ridge and the clasp. The tooth should be
first adjusted in proper occlusion with the opposing teeth and then
adapted to the alveolar ridge. This is done best by removing the
framework from the cast and contouring the ridge-lap portion of the
tooth in accordance with the ridge. A small space, 2 mm should be left
between the denture tooth and the adjacent abutment tooth (Fig.
27.36). The minor connector supporting the clasp will occupy this
space.
• In a class III mandibular relationship, lower artificial buccal cusps

should be placed on the crest of ridge, rather than central groove.
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• Occlusal surfaces should have adequate grooves, ridges and
sluiceways to function effectively.
• Attrited natural teeth should not be opposed by flat artificial teeth.

Cutting edges and sluiceways should be provided.
• Final occlusal correction should be performed in the mouth.
FIGURE 27.36 Tooth adjacent to clasp is first trimmed to fit

the edentulous space and placed 2 mm away from abutment
tooth.
Occlusion
1. The existing natural teeth should guide the occlusion.
2. For a class III partial denture, the existing natural teeth occlusion
should be maintained – canine protected or mutually protected.
3. For a mandibular class I or class II patient, simultaneous working
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side contact of natural and artificial teeth on edentulous side is
preferred.
4. For a maxillary class I, simultaneous working and balancing contact

is preferred.
5. For a maxillary class II, only working side contact on edentulous

side is preferred.
6. For a maxillary class IV, light contact with lower anterior natural
teeth in centric occlusion is preferred to prevent supraeruption.
Contact in eccentric relations is not desirable.
7. Generally, contact of opposing posterior teeth in protrusive relation

for any class of partial denture is not desired.
8. For a removable partial denture opposing a complete denture,

bilateral balanced occlusion in eccentric relations is preferred.
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Try-in
Indications
1. Replacement of anterior teeth.
2. Verification of jaw relation records.
Aesthetic (anterior) try-in

The artificial teeth are verified for the following:
1. Anteroposterior position.
2. Tooth length in relation to lip length and existing natural teeth.
3. Width.
4. Overjet and overbite.
5. Midline and vertical alignment.
6. Shade – in a variety of light sources.
Only when the dentist is satisfied with the trial, the patient should
be allowed to view the same. Patient should stand at least 2–3 feet
away from a wall mirror to examine the appearance. Patient approval
is mandatory to proceed beyond this step (Fig. 27.37).
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FIGURE 27.37 Try-in.
Verification of jaw relation records

This is done in the following situations:
1. Class I and class II arches.
2. Problems existed while recording jaw relations.
3. Partial denture opposing complete denture.
4. No opposing natural teeth in contact and vertical dimension need to

be verified.
Verification can be visual or by using interocclusal check records.

The same is discussed in Chapter 11.
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Waxing and processing the denture
base
The procedure is similar to that described for complete dentures in
Chapter 12. Any specific requirements for a partial denture are only
mentioned below:
1. When waxing to an external finish line, excess bulk of wax is added

so that after processing and finishing it will be at the level of finish
line.
2. On minor connectors and approach arm of bar clasp, the metal can
be slightly roughened for acrylic attachment and bulk should be
adequate.
3. Gingival height of the replacement teeth should be compatible with

the adjacent natural teeth.
4. Polished surfaces should be waxed similar to a complete denture.
5. Investing, dewaxing, processing and deflasking is similar to

complete dentures.
6. Remounting is done when a large number of posterior teeth are

being replaced. It is again similar to that described for complete
dentures. Till this is completed, the denture is not removed from the
master cast.
7. The master cast is removed from the denture either by cutting with
a saw or trimming with a fissure bur.
8. The final finishing and polishing is similar to complete dentures

(Fig. 27.38).
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FIGURE 27.38 Processed maxillary and mandibular
dentures.
SUMMARY
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The fabrication of the removable partial denture involves a series of
complex lab procedures combined with clinical aspects. A methodical
process should be followed including a trial of the metal framework
so that each step is evaluated. Though most clinicians may not be
much involved in the lab procedures, it is imperative for them to
understand the process so that errors can be identified and rectified
easily.
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CHAPTER
28
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Denture insertion
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 407
Objectives 407
Appointment 407
Insertion procedure 407
Inspection of prosthesis 407
Checking fit of denture base 408
Checking extension 408
Occlusal correction 408
Adjusting retentive clasps 409
Instruction to patients 411
Postinsertion appointments 411
Postinsertion problems 411
Pain or discomfort 411
Problems with phonetics 412
Problems with eating 412
Gagging 413
Loose dentures 413
Summary 413
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Introduction
This is the last step in the lengthy process of partial denture
fabrication. It should be a scheduled appointment with proper time
allocation. All aspects of the denture as discussed below should be
thoroughly evaluated. That a patient could go through a period of
discomfort and adjustment following denture insertion should be
emphasized. This helps the patient to be mentally prepared for the
same. The patient should be reminded of the various functions of the
denture and the importance of follow-up and maintenance.
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Objectives
1. To make the prosthesis comfortable to the patient.
2. To teach the patient how to use and care for the prosthesis.
3. To instruct the patient on how to maintain and preserve the

remaining teeth.
4. To fit the denture base to the edentulous ridge.
5. To correct occlusal discrepancies.
6. To adjust retentive clasps if necessary.
7. To teach the patient to place and remove the prosthesis.
8. To instruct the patient in home care and in care of the prosthesis.
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Appointment
Before scheduling the appointment the following points should be
considered:
1. The appointment should be fixed in the first half of the day when
the patient is mentally fresh. It also allows the patient to get back to
the dentist later in the day if required.
2. The appointment should not be at the end of the week as the patient
should be evaluated after 24 h.
3. Patient should not be in a position to transact an important business

or attend social engagements immediately after the insertion.
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Insertion procedure
The following sequence of procedures is practiced.
Inspection of prosthesis
1. The intaglio (tissue surface) of the prosthesis should be examined
for blebs, bubbles, plaster and sharp ridges (Fig. 28.1).
2. The borders should be smooth and not knife-edged.
FIGURE 28.1 Inspection of prosthesis. Check the tissue

surface and borders of the prosthesis.
If any of the above observation is detected, it should be corrected.
Checking fit of denture base

The denture should be seated gently in the patient’s mouth along the
determined path of placement. If any resistance to seating is felt, the
prosthesis should be reinserted after application of pressure indicating
paste to determine the area of resistance. The problem usually is with
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the acrylic resin base area as all other parts were checked during try-in
of framework.
Pressure indicating paste

Commercially available pressure indicating pastes generally consist of
zinc oxide powder combined with a medium consistency vegetable oil
and other ingredients to improve odour and taste. The base paste of
zinc oxide eugenol impression paste can also be used.
The tissue surface of denture base is completely dried and a thin
coating of the paste is painted with stiff brush and denture inserted
(Fig. 28.2). Paste is displaced from those parts of denture base in
contact with soft tissue indicating the area of interference. Vulcanite
burs are used to relieve these areas, a little at a time (Fig. 28.3). The
process is repeated till the prosthesis goes into place without causing
any discomfort to the patient.
FIGURE 28.2 Application of pressure indicating paste.
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FIGURE 28.3 Trimming of interferences.
Common areas of interference

Maxilla: Lateral surface of tuberosity and labial plate of bone (if
covered by denture base).
Mandible: Mylohyoid ridge area and areas buccal to premolars.
Checking extension
As has been seen in Chapter 24, denture base extension is important in
providing retention, stability and support to the prosthesis. Hence, the
peripheral extensions should not be arbitrarily reduced but should
cover as much ridge as possible.
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In class I and class II partial dentures, the extension of the
peripheral borders is determined by performing border-moulding
movements and checking for lifting of denture. In class III, the
peripheral border should extend enough to ensure tissue contact so
that food impaction is prevented under the denture base. To define
area of overextension more accurately, disclosing wax is flowed over
flange periphery and checked. Appropriate frenum relief should be
provided.
All borders of the posterior denture base are well-rounded. The
only areas where the flange is deliberately made thin are the
distolingual extension of mandibular class I or II (to provide tongue
space), distobuccal extension over the tuberosity of a maxillary class I
or II (to provide freedom of movement of the coronoid process), and
the leading edge of a maxillary or mandible posterior denture base
flange.
In class IV dentures, after checking extension as above, margins of
anterior flange are bevelled superiorly and laterally to blend into
supporting soft tissue. The frenum should be relieved appropriately.
Occlusal correction
The aim of occlusal correction is to restore natural tooth contacts and
establish the planned occlusal relationship. This can be accomplished
by the following methods.
Intraoral correction
The contact of two opposing natural teeth is noted when patient closes
in maximal intercuspation with partial dentures out of mouth. After
insertion of the denture, the patient is instructed to close and the
contact on the same natural teeth is verified using a Mylar strip (Fig.
28.4). If the strip can be pulled out easily, there is no contact on the
natural teeth because of interference in the artificial teeth. The same is
then identified using an articulating paper or tape, occlusal indicator
wax or thin sheet of casting wax.
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FIGURE 28.4 Mylar strip used to check interferences.
When articulating paper is used, the area of interference or high

point will appear as a small bull’s eye. A normal contact will appear
as a solid mark of articulating paper’s colour (Fig. 28.5). Same
principles are followed as for complete dentures.
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FIGURE 28.5 Articulating paper marks on occlusal surfaces
of teeth showing bull’s eye mark and a solid mark.
After interferences in centric occlusion are adjusted, interferences in

eccentric relations must be corrected. After all corrections are made,
fine Mylar strip/tape is used again to verify occlusal contacts between
natural teeth (Fig. 28.6).
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FIGURE 28.6 Mylar strip used to check interferences in
eccentric relations.
The disadvantages of this method are difficulty in guiding the

mandible into desired positions and giving a clear view of the
interference especially posteriorly. The alternative is to remount the
denture on an articulator and perform the occlusal correction.
Correction by remount procedures

Irreversible hydrocolloid impression is made in a slightly oversized
impression tray with the partial denture seated in mouth. On removal
of impression, the denture comes with it or it should be repositioned
in the impression accurately. A cast is poured in dental stone. An
interocclusal check record is used to record the jaw relation in centric.
The cast is mounted using a facebow transfer, as the arc of closure of
articulator should be the same as that of the patient. Occlusal
correction procedures are carried out as before on the articulator (Fig.
28.7A and B).
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FIGURE 28.7 (A) Impression made with denture and cast is
poured, after which the prosthesis is remounted on the
articulator. (B) Occlusal correction done using articulating
paper.
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Adjusting retentive clasps
Retention provided by clasps should be just adequate to maintain the
denture in position and should not exert undesirable forces on the
abutment. After all the other corrections are completed, the clasps are
adjusted finally. Many patients find it difficult to insert and remove a
prosthesis; hence, the clasp can be adjusted for maximum retention
even after the initial adjustment phase.
Adjusting wrought wire clasps

Wrought wire clasps are adjusted to increase contact with tooth. Plier
No. 139 is used for this purpose (Figs 28.8 and 28.9). A tapered
cylindrical beak is opposed by flat surface of a triangular beak. The
round beak of plier is placed on inner aspect of clasp at point marked
where adjustment is needed. Denture is rotated with opposite hand
towards round beak of pliers. Small adjustments are made at a time
and denture is returned to mouth for observation and process is
repeated until complete contact between tooth and clasp has been re-
established.
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FIGURE 28.8 Adjusting wrought clasp using a plier No. 139.
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FIGURE 28.9 Plier No. 139.
Adjusting cast circumferential clasps

This clasp can be adjusted in one plane only – inward perpendicular
to the flat surface of clasp or in the opposite direction. Technique is
similar to that for wrought wire clasp and same pliers are used (Fig.
28.10).
FIGURE 28.10 Adjusting cast circumferential clasp using a

plier No. 139.
Adjusting vertical projection clasps

Vertical projection clasps can be adjusted inward or outward
perpendicular to flat side of approach arm. Procedure is again similar
to the above two clasps and the same pliers are used (Fig. 28.11). The
retentive finger of a ‘T’ or modified ‘T-clasp’ should rarely be adjusted
to increase retention. The plier used for this is No 200, which is three
beaked (Fig. 28.12).
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FIGURE 28.11 Adjusting T-bar clasp using a plier No. 200.
FIGURE 28.12 Plier No. 200.
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Instruction to patients
1. Oral hygiene: The importance of this should be emphasized. Home
care measures like brushing and flossing should be demonstrated. Use
of disclosing tablets to identify plaque may be demonstrated to
enhance awareness. Brushing of teeth and prosthesis should be done
after every meal and snack.
2. Denture care: It is very similar to the process described for

complete dentures as explained in Chapter 13. A combination of
soaking the denture in cleansing solution is recommended.
3. Night wear: To give opportunity for soft tissues to rebound and

recover from constant pressure, the denture should be removed at
night. Only in bruxers less damage is done to teeth with the dentures,
but again a night guard is preferred.
4. Placement and removal of denture: This should be demonstrated.

The patient is positioned in front of a wall mirror, while dentist inserts
the denture. Dentist should explain how the clasps of the denture are
placed on the appropriate abutments and then gentle seating pressure
is applied. If the path of insertion is designed with a tilt, the same
should be demonstrated. The patient should be warned about
trapping of soft tissue of cheek or tongue between clasp and tooth,
and how to prevent it. They should be advised against placing
denture in mouth and seating it with biting pressure, as this damages
the denture, teeth and soft tissues.
For removal of denture with cast circumferential clasp, the patient is

instructed to place a fingernail or thumbnail under a buccal clasp arm
on each side and push occlusally. In case of wrought wire clasp, this
procedure will damage clasp. Hence, the patient is advised to hold the
saddle area of denture between thumb and forefinger and again push
occlusally. For bar clasp, pressure should not be given below
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approach arm. Instead the nonretentive tip of ‘T’ or modified ‘T-clasp’
is engaged and occlusal pressure given.
Written instructions should also be provided to the patient.
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Postinsertion appointments
A follow-up after 24 h should be scheduled. Additional adjustments
are performed every 72 h till the patient is comfortable. Maintenance
visits should be scheduled every 6 months. The patients who are
susceptible to dental caries and/or periodontal disease should be
examined every 3 months.
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These can be categorized into the following.
Pain or discomfort
This can be due to the following reasons.
Soft tissue laceration or ulceration

This is due to:
1. Overextension of denture border

On examination, the affected area shows increased redness and
translucency. The degree of overextension is checked by performing
border moulding movements with denture in position.
Area of soft tissue irritation is circled with indelible pencil after
drying with gauze (Fig. 28.13). Partial denture is seated in mouth, and
the pencil mark is transferred to denture base (Fig. 28.14). Correction
is done using vulcanite trimmers and arbour bands.
FIGURE 28.13 Area of irritation marked with indelible pencil.
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FIGURE 28.14 Mark transferred onto denture.
Pain should reduce in 24 h after adjustment. The patient should be

advised to use a hot saline mouthwash every 4 h till symptoms
subside. If ulceration is severe, the prosthesis should not be worn until
pain subsides.
2. Bruising of tissue by rubbing movement of denture during

function
This is manifested as redness or erythema and may be due to:
1. Roughness or blebs on tissue surface of denture base: This is

corrected and checked using pressure indicating paste.
2. Occlusal prematurities: This can be corrected intraorally or by

using remount procedures as described earlier.
3. Bony protuberances: The denture base can be relieved under this

area.
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Tooth irritation
This may be due to:
1. Pressure caused by component of the prosthesis

The affected tooth is identified by applying pressure using finger. The
most common component causing this problem is a clasp and can be
corrected by adjusting the clasp as previously described. Other
components can be checked by using disclosing wax and corrected
accordingly.
2. Occlusal interference
This is the most common cause of discomfort to a tooth opposing a
partial denture. As explained in this chapter, the same can be checked
using articulating paper or occlusal indicator wax and corrected
intraorally or using remount procedures.
Cheek and tongue biting

Cheek biting is due to:
1. Teeth positioned posteriorly with insufficient horizontal overlap.
2. Artificial teeth may have been set facially to the edentulous ridge.
3. Another contributing factor is when the natural posterior teeth have

been missing for a long period, the buccinator muscle tends to sag into
space created by the missing teeth and may cause cheek biting. After
the prosthesis is worn for a time, the muscles will regain its normal
tone and resume its original position and cheek biting will subside.
If teeth are positioned correctly, the problem can be solved by

rounding the buccal cusps of the lower posterior denture teeth.
Resetting the teeth may be necessary if teeth are not positioned
correctly.
Tongue biting is due to placing the artificial teeth too far lingually
which results in decreased tongue space. Recontouring the lingual
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surfaces of the mandibular posterior teeth is attempted, if tongue
biting continues after the teeth have been reshaped, the artificial teeth
will have to be reset.
Problems with phonetics

Although this is not frequently encountered with partial dentures, it
may occur due to
1. Change in the contour of the anterior part of the palate.
2. Anterior teeth being positioned palatally.
3. Maxillary or mandibular premolar teeth positioned too far lingually

or buccally.
The patient should be given 1–2 weeks to adapt to the denture.

Reading aloud is one of the best methods to adapt. If patient does not
adapt in this time, repositioning of the anterior teeth and recontouring
of the anterior palate should be considered.
Problems with eating

Most patients, who complain of inability to eat, have had missing
posteriors for a long time. Hence, the neuromuscular skills required to
chew with posteriors are lost or get diminished. This generally
requires only a period of time to return to normal. The patient should
be reassured that the chewing pattern will eventually be reestablished.
The patient should also be advised to avoid extremely tough, stringy,
or sticky food during the early period of adjustment.
If the occlusal anatomy of acrylic resin or plastic teeth is not
established correctly, additional sluiceways and grooves should be
added to the occlusal surface to increase the cutting efficiency.
Food accumulation under denture

This is due to:
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1. Underextended denture flange: This can be corrected by addition
of autopolymerizing acrylic resin to the area.
2. Flange covers an undercut: Undercuts need to be blocked out to

allow the denture base to fit. This leaves a space where food can
accumulate. This is very difficult to correct and alveoloplasty during
mouth preparation would be a better option.
Gagging
This is due to:
1. Failure of maxillary major connector to adapt closely to hard

palate: The main cause for this is an improper impression or cast. If
the major connector is made of acrylic resin, it can be relined. If it is
made of metal, then the framework is repeated.
2. Posterior overextension of maxillary major connector: The

posterior vibrating line is verified and the connector is trimmed
accordingly.
3. Alteration in vertical dimension: Both an increase or decrease in

vertical dimension can cause gagging. It needs to be verified and
corrected.
4. Overextended mandibular denture base: Overextension both in

length and thickness can cause gagging.
Loose dentures
The causes for loose dentures are as follows:
1. Ill-fitting prosthesis: A prosthesis which is not well adapted to the

tissues is the most common cause. Prosthesis is repeated.
2. Clasps not adapting properly: Sometimes adjusting the clasp may

solve the problem. If the clasp does not engage the undercut even
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after adjustment, new clasp will need to be added.
3. Deflective occlusal contacts: This produces torsional stress which

dislodges the denture. Correcting occlusion will correct the problem.
Summary
Denture insertion is an important appointment which establishes
confidence in the patients that they can successfully function with a
removable partial denture. Hence, sufficient time should be allocated
for this step and an established sequence of procedures should be
followed to make the denture comfortable for the patients.
Postinsertion appointments should be scheduled without much delay
to correct any problem. Otherwise the patients may lose interest in
wearing the denture if they have problems which are not attended.
Long-term recall and maintenance is also very important to preserve
the existing tissues.
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CHAPTER
29
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Refitting and repair
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 414
Refitting 414
Need for refitting 414
Relining 414
Rebasing 415
Reconstruction 416
Repair 416
Simple 416
Complex 417
Summary 418
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Introduction
These are procedures performed to restore an existing partial denture
to its original function following wear, breakage or resorption. The
decision to refit or repair must be made only after ensuring that the fit
of the framework is not compromised as otherwise a new framework
and denture must be made.
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Refitting
The residual alveolar ridge undergoes resorption in response to the
stress applied by the denture base. This results in a space between the
denture base and the alveolar ridge. The impact of this is more
pronounced in distal extension partial denture as the denture begins
to rotate around the abutment teeth causing damage to the abutment
and the tissues. In the tooth-supported partial denture, generally less
resorption occurs as the support is more from teeth and the stress
transmitted to the ridge is less. So the rotational stresses following
resorption are also reduced. Also the mandibular partial dentures are
more frequently relined as the stresses in the maxillary distal
extension denture base are distributed over a greater area of support.
Hence, in mandibular classes I and II, refitting the denture base is
done routinely and the same should be informed to the patient even at
the time of denture insertion so that they are prepared for the changes.
Need for refitting

This is determined by the following methods:
• Placing a thin mix of alginate in the denture base area, seating the
denture in the mouth and maintaining its position until the alginate
sets. The denture is removed from the mouth and evaluated. Two or
three millimetres of alginate under the denture base are a good
indication for the need to reline.
• Apply a seating force on the extreme distal end of the denture base
and watch an anterior indirect retainer lift off its rest preparation. If
the indirect retainer lifts two or more millimetres the patient can be
considered a candidate for reline or rebase.
Depending on the severity of resorption and the amount of

correction needed in the denture base, the following refitting
procedures can be adopted.
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Relining
Definition: The procedures used to resurface the tissue side of a
removable dental prosthesis with new base material, thus producing
an accurate adaptation to the denture foundation area.
Indications
1. Moderate loss of fit.
2. Loss of occlusion which is correctable.
3. Framework fit is good.
4. Denture base is in good condition and extension is adequate.
5. Teeth are not worn or excessively deteriorated.
Procedure
Two methods can be employed:
1. Conventional or laboratory reline
In this method, an impression is made of the residual ridge using the

partial denture that needs to be relined. Heat cure acrylic resin is
added in the laboratory using the conventional flasking method or
the reline jig.
i. The resin denture base is prepared for reline

impression by removing a uniform layer of resin
from the tissue surface of the denture base as
well as all the undercut areas. The resin is
removed for two reasons:
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○ To create space in order to prevent displacement of
the soft tissues by the impression material.
○ To create an uncontaminated interface between new

and old resin.
This is used as a special tray to make an impression of the residual
ridge.
ii. The choice of impression material depends on

the type of soft tissue:
○ Zinc oxide eugenol impression material is used

when mobile tissue is present on the crest of the
ridge.
○ Polysulphide rubber, silicones or mouth

temperature wax is used on dense firm edentulous
ridge.
○ Tissue conditioners may also be used in both

situations but can distort easily.
iii. The impression material is mixed, loaded onto

the trimmed denture base and inserted in the
patient’s mouth. Maintenance of the tooth-
framework relationship during the setting of the
impression material is very important. The
framework must be held against the abutment
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teeth until the material sets. Thin extensions of
impression material must be removed as soon as
the impression is removed from the mouth. Small
defects in the impression can be corrected with
mouth temperature wax.
iv. The impression is now sent to the laboratory

where heat cure acrylic resin replaces the
impression material using the flasking technique
or reline jig as described for complete dentures in
Chapter 15.
2. Chairside reline
In this method, autopolymerizing acrylic resin is used to reline the

denture base directly in the mouth.
i. The denture base is prepared as described in the

previous technique. Autopolymerizing acrylic
resin is mixed according to the manufacturer’s
instructions. Care must be taken to shift polymer
into the monomer to prevent trapping air into the
mixture which will result in a porous resin base.
ii. The external surface of the denture base is

covered with an adhesive tape to prevent the
resin from adhering to the outer surface and
teeth. The inner surface is coated with monomer
and the resin is applied with a spatula. Again
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care must be taken not to trap.
iii. The denture is held in the mouth and removed

after the initial set as recommended by the
manufacturer. Resin extending beyond internal
finishing line must be trimmed while the resin is
still in dough stage.
iv. The denture is reseated while the resin is still

plastic and held in place, again as per the time
recommended by the manufacturer.
v. It is then removed and placed in a pressure pot

for final curing.
vi. Mouth curing resins will completely polymerize

in 12–15 min from the start of mix. Regular
finishing and polishing of acrylic resin is done.
Advantages
It is a one-step procedure, hence performed quickly.
Disadvantages
1. The autopolymerizing resin is porous and not colour stable;

therefore, it is indicated for use in temporary situations only.
2. Patient discomfort due to exothermic heat if material is not handled

properly.
Rebasing
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Definition: The laboratory process of replacing the entire denture
base material on an existing prosthesis (GPT7).
Indications
1. Moderate loss of fit.
2. Loss of occlusion which is correctable.
3. Framework fit is good.
4. Teeth are not worn or excessively deteriorated.
5. Denture base has deteriorated or flanges need alteration due to:
i. Underextension of denture flange
ii. Fracture of denture base
iii. Staining or discolouration of denture base
Procedure
Rebasing is always only a laboratory technique as bulk of the denture
base material is replaced by a new resin.
• The denture base is relieved and trimmed 2 mm short of borders.
• Modelling plastic/green stick compound is added in small

increments and borders are moulded.
• After the border moulding, a final impression is made with a

suitable impression material – zinc oxide eugenol impression paste,
regular body or monophase elastomeric impression material or
fluid wax, ensuring that the framework is related to the teeth as for
relining.
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• The impression is corrected for defects and cast poured.
• Flasking is done in a conventional manner as for the reline

procedure and subjected to a brief boil out procedure to soften the
modelling plastic and ease separation of the flask.
• When the flask is opened, the remaining denture resin can be

ground away just short of the denture teeth to allow the majority of
the rebase to be in new resin. When anterior teeth are involved, the
junction of old and new resin should not be visible when patient
smiles. Shaping the old denture border to finish in a butt joint with
the new, will greatly reduce this visible junction
• The denture is packed, cured, finished and polished.
Reconstruction
Here the entire denture base along with the teeth is replaced. The
framework should have a clinically acceptable fit.
Indications
1. Denture base is extensively damaged.
2. Denture teeth have lost their functional and aesthetic value due to
wear and/or breakage.
3. Occlusal plane is completely lost involved in a repair situation and

the framework has an acceptable fit, the partial denture can be
reconstructed.
Procedure
• The denture base and teeth are completely removed by heating the
resin from the tissue side while holding the framework in a cotton
or artery forceps. It is then sandblasted to remove all traces of resin
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and polished.
• The framework is seated in the mouth and an alginate impression

made over it. The framework must be picked up by the impression
and a cast is poured in dental stone.
• After the impression is separated from the cast, the framework is

carefully removed from the cast by prying it along the inferior
border of the major connector, clasp arms as purchase points.
• The edentulous area in the cast is examined to determine the need

for an altered cast impression (Chapter 26).
• The partial denture is then articulated and completed routinely.
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Repair
It can be classified into two types:
1. Simple – accomplished without the need for impressions.
2. Complex – requires an impression and cast.
Simple
Denture base repairs

• If the broken denture segments can be accurately positioned, they
are cleaned, dried and joined with sticky wax while held in original
relationship. Dental stone is poured against the tissue surface to
preserve the relationship.
• The denture is removed after the stone has set and the sticky wax
eliminated.
• The broken segments are dovetailed along the fracture line to

provide retention for the new resin (Fig. 29.1).
• Cast is painted with separating medium, pieces of denture

reassembled and held in position with sticky wax.
• Autopolymerizing resin is added to the prepared fracture line by

sprinkle on technique and placed in a pressure pot to complete the
curing.
• If the broken segments are lost or cannot be approximated,

procedure described for rebasing should be followed.
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FIGURE 29.1 Denture base repair. Broken fragments joined,
cast poured, dovetailed and repaired with autopolymerizing
resin.
Replacement of denture teeth

• An accurate opposing cast is needed and a jaw relation record is
made if required (Fig. 29.2).
• Acrylic denture tooth of same mould and shade is selected and

fitted into the missing tooth space.
• Trimming of denture base to create space is made from the lingual

aspect and the labial (or buccal) surface is not touched. The ridge
lap area is relieved to allow at least 2 mm of repair resin to attach
the tooth to the base.
• The tooth is attached to the adjacent denture teeth or framework

with sticky wax.
• Autopolymerizing denture resin is added to the gingival repair
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space using a brush in small increments. The repair is completed by
curing in a pressure pot followed by finishing and polishing.
• The completed repair is articulated with the opposing cast and

occlusal adjustments are performed.
• If a number of teeth need replacement or associated denture base

areas are also missing, procedure described for rebasing should be
followed.
FIGURE 29.2 Denture teeth replacement. Tooth articulated

and acrylic denture tooth fixed with autopolymerizing resin.
Repair of porcelain facings

Broken porcelain facings are completely replaced by cementing a new
facing of the same shade and mould intraorally. If chairside time is to
be reduced, a cast can be made with the framework and the facing is
cemented to the backing in the laboratory.
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Repair of tube tooth
• Broken tube tooth is replaced by waxing a replacement onto
framework, flasking the mould with appropriate shade of acrylic
resin and curing it. The new tooth is then cemented on the denture.
• Acrylic denture tooth can also be hollowed out to fit the post and
cemented with thin mix of autopolymerizing resin.
Complex
Metal repair
Metal repair can be discussed as the repair of the following:
1. Clasp repair
• The most common metal repair is the addition of a retentive clasp

arm.
• To perform the repair, the framework is picked up with an alginate

impression and a repair cast is poured to get the exact framework-
to-tooth relation.
• To repair the retentive arm of a cast circumferential clasp or bar

clasp, the simplest method is to contour and attach a wrought wire
to the denture base acrylic. A more complex procedure will be to
electric solder the wrought wire to the framework minor connector.
• A more definitive method is to remake the entire clasp assembly

using the same procedures for making any framework, and
attaching the cast clasp to the frame by soldering.
2. Major and minor connector
• Breakage of major connector happens rarely, except for the lingual

bar major connector which breaks at its junction with retentive
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latticework. A new segment is cast and attached to framework with
solder. The same can be done following breakage of minor
connector.
• Major and minor connectors also need repair when the denture has
been distorted and does not completely and passively seat on the
abutment teeth.
• The framework is sectioned with a carborundum disc and the

sections are seated in the mouth. The sections should have adequate
fit or the entire framework should be remade.
• A plaster or resin index is used to record the relationship of the

sectioned parts in the mouth. The sectioned denture with the index
is sent to the laboratory where they are soldered and finished.
• Following loss of number of teeth, denture base minor connector

may need to be added to the framework. An accurate repair cast
with the existing partial denture is made along with an opposing
cast for articulation. Loops of 18 gauge wire can then be soldered to
the framework for fabricating the minor connector. Alternately,
sections of standard retentive mesh or latticework can also be
soldered to the framework. An internal and external finishing line is
mandatory.
3. Occlusal rest
• Insufficient space provided during the rest seat preparation is the

main cause of fracture of occlusal rest.
• A repair cast is poured with the existing framework after preparing

the tooth with adequate space for the rest. The new rest is then
waxed and soldered to the framework.
Adding teeth to denture following loss of natural

teeth
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• A repair cast of the remaining teeth is obtained by making an
alginate impression over the partial denture after the base is
redefined with modelling plastic in the area of the missing teeth. An
opposing cast with a centric occlusion record (if required) is also
made.
• If the extracted tooth is adjacent to the denture base, it can be simply

attached to the resin base without any metal retention.
• If the extracted tooth is not adjacent to resin base but adjacent to a

major connector, a wire loop or retentive mesh can be soldered to
the connector to provide retention.
• If the major connector does not involve the area of the tooth to be
added, the repair cast should be duplicated, major connector
extended by waxing and the extension is soldered to the existing
framework. Remaking the entire framework may be ideal instead of
this complicated repair.
• If an abutment tooth is extracted, usually a new design and

framework is needed. Temporarily, however, a rest is prepared in
the adjacent tooth and a repair cast is made after removing the old
clasp. A new clasp is waxed to the prepared abutment and soldered
to the existing framework. A denture tooth is added to restore the
missing tooth.
Replacing a restoration under a clasp

• Direct restorations can be fabricated under a clasp provided the
damage to abutment is minor.
• Mostly indirect restorations like an inlay or crown may be needed to

restore the abutment.
• Tooth preparation is similar to any routine crown preparation with

additional preparation in the occlusal rest area.
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• An impression is made using elastomeric impression material, with
the denture in the mouth, and a repair cast is fabricated.
• Wax pattern for crown is fabricated to conform to the clasp

assembly of the partial denture. The same is cast and veneered with
porcelain as indicated.
SUMMARY
Whenever prosthesis is damaged or needs refitting, the decision to
remake the same should always be kept in mind. The time, effort and
economy of any refitting repair procedure must be compared to that
required to make a new denture and an appropriate decision should
be taken. Some of the simple procedures mentioned can provide
adequate extension to the life of the prosthesis and should always be
considered first.
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CHAPTER
30
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Forms of removable partial
dentures
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 419
Temporary removable partial dentures 419
Interim partial denture 419
Transitional partial denture 425
Treatment partial denture 425
Immediate partial dentures 426
Definitive immediate partial denture 426
Temporary immediate partial denture 427
Variations of conventional cast partial dentures 427
Guide plane denture 427
Swing-lock denture 427
Unilateral dentures 428
I-bar removable partial dentures 428
Removable partial overdentures 432
Implant-supported removable partial dentures 433
Attachment-retained partial dentures 434
Miscellaneous 434
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Spoon denture 434
Every denture 435
Two part denture 435
Disjunct denture 436
Summary 436
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Introduction
The conventional extracoronal clasp-retained removable partial
dentures have been described previously in this section. Other forms
are also available depending on the indication, material and method
of fabrication. These can be discussed under the following six
categories:
1. Temporary
2. Immediate
3. Variations of conventional
4. Removable partial overdentures
5. Implant supported
6. Attachment retained
7. Miscellaneous
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Temporary removable partial dentures
These are to be worn only until a more definitive prosthesis can be
constructed. These are of three types according to their indication for
use:
1. Interim
2. Transitional
3. Treatment
Interim partial denture

Definition: A prosthesis designed to enhance aesthetics, stabilization
and/or function for a limited period of time, after which it is to be
replaced by a definitive dental prosthesis (GPT7).
Indications
1. Young patients with anterior tooth loss when fixed partial denture
cannot be given because of large pulp chambers of the abutment teeth.
2. Young patients with posterior tooth loss, to maintain the space

before definitive treatment.
3. When poor health limits lengthy appointments needed for

definitive prosthesis, especially in geriatric patients.
4. For financial reasons.
5. Patients who do not have time at the moment for definitive

prosthesis.
Fabrication
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Interim removable partial dentures are constructed with acrylic resin
denture base (with no metal) and acrylic resin denture teeth. The
following procedures are involved in fabricating an interim removable
partial denture.
Impressions, master casts and jaw relations
• Accurate irreversible hydrocolloid impressions are made for both

the arches using conventional methods (Fig. 30.1). Extension to
record the peripheral roll of the border at least in the edentulous
areas is necessary.
• Impressions are poured in dental stone using double pour technique

– described in Chapter 22 (Fig. 30.2).
• The shade and teeth should be selected using the remaining natural
teeth as reference.
• A temporary record base is made in baseplate wax or shellac

baseplate and occlusal wax rims are attached to the edentulous
areas. If the casts cannot be hand articulated in maximal
intercuspation, a tentative jaw relation record is made (Fig. 30.3)
and the casts are mounted on a nonadjustable articulator (Fig. 30.4).
• The temporary record base is not fabricated if jaw relation record

and try-in is not required and the denture is to be processed in
autopolymerizing acrylic resin. We can then directly proceed with
clasp forming followed by arrangement of artificial teeth and
processing.
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FIGURE 30.1 Impressions made with irreversible
hydrocolloid.
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FIGURE 30.2 Master casts poured in dental stone. (A)
Maxillary and (B) mandibular.
FIGURE 30.3 Jaw relation recorded in MIP (maximal

intercuspal position).
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FIGURE 30.4 Casts articulated.
Retention
Natural retentive factors present in the patient’s mouth should be
considered first and only if this is inadequate clasp retention should
be planned.
Following are some of the natural sources of retention:
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1. Frictional resistance between the denture and tooth surface:
Lingual surface of posterior teeth and interproximal embrasures.
2. Interfacial surface tension obtained by close adaptation of the

denture to the tissues: It is directly proportional to the area covered
by the denture.
3. Contour of palatal vault: Deep vault, more retention.
4. Occlusion: Deep bite may reduce the stability of removable partials

replacing maxillary anterior teeth.
5. A well-fitting labial flange.
6. Neuromuscular coordination of patient’s tongue, cheek and lips.
Only if the natural retentive factors are extremely unfavourable,

clasps are considered.
Fabrication of retentive clasps
• Cast should be surveyed to locate the desired undercuts (Fig. 30.5).
• Wrought wire of 0.040 inch diameter is used. The clasp is fabricated

using orthodontic pliers.
• An appropriate length of the wire is cut from the spool. One end is
adapted onto the abutment tooth engaging the undercut as desired
(Fig. 30.6). The nonretentive end to be inserted into the denture base
is coiled upon itself so that it will be slightly out of contact with the
lingual or palatal surface of the cast (Fig. 30.7). This allows the
denture base acrylic resin to flow beneath the wire and secure it.
• Occlusal clearance should be checked so that grinding the natural

teeth to accommodate the clasp later can be avoided (Fig. 30.8).
• If undercuts are not present for conventional clasp, ball clasp can be
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used.
• The clasp is then attached to the buccal surface with sticky wax so it
is not disturbed during further procedures involved in denture
fabrication (Fig. 30.9).
FIGURE 30.5 Retentive undercuts marked on abutments.
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FIGURE 30.6 One end adapted on abutment engaging
undercut.
FIGURE 30.7 Other end, coiled, slightly out of contact with

lingual surface to provide space for denture base.
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FIGURE 30.8 Occlusal clearance verified.
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FIGURE 30.9 Clasp attached with sticky wax.
Arranging the artificial teeth
• Artificial denture teeth are selected by considering the available

mesiodistal and occlusogingival space and by comparing the same
teeth on other side. The advantage of using plastic teeth is that it
can be reshaped easily. If all anterior teeth are to be replaced,
selection of teeth as for complete denture is followed and it is
important to maintain the midline. In selecting the posterior teeth,
consideration should be given to restoring occlusion and function.
• If there is minimum or no resorption of the edentulous ridge, the

neck of the artificial teeth is contoured to fit directly on the labial
aspect of residual ridge with no labial flange. To ensure intimate
contact, the crest and labial flange of cast can be trimmed lightly.
Such a denture is called ‘gum fit denture’.
• If there is adequate space due to resorption of residual ridge, the

ridge is covered with the denture flange and the cast need not be
trimmed.
• Once the teeth are set (Fig. 30.10), an aesthetic try-in is performed if
anterior teeth are involved (Fig. 30.11).
• Following teeth arrangement and try-in, if retention by clasp is

desired the same should be formed on the cast after removing the
temporary record base and artificial teeth. The temporary denture
base is then modified to fit the clasp.
• The denture is then processed using an autopolymerizing or heat

cure acrylic resin as denture base material.
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FIGURE 30.10 Artificial teeth arranged.
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Autopolymerizing acrylic resin as denture base
• When autopolymerizing acrylic resin is to be used as the denture

base material for the temporary denture, a stone matrix of 8–10 mm
thickness is formed to maintain position of artificial teeth during
processing (Fig. 30.12).
• V-shaped notches are made in the master cast, to ensure that matrix
can be repositioned accurately (Fig. 30.13).
• Master cast is soaked in slurry water and a gypsum separating

medium is painted over the cast where the matrix will contact the
cast. A thick mix of dental stone is placed over the labial surface of
the cast and teeth. After setting, the matrix is gently removed from
the cast.
• Temporary record base used to support the denture teeth is

removed and cast flushed with boiling soap water. Separating
medium is painted on warm cast.
• Retention holes or diatorics are drilled in ridge lap portion of acrylic
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resin denture tooth to provide mechanical retention to the denture
base (Fig. 30.14).
• Matrix and teeth are reassembled on the cast and fixed with sticky
wax (Fig. 30.15). Undercuts to path of insertion are blocked with
wax.
• Autopolymerizing acrylic resin is added using the sprinkle on

technique to form the denture base (Fig. 30.16).
• The extension of the base for maxillary temporary partial denture

should be limited to a horseshoe configuration with acrylic resin
contacting the lingual surfaces of the remaining natural teeth. If
anterior teeth are to be replaced, the denture base is extended till
first molar to enable sufficient soft tissue contact.
• For mandibular temporary partial dentures, the denture base is

extended lingually without encroaching the movable soft tissue.
Posterior extension should be up to the first molar area to enhance
stability and distribute forces. After the complete denture base is
formed, it should be allowed to polymerize in a pressure pot under
20 pounds of pressure for 20 min.
• If a pressure pot is not available, the cast is placed in a closed

container or a rubber bowl inverted over the cast during
polymerization, to prevent porosity.
• After polymerization, the occlusion is checked without removing

denture from the cast as described in Chapter 10.
• Following occlusal correction, the denture base is removed from the

cast, finished and polished as described in Chapter 27.
• This procedure is normally done only if 1 or 2 teeth are to be

replaced.
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FIGURE 30.12 Stone matrix fabricated to maintain position of
artificial teeth.
FIGURE 30.13 V-shaped notch on cast.
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FIGURE 30.14 Diatoric holes drilled in ridge lap portion of
artificial teeth.
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FIGURE 30.15 Sticky wax used to position the matrix and
artificial teeth.
FIGURE 30.16 Autopolymerizing resin added to form the
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denture base.
Heat cure acrylic resin as denture base
• A matrix is not required if a heat curing acrylic resin is used as

denture base material.
• Following try-in and fabrication of clasps, the denture base is

waxed, master cast is flasked and processed with heat cure resin, as
described for complete dentures (Figs 30.17–30.20).
FIGURE 30.17 Flasking.
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FIGURE 30.18 After dewaxing.
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FIGURE 30.19 Packing heat-cured acrylic.
FIGURE 30.20 Finished interim partial dentures.
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FIGURE 30.21 Unilateral denture.
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FIGURE 30.22 I-bar removable partial denture. R, rest; MC,
minor connector; GP, guiding plane (proximal plate); I, I-bar
clasp. (A) Occlusal view and (B) buccal view.
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Denture insertion
• Pressure indicating paste is painted on the fitting surface of the

denture and complete displacement of the paste indicates the areas
to be relived. When checking for interference during seating, the
denture should be inserted with light pressure. If heavy pressure is
applied, the denture will be forced into the undercuts and removal
may become difficult. The interfering areas are trimmed minimally
with vulcanite burs or acrylic stones and the process is repeated
until the denture seats without interference.
• When anterior teeth are replaced, the goal of occlusion should be to

keep the teeth free of occlusal contact in centric occlusion and have
light contact in eccentric relations.
• In posterior replacements, light contact of the artificial teeth in

centric is preferred, with the natural teeth contact guiding the
occlusion.
• Denture should not be worn continuously and should be removed

during sleep.
• Care and cleaning is similar to complete dentures.
• Recall appointments and plan for definitive prosthesis should be

outlined.
Transitional partial denture

Definition: A removable dental prosthesis serving as an interim
prosthesis to which artificial teeth will be added as natural teeth are
lost and that will be replaced after postextraction tissue changes have
occurred (GPT7).
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Indications
In periodontally affected teeth or teeth with poor prognosis, where
immediate extraction of all the affected teeth is not indicated for
physiological or psychological reasons.
Teeth may be extracted as symptoms arise and the extracted teeth
are added to the denture to provide adequate function.
Fabrication
• The denture base is normally made of acrylic resin and the
procedures involved are similar to that of interim denture.
• If the denture is planned to serve for a long period of time, a cast

metal denture base is planned. Procedures are similar to fabricating
any cast partial denture. The major connector should be designed
such that teeth may be added to the existing denture. For this, metal
retention loops may need to be soldered to the major connector as
teeth are extracted and artificial denture teeth are processed on the
loops. Lingual plate major connector is recommended for the
mandibular arch.
• For adding teeth to an existing denture, refer to the section on

‘Adding teeth to denture following loss of natural teeth’ in Chapter
29.
Treatment partial denture

Definition: A dental prosthesis used for the purpose of treating or
conditioning the tissues that is called upon to retain it (GPT7).
Indications
1. Tissue conditioning
• The partial denture is used as a vehicle or tray to carry tissue
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treatment material for treating abused tissues.
• Excessive forces on the soft tissues caused by pressure from denture

base can cause adverse soft tissue reaction. The soft tissue reacts in
the form of erythema, marginal gingivitis or hyperplasia. The
condition is usually exacerbated by the presence of poor oral
hygiene.
• Tissue treatment material is also referred to as tissue conditioner. It

is a soft material applied temporarily to the tissue surface of the
denture. Its elasticity lasts for a week, so it should be replaced in 4–5
days. For more details refer to Chapter 15 in the section on
Complete Dentures.
• Mode of action:
○ Evenly distributes the occlusal load over the tissues.
○ Produces an intimate tissue contact massaging the

soft tissues.
○ Reduces the inflammation by increasing blood flow

to the abused tissues.
• Preparing the treatment partial denture:
○ If an existing partial denture is to be used, the tissue

surface over the affected area is trimmed 2 mm to
provide space for the tissue treatment material.
○ If a new partial denture is to be made, the

procedure is similar to that of an interim denture,
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except that a spacer of 2 mm is created over the
affected region by adapting spacer wax before
acrylizing the denture base.
• Procedure for using tissue conditioner:
○ A separator (supplied by the manufacturer) is

applied to the external surface of denture.
○ Tissue conditioner is mixed to a creamy consistency

and applied to the tissue surface of denture base
evenly with a cement spatula. Working time is
usually 1 min.
○ Denture is seated in the mouth maintaining light

pressure and border moulding is performed.
○ Patient is asked to occlude by gently biting on the

posterior teeth and this is maintained for 4–5 min.
○ Denture is removed, voids filled with new material.

The exposed denture base areas are trimmed, space
created, new material added and inserted in mouth.
○ Once a smooth layer of the conditioning material is

obtained, denture is washed under cool running
water.
○ Excess material is trimmed with a scalpel blade or
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scissors and smoothed.
○ Patient is advised to use the denture at all times

except while cleaning after meals. Details of care
are described in the section on Complete Dentures.
2. To establish a new vertical dimension
• When an increase in vertical dimension is planned with restorations,

resin occlusal rims and overlays on remaining natural teeth can be
added to an existing metal partial denture or new acrylic denture to
determine the acceptable level of increase for the patient. The resin
can be readily altered to increase or decrease the height of occlusion
till the clinically acceptable level is established for the patient.
• Procedure:
○ A facebow transfer is used with a semi-adjustable

articulator.
○ The maxillary and mandibular casts are articulated

with an interocclusal wax record at the established
vertical dimension.
○ Wax occlusal rims are added to the edentulous

spaces and the remaining natural teeth are waxed
in the form of overlays, attached to the denture
base. It is then processed in acrylic resin.
○ The denture is inserted and vertical dimension is

checked and corrected till the appropriate vertical
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dimension is established for the patient.
○ A full mouth rehabilitation is with definitive fixed

or removable prosthesis is then planned at this
vertical dimension.
3. As a surgical splint
• Denture base of removable partial dentures can be used as surgical

splint to protect postoperative surgical sites in the oral cavity and
promote healing.
• Most often it is used following surgical removal of palatal and

lingual tori.
• The base may be lined with tissue conditioning material to provide

intimate contact and act as a soothing surgical dressing.
• Procedure:
○ Impression is made with irreversible hydrocolloid.

A mock surgery is performed on the cast to
replicate the contour of the site after surgery by
scraping to the desired contour.
○ Sprinkle-on method is used to fabricate an

autopolymerizing acrylic resin splint.
○ Retention is obtained by clasp or holes are provided

in the interproximal extension to suture the denture
to the remaining natural teeth.
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4. Creating interridge space
• A partial denture similar to a bite plane appliance may be fabricated

to create interocclusal space and improve the occlusal plane. This
may be used in the following cases:
○ Loss of mandibular posteriors followed by

supraeruption of maxillary posteriors may
sometimes be so severe that there is no space even
for a denture base. Use of acrylic resin base in the
mandibular arch, may select young patients, allow
intrusion of the maxillary posteriors to provide
space for a definitive denture base.
○ Edentulous maxillary anterior space may cause

lower anteriors to supraerupt such that they contact
the mucosa of the maxillary ridge. A bite plane type
of partial denture in younger patients, will allow
some intrusion of lower anteriors and some
extrusion of posteriors to provide space for
definitive treatment later.
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Immediate partial dentures
Definition: Any removable dental prosthesis fabricated for placement
immediately following the removal of a natural tooth/teeth (GPT).
The denture is inserted immediately, in the same appointment,
following extraction of tooth/teeth.
Advantages:
1. Anterior replacements provide immediate aesthetics and help
patient psychologically.
2. Posterior replacement prevents migration of teeth into the

edentulous space.
3. Acts as a splint and controls haemorrhage and swelling.
Classification:
They are of two types:
• Definitive – framework made of cast metal.
• Temporary – made entirely of acrylic resin.
Definitive immediate partial denture

Indication
Prognosis of remaining natural teeth is good.
Fabrication
Procedures are similar to the construction of any cast partial denture
with some differences. A try-in of the framework can be performed,
but a try-in with artificial teeth cannot be done.
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Mouth preparation
All the routine mouth preparations are done. While preparing guiding
planes, the teeth that are to be extracted and present adjacent to the
abutments are also sliced proximally to allow framework try-in.
Impressions are made as for any cast partial denture and master
cast poured.
Scraping the teeth on the master cast: The teeth to be extracted are
scraped in the cast up to the gingiva. The centre of the space is made
deeper to resemble a shallow tooth socket. The cast is scrapped on the
facial surface for 4–5 mm and 1 mm depth. This is will help in
compressing the tissue and act as a splint. Also see fig 17.12 in
Chapter 17
The prepared master cast is then duplicated and framework is
fabricated. The denture base framework should be amenable for
future relining after healing.
Two techniques can be adopted:
1. Denture base can be fabricated using wrought wire loops which can
be bent backwards to allow framework try-in. They are bent back to
the normal position before placing the artificial teeth.
2. Lattice-type denture base minor connector is fabricated

independent of the rest of the framework. It is then soldered to the
framework following try-in of framework used for fabrication of the
denture.
The artificial teeth are arranged and the denture base polymerized,
without an aesthetic try-in. The denture is trimmed, finished and
polished. During the insertion appointment, the teeth planned for
extraction are removed with least trauma to surrounding tissues.
Following haemostasis, disclosing wax can be used to detect areas of
interference and the denture delivered.
Immediate dentures are usually made for anterior teeth
replacement. Since an aesthetic try-in cannot be performed and
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considering the cost factor, the permanent type of immediate denture
is rarely indicated with all its limitations.
Temporary immediate partial denture

This is most commonly used. The fabrication is similar to an interim
partial denture. Scraping of teeth from the cast is similar to that
described previously. Relining is done as healing occurs, and a
definitive prosthesis fabricated following complete healing.
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Variations of conventional cast partial
dentures
Guide plane denture
Indication
They are used as splints to stabilize periodontally weak remaining
natural teeth.
Design
• Broad stress distribution concept – stress is distributed through

rigid connectors and multiple rests and clasps.
• Not more than two clasps on either side of arch will be retentive.
The rest will only provide buccolingual stabilization by not
engaging the undercut.
• Framework should be completely passive.
• Multiple parallel guide planes are prepared.
• Disadvantages:
○ Aesthetics will be a problem due to large metal

display.
○ The alternative to this treatment is only total

extraction followed by a complete denture or
overdenture, if residual ridge preservation is
planned.
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• The lingual plate major connector can also be used effectively to
splint and stabilize periodontally weak mandibular anterior teeth.
Mesial and distal rests are prepared on these teeth and engaged by
projections from the lingual plate. Interproximal spaces are closed
completely lingual to contact point.
• The procedure of fabrication and fitting the denture is similar to

conventional cast partial dentures.
• This type of denture is very effective in stabilizing weak teeth.
Swing-lock denture
The swing-lock removable partial dentures were first described by Dr
Joe J. Simmons in 1963. It consists of two major connectors – a
conventional major connector like a lingual plate and a labial bar.
Such a configuration will be impossible to insert together. Hence, the
labial bar consists of a hinge on one end and a latch (lock) on the
other. It is locked in position after insertion of the denture. Because of
this locking mechanism the denture is termed ‘swing-lock’ denture.
Small vertical projection clasps attached to the labial bar contact the
labial or buccal surfaces of the teeth gingival to the height of contour
providing retention and stability.
Indications
• Too few remaining natural teeth.
• Remaining teeth too mobile to serve as abutments.
• Location of remaining natural teeth is unfavourable for a

conventional removable partial denture.
• Unfavourable tooth and soft tissue contours.
• To provide retention and stability for maxillofacial prosthesis such

as obturators.
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• For retention of prosthesis in cases of loss of large segments of teeth
and alveolar ridge due to traumatic injury.
Contraindications
• Shallow vestibule.
• High labial frenal attachment.
• Unaesthetic – too much metal display due to short lower lip.
• Poor oral hygiene.
Advantages
• All or most of the remaining teeth can be used for the retention and
stabilization of prosthesis.
• A natural tooth can be removed and added to the major connector

of a swing-lock prosthesis through a simple laboratory procedure.
• Construction of a swing-lock removable partial denture is relatively

simple and inexpensive.
Disadvantages
• Relatively poor aesthetics result for patients with short lips.
• Tipping of remaining anterior teeth in case of long-span distal

extension bases.
Design and fabrication

• The major connector of choice is linguoplate in the mandible and
complete palate in maxilla. Closed horseshoe can also be used in
maxilla.
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• A gingival resin veneer can be processed on the labial bar if
aesthetics is compromised due to loss of gingival tissue.
• Alginate is the material of choice for final impressions as it may be

difficult to remove elastomeric impressions where gingival
embrasures exist due to bone loss.
• Surveying: Path of insertion should be from lingual direction with

the labial arm open.
• Chrome alloy is used for the framework. Gold alloy is

contraindicated as lock mechanism wears quickly with use and lot
of bulk is needed to provide sufficient rigidity and strength.
• Rest of the component design and the fabrication is similar to

conventional cast partial dentures.
Unilateral dentures
It may also be called ‘clasp bridge’ (Fig. 30.21).
Definition: A removable dental prosthesis which restores lost or
missing teeth on one side of the arch only (GPT8).
Disadvantages
This type of denture is not normally recommended as the danger of
aspiration of denture by patient is high because of its small size and
less retentive and stabilizing features.
Design
• Clinical crown of the abutments must be sufficiently long to resist
rotational forces.
• Buccal and lingual surfaces of the abutment should be

parallel/nearly parallel to each other to resist tipping forces.
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• Retentive undercuts should be available both buccally and lingually.
• The artificial tooth is normally a tube tooth supported by a cast

metal denture base.
• The base must have intimate contact with the tissues to prevent food
accumulation.
I-bar removable partial dentures

These were introduced by Kratochvil in 1963. The concept emphasizes
three components – mesial occlusal rest, I-bar retainer and long guide
planes (Fig. 30.22).
The design philosophy and components are discussed with
reference to distal extension bases.
Mesial occlusal rest

The occlusal rest is placed in the mesial fossa of the primary abutment
instead of distal fossa for the following reasons:
1. Directs tipping forces mesially (Fig. 30.23).
2. Wrenching action of retentive arm avoided (Fig. 30.24).
3. Forces on mucosa more perpendicular (Fig. 30.25).
4. Firm resistance to distal displacement (Fig. 30.26).
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FIGURE 30.23 (A) A rest adjacent to edentulous space of a
distal extension partial denture (distal rest) rotates the
abutment distally and opens the contact area on the mesial
side. (B) When the rest is located on the mesial surface, the
contact area remains closed as abutment tooth is supported
by the other natural teeth anterior to it.
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FIGURE 30.24 (A) With distal occlusal rest, RPD behaves as
a Class I lever, wrenching action of retentive arm is anterior to
point of rotation, force tends to pull the tooth out (B) With a
mesial rest, the forces on the abutment tooth changes from a
class I to class II type of lever action. Therefore, the
wrenching action of the retentive arm anteriorly to point of
rotation is avoided.
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FIGURE 30.25 (A) With a distal rest, forces not perpendicular
to ridge, (B) With a mesial rest, as the distance between the
fulcrum point and the extension base is increased (fulcrum
line shifts anteriorly), the arc of rotation at any given point on
the base becomes flatter and its direction becomes more
perpendicular to the ridge. This force is better tolerated.
FIGURE 30.26 Mesial rest with rigid minor connector tends to

resist distal displacement of the denture. The clasp assembly
is solidly anchored on the tooth, and the clasp tips or
recessed rest seats are not relied upon to prevent slippage
distally.
Preparation of rest seat is similar to that described for conventional

cast partial dentures.
Direct retainer
1. I-bar clasp is indicated. It is located in a mid-buccal position where

it is free to disengage from the tooth when rotation occurs around the
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mesially placed rest. I-bar must contact the tooth at or slightly anterior
to the point of greatest buccolingual diameter for such rotation to
occur (Fig. 30.27). It must lie far enough from the gingival margin
(minimum of 2.5–3 mm) to avoid food impaction. There is no
reciprocal arm, reciprocation is provided by proximal plate.
FIGURE 30.27 (A) I bar clasp in a maxillary cast partial

denture, (B) I bar clasp in a mandibular cast partial denture
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Advantages
1. Freedom to disengage.
2. Minimal tooth contact.
3. Minimum distortion of tooth contours thereby minimal food

accumulation.
4. Maximum gingival stimulation.
5. Adequate retention with minimal undercut.
Disadvantages
Retention and resistance to horizontal stabilization is less compared to
other retentive elements.
Proximal plate (long guide planes)

According to this design philosophy, an extended guide plane is
prepared on the distal surface of the abutment. It extends from the
marginal ridge to the tooth-tissue junction and extends onto the
attached gingiva for 2 mm (Fig. 30.28). This extended guide plane of
metal is called ‘proximal plate’.
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FIGURE 30.28. Proximal plate.
Advantages
1. A highly polished metal, rather than resin, contact with the

marginal gingiva protects the area.
2. Intimate metal-to-tooth contact distally between the denture and the

natural tooth to minimize or eliminate food impaction.
3. Better retention and horizontal stabilization.
4. Provides reciprocation.
5. Distributes occlusal forces.
Disadvantages
Contact of the abutment with parallel vertical elements mesially and
distally grips the tooth tightly and prevents the rotation of the
extension bases.
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Minor connectors, major connectors, indirect
retainers and denture base
These components complete the I-bar denture. The design philosophy
is similar to that for routine cast partial dentures.
In keeping with the minimal coverage philosophy, anteroposterior
palatal strap is the recommended maxillary major connector and
lingual bar for the mandible.
Variations
1. RPI concept
Developed by Krol (1973), this concept advocated reduction in the
amount of tooth preparation and coverage involved with the
previously described I-bar system.
RPI denotes – rest, proximal plate and I-bar clasp. The emphasis
was on stress control with minimal tooth and gingival coverage.
The following changes were advocated with regard to the mesial
rest, proximal plate and I-bar clasp compared to Kratochvil’s system:
1. Rest: Preparation is less extensive, extends only to the triangular

fossa, just concave depressions are prepared on mesial marginal ridge.
2. Proximal plate: The prepared guide plane is only 2–3 mm and

contacts only 1 mm of the gingival portion (Fig. 30.29A). Relief is
provided at the tooth-tissue junction to allow plate to disengage into
undercut under occlusal loading.
3. I-bar retentive terminal: It is pod-shaped with more tooth contact.

It is placed more towards the mesial embrasure space for effective
reciprocation from the short proximal plate (Fig. 30.29B). There is no
separate reciprocal arm similar to the previously described I-bar
partial denture.
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FIGURE 30.29 (A) Proximal plate of RPI concept, 2–3 mm
guide plane contacts only 1 mm of gingiva. R, rest; GP, guide
plane; PP, proximal plate; I, I-bar clasp. (B) I-bar retentive
terminal of RPI concept is placed towards the mesial
embrasure than centre.
The rest of the components are designed similar to conventional

cast partial dentures.
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2. RPA concept
It was described by Krol (1976). When RPI system cannot be used in
cases of tipped abutments and soft tissue undercuts, RPA concept is
advocated.
In this case use of distal rest and a wrought wire circumferential
clasp (Akers’ clasp) is indicated (Fig. 30.30). Although the clasp will
not release during functional movement, its flexibility will create a
stress breaking affect.
FIGURE 30.30 RPA concept: R – rest, P – proximal plate, A

– Aker’s clasp.
The distal rest eliminates any space between occlusal aspects of the
proximal surfaces of the abutment and the artificial tooth and the
gingival portion of the guide plate can be relieved without creating
any area for food impaction.
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Removable partial overdentures
Definition: A removable partial denture that covers and rests on one
or more remaining natural teeth, the roots of natural teeth, and/or
dental implants; a prosthesis that covers and is partially supported by
natural teeth, natural roots and/or dental implants (GPT8).
It may also be known as – overlay denture, overlay prosthesis,
superimposed prosthesis or hybrid prosthesis. Teeth which support
the RPD are known as overdenture abutments.
Advantages
1. Enhances denture support.
2. Reduces the stresses on partial denture abutments.
3. Decreases residual ridge resorption.
4. Denture base extension can be reduced.
Indications
A natural tooth can be retained as an overdenture abutment to
produce better support and reduce the stresses on the partial denture
abutments in the following situations:
1. Distal extension bases – retaining a posterior tooth provides better

support and reduces stresses.
2. Long-span anterior edentulous areas – retaining an anterior tooth

provides better support and reduces residual ridge resorption.
3. Weak partial denture abutment.
4. Number of remaining teeth is less.
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5. Interim partial denture.
Criteria for overdenture abutment selection

The teeth to be selected as overdenture abutment should be evaluated
for the following:
1. Positional considerations
i. Selection depends on the position of the abutment and the length of

the edentulous span. The selected tooth should help in reducing stress
to the partial denture abutment and residual ridge.
ii. Presence of labial or buccal tissue undercut does not change

treatment planning as the flange extension can be reduced with
retention being provided by clasps.
2. Periodontal considerations
i. Periodontium must be healthy.
ii. Excessive periodontal pocket depth must be eliminated.
iii. Oral hygiene must be maintainable.
iv. Two millimetre of attached gingiva must be present.
v. Mobility is not important as it will decrease after crown height is

reduced.
3. Endodontic considerations
i. All overdenture abutments require to be treated endodontically to

reduce the crown height to 2–3 mm. Only teeth with calcified pulp
chambers may not require endo treatment.
ii. If a single-rooted tooth can be used as effectively as a multirooted

tooth, the former should be selected for ease and economic reasons.
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4. Caries considerations
i. The abutment is covered with a coping if there is extensive caries

and tooth is susceptible to fracture.
ii. Root caries on the crown root junction may be of concern as it may
interfere with the margin of the coping.
iii. Rampant caries is a contraindication for teeth being selected as

overdenture abutments.
5. Oral hygiene considerations

This treatment modality is successful only if the patient can maintain
oral hygiene effectively.
Design
The design is essentially the same as for the conventional cast partial
dentures. A few considerations regarding selection of the replacement
teeth, choice of retentive clasps and design of the denture base are
necessary in some situations.
Teeth selection
Acrylic resin teeth are preferred over porcelain as they are easier to
modify and are less susceptible to fracture.
Clasp design/selection
If the abutment tooth is in the middle of the edentulous space it may
act as the fulcrum point on application of occlusal forces distally. A
wrought wire clasp may be indicated.
Denture base
The denture base can be supported by using the following methods:
1. Using an attachment to provide better retention and vertical

support (discussed in Chapter 47).
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2. Providing a metal to tooth/coping contact with the use of a metal
denture base on the prepared overdenture tooth or coping. The
disadvantage of this design is that the prosthesis cannot be
functionally fitted to the abutment tooth and later placement or
replacement of coping is difficult.
3. The best and most commonly used design is the development of

resin to tooth contact. Acrylic resin retained by the denture base minor
connector covers and contacts the overdenture abutment. This allows
the denture to be functionally fitted and modified if needed.
Preparation of overdenture abutment

Sufficient reduction is important to allow for the artificial tooth to be
seated in the same position as the natural tooth. Strength, aesthetics
and retention are influenced by amount of tooth preparation.
• A hole is prepared through the clinical crown and dental floss is

threaded to secure the crown during sectioning. It is then sectioned
3 mm above the crest of the ridge.
• The occlusal surface is rounded to remove unsupported enamel and

prevent fracture.
• The labiolingual taper must be 25–35°. Proximal taper must be 10–

15°.
Clinical and laboratory procedures

The clinical and laboratory procedures for fabricating the overdenture
are the same as for the conventional cast partial dentures. During
mouth preparation, the overdenture abutments are prepared and final
impressions are made. While making altered cast impressions,
elastomeric impression materials are preferred if there are undercuts
adjacent to abutment.
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Denture insertion
• Prosthesis is adapted to the abutment tooth during insertion for best
clinical results.
• The tissue surface of the denture where it contacts the overdenture

abutment is trimmed and relieved. It is shaped in the form of a butt
joint to retain the autopolymerizing acrylic resin.
• A hole is drilled through the lingual side to provide an escape

channel for the excess resin.
• All other aspects are checked for fit and occlusion is corrected.
• Tooth coloured autopolymerizing acrylic resin is mixed and placed

in the concavity created in denture base. The prosthesis is placed in
the mouth while partial polymerization occurs. It is then removed
and placed in warm water until polymerization is complete. Excess
resin is trimmed and polished.
• By making the patient bite on the denture or by applying finger

pressure while the resin polymerizes in the mouth, the desirable
contact between the denture base and overdenture abutment can be
obtained under occlusal loading.
Postinsertion care
• Similar to any conventional cast partial denture.
• Fluoride application on abutment will prevent caries. Fluoride is

applied chairside during insertion and recall appointments, and
patient is also advised to use a fluoride gel on a daily basis during
home care procedures.
Prognosis
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• The ultimate prognosis depends on the fit of the prostheses,
occlusion and oral hygiene and denture maintenance.
Overdentures are also discussed in Chapter 48 under the section

‘Miscellaneous’.
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Implant-supported removable partial
dentures
Removable partial dentures that use the support of a surgically placed
implant are known as implant-supported RPDs. The implant may be
used by two means either as an overdenture abutment (Figs
30.31–30.33) or as a partial denture abutment after the placement of
the crown.
FIGURE 30.31 Partially edentulous situation rehabilitated

with two implants supported by a bar (courtesy Dr D.
Arunachalam).
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FIGURE 30.32 Impression surface of overdenture showing
clip to attach to bar.
FIGURE 30.33 Implant-supported partial bar-retained

overdenture.
Indicated in patients with poor neuromuscular control and

parafunctional habits such as tongue thrusting which may cause poor
retention or stability of the RPD. A long-span distal extension base can
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be converted to a class III situation to make the leverage forces more
favourable (Fig. 30.34).
FIGURE 30.34 Implants placed distally will convert a class I

situation into a class III.
Implant prostheses is discussed in Chapter 49 under the section

Miscellaneous.
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Attachment-retained partial dentures
See Chapter 47 Section 4: Miscellaneous section of the book which
discusses the same.
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Miscellaneous
Spoon denture
These are completely tissue-/mucosa-borne denture (Fig. 30.35).
FIGURE 30.35 Spoon denture.
Indication
• They are mostly used in children in class IV situations as a
temporary denture.
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Advantages
• Less time required to fabricate.
• Caries incidence is decreased because there is no extensive tooth

contact.
Disadvantage
• Poor retention.
Design
• Palatal vault should be high with steep sides.
• They are fabricated using acrylic resin or chrome metal.
• Should cover the palate but the gingival margins should not be
covered.
• Denture borders are 3–4 mm away from the gingival margin.
Every denture
It is also called ‘precision plastic partial upper denture’ (Fig. 30.36).
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FIGURE 30.36 Every denture.
Indication
• For restoring multiple bounded edentulous areas in maxillary jaw,
in Kennedy class III with modifications.
Advantages
• Caries incidence is decreased because there is no extensive tooth
contact.
• Economical.
Disadvantage
• Poor strength.
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Design
• The supporting tissues of remaining teeth immediately surrounding
the denture are kept free of any acrylic part.
• Connector borders are kept 3 mm away from the gingival margins.
• Point contact between artificial teeth and abutment teeth also

reduces the lateral stress.
• Wire stops are placed posteriorly to prevent distal drift of posterior

teeth. Retention is obtained by atmospheric pressure through a
modified peripheral seal and by accuracy of fit between the denture
base and the mucosa.
• Flanges on the labial and buccal border are included to assist

bracing of dentures.
Two part denture

This is also known as ‘sectional denture’ (Fig. 30.37). It is made of two
parts each with a different path of insertion which is joined in the
centre.
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FIGURE 30.37 (1) Involving mesial undercut, (2) distal
undercut.
Indications
• Unilateral partial dentures including single tooth replacements.
• Maxillectomy and mandibulectomy cases, where a single path of

insertion is not possible.
Advantages
• Overcomes the problem of opposing proximal undercut in relation
to unilateral partial denture.
• No visible retentive component.
Disadvantages
• Complex in design and fabrication.
• Requires more manual dexterity by the patient for insertion of

denture.
Characteristics
• Each part of the denture has individual path of insertion. First part
of denture engages the mesial undercut on the distal abutment and
second part of denture engages the distal undercut of the mesial
abutment.
• After both parts of denture are inserted, they are locked together in
the centre using an attachment device like a bolt.
• The denture also contains bracing components which prevent
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movement of abutment teeth.
Disjunct denture
The disjunct principle of partial dentures design joins differently
supported parts of a denture – tooth borne and tissue borne –
connecting bar acts as stress breaker (Figs 30.38 and 30.39).
FIGURE 30.38 Anterior part with bar extending posteriorly.
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FIGURE 30.39 Posterior (mucosa-borne part) attached to the
bar with pins and sleeves.
Indication
• Mandibular class I and class II when remaining natural teeth are
periodontally weak.
Advantages
• By varying the pin/sleeve movement, the overall load can be shared
proportionately between mucosa and abutment teeth, the
proportion on each depending on the clinical findings in any
particular case.
• Periodontally weak teeth are preserved.
Disadvantages
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• Complex design.
• Discomfort to the patient as there is movement of both parts.
Design
• In a lower denture, the anterior tooth-borne part is made in cast
alloy. Bar extends distally from the last abutment tooth on each side
(Fig. 30.38).
• Mucosa-borne part is attached to the bars by means of pins and

sleeves which allow vertical movement when a load is applied to
the denture (Fig. 30.39).
• The movement of the sleeves on the pins can be adjusted so that

when the mucosa is compressed (and therefore accepting a load)
any further load is directed forward, via the buccal bars, to the
tooth-borne part of the denture.
SUMMARY
Apart from conventional cast partial dentures, other types of partial
removable dentures are also discussed. Each has its own indication,
material and method of fabrication which should be followed. The
temporary removable dentures are often used as a definitive
prosthesis. This is not recommended as it will not preserve the health
of the remaining tissues.
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SECTION 3
Fixed Partial Dentures
OUTLINE
31. Introduction
32. Component parts
34. Occlusion
35. Tooth preparation
36. Fluid control and gingival displacement
37. Impression making
38. Provisional restorations
39. Shade selection and lab communication
40. Lab procedures
41. Try-in and cementation
42. Failures in fixed partial dentures
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43. Metal-free ceramic restorations
44. Resin-bonded fixed partial dentures
45. Restoration of endodontically treated teeth
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CHAPTER
31
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Introduction
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 439
Definitions 439
Indications for fixed partial denture 440
Advantages 441
Disadvantages 441
Classification of fixed partial dentures 441
Location of the edentulous space 441
Location of abutment 442
Types of connector 442
Classification based on type of materials used
444
Duration of use 444
Span length 445
Classification based on type of retention 445
Type of support 445
Summary 446
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Introduction
The nature of fixed prosthodontic treatment can vary from restoration
of a single tooth to the rehabilitation of the entire dentition. These
restorations are the best practice builders for any clinician and can
instantly restore the image and confidence of the patient. They are
more technique sensitive than removable prosthodontics and require
more precise clinical skills. As it involves tooth preparations and fixed
restorations, it is irreversible and can cause considerable damage if
not properly executed. The basic terminologies and uses of fixed
partial dentures in general are discussed in this chapter.
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Definitions
Fixed prosthodontics: The branch of prosthodontics concerned with
the replacement and/or restoration of teeth by artificial substitutes
that are not readily removed from the mouth (GPT8).
Fixed partial denture (FPD) or fixed dental prosthesis: A dental

prosthesis that is luted, screwed or mechanically attached or
otherwise securely retained to natural teeth, tooth roots and/or
dental implant abutments that furnish the primary support for the
dental prosthesis. They are commonly referred to as bridges and
cannot be removed by the patient.
The supporting teeth are termed as abutments, the

restorations that are cemented onto the abutments
and retain the FPD in place are called retainers and
the artificial replacement tooth is a pontic. The
retainers are joined to the pontic by connectors (Fig.
31.1).
Crown: An artificial replacement that restores missing tooth structure
by surrounding part or all of the remaining structure with a
material such as cast metal, porcelain, or a combination of materials
such as metal and porcelain (GPT8).
It is basically a cemented extracoronal restoration that

covers, or veneers, the outer surface of the clinical
crown. It should reproduce the morphology and
contours of the damaged coronal portions of a tooth
and also protect the remaining tooth structure from
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further damage. If it covers all the surfaces of the
clinical crown it is called complete or full veneer
crown (Fig. 31.2). If only a portion of the clinical
crown is covered, the restoration is called a partial
veneer crown (Fig. 31.3).
Laminate veneer: A thin bonded restoration that restores the facial
surface and part of the proximal surfaces of teeth requiring aesthetic
restoration (GPT8). They are fabricated from resin or dental
porcelain and are bonded (adhesively cemented) to etched enamel
with a composite resin luting agent (Fig. 31.4).
Resin-bonded restorations: It is a fixed dental prosthesis that is luted

to the tooth structure, primarily enamel, which has been etched to
provide mechanical retention for the resin cement (GPT8) (Fig.
31.5A and B). Tooth preparation is limited to the lingual/palatal
surface and is minimal. This prosthesis is discussed in detail in
Chapter 44.
Radicular retained restorations: It consists of a post or dowel with an

attached core. The post is in the prepared radicular space of the
endodontically treated tooth. The core offers support to the crown
(Fig. 31.6). These restorations are discussed in detail in Chapter 45.
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FIGURE 31.1 Schematic diagram of the fixed partial denture
assembly and the supporting anatomical structures: (1)
pontic, (2) connector, (3) retainer, (4) edentulous space and
(5) abutment.
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FIGURE 31.2 Full veneer crown covering all the surfaces of
the tooth.
FIGURE 31.3 Partial veneer crown (seven-eighths) covering

all surfaces except mesiobuccal.
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FIGURE 31.4 Laminate veneer on the labial surface of the
tooth.
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FIGURE 31.5 (A) Showing missing 41 (mandibular central
incisor – tooth number 41) and mirror image of lingual
preparation on abutments 42 and 31. (B) Resin-bonded
prosthesis bonded to abutments 42 and 31.
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FIGURE 31.6 Radicular retained restoration.
Indications for fixed partial denture

The fixed partial denture prosthesis is indicated in general when one
or two adjacent teeth are missing. The abutment teeth and its
supportive tissue namely the periodontium should be healthy. It is
commonly indicated for the following situations:
1. In short edentulous spaces.
2. Abutment teeth and supporting tissues are healthy.
3. To harmonize dental occlusion in temporomandibular joint
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disorders.
4. To stabilize and splint the dentition after advanced periodontal

therapy.
5. When the patient desires a fixed prosthesis.
6. The patient has the skills and motivation to maintain good oral and
prosthetic hygiene.
7. When removable prosthesis is not indicated as in mentally and

physically challenged patients.
Contraindications
Fixed partial dentures are generally avoided in the following
situations:
1. Edentulous space with no distal abutment.
2. Long edentulous spaces.
3. Bilateral edentulous spaces with more than two teeth missing on

either side require cross arch stabilization.
4. Presence of periodontally weakened abutments.
5. Teeth with very short clinical crown like congenitally malformed

teeth.
6. Severe loss of tissue in the edentulous ridge because of surgery or

trauma.
7. The patient has poor oral hygiene.
8. Very young patients with wide pulp chambers.
9. Very old patients, because of brittle teeth.
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10. Medically compromised patients.
Advantages
The advantages over the removable dentures are the following:
1. Aesthetics.
2. Patient feels more secure than with RPD.
3. Capable of directing forces along the axis of the tooth.
4. Superior strength.
5. Provide proper occlusal function.
6. Maintain arch integrity/tooth position.
7. Maintain occlusal relationships.
8. Protect and preserve the remaining structures.
Disadvantages
Since preparation of the teeth is involved, it may have adverse and
irreversible effects on the pulp and periodontium. A few
disadvantages of fixed partial dentures are
1. Involves irreversible preparation of abutment teeth.
2. Abutments susceptible to recurrent decay.
3. Preparation may injure pulp and periodontium.
4. Cost for remake if it needs to be replaced.
5. Creation of diastema difficult.
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Classification of fixed partial dentures
Fixed partial dentures can be classified based on the following criteria.
Location of the edentulous space

1. Posterior: Fixed partial denture confined to the posterior region, e.g.
replacement of missing first molar (Fig. 31.7).
2. Anterior: Fixed partial denture confined to the anterior region, e.g.

replacement of missing central incisors (Fig. 31.8A and B).
3. Combination: Fixed partial denture extending both anteriorly and

posteriorly, e.g. replacement of single/multiple teeth involving the
turn of the arch, as in cases of replacement of missing canine,
premolars (Fig. 31.9).
FIGURE 31.7 Posterior FPD replacing mandibular first molar.
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FIGURE 31.8 (A) Missing maxillary central incisors –
abutments 12 and 22 prepared. (B) Anterior FPD cemented.
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FIGURE 31.9 FPD extending both anteriorly and posteriorly.
Location of abutment
1. Conventional: Abutment is located adjacent to the edentulous
space and pontic is supported on both sides. This is the design for
majority of fixed partial dentures.
2. Cantilever: Abutment is located adjacent to edentulous space but

pontic is supported on one side only. This is discussed in detail in
Chapter 33.
3. Spring cantilever: Abutment is not located adjacent to edentulous

space and pontic receives support from one side only. A posterior
abutment, generally premolar, is used to replace an anterior tooth and
a bar is used to connect the abutment and pontic. The bar is rigid and
is termed ‘loop connector’ (Fig. 31.10). It is most often indicated in
replacing missing maxillary central incisor when a diastema is
desired. Not used with mandibular replacements as the connector can
cause tongue interference.
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FIGURE 31.10 Spring cantilever FPD replacing 21 using 24
as abutment and a loop connector.
Indications
Replacement of missing maxillary central incisor when diastema is to
be maintained.
Disadvantages
1. Bar interferes with speech and can cause food entrapment.
2. Not indicated in mandibular arch as bar causes tongue interference.
Types of connector
1. Fixed-fixed: Connectors on both sides of the pontic are rigid with
no scope for any movement. The connector is either soldered to the
pontic and the retainer or all the components are cast as a single piece
(Fig. 31.8A and B).
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2. Fixed-movable: One of the connectors of the FPD assembly is
nonrigid (not in the literal sense, it is called so because it allows some
movement between the pontic and abutment) and is made of a
precision or semiprecision attachment which allows some vertical
movement (Fig. 31.11). This is normally indicated in case of a pier
abutment, tilted abutments or periodontally weak abutments. The
nonrigid connectors are discussed in detail in Chapter 33.
3. Fixed-removable: This prosthesis was developed by Dr James

Andrews and is called ‘Andrews Bridge’.
○ The fixed portion consists of two abutment retainers

adjacent to an edentulous space splinted by a bar.
The retainers attached to the bar are cemented on
the abutments (Fig. 31.12A). The removable portion
consists of the artificial teeth (pontics) and a
denture flange with a sleeve which clips onto the
bar (Fig. 31.12B).
○ This technique possesses the advantage of flexibility

in placing denture teeth as well as the stabilizing
qualities of a fixed prosthesis. This is mainly
indicated for patients with extensive supporting
tissue (bone) loss. Replacing the teeth for such
patients with a conventional FPD will result in
unaesthetically long pontics with no lip support.
○ Also indicated with long edentulous spans (Figs

31.13–31.15).
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FIGURE 31.11 Tooth number 15 – a pier abutment, is
supporting a rigid connector on the left and a key–keyway
attachment on the right which allows some movement to
distribute the load.
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FIGURE 31.12 (A) Retainers on 11 and 23 connected by a
bar and cemented on the abutment teeth. (B) Removable part
consists of the pontics with denture flange and the fitting
surface contains the sleeve which clips onto the bar.
FIGURE 31.13 Long edentulous span restored with fixed part

of Andrews bridge with crowns on 45, 44, 43 and 37
connected by a bar with stud attachments.
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FIGURE 31.14 Removable denture with matrices to fit on the
studs for retention.
FIGURE 31.15 Removable denture in mouth attached to the

bar.
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Classification based on type of materials used
1. All metal: These are used only to replace posterior teeth as they are
not aesthetic.
2. Metal ceramic: These are also termed as ‘porcelain fused to metal’

(PFM) crowns/retainers. These may be of two types:
(i) Metal with complete ceramic coverage: In this

there is a core of metal which fits on the
abutment and is completely covered by ceramic
both facially and lingually/palatally (Fig. 31.16A–
C).
(ii) Metal with ceramic facing: In this restoration,

though all the surfaces are formed by metal,
ceramic covers the metal in the labial/buccal
surface alone (Fig. 31.17A and B).
3. All ceramic: These are fabricated using only ceramics with no metal
component. They are also called ‘metal-free ceramic’ restorations. This
is discussed in detail in Chapter 43.
4. Metal with resin facings: This is similar to metal with ceramic

facings except that instead of ceramic, acrylic or composite resin is
used. Unlike ceramics, resins do not bond chemically to metal. Hence,
retention should be obtained mechanically by using small wire loops
or retention beads on the labial surface of metal which is then cast. An
opaque resin supplied by the manufacturer is applied on the labial
surface prior to processing the resin to mask the metal. The other
difference with metal with ceramic facing is that the veneered resin
should not cover the incisal edge and all contact must occur on metal
(Fig. 31.18A and B).
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Disadvantage: Resin facings wear easily and also do
not possess good colour stability.
5. All acrylic, composite and fibre-reinforced composite: These are
only used as provisional restorations. They are discussed in Chapter
38.
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FIGURE 31.16 (A) Labial view, (B) palatal view and (C) fitting
surface showing metal core.
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FIGURE 31.17 (A) Occlusal view of metal with ceramic
facing crown showing ceramic covering the incisal edge. (B)
Labial view of metal with ceramic facing crown.
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FIGURE 31.18 (A) Metal with acrylic facing – metal is
indicated by brown and acrylic by blue, acrylic does not cover
incisal edge and needs metal on the gingival seat to support
the acrylic. (B) Metal with ceramic facing –ceramic covers the
incisal edge and can also cover the gingival seat without
metal support.
Duration of use
1. Provisional or temporary FPD: Usually made of acrylic resins and
are intended for use for a short period of time. It is fabricated soon
after the preparation and is expected to serve the patient till the
definitive prosthesis is fabricated. It is cemented using temporary
cements.
2. Long-term temporary FPDs: The prosthesis is indicated in

situations where definitive treatment plan is not finalized as in cases
of periodontally week teeth, and during healing period after
periodontal therapy. They are fabricated with special acrylic resins
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which have additional strength or can be reinforced with metal
inserts.
3. Definitive FPD: These are fabricated with materials like ceramics

and metals and are expected to serve the patient for longer period of
time.
Span length
1. Short span: When the FPD replaces one/two adjacent teeth and is
confined to 3–4 units, it is called short-span FPD (Fig. 31.19A).
2. Long span: When the FPD replaces more than two adjacent teeth, it
is termed as long-span FPD (Fig. 31.19B).
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FIGURE 31.19 (A) Short-span FPD replacing single tooth.
(B) Long-span FPD replacing three teeth.
Classification based on type of retention

1. Frictional resistance: All the conventional fixed partial dentures are
retained because of the frictional resistance offered by the parallel
walls of the prepared tooth and the restoration, assisted by the
cement.
2. Microretention: The retention of the resin-bonded, etched cast

restorations depend on the bonding ability of the resin and the surface
irregularities of the tissue surface of the restoration.
Type of support
1. Tooth supported: Conventional FPDs taking support of natural
teeth only (Fig. 31.8A and B).
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2. Implant supported: FPDs using osseointegrated implants as
abutments (Fig. 31.20A and B). These are discussed in section
Miscellaneous of Chapter 49.
3. Combination: FPDs taking support of both natural teeth and

implants (Fig. 31.21A and B). These are discussed in section
Miscellaneous of Chapter 49.
FIGURE 31.20 (A) Implant abutments placed in 12 and 22

region. (B) Implant-supported FPD.
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FIGURE 31.21 (A) 43 (natural tooth) and implant in 31 and
33 area used to support FPD. (B) Combination FPD taking
support of natural tooth and implant.
SUMMARY
This introductory chapter gives an overall view of the indications and
the advantages of fixed partial dentures. The classification presented,
covers almost all possible combinations of fixed prosthodontic
treatment. The subsequent chapters deal in detail with the
components and fabrication of a fixed partial denture.
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CHAPTER
32
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Component parts
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 447
Retainer 447
Classification 447
Criteria for selection of retainers 449
Pontics 450
Ideal requirements of pontics 450
Classification of pontics 450
Pontic design 455
Connectors 457
Types of connectors 457
Summary 460
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Introduction
A fixed partial denture is commonly fabricated by preparing the teeth
present on either side of the missing tooth or teeth. These supporting
prepared teeth are the abutments onto which the prosthesis is
cemented. Fixed partial denture is made up of three elementary
components – retainer, pontic and connector.
Retainer: The part of a fixed dental prosthesis that unites the
abutment(s) to the remainder of the restoration (GPT8).
Pontic: An artificial tooth on a fixed dental prosthesis that replaces
a missing natural tooth, restores its function, and usually fills the
space previously occupied by the clinical crown.
Connector: The portion of a fixed dental prosthesis that unites the
retainer(s) and pontic(s).
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Retainer
This is used for the stabilization or retention of prosthesis. It is
cemented to the abutment.
Classification
The retainers can be classified on the following criteria.
Amount of tooth coverage

1. Complete coverage or full veneer retainers
• They cover all the surfaces of the abutment tooth and are ideal
retainers as they provide maximum retention.
• Most commonly used retainers for FPDs and are the retainers of
choice for extensively damaged abutment teeth (Fig. 32.1A–C).
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FIGURE 32.1 (A) Prepared abutments 11 and 22. (B) FPD
with full veneer all ceramic retainers. (C) All ceramic FPD
cemented.
2. Partial coverage or partial veneer retainers
• These retainers do not involve all the surfaces of the abutment.
• Compared to full veneer retainers, they require less amount of tooth

preparation and have superior aesthetics but are less retentive.
• Depending on the surface and area covered they are termed as

three-fourth crown, reverse three-fourth crown, four-fifth crown,
seven-eighths, one-half crown, pinlays and pinledges (Fig. 32.2A
and B). They are discussed in detail in Chapter 35.
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FIGURE 32.2 (A) Partial coverage retainer – seven-eighths
crown. (B) Partial coverage retainers – proximal half crown.
(C) Resin-bonded fixed partial dentures.
3. Conservative retainers
• These retainers require minimal tooth preparation and are primarily

indicated for anterior teeth.
• They cannot accept heavy occlusal load, for example resin-bonded

fixed partial dentures (Fig. 32.2C).
Mechanism of retention
1. Extracoronal retainers
Obtain retention from the external surface of the coronal part of the
abutment teeth; examples are full veneer crowns and partial veneer
crowns.
2. Intracoronal retainers
Obtain retention from within the coronal tooth structure; examples are
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inlays, onlays (Fig. 32.3).
FIGURE 32.3 FPD retained by inlays.
3. Radicular retainers
Obtain retention from within the root of the abutment. Posts are
discussed in detail in Chapter 45.
Material used
1. All metal retainers
• Can be either partial or full coverage.
• They possess good strength and are used commonly with posterior
abutments.
• They require minimal tooth preparation (Fig. 32.4).
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FIGURE 32.4 Metal with ceramic facing retainer on left and
full metal retainer on right.
2. Metal-ceramic retainers
• Most commonly used; indicated in both anterior and posterior teeth.
• Ceramic can be either a facing or full coverage.
• They require more tooth preparation than the all metal type (Fig.
32.4).
3. All ceramic retainers
• Most aesthetic and need maximal tooth preparation.
• Also provide the best aesthetics but strength in long-span FPDs is

still questionable (Fig. 32.1B).
4. Acrylic retainers
• Used for temporary fixed partial dentures.
• They are not used for definitive FPDs because of their poor strength,
colour instability, inadequate wear resistance and poor tissue
response.
Criteria for selection of retainers
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Various factors governing the selection of retainers are as follows.
Abutment angulations
• In case the abutments are parallel to each other, a full veneer
retainer can be planned and a single path of insertion can be
• If the abutments are nonparallel owing to unfavourable tooth

positions, a partial veneer retainer along with another partial or full
veneer retainer can be used to get a single path of prosthesis
insertion (Fig. 32.5B).
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FIGURE 32.5 (A) Full veneer retainers used when abutments
are parallel. (B) Proximal one half crown used in distal
abutment to create parallelism.
Condition of the abutment

• If the abutment teeth are in good health, in terms of both
periodontium and caries, a partial veneer retainer can be considered
as a treatment option.
• In case the abutment is endodontically treated or extensively

damaged, a full veneer retainer is recommended.
• If abutments are periodontally weak with exposure of the root

surface, conservative resin-bonded retainers are indicated.
Aesthetics
Though partial veneer retainers may not involve the facial surface,
their use in aesthetic zones can be questionable when the teeth are
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thin and metal may be reflected. Secondary caries is also a possibility
because of open margins. In such circumstances, full veneer retainers
are preferred with either facing or full ceramic coverage.
In case of inadequate pontic space, a full veneer retainer can help
better in managing the space to get better aesthetics (Fig. 32.6).
FIGURE 32.6 Inadequate pontic space can be better

corrected with full veneer retainers after preparing the teeth to
distribute the space.
Preservation of tooth structure

• Partial veneer preparations are more conservative than full veneer
preparations.
• The buccal/facial surfaces of the teeth should be preserved for

natural aesthetics. Choice should be made depending upon all the
factors so that the longevity of the prosthesis is not compromised.
• Even etched cast retainers can be thought of a conservative

alternative.
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Retention
A molar exerts more force when compared to a premolar, thus it
requires more retention. Longer the span, greater is the retention
required. In both cases, full coverage retainers offer better retention.
Cost
• Full veneer all ceramic retainers are recommended in cases of
anterior tooth replacements. But they are more expensive than
metal ceramic and facing retainers.
• Hence if cost is a factor, metal-ceramic restorations can be

considered for anterior region and all metal restorations for
posteriors.
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Pontics
Pontic is the artificial tooth replacing the missing natural tooth. The
name is derived from the Latin word pons meaning bridge.
Definition: An artificial tooth on a fixed partial denture that
replaces the missing tooth restores its function and usually fills the
space previously filled by the natural crown.
Ideal requirements of pontics

Following are the ideal requirements of a pontic:
1. Restore function of the replaced tooth.
2. Provide aesthetics and comfort.
3. Should be biologically acceptable.
4. Permit effective oral hygiene.
5. Preserve the underlying residual ridge and mucosa.
6. Have adequate strength to withstand occlusal forces.
Classification of pontics
Pontics can be classified on the basis of mucosal contact, material used
and method of fabrication.
i. Mucosal contact
1. With mucosal contact
i. Ridge lap or saddle pontic
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ii. Modified ridge lap
iii. Ovate pontic
iv. Conical pontic
2. Without mucosal contact
i. Sanitary/hygienic pontic
ii. Modified sanitary pontic/perelpontic/arc-shaped

FPD
ii. Material used
1. All metal pontics
2. All ceramic pontics
3. Metal-ceramic pontics
4. Metal with resin facing pontiffs
5. Fibre-reinforced composite pontics

iii. Method of fabrication
1. Custom-made pontics
2. Prefabricated pontics
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Mucosal contact
Depending on the amount of contact the pontic makes with the
underlying mucosa it is further classified into the following types.
1. With mucosal contact

Those that contact the mucosa are
i. Ridge lap or saddle pontic
Design
• This pontic derives its name from its shape. It overlaps both the
buccal and lingual surfaces of the ridge; hence it is called ‘ridge lap’.
It forms a large concave contact with the ridge.
• It simulates the emergence profile of the missing tooth.
• It must not displace the soft tissues or cause blanching, but it should
make a snug contact (Fig. 32.7).
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FIGURE 32.7 Ridge lap pontic – proximal view.
Advantage
• The emergence profile of a pontic simulates the adjacent natural

tooth; thus, it is aesthetically superior.
Disadvantages
• The gingival surface of the pontic is not accessible by the patient,

making it difficult to clean.
• As the gingival surface of the pontic is in contact with the ridge it

may sometimes cause tissue inflammation.
Due to the above-mentioned disadvantages, this type pontic is

rarely used. It is also recommended that the tissue contacting area of
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the pontic should be made of highly polished metal or glazed
porcelain to facilitate cleansing.
ii. Modified ridge lap
Design
• The pontic does not contact the lingual aspect of the ridge, while
facially it is in contact with the ridge and hence simulates the
emergence profile of the adjacent teeth.
• It is called ‘modified ridge lap’ because the gingival surface of the

pontic overlaps only the buccal surface of the ridge. To enable
optimal plaque control, the gingival surface of the pontic should
have no depression or hollow. It should be as convex as possible
from mesial to distal. Greater the convexity, the easier it is to clean.
• When viewed from the gingival aspect, the tissue contact should
resemble a letter ‘T’ whose vertical arms end at the crest of the
ridge.
• This is most commonly used in areas that have high visibility (Fig.
32.8).
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FIGURE 32.8 Modified ridge lap pontic.
Advantages
• Superior aesthetics.
• Lingually, the pontic does not make any contact with the gingival
tissue and the contacting surface is convex. This enables the patient
to maintain hygiene.
Disadvantages
• Hygiene is inferior to sanitary.
Recommended location
• Appearance zone.
iii. Ovate pontic

An ovate pontic is one of the most aesthetically appealing designs.
Design
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• Convex tissue surface of ovate pontic resides within the ridge,
which appears as if the pontic is emerging from the ridge.
• The tissue contacting surface of the pontic is bluntly rounded and is

set into the concavity within the ridge.
• Concavity in ridge can be created by placing a provisional

restoration similar in shape immediately after extraction. It can also
be surgically created (Fig. 32.9).
FIGURE 32.9 Ovate pontic.
Indications
• Fresh extraction sockets.
• Anterior missing teeth where aesthetics is of prime concern.
• Broad flat ridges.
Advantages
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• Emergence profile of a pontic simulates that of the adjacent natural
tooth.
• Pleasing appearance.
• Broad convex geometry is stronger than modified ridge lap pontic.
• As tissue surface is convex in all directions, it is accessible while

flossing.
Disadvantages
• Requires surgical preparation.
• Though it can be flossed, meticulous oral hygiene is required to

prevent tissue inflammation resulting from large area of tissue
contact.
iv. Conical pontic

It is also known as ‘egg-shaped’, ‘bullet-shaped’ and ‘heart-shaped’
pontic. This design is related to the ‘sanitary dummy’ described by
Tinker in 1918.
Design
• The conical pontic is rounded with a small tip in relation to the

overall size of the pontic.
• It should be made as convex as possible, with only one point contact

at the centre of the ridge.
• The facial and lingual contours are dependent on the width of the
residual ridge. A knife-edged residual ridge requires flatter
contours with a narrow tissue contact area (Fig. 32.10).
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FIGURE 32.10 Conical pontic.
Advantage
• Good access for the oral hygiene.
Disadvantage
Indications
• Knife-edged posterior ridges.
• Molars that do not require much aesthetic attention.
Contraindications
• Broad residual edentulous ridge.
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• Aesthetic zone as the emergence profile is compromised.
2. Without mucosal contact
i. Sanitary/hygienic pontic
Sanitary pontic is called so because this design allows easy cleansing,
as the tissue surface of the pontic remains clear of the residual ridge.
Design
• This design makes no contact with residual ridge thus there are
minimal chances of inflammation.
• Occlusogingival thickness of the pontic should be greater than 3 mm

and there should be adequate space under it to facilitate cleansing.
• It is frequently made in convex configuration in both faciolingually

and mesiodistally.
• The conventional type is called ‘the fish belly’ design where the
undersurface of the pontic is rounded without angles for easier
cleansing/flossing because it is difficult to get the floss to pass over a
flat undersurface evenly (Fig. 32.11).
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FIGURE 32.11 Sanitary pontic.
Advantages
• Good access for oral hygiene.
• Minimal tissue inflammation.
Disadvantage
Recommended location
• Nonappearance zone (usually in the region of mandibular molars)

when occlusogingival space is high.
Contraindications
• Appearance zone.
• Less vertical dimension will result in connector failure.
ii. Modified sanitary pontic/perelpontic/arc-shaped fpd

This is an alternative design in which there is a mesiodistal concavity.
The undersurface is convex faciolingually and it gives a configuration
of the hyperbolic parabolic. This design provides an added strength to
the connecters and at the same time allows space for easier cleansing
(Fig. 32.12).
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FIGURE 32.12 Modified sanitary pontic.
The various pontic designs along with their respective

characteristics are summarized in Table 32.1.
Table 32.1
Summary of pontic types with their characteristics
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Material used
1. All metal pontics
These pontics are fabricated completely of cast metal with no ceramic
or acrylic veneering (Fig. 32.13).
FIGURE 32.13 All metal pontic.
Indications
• Areas that are not of aesthetic concern.
• High stress-bearing teeth like mandibular molars.
• Patients with parafunctional habits like bruxism.
Contraindication
• Cannot be used if aesthetics is of prime concern.
Advantages
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• High strength.
• Easy to fabricate and less technique sensitive.
• Can be used if pontic space is inadequate.
Disadvantages
• Permeable to oral fluids.
• Galvanism, if two different metals are used in the mouth.
2. All ceramic pontics

These are metal-free pontics that make use of an alternative high
strength material like alumina or zirconia instead of metal, around
which the ceramic is built (Fig. 32.1B).
Indications
• Areas of prime aesthetic concern like maxillary anteriors.
• Exacting patients who are highly motivated towards quality dental

treatment.
Contraindications
• Patients with parafunctional habits like bruxism.
• Reduced interarch pontic space.
• Long-span bridges.
Advantages
• Highly aesthetic.
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• Good strength.
Disadvantages
• High cost as it is highly technique-sensitive.
• Lesser strength than porcelain fused to metal pontics.
3. Metal-ceramic pontics
These are pontics that have a metal substructure over which ceramic
buildup is done, covering the metal fully or partially (Fig. 32.14A and
B).
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FIGURE 32.14 (A) Metal-ceramic pontic – metal with
complete ceramic coverage. (B) Metal with ceramic facing
pontic.
Indications
• It is indicated in most clinical cases.
• Most commonly used pontic type.
Advantages
• Can be used in almost all clinical situations.
• Good aesthetics.
• Adequate strength.
• Biocompatible.
Disadvantages
• More extensive lab procedure than all metal pontics.
• Difficult to fabricate if the retainers are not metal ceramic.
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4. Metal with resin facing pontics
Here, instead of ceramic, acrylic/composite resin is veneered to the
facial/buccal surface of the underlying metal.
Indication
• Long term provisional restorations.
Contraindication
• Definitive restorations.
Advantages
• Cost-effective procedure as conventional gold can be used as

substructure.
• Easy fabrication.
• Fairly good aesthetics can be achieved.
Disadvantages
• Lower strength as compared to any other permanent restoration.
• Lesser abrasion resistance.
• Easily discoloured over a period of time.
• Permeable to oral fluids.
5. Fibre-reinforced composite pontics

They are composite pontics that are fabricated around a resin fibre
that provides strength to the prosthesis.
Indications
• Resin-bonded fixed prosthesis.
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• Good oral hygiene.
• Anterior single missing tooth situations.
• Short-span bridges.
• As temporary restorations in young adults till a permanent

prosthesis is fabricated.
Contraindications
• Replacement of posterior missing tooth.
• Long-span bridges.
• Deep bite cases.
Advantages
• Easy chair side fabrication procedure.
• Acceptable aesthetics and shade matching.
• Minimal tooth preparation required.
• Can be used in young patients where the pulp chambers are big and
full crown preparation may cause pulpal damage.
Disadvantages
• Less strength.
• Cannot be used in cases of multiple missing teeth.
Method of fabrication
1. Custom-made pontics
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Most commonly used type of pontics. Each pontic is fabricated
according to the patient’s ridge contour. Wax patterns are first made
which are then cast to obtain the final metal pontic substructure.
Advantage
• They provide superior aesthetics and adaptation of the prosthesis.
Disadvantage
• Extensive fabrication procedure.
2. Prefabricated pontics
• They are commercially available prefabricated porcelain pontics.
• They are used along with a metal backing (usually gold), that is
individually customized according to the patient’s ridge contours.
• The facing is then glazed and adapted to fit the metal backing to
finish the prosthesis.
• Examples are trupontic, sanitary facings, Steele’s facings, harmony

and Trubyte facings (Fig. 32.15A and B).
• The increased use of custom-made pontics has greatly decreased the

commercial making of manufactured facings.
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FIGURE 32.15 (A) Prefabricated pontic – slot back. (B)
Prefabricated pontic – harmony pin facing pontic.
Pontic design
The success of the fixed partial denture depends on pontic design. We
have to make a substitute tooth that compares favourably in form,
function and appearance with the tooth it replaces.
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Factors influencing pontic design
1. Edentulous space
Adequate edentulous space must be available to fabricate a pontic. In
some cases this space can be reduced because of tilting of adjacent
teeth and supraeruption of opposing teeth caused by a prolonged
edentulous period. Some space can be regained while preparing the
adjacent teeth, but in severe cases orthodontic uprighting and
intentional endodontic treatment of opposing tooth may be necessary
to get adequate space (Fig. 32.16).
FIGURE 32.16 Tilting and supraeruption reduce the space

available for a pontic.
2. Ridge contour
The edentulous ridge should be examined carefully. The amount of
destruction will determine the pontic design and indicate the
necessity for surgical correction of the ridge. An ideal ridge should be
well formed and rounded.
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Ridge deformities have been classified into three types by Siebert
(Fig. 32.17A–C):
1. Class I: Loss of faciolingual ridge width, normal apicocoronal

height.
2. Class II: Loss of height, normal width.
3. Class III: Loss of height and width.
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FIGURE 32.17 (A) Class I – loss of bone width. (B) Class II –
loss of bone height. (C) Class III – loss of height and width.
A deficient ridge can be masked to a certain extent by adding ‘pink

gingival porcelain’ to simulate interdental papilla, but most often
surgical correction with augmentation techniques will produce the
best results aesthetically (Fig. 32.18).
FIGURE 32.18 Pink gingival porcelain added cervically to

mask deficient ridge.
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Design
Analysing each pontic surface will aid in determining the design.
Gingival surface
• This is influenced by the material, location of space and degree of

tissue contact.
• Finish of the material is more important than the material itself

although highly glazed porcelain has been advocated as the
material of choice. Rough surfaces accumulate plaque and cause
irritation.
• Aesthetics and hygiene require different gingival shapes of pontic

depending on the location:
○ In mandibular posteriors, aesthetics is not a major

factor, hence spheroidal (conical) pontic is indicated.
In the presence of excessive bone loss, a hygienic
pontic can be utilized. In such cases there should be
at least 3 mm of space between the ridge and
pontic.
○ In maxillary posteriors modified ridge lap design

satisfies both aesthetics and function.
○ In the anterior region generally a modified ridge lap

pontic is indicated.
• A pontic should have only minimum passive contact with the ridge.
Excessive pressure causes inflammation, ulceration or tissue
proliferation. It should also allow easy cleansability of the tissue
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surface (Fig. 32.19).
FIGURE 32.19 Gingival surface should be easy to clean.
Occlusal surface
• The most important factor in determining the design of this surface

is provision of a stable vertical stop by suitable placement of
functional cusps (maxillary palatal cusps and mandibular buccal
cusps).
• Although reduction of size of the occlusal table of pontic has been

suggested to decrease the forces on the abutment, it is very clear
that since proprioceptive impulses control these forces, this
reduction will not help.
• The positions of maxillary buccal cusps and mandibular lingual

cusps should not be altered as they prevent cheek biting and protect
the tongue, respectively (Fig. 32.20).
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FIGURE 32.20 Proper positioning of maxillary buccal and
mandibular lingual clasps prevent cheek biting and protect
tongue, respectively.
Interproximal surface
Contoured according to the following considerations:
• Vertical space must be sufficient for interproximal tissues and

permit physiologic contour of pontic.
• Maxillary anterior embrasures are minimal for aesthetics should

allow sufficient space to prevent papillary impingement (Fig. 32.21).
• Posteriorly, size of embrasure gradually increases to facilitate

hygiene.
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FIGURE 32.21 Buccal embrasure.
Buccal and lingual surfaces

Buccal and lingual surfaces are determined by aesthetic, functional
and hygienic requirements (Fig. 32.22).
• The facial contour should meet aesthetic requirements by

maintaining normal contour, alignment and length in coordination
with adjacent teeth.
• Lingual contour should meet functional and hygienic requirements.

It should harmonize with adjacent teeth from cusp tip to height of
contour, and then recedes smoothly and convexly to the facial or
buccal tissue contact area.
• Embrasures on lingual are wider than the buccal or facial.
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FIGURE 32.22 The labial contour should meet aesthetic
requirements by maintaining normal contour, alignment and
length in coordination with adjacent teeth.
A pontic design must be intelligibly chosen and precisely made,

fulfilling all the requirements, such that the prosthesis will have a
long-term favourable prognosis.
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Connectors
A connector is that portion of the fixed partial denture that unites the
retainer(s) and the pontic(s).
Types of connectors
Fixed partial denture connectors can be broadly divided into two
types:
1. Rigid connectors
i. Cast connectors
ii. Soldered connectors
iii. Loop connectors

2. Nonrigid connectors
i. Tenon-mortise connectors
ii. Split pontic connector
iii. Cross-pin and wing connector
Rigid connectors (fig. 32.23A)

• These connectors do not allow any movement and are indicated
when the entire masticatory load is to be transferred onto the
abutments.
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• They can be directly cast as a part of a multiunit fixed partial
denture, or different units can be joined together by means of
soldering.
• A loop connector is used in case an existing diastema is to be

maintained in the fixed partial denture (Fig. 32.23B). It is mainly
cast and care should be taken that the tissue contour is followed
during the fabrication of the wax pattern of the connector (see also
‘spring cantilever bridge’ in Page 438, Chapter 31).
• Design: The size, shape, and position of rigid connectors all

influence the success of the prosthesis. An ideal connector will
enhance ease of cleansing, should have adequate strength and be
aesthetically acceptable (Table 32.2 and Fig. 32.24).
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FIGURE 32.23 (A) Rigid connector. (B) Loop connector.
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FIGURE 32.24 Configuration and location of connector in (A)
anteriors, (B) maxillary posteriors, (C) mandibular posteriors.
Table 32.2
Characteristics of rigid connectors
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Nonrigid connectors
• These connectors allow limited movement between the retainer and
the pontic and have little amount of flexibility.
• Indications:
○ When a parallel path of insertion cannot be

achieved in the preparations.
○ Pier abutment.
○ Periodontally unfavourable abutments to reduce

the amount of stress to the tooth. Here, it is called
stress breaker.
• Types: Almost all of them will consist of a male and a
corresponding female component. The shape and configuration of
the male and female differ to accommodate the movement between
the pontic and the retainer required.
○ Tenon-mortise connector: The tenon (male

component) is attached to the pontic and the
mortise (female component) is attached to the
retainer. Their alignment must be parallel to the
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path of placement. They can be made free hand or
milled or prefabricated plastic patterns can be used
○ Split pontic connector is used in case of pier

abutment situations where a minimal amount of
movement is required to maintain abutment health.
The pontic is split into mesial and distal halves,
which are attached to their respective retainers. A
shoe/key is incorporated into the mesial half and
the keyway in the distal half. This assembly
engages when the FPD is seated in position (Fig.
32.26A and B).
○ Cross-pin and wing connectors are similar to the

split pontic connector and are used for tilted
abutments. The wing is attached to the distal
retainer, which is cemented first and pontic to the
mesial retainer (Fig. 32.27A–C).
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FIGURE 32.25 (A) Tenon-mortise connector. Three-unit FPD
containing mortise is cemented first. (B) Other FPD
component containing tenon is cemented next.
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FIGURE 32.26 (A) Split pontic connector. Mesial segment
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with distal shoe is cemented first. (B) Distal segment is
cemented next.
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FIGURE 32.27 (A) Cross-pin and wing connector. Distal
retainer and wing cemented first. (B) Retainer pontic segment
seated finally. (C) Final cementation of cross-pin and wing.
SUMMARY
Components of a fixed partial denture need to be designed within the
context of the whole bridge, in harmony with all the principles and
fulfilling all the requirements for each part. In the case of pontics it
sometimes becomes necessary to compromise with aesthetics for
cleansability. Thus, after a thorough examination, the type of
prosthesis is determined such that it has a long-term favourable
prognosis.
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CHAPTER
33
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planning
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 461
History 461
Chief complaint 461
Personal details 461
Medical history 461
Dental history 462
Clinical examination 462
General examination 462
Extraoral examination 462
Intraoral examination 462
Radiographic examination 462
Diagnostic casts 462
Importance of mounted diagnostic casts 462
Impression making and pouring 462
Facebow transfer 462
Interocclusal records 465
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Selection of articulator 467
Mounting of diagnostic cast 467
Selection of type of prosthesis 473
Abutment evaluation and selection 473
Biomechanical design considerations 479
Selection of material 481
Special considerations 481
Occlusal correction 483
Summary 483
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Introduction
The objective of any oral rehabilitative procedure is to increase
masticatory efficiency, retain the remaining teeth and preserve their
supportive tissues, and to achieve the best possible aesthetic result. To
achieve these objectives, a treatment plan must be derived from a
thorough and accurate diagnosis. Diagnosis aims at the determination
of the nature of a disease process. Treatment is any measure designed
for the remedy of a disease. An evaluation is made from data obtained
from the history, examination, mounted diagnostic casts and
evaluation of abutment teeth.
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History
This should include the following aspects.
Chief complaint
• Chief complaint should be recorded in the patient’s own words.
• The patient perceives the chief complaint as the major problem,

hence when proposing a comprehensive treatment plan; special
attention should be given to the chief complaint.
The complaints usually belong to one of the following categories:
1. Comfort – in terms of pain, sensitivity or swelling.
2. Function – difficulty in mastication or speech.
3. Social – brought about by bad odour and taste.
4. Appearance – compromised aesthetics in terms of fractured or

unattractive teeth, restorations or discolourations.
Personal details
The patient’s name, age, sex, occupation, marital status and financial
status are noted. These details not only help in developing a rapport
with the patient but also provide information regarding the patient
expectations and economic status.
Medical history
Obtaining a medical history helps to reveal any underlying systemic
condition that may influence the treatment plan. Some common
problems are
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1. Cardiovascular: It may limit treatment appointments, as these
patients cannot tolerate long appointments. They may need
prophylactic medications before and/or during treatment.
Electrosurgical procedures are avoided in patients with pacemaker.
2. Hypertension: Adrenaline may be avoided in local anaesthetic and

during retraction procedures.
3. Diabetes mellitus: If uncontrolled, they are predisposed to

periodontal breakdown. This affects the prognosis. Stress of dental
appointment can also affect them.
4. Xerostomia: Dry mouth patients are prone to caries which can affect
the restoration margins. Common causes are drugs and radiation. It
affects prognosis.
5. Medications: Medications, that the patient is currently taking, are

noted to obtain any history of drug allergy or adverse drug reactions.
Anticoagulants may need to be discontinued if any surgical procedure
is contemplated.
6. Infectious diseases: To prevent cross-contamination with dental

clinical and laboratory personnel.
7. Sensitivity to dental materials: Impression materials and nickel are

the most common causes. This may modify treatment plan.
Dental history
Obtaining a dental history provides information about previously
rendered dental treatment and highlights the following:
• Genetic predisposition to periodontal disease, malocclusion and

facial deformities.
• Cause for tooth loss.
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• Complications following dental procedures.
• Patient attitude towards oral hygiene measures.
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General examination
The patient’s general appearance, gait and weight are assessed. Vital
signs – body temperature, pulse, blood pressure, respiratory rate are
assessed. Any signs of anaemia or jaundice are also checked.
Extraoral examination
• This involves head and neck examination for size, shape and
symmetry of head and facial profile and any signs of palpable
lymph nodes.
• TMJ evaluation and evaluation of the muscles of mastication are

also essential to rule out disease of TMJ. A prerequisite to fixed
prosthodontic treatment is a healthy joint and supporting skeletal
musculature.
Intraoral examination
Reveals the following information regarding soft tissues, teeth and
supporting structures:
• Any pathology of tongue, lips, floor of the mouth, vestibule, cheeks,

hard and soft palate.
• Patient’s oral hygiene and periodontal status.
• Restorative status – presence of caries, abrasion wear, erosion and

previous restorations.
• Edentulous spaces and residual ridge resorption.
• Evidence of bruxism or parafunctional habits.
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• Type of occlusion.
• Both panoramic and intraoral radiographs are taken (Fig. 33.1).
• The objectives of radiographic examination are to fulfil the

following:
○ Locate areas of infection and any other pathology.
○ Reveal the presence of root fragments, foreign

objects, bone spicules and irregular ridge
formations.
○ Display the presence and extent of caries.
○ Evaluate the existing restorations with respect to

marginal leakage and overhanging gingival
margins.
○ Evaluate root canal fillings.
○ Evaluate periodontal condition, alveolar support of

abutment teeth, the length and morphology of
roots.
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FIGURE 33.1 The picture of OPG showing impacted tooth,
endodontic status, restorative status and periodontal status of
the teeth.
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Diagnostic casts
Importance of mounted diagnostic casts
Diagnostic cast allows assessment of the following:
1. Static and dynamic relationship of teeth without neuromuscular

interference.
2. Occlusion from all sides (including lingual).
3. Centric relation and maximum intercuspation.
4. Dimensions of edentulous space.
5. Alignment and angulations of abutment teeth.
6. Occlusal plane.
7. Final outcome of proposed treatment through ‘diagnostic waxing’.
Impression making and pouring

The procedure for impression making and fabricating a diagnostic
cast is described in detail in Chapter 22. The same is adopted for fixed
partial dentures also.
Facebow transfer
The procedure for mounting diagnostic casts using a facebow transfer
and interocclusal records on a semi-adjustable articulator is described
here using a Hanau spring-bow. This is an earpiece type of arbitrary
facebow. The component parts of the facebow are given in Fig. 33.2A–
C. Description of facebows and transfer using facia type of facebow
has been described in Chapter 6.
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FIGURE 33.2A–C Components of Hanau spring-bow: (i) U-
shaped frame, (ii) earpiece, (iii) locknuts (thumbscrews), (iv)
bite fork with shaft and (v) orbital pointer.
Transfer using a hanau spring-bow (earpiece type of facebow)
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Putty impression material is mixed and adapted over the bite fork,
after applying a tray adhesive (Fig. 33.3). Alternately, baseplate wax
can also be softened and adapted over the bite fork.
• Position the putty on the bite fork against the maxillary teeth such
that the midline coincides and the shaft of the fork is on the
patient’s left side. The patient is then asked to close the mouth (Fig.
33.4).
• The maxillary putty record is removed once the material sets (Fig.
33.5).
• Insert the vertical rod of the thumbscrew assembly into the facebow
frame with the flat side facing the operator (Fig. 33.6A and B). The
bite fork with maxillary record is positioned on the maxillary teeth
and the shaft is inserted into the thumbscrew assembly and frame,
ensuring that the shaft is positioned to the operator’s right. The
thumb screw is tightened while the patient is gripping the fork with
the teeth.
• Open the bow by pulling outward on the arms and swing it down
into position with the earpiece placed into the external auditory
meatus (Fig. 33.7).
• Locate the infraorbital notch, i.e. the anterior reference point and
mark it (Fig. 33.8).
• Position the orbital pointer such that it is at the plane of the anterior
reference point (Fig. 33.9).
• Tighten the three thumbscrews in order from left to right (Fig.

33.10).
• Ask the patient to slowly open the mouth and remove the entire
assembly from the head. Have a firm hold over the bow while
removing it as the bow is made of spring steel and could snap back
(Fig. 33.11).
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FIGURE 33.3 Putty impression material adapted on bite fork.
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FIGURE 33.4 Bite fork with putty material is centred against
the maxillary teeth with midpoint coinciding with midline 7
shaft on the patient’s left.
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FIGURE 33.5 Maxillary record on the bite fork.
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FIGURE 33.6 (A) Thumbscrew assembly. (B) Vertical rod of
thumbscrew assembly positioned into facebow frame.
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FIGURE 33.7 Bite fork inserted into frame and ear pieces
placed in external auditory meatus.
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FIGURE 33.8 (A) Locating the infraorbital notch by palpation.
(B and C) Marking the anterior reference point
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FIGURE 33.9 Positioning the orbital pointer.
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FIGURE 33.10A–C Tightening thumbscrews in order.
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FIGURE 33.11 Completed facebow record following removal
from mouth.
The maxillary cast is attached to the articulator with the facebow transfer.
Interocclusal records
• The maxillary cast is attached to the articulator by using a facebow,
while the mandibular cast is oriented to the maxillary cast using
interocclusal records.
• Interocclusal records are used to replicate, on the articulator, the

relationship between the maxillary and mandibular arches.
• For diagnostic casts, this helps in determining tooth relationships
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and identifying deflective contacts and/or other occlusal
discrepancies from the casts on the articulator.
• Interocclusal records are also used for fabricating the final

restorations.
• Interocclusal records may be classified as:
○ Centric relation records
○ Maximum intercuspation records
○ Eccentric interocclusal records
Interocclusal registration materials

Ideal requirements
Ideal requirements for interocclusal registration materials are
1. Easy to manipulate.
2. Limited resistance before setting and rigid or resilient after setting.
3. Accurate.
4. No reaction with tissues involved.
5. Minimal dimensional change after setting.
6. Verifiable.
Materials
1. Plaster:
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○ Impression plaster is used.
○ Records are accurate, rigid and do not distort.
○ Difficult to handle and brittle.

2. Waxes:
○ Thermoplastic waxes like hard baseplate wax and

aluwax are used.
○ Easy to manipulate.
○ Inaccurate, unstable and interfere with mandibular

movement.
3. Zinc oxide eugenol pastes
○ ZOE impression paste is used.
○ Accurate, rigid, fluid before setting (minimal

interference with mandibular closure) and adheres
to carrier.
○ Prolonged setting time, brittle, accurate seating of

cast may be prevented by better detail reproduction
in record than cast.
4. Elastomers:
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○ Silicones and polyether are used.
○ Accurate, fluid, stable after setting, does not require

carrier.
○ Difficulty in seating of plaster casts due to

resistance to compression and accurate seating of
cast may be prevented by better detail reproduction
in record than cast.
5. Acrylic resins:
○ Autopolymerizing acrylic resin is used as a single-

stop registration.
○ Accurate and rigid after setting.
○ Dimensional instability, strength and rigidity can

damage plaster casts.
Records
Three types of records may be obtained to mount the maxillary and
mandibular cast with their own indications.
1. Centric relation records
• Used for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• To record jaw relation when:
○ Posterior occlusal stops are absent.
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○ Significant occlusal restoration is required.
○ Vertical dimension is subject to change.

Methods of retruding the mandible
To obtain a centric relation record, the mandible has to be
manipulated (retruded) into the appropriate position. These have
been discussed in Chapter 6.
Techniques
i. Bite wafer technique
• A thermoplastic wax wafer is made with hard baseplate wax. It is

warmed and a centric relation record is obtained after manipulating
the mandible appropriately. After verification of record, ZOE paste,
impression plaster or light-bodied elastomeric impression material
is flowed on the indentations and recording is repeated.
• ZOE paste or a bite-registration elastomer can also be used alone

with or without a carrier.
• When sufficient number of teeth is not present to provide bilateral

stability, the jaw relation is recorded on stabilized bases with
occlusal rims as described for RPD.
ii. Anterior stop technique
• Accomplished with an anterior deprogramming appliance.
• An anterior jig placed on the maxillary anterior teeth contacts the

mandibular anterior teeth thereby deprogramming the influence of
the posterior teeth by establishing a predetermined stop to vertical
closure with condyles in the optimum position. The jig can be made
with autopolymerizing acrylic resin (indirect method on cast) or
green stick compound (directly in the mouth).
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• Acrylic resin or green stick compound of 2 mm thickness is adapted
over the maxillary central incisors in a ‘J’ shape and is extended to
cover the palatal surface (Fig. 33.12A). The patient is made to close
in centric and the jig is trimmed till 1 mm of space exists between
the posterior teeth (Fig. 33.12B). It should also allow the patient to
make smooth eccentric (protrusive and lateral) movements.
• Bite registration material – wax, elastomer, ZOE or a combination of

wax and elastomer/ZOE is placed in the posterior space with the jig
in position and the patient is again instructed to close in centric or
in the indentations created on the palatal surface of the jig (Fig.
33.12C). When set, the record is removed from the mouth and
excess trimmed. The maxillary and mandibular casts are placed on
the record and mounted. This produces a centric relation record
without influence of the teeth.
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FIGURE 33.12 (A) Acrylic resin (or green stick compound)
adapted on the maxillary central incisors. (B) Anterior resin jig
positioned on maxillary central incisors and the jig trimmed
until a separation of 1 mm is obtained in the posterior teeth.
(C) Centric jaw relation recorded with bite registration
material.
2. Eccentric records
• These are also called ‘check bites’ and used for and setting the
articular fossa elements on a semi-adjustable articulator.
• Two types – protrusive and lateral, help to adjust the horizontal

condylar inclination and lateral condylar inclination respectively.
(These are discussed in detail in the section on Complete Dentures.)
• To obtain protrusive record, a bite wafer is placed in the mouth and
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the patient is asked to bring the mandibular anterior teeth in an
edge to edge position with the maxillary anteriors (Fig. 33.13A).
• To obtain a lateral record, a bite wafer is placed in the mouth and

the patient is asked to move the mandibular canine in an edge to
edge position with the maxillary canine (Fig. 33.13B). Repeat this for
the other side also.
FIGURE 33.13 (A) Protrusive record. (B) Lateral record.
3. Maximum intercuspation records
• This records the relationship of maxillary and mandibular teeth in

maximum intercuspation.
• Indicated for fabricating single crowns and fixed partial dentures

with occlusal position and tooth form within normal physiological
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limits.
• Hand articulation of casts is usually sufficiently accurate to mount

these casts. For this, patient must have at least three interocclusal
contacts – two posterior on either side and one anterior.
• But if the distal molar is to be prepared, then a record is obtained.

This can be made unilaterally only for the side where the tooth is
prepared.
• Any of the previously mentioned bite-registration materials or a

combination can be used with/without a carrier to record this
position.
• The material is placed in the mouth and the patient is instructed to

close in maximum intercuspation (Fig. 33.14). Once set, the record is
removed and the casts are articulated.
• The uses or indications of the different types of interocclusal records

are given in Table 33.1.
FIGURE 33.14 Maximal intercuspation record.
Table 33.1
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Indications of various interocclusal records
Centric relation records Maximum intercuspation records Eccentric interocclusal records

For diagnosis and Casts that are used for the fabrication of Includes protrusive and lateral
treatment planning restorations for a small portion of the interocclusal records
When adjustment or occlusion are attached to the articulator inUsed
a to set the condylar guides of a
reorganization of position of maximum intercuspation semi-adjustable articulator close
occlusion is required suchMounting them in centric position could result to the anatomic limits of the
as increasing the vertical in a restoration with built-in interference temporomandibular joints.
dimension
For restoration of a
significant portion of
occlusion
Selection of articulator
Articulator selection depends on the complexity of the restoration
being planned. Table 33.2 summarizes the indications of various
articulator types.
Table 33.2
Types of articulators and their indications in fixed partial
dentures
Articulator Indications
Nonadjustable articulator (classes I and II) Single-tooth restorations
Semi-adjustable articulators (class III) Diagnostic assessment
Most fixed partial denture patients
Fully adjustable articulator (class IV) No anterior guidance
Full mouth rehabilitation
Extensive occlusal pathology
Mounting of diagnostic cast

Diagnostic casts are mounted on a semi-adjustable articulator with a
facebow transfer. The maxillary cast is first mounted with the facebow
record, then the mandibular cast is attached to the maxillary cast with
the interocclusal record. Procedure for mounting the casts on Hanau
Wide-Vue articulator is described below. To understand the various
terminologies, please refer to Chapter 6.
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Mounting of maxillary cast with facebow transfer
on articulator
The facebow record made with Hanau spring-bow is attached to the
articulator; however, before mounting the facebow, the articulator
must be zeroed.
Steps in zeroing of articulator

1. Set the horizontal condylar inclination at 30° on each side (Fig.
33.15).
2. The ‘Bennett angle’ set at 30° (Fig. 33.16).
3. Adjust the incisal pin to align the midline marking of the upper
member of the articulator (Fig. 33.17): The incisal pin serves as the
forward control of the articulator, maintaining the vertical stop.
4. Adjust incisal guide table to zero degrees and slide the incisal table
such that the chisel end of the incisal pin aligns with the zero
indicating line on the centre of the table (Fig. 33.17).
5. Attach the mounting plates to the articulator.
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FIGURE 33.15 Horizontal condylar inclination is set at 30°.
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FIGURE 33.16 Bennett angle is at 30°.
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FIGURE 33.17 Incisal pin and table adjusted.
Transferring the facebow assembly to the articulator

After zeroing the articulator the obtained facebow record is
transferred to the articulator.
Following are the steps in transferring facebow assembly to
articulator:
1. The earpiece, representing the external auditory meatus is inserted

into the auditory pin, on either side of the articulator (Fig. 33.18A and
B). As discussed in Chapter 6, this is behind the condylar centre to
compensate for placing the ear piece in the external auditory meatus.
2. The facebow is attached to the articulator (Fig. 33.19).
3. The orbital pointer (anterior reference point) is aligned with the

orbital indicator or to the bottom of the mounting plate (Fig. 33.20).
4. The bite fork is adequately supported with a cast support accessory

provided along with the spring bow (Fig. 33.21A and B).
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FIGURE 33.18 (A) Auditory pin. (B) Earpiece inserted into
auditory pin.
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FIGURE 33.19 Facebow is attached to the articulator.
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FIGURE 33.20 Orbitale pointer aligned with orbitale indicator.
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FIGURE 33.21 (A) Cast support accessory. (B) Bite fork is
adequately supported with a cast support accessory.
This maintains the position of the bite fork and supports its weight
while mounting.
Mounting and securing the maxillary cast

After attaching the facebow to the articulator, the maxillary cast is
then mounted on the upper member as follows:
• Detach the facebow frame from the bite fork assembly and
• Place the vertical rod of the assembly into the hole at the front of the
mounting guide. Seat the maxillary cast into the indentations of the
record on the fork (Fig. 33.23).
• The upper member of the articulator is swung open. Mix plaster and
place it on the base of the cast (Fig. 33.24A and B).
• Immediately closed down the upper member until the incisal pin is
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resting on the mounting guide or the anterior table (Fig. 33.25).
• Remove the bite fork assembly and mounting guide after the stone
sets. Attach the lower mounting plate to the articulator (Fig. 33.26).
FIGURE 33.22 Frame is detached from the bite fork

assembly.
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FIGURE 33.23 Vertical rod positioned into slot on the
mounting guide.
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FIGURE 33.24 (A) Maxillary cast is seated into the record
indentations. (B) Plaster is mixed and placed on the base of
the cast.
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FIGURE 33.25 Upper member is closed into the soft stone
until the incisal pin rests on the anterior table.
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FIGURE 33.26 Bite fork assembly is removed from the
facebow after mounting stone is set.
Mounting of mandibular cast

After mounting the maxillary cast on the upper member, the
mandibular cast is mounted on the lower member.
Steps in mounting mandibular cast:
• Raise the incisal guide pin by 1–2 mm to compensate for the

thickness of the interocclusal record.
• Invert the articulator on the benchtop. Place the wax maximal

intercuspal or centric record on the maxillary cast. Then position the
mandibular cast into the record (Fig. 33.27).
• Mix and place plaster on the base of the cast and the mounting plate
(Fig. 33.28).
• Hinge the lower member into the soft mounting stone until the
incisal guide pin rests firmly against the incisal guide. Allow plaster
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to set, trim the excess and complete the mounting. (Fig. 33.29).
FIGURE 33.27 Wax interocclusal record is placed on the

maxillary cast and mandibular cast is positioned into the
record.
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FIGURE 33.28 Mounting stone plaster placed on the base of
the inverted mandibular cast.
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FIGURE 33.29 Completed mounting of maxillary and
mandibular cast.
Setting condylar guidance using interocclusal records

The procedure is similar to that described for the complete dentures in
Chapter 7. A protrusive record is used to adjust the horizontal
condylar inclination while lateral records are used to adjust the lateral
condylar inclination. Either one of the records may be sufficient and
the other condylar guidance can be calculated using Hanau formula.
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Anterior guidance
Custom anterior guidance
• A customized anterior guidance is made by

moulding acrylic resin by the end of the incisal pin.
• Incisors and canines influence the occlusion during

excursive movements. The guidance given to the
mandibular movements by the anterior teeth can be
recorded in acrylic resin on the incisal guide block
and used to set the articulator.
• The mounted casts are examined and any

nonworking interferences on the casts are removed.
This enables the articulator to move freely while
maintaining contact between the anterior teeth.
• Raise the incisal guide pin so that it does not contact

the plastic incisal guide by at least 1.0 mm in all
excursions (Fig. 33.30).
• Mix tray acrylic resin and place it on the incisal

guide table. Add additional material until there is
approximately 6.0 mm of resin on the plastic incisal
guide.
• Close the articulator into full occlusion so that the

guide pin penetrates into the soft resin (Fig. 33.31).
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• Move the articulator through all excursions, making
sure that the anterior teeth remain in contact at all
times.
• Trim off excess resin after it has polymerized. This

forms the anterior guidance record.
Mechanical anterior guidance
• A mechanical incisal guide table can also be used

with this instrument to record the anterior guidance
(Fig. 33.32).
• Examine the casts and remove any interference that

prevents the anterior teeth from remaining in
contact in all excursions. The incisal pin should be
in contact with the incisal table. Loosen the lock nut
under the incisal table.
• Gently move the casts into a protrusive relationship

by moving the upper member back to bring the
maxillary and mandibular teeth into an end on
position. The incisal pin gets lifted off the incisal
table. Increase the angulations of the guide table to
contact the pin and lock it in this position.
• Similarly, the casts are moved into a right lateral

excursion and the left wing of the incisal table is
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raised to contact the pin. Repeat the process for left
lateral excursion.
FIGURE 33.30 Incisal pin is raised by at least 1.0 mm.
FIGURE 33.31 Articulator is closed into full occlusion so that
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guide pin penetrates into the soft resin.
FIGURE 33.32 Mechanical adjustable incisal guide table.
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Treatment planning
Treatment planning for a fixed partial denture involves the following.
Selection of type of prosthesis

A partially edentulous condition can be treated as follows depending
on the indications:
1. Removable partial denture

The indications for a removable partial denture are discussed in
Chapter 18.
2. Tooth-supported fixed partial denture

The indications for a fixed partial denture are discussed in Chapter 31.
3. Implant-supported fixed partial dentures

These are indicated in the following situations:
i. Inadequate number and strength of abutment teeth to support

conventional FPD.
ii. Distal extension situations.
iii. Excessive span length.
iv. Single-tooth replacements as otherwise adjacent teeth need

preparation to support conventional FPD.
v. Pier abutment.
vi. Better in patients with ‘dry mouth’.
vii. If prospective natural abutment tooth requires extensive

treatment.
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4. No treatment
If patient is present with a long standing edentulous space with no
evidence of any drifting/migration of teeth, patient does not have any
complaints regarding aesthetics or function, and patient does not
desire a prosthesis, no treatment is better than forcing patient to have
a prosthesis.
Abutment evaluation and selection

The following are evaluated while selecting an abutment for fixed
partial dentures.
Crown
1. Crown length
• The abutment teeth must have adequate occlusocervical crown

length to achieve sufficient retention.
• Full coverage restorations and crown lengthening are considered

with short clinical crowns to ensure adequate retention (Fig. 33.33).
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FIGURE 33.33 Adequate occlusocervical crown length.
2. Crown form
• Some teeth have tapered crown form that interferes with the
preparation parallelism, necessitating full coverage crowns to
improve aesthetics and retention (Fig. 33.34).
• Examples: Peg laterals, anterior teeth with poorly developed cingula

and short proximal walls, mandibular premolars with poorly
developed lingual cusps and short proximal surfaces and thin
incisors (Fig. 33.35).
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FIGURE 33.34 (A) Short clinical crown. (B) Increase in axial
length after surgical crown lengthening.
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FIGURE 33.35 Peg-shaped laterals do not provide adequate
retention as the taper of the preparation may be
compromised.
3. Degree of mutilation of crown

The size, number and location of carious lesions or restorations in a
tooth will influence the type of retainer on an abutment (Fig. 33.36).
FIGURE 33.36 Amount of coronal structure present in a

mutilated tooth influences the selection of abutment.
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If the mutilation/fracture is severe, removal of that tooth is
necessary which will alter the design of the original prosthesis.
Root length and form

• Abutment teeth should possess adequate root anchorage in the bone
to effectively resist and transmit the occlusal load.
• The length of the abutment root is directly proportional to the

stability and strength of the prosthesis (Fig. 33.37).
• Roots with parallel sides and developmental grooves are better able
to resist additional occlusal force than smooth sided conical roots.
• Roots that are broad labiolingually are preferred over ones that are
round in cross-section (Fig. 33.38). Multirooted teeth provide
greater stability and resistance to force than single rooted teeth (Fig.
33.39).
• A single-rooted tooth with irregular configuration or with some

curvature in the apical third of the root is preferred, than to the
tooth that has a nearly perfect taper.
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FIGURE 33.37 Longer roots provide stronger attachment to
supporting bone.
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FIGURE 33.38 Roots that are broad buccolingually in cross-
section are preferred over roots that are round.
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FIGURE 33.39 Teeth with diverging roots have more stability
and resistance when compared to teeth with converging
roots.
Root proximity
• There must be adequate clearance between the roots of proposed
abutments to permit the development of physiologic embrasures in
the completed prosthesis.
• Malpositioned anterior teeth and mesiobuccal roots of maxillary

molars often present unfavourable root proximities.
• Selective extraction or root resection procedures may be the only

solution.
Crown–root ratio
This ratio is the measure of the length of tooth occlusal to the alveolar
crest of the bone, to the length of the root embedded in the bone.
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• If the ratio is high, it is less likely that the tooth will be able to
withstand additional occlusal forces. The problem is even greater
when nonaxial (faciolingual) forces act on the prosthesis.
• The ideal crown–root ratio for a fixed partial denture abutment is

2:3 (Fig. 33.40A), while 1:1 (Fig. 33.40B) may be acceptable if:
○ Opposing occlusion is a removable prosthesis.
○ Opposing teeth are periodontally weak.
FIGURE 33.40 (A) Ideal crown–root ratio of 2:3. (B) Crown–

root ratio of 1:1 can be adequate in certain conditions.
In both the cases, the forces exerted on the prosthesis are less
compared to sound natural teeth.
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Periodontal health
• Periodontal disease must be eliminated before any prosthesis is
given.
• Retainers and pontics must be planned to promote effective oral

hygiene.
Mobility
• Teeth with greater than normal mobility can be used as abutments
depending on the degree of mobility and the cause (Fig. 33.41).
• A Miller mobility value of one is generally acceptable.
• A mobility value of two requires consideration of other factors

before a treatment option is finalized. If the cause is deflective
occlusal contact and a short-span prosthesis is planned, the tooth
can be used as an abutment after occlusal correction. If the mobility
is caused by periodontal problems, then the tooth may need to be
splinted to the adjacent tooth and then used as abutment. It may not
be used as abutment for a long-span prosthesis.
• Tooth with a mobility value of three is not suitable as an abutment.
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FIGURE 33.41 Clinical procedure for tooth mobility
examination.
Ante’s law
• Ante’s law states that ‘the combined pericemental area of the
abutment teeth should be equal to or greater than the pericemental
area of the tooth or teeth to be replaced’.
• According to this law one missing tooth can be successfully replaced

by taking two abutments for support. If two teeth are missing, they
can be replaced taking support of two abutments, but the limit is
being reached. It is unacceptable to replace three teeth with two
abutments (Fig. 33.42A–C).
• To make this a mathematical calculation, average values for root

surface area of permanent teeth were given by Jepson (1963) (Table
33.3). With this, the root surface area of missing teeth and
abutments could be calculated and a decision could be made as to
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the number of abutments required for supporting the pontics.
• But this is not just a simple calculation. It has been shown that
provided periodontal disease is treated, periodontal health
maintained and occlusal forces evenly distributed, fixed partial
dentures can be successful with as little as ¼ of the support
advocated by Ante.
• Hence, Ante’s law is a safe and useful guideline for abutment

selection, when employed with other factors involved in evaluating
abutment capabilities.
FIGURE 33.42 (A) One missing tooth (I molar) can be

successfully replaced taking the adjacent teeth (II premolar
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and II molar) for support. (B) Two missing teeth (II premolar
and I molar) can also be replaced by taking two adjacent
teeth (I premolar and II molar) for support. (C) Three missing
teeth (I and II premolar and I molar) cannot be replaced by
taking only two adjacent teeth for support.
Table 33.3
Root surface area of various natural teeth
Caries
• Caries on enamel, dentin and root surfaces of abutments should be
checked. If it is deep, vitality testing must be done. Some authors
have even suggested the removal of existing fillings and checking
for extent of damage previously caused by lesion.
• When in doubt, an intentional root canal treatment should be done
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to ensure predictable results.
• Abutments should also be evaluated for wear facets, abrasions and

hypoplasia.
Endodontic status
• Abutment teeth with poor pulpal health need endodontic treatment
prior to tooth preparation.
• Endodontically treated teeth can successfully function as abutments.
• Full coverage retainers are mandatory when endodontically treated

teeth are used as abutments to minimize the possibility of fracture.
• A post and core may also be necessary depending on the amount of

tooth destruction.
• These teeth are contraindicated as abutments to support cantilever

FPDs.
• Elective endodontic treatment may be necessary for a supraerupted

or malaligned teeth to improve the arch relationship (Fig. 33.43).
• The prognosis is poor for a pulpless tooth with an extremely short

root or with a canal that cannot be negotiated (Fig. 33.44).
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FIGURE 33.43 Supraerupted teeth indicated for intentional
endodontic treatment to provide adequate height for pontic
and improve arch relationship.
FIGURE 33.44 Poor prognosis if abutment teeth have short

root with non-negotiable canal.
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Tilt
• Could happen to any tooth adjacent to an edentulous space if not
replaced for a long period of time. The most common situation is
that of mandibular second molar tilting mesially into the space
created by a missing first molar (Fig. 33.45).
• It is impossible to prepare the abutment teeth for a fixed restoration

along the long axes of the respective teeth to achieve a common
path of insertion.
• There is further complication if third molar is present. It will drift

mesially, along with the second molar. Since the path of insertion is
determined by the smaller premolar abutment, the mesial surface of
the tipped third molar will encroach on the path of insertion,
thereby preventing the placement of the prosthesis (Fig. 33.46).
FIGURE 33.45 Second mandibular molar abutment tilts

mesially into space formally occupied by first molar.
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FIGURE 33.46 Mesial surface of the tipped third molar
encroaches on the path of insertion of the fixed prosthesis. If
tipping is slight, proximal stripping will correct the problem and
ensure seating of restoration. Retention is enhanced by
placing facial and lingual grooves.
Treatment
Proximal stripping
If the encroachment is minimal, slight recontouring of the mesial
surface of the third molar can be done to facilitate the placement of the
prosthesis (Fig. 33.46). However, the over tapered second molar must
have its retention improved by the addition of facial and lingual
grooves.
Orthodontic treatment
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The treatment of choice is to upright the molars using orthodontics. In
addition to placing the abutment in a better position for preparation
and for distribution of occlusal forces, it also helps to eliminate bony
defects along mesial surface of the root (Figs 33.47 and 33.48).
FIGURE 33.47 Mesial loss of bone because of mesial tilting.
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FIGURE 33.48 Simple orthodontic forces used to correct the
tilt.
If orthodontic correction cannot be performed, and if the long axis

of prospective abutments converge by no more than 25–30°; a
proximal half crown, telescopic crown and nonrigid connectors can be
used to fabricate a fixed partial denture.
Proximal one half crown
• A proximal half crown is used as a retainer on distal abutment (Fig.

33.49). This is discussed in Chapter 35, FPD section.
• This is contraindicated when there is a severe marginal ridge height

discrepancy between the distal surface of second molar and the
mesial surface of third molar as a result of tipping.
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FIGURE 33.49 Proximal half crown used as retainer for the
tilted tooth will prevent excessive tooth preparation.
Telescopic crowns
• Telescopic crowns (Fig. 33.50) and coping can be used as retainers

on distal tilted abutment.
• A full veneer crown with heavy reduction is prepared following the

long axis of the tilted abutment.
• On this preparation, a coping with the shape of a prepared proximal

one half crown is fabricated and cemented. As previously
described, the proximal one half crown will parallel the long axis of
the other abutment.
• A proximal one half crown is used as the retainer for the tilted tooth
and a fixed partial denture is fabricated and cemented over the
coping. The proximal one half crown (any crown) which fits over
the coping is called ‘telescopic crown’ (Fig. 33.51).
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FIGURE 33.50 Schematic diagram of prepared tooth, inner
thimble and secondary crown.
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FIGURE 33.51 FPD (A) retained using a telescopic crown
(B).
Nonrigid connector
• The tilted molar is prepared for a full veneer crown with path of
insertion parallel to its long axis.
• A box form is placed on the distal surface of the premolar to

accommodate a key way in the premolar crown parallel to the long
axis of the tilted abutment preparation (Fig. 33.52).
• Nonrigid connectors are indicated on molars with a severe lingual

and mesial inclination, as a routine FPD would lead to a drastically
over tapered preparation with no retention. The presence of a dowel
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core or distal restoration on premolar would favour placement of a
nonrigid connector on that tooth, while extensive facial and/or
lingual restorations in the tilted molar would call for the use of a
telescope crown.
FIGURE 33.52 Key way in the distal of premolar showing

mesial path of insertion of FPD.
Occlusal forces
• The forces exerted on the fixed partial denture depend on the
opposing dentition, muscular activity of the patient and
parafunctional habits.
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• Average values for force exerted against a fixed prosthesis is 26
pounds by a removable prosthesis, 54 pounds by a fixed prosthesis
and 150 pounds by sound natural dentition.
• This will directly affect the selection of the type of retainer, material
used and the number of abutments.
Biomechanical design considerations

Biomechanical design consideration depends on the following factors.
Span length
• As the length of the edentulous span (number of teeth being
replaced) increases, there is an increased load on the abutments and
the FPD also flexes more.
• The flexure is directly proportional to the cube of length and

inversely proportional to the cube of occlusogingival thickness of
pontic. That is, an FPD with three pontics will flex 27 times (3 × 3 ×
3) times more than an FPD with one pontic (Fig. 33.53A and B). Also
if the thickness of the pontic is halved, the FPD flexure will be eight
times greater (Fig. 33.54).
• Double abutments can be used to distribute the load by reducing

leverage forces in long spans (Fig. 33.55).
• To reduce flexure in long-span FPDs, pontics could be chosen with

greater occlusogingival dimension. Alloys such as nickel-chromium
which have high rigidity also reduce the flexure.
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FIGURE 33.53 (A) A single pontic FPD will deflect less when
subjected to force. (B) A three pontic can deflect up to 27
times as much when subjected to the same amount of force –
directly proportional to cube of length.
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FIGURE 33.54 Reducing thickness of pontic to minimize
leverage will also lead to increased flexure.
FIGURE 33.55 Double abutment teeth in cases of long-span

bridges.
Arch form
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• The curvature of the arches often places pontics facially to a straight
line (fulcrum line) drawn between the teeth immediately adjacent to
the edentulous span. This relationship creates a lever arm that can
exert excessive torquing forces on the abutment teeth (Fig. 33.56).
• The length of this lever arm will be more in a tapered arch than in a
square arch.
• It is commonly seen when all four anterior teeth are being replaced.
Double abutments must be used to provide additional retention so
as to offset the lever arm length.
FIGURE 33.56 Pontic placed facially to the fulcrum line

creates a lever arm that can exert excessive forces on the
abutments.
Dislodging forces
• All fixed partial dentures flex due to forces applied to the pontics.
This flexure causes the retainers to dislodge from the abutments.
• These dislodging forces on fixed partial dentures act in a mesiodistal
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direction as opposed to a single restoration where such forces are
buccolingual.
• Hence, retentive grooves to counter these forces are placed buccally

and lingually in a fixed partial denture, while it is placed
proximally for a single crown (Fig. 33.57).
FIGURE 33.57 Retentive grooves placed to counter the

forces.
Double abutments
• This refers to the use of two adjacent teeth at one or both ends of the
FPD as abutments (Fig. 33.55). The abutment adjacent to edentulous
space is termed as ‘primary abutment’ and the adjacent abutment is
termed as ‘secondary abutment’.
• Indications:
1. To increase retention of restoration.
2. To increase area of supporting periodontal
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ligament and bone.
3. Unfavourable crown–root ratio.
4. Long-span FPDs.
5. Splint and stabilize periodontally compromised

teeth.
• The secondary abutment must meet the following criteria:
○ It must have as much root surface area as

favourable for a crown–root ratio and similar
retention as the primary abutment.
○ Sufficient crown length and space should be present

between the adjacent abutments to prevent
impingement of the gingiva under the connector.
The materials available for construction of the fixed prosthesis are as
follows:
1. All metal
2. All ceramic
3. Porcelain fused to metal
4. Resin veneered to metal
5. Fibre reinforced composite.
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The criteria for selection are discussed in Chapter 32.
Special considerations
Pier abutment
Definition: A natural tooth located between terminal abutments that
serve to support a fixed or a removable prosthesis (GPT8).
It is also called ‘intermediate abutment’ (Fig. 33.58).
• In this situation, if a five-unit rigid FPD is planned by using all the

natural teeth adjacent to the edentulous areas as abutments, forces
are transmitted to terminal retainers as a result of the intermediate
abutment (pier) acting as fulcrum, causing failure (loosening) of a
weaker retainer (anterior). Some authors suggested that tension
between the terminal retainers and their respective abutments
rather than a pier fulcrum caused intrusion of the weaker abutment
which lead to failure (loosening) of a weaker retainer (anterior) (Fig.
33.59). These loosened castings will cause marginal leakage and
secondary caries.
• Hence, physiologic tooth movements, arch position of the

abutments and a disparity in the retentive capacity of the retainer
can make a rigid connector in a five-unit fixed prosthesis, a less
ideal treatment of choice in case of pier abutments.
• The use of a nonrigid connector has been advocated to overcome this

problem. It is a broken stress mechanical union of retainer and
pontic, the movement in it is enough to prevent the transfer of stress
from the segment being loaded to the rest of FPD. It consists of a T-
shaped key attached to the pontic, and a dovetail key way placed
within a retainer. (Fig. 33.60).
• The location of this device is important. It is usually placed on the

middle abutment, since placement on the terminal abutments could
result in pontic acting as a lever arm. The key way should be placed
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within the distal contour of pier abutment and key, on the mesial
side of distal pontic. This seats the key more solidly into the keyway
as forces usually are mesially directed due to the mesial inclination
of posterior teeth.
• Another simple treatment option would be to cantilever the

premolar pontic provided the periodontal support of the abutments
is adequate (Fig. 33.61).
FIGURE 33.58 Pier abutments having edentulous spaces on

either side.
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FIGURE 33.59 Forces are transmitted to terminal retainers
as a result of the pier abutment, causing failure of a weaker
anterior retainer.
FIGURE 33.60 A nonrigid connector can be used as stress-
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breaker.
FIGURE 33.61 Cantilever pontic.
Cantilever fixed partial dentures

Definition: A fixed dental prosthesis in which the pontic is
cantilevered, i.e. is retained and supported only on one end by one or
more abutments (GPT8).
• In a conventional FPD supported by abutment on either side of

edentulous space, forces on the pontic are distributed evenly to both
the abutments (Fig. 33.62).
• In a cantilever FPD, forces applied to the pontic tend to depress and

tip the pontic. This is a potentially destructive design with the lever
arm created by the pontic (Fig. 33.63).
• Prospective abutment teeth for cantilever FPDs should satisfy the
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following requirements:
○ Lengthy roots with favourable configuration.
○ Long clinical crowns.
○ Good crown root ratios.
○ Healthy periodontium.
○ Should be used to replace only one tooth.

• Indications:
1. Missing maxillary lateral incisors using canine for support.
○ There should be no occlusal contact on the lateral incisor pontic in

centric and eccentric relations.
○ A distal rest prepared on the central incisor will support a mesial

extension from the lateral pontic to prevent rotation.
2. Missing first premolar using II premolar and I molar as abutments

(Fig. 33.64).
3. Missing I molars when there is no distal abutment, using I and II

premolar as abutments (Fig. 33.65).
○ Pontic should be similar in size to a premolar.
○ Only light occlusal contact on pontic with no contact in eccentric.
○ Pontic should possess maximum occlusogingival height.
4. Periodontally compromised teeth as they have extremely long
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clinical crowns.
5. Pier abutment situations.
FIGURE 33.62 Equal distribution of forces on abutments in

conventional FPD.
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FIGURE 33.63 Forces applied to the pontic tend to depress
and tip the pontic in cantilever FPDs.
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FIGURE 33.64 Second premolar and first molar used as
abutments to replace missing first premolar.
FIGURE 33.65 First molar cantilever replacement using the

premolars as abutments.
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Canine replacement fixed partial dentures
• Replacing canine with a fixed partial denture is often difficult as the
canine lies outside the interabutment axis and as described earlier,
the fulcrum line is labial to the arch circumference. Hence, the
abutments are subjected to increased stresses (Fig. 33.66).
• The prospective abutments are the lateral incisor, weakest tooth in

the arch and the first premolar, weakest posterior tooth.
• The forces acting on the maxillary canine act outward, labially,

subjecting it to a greater stress, as compared to the mandibular
canine where the forces act lingually.
• No FPD replacing a canine should replace more than one additional

tooth.
FIGURE 33.66 Canine replacement – canine is positioned

outside the interabutment axis.
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Mouth preparation
Once the treatment plan is finalized after considering the above-
mentioned factors, the patient’s oral cavity is prepared to receive the
fixed prosthesis keeping in mind long-term prognosis and
preservation of oral health.
The following could be a practical sequence of procedures:
1. Preliminary assessment
2. Emergency treatment of presenting symptoms
3. Oral surgery
4. Caries control and replacement of existing restorations
5. Endodontic treatment
6. Periodontal therapy
7. Orthodontic treatment
8. Definitive occlusal treatment
9. Fixed prosthodontics
10. Removable prosthodontics
11. Follow-up care
Although all the procedures are self-explanatory and have also been
dealt with in Chapter 25, ‘definitive occlusal treatment’ or ‘occlusal
correction’ is discussed here.
Occlusal correction
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This involves eliminating occlusal interferences and getting the
‘maximal intercuspal position’ (MIP) to coincide with centric relation
(CR).
This may be performed for two reasons:
1. Therapeutically, to relieve symptoms of occlusal dysfunction.
2. Diagnostically, before extensive restorative treatment.
This should be performed before definitive prosthodontic

rehabilitation and is first executed on mounted diagnostic casts and
then transferred to the patient. The interferences are discussed in
Chapter 34, and the same are corrected accordingly.
SUMMARY
The objectives of any successful treatment planning should begin
with identification of existing disease, the aetiology, pathogenesis and
the ideal treatment planning. The process of treatment should include
prevention of future disease, restoring function and improving
appearance also. This should be planned after identifying the
patient’s needs which is very important for the successful treatment
or prognosis. Throughout, the extent of treatment is modified by the
attitude of and objectives for the patient.
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CHAPTER
34
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Occlusion
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 484
Anatomy of TMJ 484
Centric relation 484
Mandibular movement and occlusal contact 485
Movements and the occlusal contacts 485
Determinants of mandibular movements 488
Concepts of occlusion 490
Bilateral balanced occlusion 490
Unilateral balanced occlusion 490
Mutually protected occlusion 490
Canine-guided/protected occlusion 490
Ideal occlusion 490
Factors determining a patient’s reaction to an
occlusion 490
Importance of ideal occlusion 490
Occlusal interferences 491
Centric interference 491
Working interferences 491
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Nonworking interferences 491
Protrusive interference 491
Pathogenic occlusion 492
Signs and symptoms 492
Treatment 492
Summary 492
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Introduction
(GPT8).
In simple terms, it is the static contact relationship of

maxillary and mandibular teeth in any given
position.
Articulation: The static and dynamic contact relationship between the
occlusal surfaces of the teeth during function (GPT8).
Compared to occlusion this is a contact relationship of

maxillary and mandibular teeth in function.
The contact of the maxillary and mandibular teeth in

various functional movements (mandibular
movements) is an important relationship that
should not be traumatic to the supporting tissues
and should allow an even load distribution
throughout the dental arch. It is interrelated with
the TMJ and the associated muscles. It is important
to understand what is normal so that any deviation
can then be assessed for diagnosis and treatment.
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Anatomy of TMJ
It is important to know the anatomy of the TMJ as it is one of the
determinants of mandibular movement during which occlusal
contacts take place. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
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Centric relation
Centric relation (CR): The maxillomandibular relationship in which
the condyles articulate with the thinnest avascular portion of their
respective discs with the complex in the anterior-superior position
against the slopes of the articular eminences. This position is
independent of tooth contact. This position is clinically discernible
when the mandible is directed superior and anteriorly. It is
restricted to a purely rotary movement about the transverse
horizontal axis (GPT8).
Maximal intercuspal position (MI): The complete intercuspation of

position – called also maximal intercuspation (GPT8).
Centric occlusion (CO): The occlusion of opposing teeth when the

mandible is in centric relation. This may or may not coincide with
the maximal intercuspal position (GPT8).
• It is clear from the definitions that in natural

dentition, MI position need not coincide with CR.
• When fixed and removable prosthesis are fabricated

with existing natural teeth, they may be made to
coincide with the existing normal MI position, if
sufficient natural teeth are present to guide the
occlusion. MI position is made to coincide with CR
only when there are insufficient occlusal contacts
existing to guide the occlusion.
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• This is different from complete dentures where MI
position is given at CR.
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Mandibular movement and occlusal
contact
Movements and the occlusal contacts
Basic movements
Mandibular movement is divided into two basic components:
1. Rotation: The action or process of rotating on or as if on an axis or

centre (GPT8).
2. Translation: The motion of a body at any instant when all points

within the body are moving at the same velocity and in the same
direction. This refers to a bodily movement.
Excursive movements
1. Opening movement
On opening, initially up to 12 mm of incisor separation there is only
rotation of the mandible (Fig. 34.1) which is then followed by a
forward translation to maximal opening (Fig. 34.2).
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FIGURE 34.1 Rotation up to 12 mm of opening.
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FIGURE 34.2 Translation on opening greater than 12 mm.
The rotation occurs around the horizontal axis and can be observed
in the sagittal plane.
2. Protrusion
This is a translatory movement as the mandible slides downward and
forward for the anterior teeth to meet edge to edge (Fig. 34.3).
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FIGURE 34.3 The mandible moves forward in a protrusive
mandibular movement. Note the contact of the anterior teeth
only; the posterior teeth are in disocclusion.
Occlusal contact in protrusive mandibular movement
• A protrusive mandibular movement occurs when the mandible

moves forward from the intercuspal position. Any area of a tooth
that contacts an opposing tooth during protrusive movement is
considered to be protrusive contact.
• In a normal occlusal relationship the predominant protrusive

contacts occur on the anterior teeth, between the incisal and labial
edges of the mandibular incisors against the lingual fossae areas
and incisal edges of the maxillary incisors. These are considered the
guiding inclines of the anterior teeth.
• On the posterior teeth the protrusive movement causes the

mandibular centric cusps (buccal) to pass anteriorly across the
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occlusal surface of the maxillary teeth. Posterior protrusive contacts
occur between the distal inclines of the maxillary lingual cusps and
the mesial inclines of the opposing fossae and marginal ridges.
Posterior protrusive contacts can also occur between the mesial
inclines of the mandibular buccal cusps and the distal inclines of the
opposing fossae and marginal edges. These posterior cuspal
contacts are considered pathological if the anterior teeth are present
in normal class 1 relationship.
3. Retrusion
The movement is just the opposite of protrusion.
Occlusal contact in retrusive mandibular movement
• A retrusive movement occurs when the mandible moves posteriorly

from the intercuspal position.
• Compared to the other movements, the distance of a retrusive

movement is quite small as it is restricted by the ligamentous
structures.
• Retrusive contacts occur on the reverse inclines of the protrusive

contacts, since the movements are exactly opposite.
• This movement is of less clinical importance.
4. Lateral excursion
Movement produced when the mandible moves side to side – right
and left. Rotation in vertical and sagittal axis during lateral
movements on the working side (side to which the mandible moves)
with a little translation called Bennett movement or mandibular side
shift (Fig. 34.4).
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FIGURE 34.4 When the mandible moves into a left lateral
excursion, the right condyle (A) moves forward and inward,
and the left condyle (B) shifts slightly in a lateroposterior
direction. The left side is the working side (W), and the right
side is the nonworking side (NW).
Translation on the nonworking side – downward, forward and

medially.
Occlusal contacts in laterotrusive mandibular movement
• In the posterior teeth on the left side during a left lateral movement
(working side) contact can occur on two incline areas (Fig. 34.5).
○ Between the inner inclines of the maxillary buccal

cusps and the outer inclines of the mandibular
buccal cusps.
○ Between the outer inclines of the maxillary lingual

cusps and the inner inclines of the mandibular
lingual cusps. Both these contacts are termed
laterotrusive or working contact.
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• During the same left lateral movement the right mandibular
posterior teeth (balancing/nonworking side) are passing in a medial
direction across their opposing teeth. Normally, there should be no
contact.
○ The potential sites for occlusal contacts are between

the inner inclines of the mandibular buccal cusps
and the buccal inclines of the palatal cusps of the
maxillary teeth. These are called mediotrusive or
nonworking contacts. If present, it is an
interference.
• If the mandible moves laterally to the right, the potential sites of
contact are identical with but reversed from those occurring in left
lateral movement.
• The anterior teeth play an important guiding role during left and
right lateral mandibular movement. In a normal occlusal
relationship the maxillary and mandibular canines contact during
the lateral movements and therefore have laterotrusive contacts.
These occur between the labial surfaces and incisal edges of the
mandibular canines and the lingual fossae and incisal edges of the
maxillary canines.
○ During lateral movement of the mandible, if the

contact is only in the palatal slopes canine, and the
rest of the dentition is disoccluded, it is termed as
canine-guided occlusion (Fig. 34.6).
○ However due to wearing-off, of the incisal edges of

the canines, multiple posterior teeth may come into
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contact on the working side, with the nonworking
side teeth in disocclusion. This is termed as group
function occlusion (Fig. 34.7).
FIGURE 34.5 When the mandible moves laterally, there are

two laterotrusive contacts.
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FIGURE 34.6 In canine-guided occlusion only canines come
to contact during lateral movements.
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FIGURE 34.7 In group function occlusion, teeth posterior to
canines also come into contact as a group, normally seen in
older individuals.
Border movements
Posselt described the extremes of mandibular movement as limited by
anatomic structures and the teeth. Also termed as ‘envelope of
motion’.
Envelope of motion: The three-dimensional space circumscribed by

mandibular movement occurs (GPT8).
He described the mandibular movement as seen from the incisal

edge of the mandibular central incisor (Fig. 34.8). The mandibular
movement in the sagittal plane is traced beginning with contact in
centric relation and moving through maximal protrusion followed by
maximal mouth opening, and finally returning to centric relation
position (Fig. 34.9).
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FIGURE 34.8 Border movement through incisor in sagittal
plane.
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FIGURE 34.9 Envelope of motion.
A similar border movement is traced through the extreme right and

left lateral positions which can be best viewed in the horizontal plane.
All possible functional mandibular movements occur within this
boundary.
The upper part of the envelope is guided by the teeth. The
movements along all other borders and within the borders are guided
by the TMJ and muscles.
Occlusal contacts not properly created by natural growth and
development, and faulty contacts created by dental restorations, produce
deflection in the mandibular movement which may interfere with the
anatomic control (TMJ and condyles), such that smooth condylar function is
disturbed. This may produce TMJ dysfunction.
Functional movements
Chewing, swallowing, speaking, yawning and associated movements
constitute the functional movements of the mandible. These take place
within the border movements (Fig. 34.10).
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FIGURE 34.10 Multiple tear drop chewing cycles in the three
planes all within the border movements.
In chewing, the direction of mandibular closure is influenced by the

orientation of occlusal plane and the occlusal guidance. The occlusal
form of the tooth influences the character of the chewing cycle (Fig.
34.11).
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FIGURE 34.11 Occlusal form of tooth influencing chewing
cycle.
Any interference may prevent a smooth cyclic function of the joint

and muscles (Fig. 34.12).
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FIGURE 34.12 Left – smooth cycle, right – showing
interference.
Dental occlusion should also be developed so as not to interfere

with normal speech as described in the section on Complete Dentures.
Parafunctional movements
These are sustained movements of the mandible that occur other than
normal, manifested by long periods of increased muscle activity. They
are almost impossible for the patient to control.
The two most common parafunctional activities are bruxism and
clenching.
Bruxism: An oral habit consisting of involuntary rhythmic or

spasmodic nonfunctional gnashing, grinding, or clenching of teeth,
in other than chewing movements of the mandible, which may lead
to occlusal trauma – called also tooth grinding, occlusal neurosis
(GPT8).
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• It may be diurnal, nocturnal or both.
• Probable cause:
○ Subconscious reflex in response to emotional stress

and occlusal interference.
• Consequences:
○ Extensive wear of teeth due to increased occlusal

forces with prolonged tooth contact. Anterior teeth
wear first to avoid a posterior interference,
followed by posterior wear also.
○ Pain in joint and muscles around TMJ as there is

increased muscle activity.
○ Widening of periodontal ligament space and

mobility of posterior teeth.
Clenching: The pressing and clamping of the jaws and teeth together
frequently associated with acute nervous tension or physical effort
(GPT8).
• Occlusal disorder may not be a cause for this and clenching may not
cause damage to the teeth except for abfractions.
• Commonly muscular pain is seen along with damage to the

periodontium.
Determinants of mandibular movements

These are classified as anterior and posterior determinants and
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influence the development of occlusal scheme. The posterior
determinants are the TMJ and their associated structures which
cannot be controlled by the dentist, while the anterior determinants
are the teeth. They influence occlusal schemes as follows:
Posterior determinants
1. Inclination of articular eminence: The greater the angle, greater is
the allowable cusp height and deeper is the fossa of the teeth and vice
versa (Fig. 34.13).
2. Intercondylar distance: This is the distance between the two

rotational centres of the condyle. A larger than average distance
requires more distal positioning of the oblique ridges and grooves on
mandibular teeth, and a more mesial positioning on the maxillary
teeth and vice versa.
3. Side shift: Greater the immediate side shift, shorter is allowable

cusp height and vice versa (Fig. 34.14A and B). Greater the
laterosurtrusion (outward and upward movement of working
condyle), shallower the grooves and less cusp height. Greater
laterodetrusion (outward and downward), deeper the grooves and
greater the cusp height and vice versa.
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FIGURE 34.13 (A) Steep, (B) shallow.
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FIGURE 34.14 (A) Pronounced immediate lateral translation
requires the cusps to be short. (B) Gradual lateral translation
allows the cusps to be longer.
Anterior determinants
1. Vertical overlap: Greater the vertical overlap of anterior teeth,
greater is the allowable cusp height and vice versa.
2. Horizontal overlap: Greater the horizontal overlap, shorter is the

allowable cusp height and vice versa (Fig. 34.15).
3. Occlusal plane: When the plane is more parallel to the condylar

guidance, allowable posterior cusp height is shorter and vice versa
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(Fig. 34.16).
4. Curve of Spee: More convex the curve (lesser radius), allowable

cusp height is lesser and vice versa (Fig. 34.17).
FIGURE 34.15 Anterior guidance has effect on occlusal

scheme.
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FIGURE 34.16 Occlusal plane.
FIGURE 34.17 Curve of Spee.
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Concepts of occlusion
Following are the three recognized concepts.
Bilateral balanced occlusion

This is a concept used in the construction of complete dentures and is
discussed in detail in Chapter 8.
Unilateral balanced occlusion

Unilateral balanced occlusion also known as ‘group function
occlusion’ (Fig. 34.7). It is based on Schuyler’s concept.
Characteristics
• There is excursive contact on all posterior teeth on the working side
during lateral movement. This distributes the occlusal load.
• Eliminates any tooth contact on the nonworking side.
• In protrusive movement no posterior tooth contact is seen.
• Prevents excessive wear of functional cusps.
• Functionally generated path technique is used for producing

restorations in unilateral balanced occlusion.
Long centric
• Proposed by Schuyler; also known as ‘freedom in centric’.
• Evolved with the unilateral balanced occlusion concept.
• The mandible is able to move anteriorly for a short distance in the
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same horizontal and sagittal plane while maintaining centric tooth
contact.
• Advocated as centric relation rarely coincides with maximal

intercuspal position in natural dentition.
• At a given vertical dimension, it ranges from 0.5–1.5 mm in length.
Mutually protected occlusion

• Also termed as organic occlusion.
• Proposed by D’Amico, Stuart, Stallard and Lucia.
• Anterior teeth protect the posterior teeth in all excursive movements

and posterior teeth protect the anterior teeth in the maximal
intercuspal position (mutual protection). Frictional wear of teeth is
reduced.
Characteristics
• Only anterior teeth contact in lateral and protrusive excursions in
harmony with functional jaw movements. No posterior contact.
• Stable posterior tooth contacts with vertically directed resultant

forces in maximal intercuspal position. There is only light or no
contact in anterior teeth.
• The lack of contact is termed as ‘disclusion’.
• Centric relation coincides with maximal intercuspation.
• Periodontally sound anterior teeth are required for this type of

occlusion.
Advantages
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• Patient tolerance.
• Ease of construction.
Disadvantages
Mutually protected occlusion cannot be used with:
• Periodontally weak anterior teeth.
• Missing canines.
• Class II and class III situation.
• Crossbite situations.
Canine-Guided/Protected occlusion
Definition: A form of mutually protected articulation in which the
vertical and horizontal overlap of the canine teeth disengage the
posterior teeth in the excursive movements of the mandible (GPT8)
(Fig. 34.6).
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Ideal occlusion
‘Mutually protective occlusion’ forms the basis for ‘ideal occlusion’ in
natural dentitions.
Characteristics
1. Stable posterior contact with vertically directed resultant forces.
2. MIP coincident with CR along with freedom in centric.
3. No posterior contact in eccentric mandibular movements.
4. Contact of anterior teeth in harmony with functional jaw

movements.
5. Occlusion in Angle’s class I.
Occlusion can only be judged from the reaction it produces in the

tissues of the system in which it coexists. This reaction varies infinitely
between individuals and may also vary within an individual with
time. Hence, some patients are capable of tolerating gross
malocclusions without obvious discomfort, while others are unable to
tolerate even minor occlusal deficiencies.
Factors determining a patient’s reaction to an

occlusion
The application of force from the muscles through occlusal contacts,
results in load. Whether that load produces damage to tissues will
depend on several factors:
1. The resistance of the tissues and/or restoration.
2. The magnitude of the force being applied.
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3. The frequency of the force being applied.
4. The direction of the force being applied.
5. The number of contacts transmitting that force.
Importance of ideal occlusion

As previously discussed, every patient need not possess an ‘ideal
occlusion’ to function comfortably. But it is important to know what is
‘ideal’ for the following reasons:
1. Use it as a benchmark for assessment of pretreatment records and

examination (diagnostic casts).
2. Correcting of TMD and occlusal interference (if they exist) before

commencing restorative procedures.
3. For final prosthodontic rehabilitation – to accomplish this a

conformative approach (where patient’s pretreatment occlusion is
retained for the prosthodontic rehabilitation), or a reorganized
approach (where a change in occlusal scheme is planned) is utilized.
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Occlusal interferences
Interferences are undesirable occlusal contacts that may produce
mandibular deviation during closure to maximum intercuspation or
may hinder smooth passage to and from the intercuspal position.
When the teeth are not in harmony with the joints and the
mandibular movements, interference is said to exist. There are four
types of interferences.
Centric interference
Mandible is closed in centric relation until initial tooth contact occurs.
If increasing the closing force deflects the mandible, premature
contact or interference exists.
This leads to deflection of the mandible which can be in a posterior,
anterior and/or lateral direction.
Interference occurs between the mesial inclines of maxillary
posterior teeth and distal inclines of mandibular posterior teeth (Fig.
34.18).
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FIGURE 34.18 A centric occlusal interference often occurs
between maxillary mesial-facing cusp inclines and mandibular
distal-facing inclines, as a result the mandible is deflected
anteriorly.
Working interferences
Occurs when there is contact between the maxillary and mandibular
posterior teeth on the working side and this causes anterior teeth to
disocclude.
Interference occurs on the maxillary lingual facing cusp inclines and
mandibular buccal facing cusp inclines (Fig. 34.19).
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FIGURE 34.19 A working interference may occur between
maxillary lingual-facing cusp inclines and mandibular buccal-
facing inclines on the working side.
Nonworking interferences
Nonworking interference is an occlusal contact between the maxillary
and mandibular teeth on the nonworking side when the mandible
moves in a lateral excursion.
Interference occurs on the maxillary buccal facing cusp inclines and
mandibular lingual facing cusp inclines (Fig. 34.20). It is destructive in
nature because of nonaxial nature of forces causing leverage of
mandible.
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FIGURE 34.20 A nonworking interference may result when
there is contact between maxillary buccal-facing inclines and
mandibular lingual-facing cusp inclines on the working side.
Protrusive interference
Occurs when distal facing inclines of maxillary posterior teeth
contacts the mesial facing inclines of mandibular posterior teeth
during a protrusive movement (Fig 34.21).
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FIGURE 34.21 A protrusive interference occurs when during
a protrusive movement distal-facing inclines of maxillary
posterior teeth contact mesial-facing inclines of mandibular
posterior teeth.
These are destruction forces due to closeness of teeth to the muscles,

nonaxial nature of forces and inability of patient to incise food.
Interferences may lead to pathologic occlusion and should be assessed and
corrected if needed, with the aid of mounted diagnostic casts before prosthetic
rehabilitation is commenced.
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Pathogenic occlusion
Definition: An occlusal relationship capable of producing pathologic
changes in the stomatognathic system (GPT8).
Signs and symptoms

1. Teeth
i. Mobility
ii. Open contacts
iii. Abnormal wear like fracture or chipping of

incisal edges
2. Periodontium
i. Chronic periodontal disease
ii. Widened periodontal ligamant space

(radiographically)
iii. Tooth movement and a compromised C:R ratio

3. Musculature
i. Chronic muscle fatigue leading to muscle spasm

and pain
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ii. Restricted opening or trismus
iii. Myositis
4. TMJ
i. Pain, clicking or popping in the TMJ
Treatment
This would include the following depending on the cause for occlusal
interference.
Short-term treatment
This is accomplished with occlusal splints/devices. They are used only
for a short period and provide the following benefits:
1. Serve to deprogram the occlusion such that future restoration in

centric relation is easily accomplished.
2. Act as a diagnostic tool in determining if a proposed change in

occlusal scheme will be tolerated by the patient.
3. They have also been beneficial in relieving myofacial pain.
Definitive treatment
Definitive treatment may be comprising the following individually or
in combination:
1. Orthodontic treatment to correct malalignment.
2. Elimination of deflective occlusal contacts through selective

grinding of interfering inclines.
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3. Replacement of missing teeth to produce a more favourable
distribution of force.
This is attained by either occlusal equalization procedures or

appliances like occlusal splint.
SUMMARY
Occlusion of fixed partial denture with the antagonist should be
achieved favourably in order to fulfil the requirements of mastication,
aesthetics, speech, support for orofacial structures and prevention of
TMJ dysfunction. Information about the existing occlusal scheme can
be derived from intraoral examination, radiographic survey and
evaluation of mounted diagnostic casts.
The TMJ and associated musculature permit the mandible to move
in three planes – sagittal, horizontal and frontal. The three basic
eccentric movements are protrusive, laterotrusive and retrusive.
When the teeth are not in harmony with the joints and the
mandibular movements, interference is said to exist.
Interferences are undesirable occlusal contacts that may produce
mandibular deviation during closure to maximum intercuspation or
may hinder smooth passage to and from the intercuspal position.
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CHAPTER
35
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Tooth preparation
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 493
Principles of tooth preparation 493
Biologic principles 493
Mechanical considerations 498
Aesthetic considerations 504
Armamentarium 504
Complete crowns (full veneer crowns) 505
All-metal full veneer crown preparation 506
Metal-ceramic full veneer crown preparation 511
All-ceramic crowns (metal-free ceramic crowns)
520
Partial veneer crowns/partial-coverage restorations 524
Partial veneer preparations for posterior teeth
on maxillary premolar 524
Modifications of posterior partial veneer crown
528
Anterior partial veneer crowns 530
Summary 541
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Introduction
Teeth do not possess the regenerative ability found in most other
tissues. Therefore, restorative materials are required to replace the lost
enamel or dentine as a result of caries, wear or trauma. Hence, teeth
require preparation to receive such restorations. Teeth also require
preparation to support a fixed partial denture. The longevity of all
such restorations depends predominantly on the preparation. So
every effort must be made to prepare the tooth such that it retains the
restoration and does not harm the tooth or the surrounding structures.
This chapter will detail the basic principles of preparation of the tooth
to receive the restoration.
Definition: Tooth preparation is defined as the process of removal
of diseased and/or healthy enamel, dentine and cementum to shape a
tooth to receive a restoration (GPT8).
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The principles of tooth preparation are classified in Table 35.1.
Table 35.1
Classification of principles of tooth preparation
Biologic principles
These affect the health of oral tissues.
Prevention of damage during tooth preparation

Adjacent teeth
Iatrogenic damage to the adjacent tooth during tooth preparation is a
common error. A damaged proximal contact area even if reshaped
and polished will be more susceptible to dental caries. This is because
the original surface enamel contains higher fluoride concentrations
and hence the damaged layer is more prone to plaque retention.
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Methods of prevention
1. A metal matrix band placed around the adjacent tooth may be used
for protection (Fig. 35.1). The thin band can also be perforated and
enamel damaged.
2. Use of proximal enamel of the tooth that is being prepared. This is

the preferred method to avoid damage to the adjacent tooth.
FIGURE 35.1 Metal matrix band used to protect adjacent

tooth.
Teeth are 1.5–2 mm wider at the contact area than at the

cementoenamel junction. A thin, tapered diamond can be passed
through the interproximal contact area to leave a slight lip of enamel
without resulting in excessive tooth reduction (Fig. 35.2).
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FIGURE 35.2 Thin tapering diamond used to produce a lip of
enamel for protection.
Soft tissues
Damage to the soft tissues of the tongue and cheeks can be prevented
by careful retraction with an aspirator tip, mouth mirror or flanged
saliva ejector (Fig. 35.3).
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FIGURE 35.3 Mouth mirrors used to retract cheek and
tongue.
Pulp
Tooth preparations must not involve or irritate the pulp chamber.
Pulp size is more in young and adolescent individuals and decreases
with age. Up to 50 years of age, the decrease is more occlusocervical
than faciolingual.
Pulpal damage during preparation may be due to:
(i) Increased depth of preparation – use of depth orientation grooves,

appropriate selection of size of diamond point (diameter), and use of
finish line as indicated, will prevent this.
(ii) Extreme temperatures caused by excessive pressure and high

rotational speeds, condition of cutting instrument and improper
application of coolants. Use of high speed handpiece intermittently
with a feather touch, sharp diamonds and directing water spray to the
area of contact between bur and tooth (Fig. 35.4A and B), will prevent
this.
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FIGURE 35.4 (A) Proper use of water spray directed towards
the tip of the diamond. (B) Improperly directed water spray.
Conservation of tooth structure

Tooth structure can be conserved by:
• Using partial-coverage than complete-coverage restorations when

possible.
• Preparation of teeth with the minimum practical taper (Fig. 35.5A

and B).
• Preparation of occlusal surface following the anatomic planes (Fig.

35.5C).
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• Selection of a conservative finish line compatible with the type of
restoration.
• Avoidance of subgingival margins unless indicated.
• Preparing axial surfaces evenly using depth orientation grooves and

proper width of diamond points as indicated for the restoration so
that excessive preparation is avoided.
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FIGURE 35.5 (A) and (B) Teeth prepared with more taper
will not be conservative. (C) Tooth prepared following the
anatomic planes will be conservative.
Margin integrity
Margin: The outer edge of a crown, inlay, onlay or other restoration
(GPT8).
Finish line: Terminal portion or peripheral extension of the prepared
tooth (GPT8) (Fig. 35.6).
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FIGURE 35.6 Appropriately placed margin.
The margins of a restoration lie on the prepared finish line of the

tooth. The junction is in the form of a space or gap and is the most
vulnerable part of the restoration as the cement joining the restoration
to the tooth is exposed to the oral environment only in this area.
Hence every effort must be made with our preparation design and
fabrication, to reduce this space.
This integrity of the margin is determined by the following:
1. Margin placement
Margins can be placed by:
i. Supragingival (at or above the gingival crest): Margins placed at

the level of gingival crest are referred to as equigingival margins (Fig.
35.7B, C).
ii. Subgingival (below the gingival crest) (Fig. 35.7 A).
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FIGURE 35.7 (A) Subgingival. (B) Equigingival. (C)
Supragingival margins.
i. Supragingival margins
Margins should be placed supragingivally whenever possible.
Advantages
• Placed on enamel.
• Easy to prepare without trauma to soft tissues.
• Can be easily finished.
• Impression making is also less traumatic to soft tissues and easy to

reproduce.
• Fit of the restorations can be easily evaluated.
• Can be maintained easily by the patient.
ii. Subgingival margins
• Subgingival margins have been described as a major aetiologic

factor in periodontitis. The deeper the restoration margin is in the
sulcus, greater is the inflammatory response. They are best avoided
unless indicated.
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• Placed at least 2 mm above the alveolar crest so that the biologic
width is not encroached.
Indications for subgingival margins
• Caries, erosion or restorations extending subgingivally.
• Aesthetics – when metal-ceramic restorations are used.
• Additional retention – in case of short crowns.
• Root sensitivity.
• Modification of axial contour.
• Proximal contact extending to gingival crest.
2. Margin geometry
This refers to the shape or configuration of the prepared finish line. It
should possess the following characteristics:
• Ease of preparation
• Ease of identification
• Distinct boundary
• Sufficient strength
• Conservation of tooth structures
The shape of the diamond point/bur determines the finish line

configuration and the taper.
Finish line configurations
i. Chamfer
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• It is an obtuse-angled finish line.
• It is distinct.
• Exhibits least stress.
• Most conservative.
• Indicated where metal forms the margin of a restoration, e.g.

complete metal crown. Should not be given for porcelain
restorations as the obtuse angle produces shearing forces which is
not well tolerated by porcelain.
• It is prepared using a round-end tapering diamond. This is

produced by sinking in half the diamond into the tooth. The tip
produces the chamfer while the sides give the necessary taper to the
axial surface (Fig. 35.8A and B).
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FIGURE 35.8 (A) Chamfer finish line – obtuse-angled finish
line obtained by sinking half the width of rotary. (B) Round-
end tapered diamond and chamfer diamond.
ii. Heavy chamfer
• Similar to chamfer but prepared with a diamond of greater diameter

than that used to produce the chamfer (Fig. 35.9).
• Indicated for all-ceramic crowns.
• Can produce an unsupported lip of enamel.
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FIGURE 35.9 Heavy chamfer with diamond.
iii. Shoulder
• It is a right-angled finish line (Fig. 35.10A).
• Produces a wide ledge which resists compressive occlusal forces.
• Requires more preparation, hence it is not conservative.
• Indicated for ceramic restorations – all ceramic and metal ceramic

(where ceramic forms the margin).
• It is prepared using a flat-end tapering diamond (Fig. 35.10B). This

is produced by sinking in the entire diamond into the tooth. The tip
produces the shoulder while the sides give the necessary taper to
the axial surface. End-cutting diamond is used to finish the
shoulder. It has a cutting tip and noncutting sides (Fig. 35.10B).
• Sharp internal line angle can produce stresses in all-ceramic crowns.
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FIGURE 35.10 (A) Shoulder finish line – right-angled finish
line. Produced by sinking the entire rotary into the tooth. (B)
Flat-end tapered diamond and end cutting diamond, arrow
showing the tip which is the only cutting/abrasive area.
iv. Shoulder with bevel
• It is a shoulder with a bevel on the external edge (Fig. 35.11A).
• It reduces the marginal discrepancy of the restoration as it can be

burnished; however, only gold alloys can be burnished.
• Protects the edge of finish line preventing chipping.
• Primarily indicated to hide the supragingival facial metal margin of
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metal-ceramic restorations (Fig. 35.11B). It is also used as the
gingival finish line on inlays and onlays, and as occlusal finish line
for onlays and partial veneer crowns.
FIGURE 35.11 (A) Shoulder with bevel. (B) Metal on the

bevelled portion is placed subgingivally in metal-ceramic
restorations.
v. Radial shoulder
• It is a shoulder finish line with rounded internal line angle (Fig.

35.12).
• The internal angle is rounded using an end-cutting diamond and

finished with a bin-angle chisel.
• Indicated for all-ceramic crowns.
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FIGURE 35.12 Radial shoulder.
vi. Sloped shoulder
• Similar to shoulder but with an obtuse angle (Fig. 35.13).
• Indicated for facial margin of metal-ceramic crowns.
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FIGURE 35.13 Sloped shoulder.
vii. Knife-edge
• It is a thin finish line (Fig. 35.14).
• Highly conservative.
• It is difficult to wax and cast and susceptible to distortion.
• It can lead to overcontoured restorations.
• May be used for metal restoration in adolescent patients, lingual

surface of mandibular posteriors, very convex axial surfaces and
tilted teeth where preparation is minimal.
• Rarely used.
Chisel edge and feather edge are similar to knife

edge and they are rarely used. Finish line
configurations are summarized in Table 35.2.
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FIGURE 35.14 Knife-edge.
Table 35.2
Summary of various finish line configurations
3. Margin adaptation
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• The junction/space between a cemented restoration and tooth is
always a potential site for recurrent caries or periodontal disease
because of dissolution of luting agent and inherent roughness.
• Hence, preparing a smooth and even margin is the beginning of

various steps – tissue displacement, impression making, die
formation, waxing finishing, casting, involved in making a
restoration fit better with least space.
• Clinically acceptable marginal gap is 10 microns for cast metal and

up to 50 microns for ceramic restorations. The discrepancy in
adaptation can have a horizontal and vertical component which
determines whether the margin is over- or underextended which
determines whether the margins are overextended or
underextended.(Fig. 35.15).
FIGURE 35.15 Vertical and horizontal margin opening.
Mechanical considerations
Tooth preparation design for fixed prosthodontics must adhere to
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certain mechanical principles; otherwise, the restoration may become
dislodged or may distort or fracture during service.
The mechanical principles are
1. Retention form
2. Resistance form
3. Structural durability
Retention form
Definition: The feature of a tooth preparation that resists dislodgment
of a crown in a vertical direction or along the path of placement
(GPT8).
Sticky foods and chewing gum have been known to remove
restorations in the line of draw. Only dental caries and porcelain
failure are more common cause of failure of fixed partial dentures
than lack of retention.
Retention is determined by:
1. Magnitude of dislodging forces
• Forces that tend to remove a cemented restoration along its line of

draw are small and rare. This can happen with sticky food and by
pulling with floss under connector.
• The magnitude of these forces depends on stickiness of food, surface

area of contact and texture of restoration being pulled.
2. Geometry of preparation
• Fixed dental prosthesis depends on geometry of the preparation

rather than adhesive nature of cement for retention. This is because
no cement has a specific adhesion to the commonly used restorative
materials – metal and ceramic.
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• The grains of the cement only prevent two surfaces from sliding,
although they do not prevent one surface from being lifted from
another. Also cement is effective only if the restoration has a single
path of withdrawal. Hence, the geometric configuration of tooth
preparation must place the cement in compression to provide
necessary retention and resistance.
• The relationship between two bodies, one (prepared tooth)

restraining movement of the other (a cemented restoration), has
been studied and the relevant sliding pair is formed by two
cylindrical surface sliding along one another. A tooth preparation
will be cylindrical if the axial surfaces are prepared by a cylindrical
bur held at a constant angle.
Factors affecting geometry of preparation:

i. Taper
Definition: Taper is the convergence of two opposing external walls
of a tooth preparation as viewed in a given plane. The extension of
those average lines within that plane form an angle described as the
angle of convergence (GPT8).
• Theoretically the more nearly parallel the opposing walls of a preparation,

greater should be retention. This was first demonstrated by Jorgensen
in 1955 when he cemented brass caps on Galalith cones of different
tapers and measured retention with a tensile testing machine. The
relationship was found to be hyperbolic, with retention rapidly
becoming less, as taper increased (Fig. 35.16).
• Need for taper: Parallel walls are impossible to produce in the

mouth without creating preparation undercuts. A taper enables the
operator to:
○ Visualize the preparation walls
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○ Prevent undercut
○ Compensate for the inaccuracy of the fabrication

procedure
○ Permit more nearly complete seating of the

restoration during cementation
• Degree of taper: A taper of 2.5–6.5° has been suggested as optimum
to minimize the stress in the cement interface between the
preparation and restoration. But there is only a slight increase in the
stress as taper is increased from 10 to 15°. However at 20°, the stress
concentration was found to increase sharply. Hence, a taper of up to
15° is clinically acceptable.
• Preparation of taper: Teeth are prepared with a rotary instrument of

desired taper. The instrument should be held parallel to the long
axis of the tooth and moved through a cylindrical path as the tooth
is prepared. The taper of instrument produces the desired axial wall
taper (Fig. 35.17).
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FIGURE 35.16 The relation between degree of taper and
retention. Source: Courtesy: Jorgensen KD: The relationship
between retention and convergence angle in cemented
veneer crowns. Acta Odontol Scand 1955; 13:35–40.
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FIGURE 35.17 Bur held parallel to the long axis of the tooth.
ii. Surface area
• Greater the surface area greater is the retention.
• Preparations on large teeth are more retentive than preparation on

small teeth. Molar crowns are more retentive than premolar crowns
of similar taper (Fig. 35.18).
• Surface area can be increased by adding boxes and grooves.

However, they may be actually limiting freedom of movement than
increasing surface area.
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FIGURE 35.18 Preparations on molars are more retentive
than on premolar because of greater surface area.
iii. Freedom of displacement
• Retention is improved by geometrically limiting the paths along

which the restoration can be removed from the prepared tooth.
Maximum retention is achieved when there is only one/single path
of removal (Fig. 35.19).
• Grooves and proximal boxes can be used to increase retention by

limiting the freedom of displacement in overtapered preparation
and in the absence of opposing axial wall.
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FIGURE 35.19 Freedom of displacement. (A) Limiting the
paths of withdrawal by the use of grooves, improves retention.
(B) Unlimited paths of withdrawal leading to poor retention.
iv. Stress concentration

Retentive failure begins at junction of axial and occlusal surfaces
where stress is concentrated. This then results in cohesive failure of
the entire cemented area. Thus, rounding of line angles will reduce
stress concentration and enhance retention.
v. Type of restoration
Preparations on different restoration designs have different retentive
values when other factors are kept constant. Thus a complete crown is
more retentive than partial-coverage restorations (Fig. 35.20).
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FIGURE 35.20 Retention for different types of
restorations. Source: Courtesy: Potts RG, et al. Retention and
resistance of preparations for cast restorations, J Prosthet
Dent 43(3):303–08, 1980.
3. Path of insertion
Definition: The specific direction in which prosthesis is placed on the
abutment teeth (GPT8).
• Path of insertion is an imaginary line along which the restoration

will be placed onto or removed from the preparation; also called
path of placement. It is determined before beginning the preparation
and the preparation is then planned to coincide with that imaginary
line. In case of fixed partial dentures, it is important to keep the
paths of all the abutments parallel to each other and the path of
insertion to ensure a smooth fit of the restoration.
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• The path of insertion must be considered in two dimensions –
faciolingually and mesiodistally.
○ Faciolingual orientation can affect the aesthetics of

the metal-ceramic crown or partial veneer crowns.
For metal-ceramic crowns, it should be parallel to
the long axis of the teeth (Fig. 35.21). For partial
veneer crowns, it should be parallel to the incisal
half of the labial surface.
○ The mesiodistal inclination should parallel the

contact areas of adjacent teeth (Fig. 35.22).
• To visually check a preparation for undercuts and taper, the centre
of occlusal surface of the preparation is viewed with one eye from a
distance of 30 cm or 12 inch. If it is viewed with both eyes open,
undercuts will be not be seen (Fig. 35.23A and B).
• In the mouth, a mouth mirror is held at an angle 0.5 inch above the
preparation and preparation viewed with one eye (Fig. 35.24). To
view multiple abutments as in fixed partial dentures, the mirror is
moved without changing the angulation from one abutment to
another, after establishing a firm finger rest.
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FIGURE 35.21 The path of insertion of a preparation for
metal-ceramic crown should parallel the long axis of the tooth.
(A) If the path is directed facially the prominent facioincisal
angle may create aesthetic problems of overcontouring or
opaque show-through. (B) If the path is directed lingually the
facial surface will intersect the lingual surface, creating a
shorter preparation. (C) It also may encroach the pulp.
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FIGURE 35.22 Path of insertion should be parallel to the
adjacent teeth.
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FIGURE 35.23 (A) Improper technique to view tooth
preparation. (B) Correct technique to view tooth preparation.
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FIGURE 35.24 Preparation in the mouth is viewed through
the mouth mirror using one eye.
4. Roughness of the surfaces being cemented
• The internal surface of casting is most effectively roughened by air-

abrading with 50 microns of alumina. It has been seen that this
increases retention by 64%. Acid-etching the fitting surface can also
improve retention with certain luting agents.
• But the tooth should not be roughened during preparation as this

makes it difficult to make impressions and fabricate the prosthesis.
5. Materials being cemented
• More reactive the alloy better is retention. Hence, base metal alloys
are better retained than gold alloys.
• Effect of retention to different core buildup materials is not

consistent.
6. Types of luting agent
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In decreasing order, cement retention is best obtained with adhesive
resin followed by glass ionomer, polycarboxylate, zinc phosphate and
zinc oxide eugenol. However, the decision regarding which agent to
use is also based on other factors.
Resistance form
Definition: The feature of a tooth preparation that enhances the
stability of a restoration and resists dislodgment along an axis other
than the path of placement (GPT8).
Factors affecting resistance form:
1. Magnitude and direction of dislodging forces

This varies with different individuals and a pipe smoker or bruxer can
produce very large oblique forces. These should be considered while
preparing the teeth so that sufficient resistance to these forces is
planned.
2. Geometry of tooth preparation
i. Occlusogingival length
Short tooth preparations with large diameters were found to have
very little resistance form. The length must be great enough to
interfere with the arc of the casting pivoting about a point on the
margin on the opposite side of the restoration (Fig. 35.25). Teeth with
short diameter and short walls have better resistance than teeth with
larger diameter but short walls. The preparation on the smaller tooth
will have a short rotational radius for the arc of displacement, and the
incisal portion of axial wall will resist displacement. The larger
rotational radius on the larger preparation allows for a more gradual
arc of displacement, and the axial wall does not resist removal (Fig.
35.26).
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FIGURE 35.25 Preparation with longer walls (A) interferes
with the tipping displacement of the restoration better than the
short preparation (B).
FIGURE 35.26 A preparation on a tooth with a smaller

diameter (A) resists pivoting movements better than a
preparation of equal length on a tooth of larger diameter (B).
ii. Grooves, proximal boxes and pinholes
• Resistance to displacement for a short walled preparation on a tooth

with large diameter can be improved by placing grooves, proximal
boxes and pinholes in the axial walls. This reduces the rotation
radius, and the portion of the groove near the occlusal surface of the
preparation will resist displacement (Fig. 35.27A).
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• Grooves and proximal boxes also limit the freedom of displacement
from torquing or twisting forces in a horizontal plane and enhance
the resistance of the restoration. The walls of the groove and
proximal box must be perpendicular to rotating forces to provide
resistance (Fig. 35.27B and C).
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FIGURE 35.27 (A) Reduction of radius of rotation by using
proximal boxes. (B) The walls of a groove that meet the axial
wall at an oblique angle (a) do not provide necessary
resistance. The walls of a groove must be perpendicular to
rotating forces to resist displacement (b). (C) The buccal and
the lingual walls of a box will not resist rotational displacement
if they form oblique angles with the pulpal wall (a), they must
meet the pulpal wall at angles near 90° (b).
iii. Type of luting agent

This depends on the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
of luting agent. Similar to the cements providing retention, but zinc
phosphate cements show better resistance than zinc polycarboxylate.
In decreasing order, cement resistance is best obtained with adhesive
resin followed by glass ionomer, zinc phosphate, polycarboxylate and
zinc oxide eugenol.
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Structural durability
This is the ability of the restoration to last long without damage,
under occlusal forces. For this, the tooth preparation must provide
adequate space for the restorative material thereby enhancing strength
and preventing wear.
Factors affecting structural durability:
1. Occlusal reduction
• Providing occlusal clearance is an important factor. The amount of

occlusal reduction in the preparation depends upon the material
used for restoration.
○ For metal alloys, there should be 1.5 mm clearance

on the functional cusps, and around 1 mm on the
nonfunctional cusps.
○ Metal-ceramic crowns will require 1.5–2 mm on the

functional cusps and 1–1.5 mm on the
nonfunctional cusps.
○ There should be 2 mm clearance on preparations for

all-ceramic restorations.
○ For malposed teeth, only minimal preparation may

be required to obtain clearance.
• The preparation should duplicate the pattern of the occlusal surface
existing in the patient. If an inclined plane pattern exists with cusps
and fossa, the same should be replicated in the preparation to avoid
pulpal damage (Fig. 35.28). Flat plane may be acceptable when
interocclusal relationships are worn out in older patients.
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• If the patient’s occlusion is disrupted by supraerupted or tilted
teeth, considerable preparation of tooth is often needed to
compensate for this supraeruption of abutment or opposing teeth.
Intentional endodontic treatment may also be required sometimes
to provide adequate space (Fig. 35.29). Compromising the principle
of conservation of tooth structure is preferable to the potential harm
from a traumatic occlusal scheme. Diagnostic wax up helps
determine the exact amount of preparation required to develop an
optimum occlusion and provide adequate space for the restorative
material.
FIGURE 35.28 (A) Correct occlusal reduction as it

reproduces the basic inclined planes. (B) Incorrect occlusal
reduction as the occlusal surface has been reduced to a flat
plane.
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FIGURE 35.29 Supraerupted molar tooth. Intentional RCT
done to provide adequate space.
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2. Functional cusp bevel
A functional cusp bevel provides space for an adequate bulk of
restoration in an area of heavy occlusal contact. A wide bevel is placed
on the functional cusps – palatal cusps of maxillary posterior teeth
and buccal cusps of mandibular posterior teeth. Lack of this may lead
to perforation, overcontouring with deflective contact or
overinclination of axial surface (Fig. 35.30).
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FIGURE 35.30 (A) Functional cusp bevel is an integral part
of occlusal reduction. Lack of functional cusp bevel can cause
(B) a thin area or perforation in the casting. (C)
Overinclination of axial surface. (D) Overcontour of crown with
deflective contact.
3. Axial reduction
This is important in securing space for an adequate thickness of
restorative material.
If axial reduction is inadequate:
• Fabricating a restoration with normal contours will make the walls

thin which will then be subject to distortion. It may even be difficult
to fabricate such a restoration.
• More commonly, to achieve adequate thickness, the restoration

needs to be overcontoured, which will then cause gingival
inflammation as it becomes difficult to maintain plaque control
around the gingival margins (Fig. 35.31).
Particularly in interproximal and furcation areas, sufficient tooth
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structure must be removed to allow development of correct axial
contours, as periodontal disease often begins in these areas.
Other features incorporated in tooth preparations that also enhance
structural durability are offset, groove, occlusal shoulder, isthmus and
proximal box.
FIGURE 35.31 Inadequate axial reduction can lead to (A)

Thin walls leading weak restoration. (B) Bulbous,
overcontoured restoration.
Aesthetic considerations
Most patients prefer their dental restorations to look as natural as
possible and the dentist should aim to fulfil this objective. However,
aesthetic considerations should not be pursued at the expense of the
prognosis of the patient’s long-term oral health or function.
Aesthetic restorations are
• Partial veneer crowns with intact labial surface.
• Metal-ceramic restorations with ceramic coverage facially.
• All-ceramic restorations.
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Armamentarium
The following are the general considerations for the instruments used
in tooth preparation:
• Tooth preparation is performed with high speed airotor rotary

instruments.
• Water cooling is extremely important with a well-directed spray.
• Rotary cutting instruments can be categorized as – stones

(diamond), carbides (burs) and drills (twist) (Fig. 35.32). Although
in general the term ‘bur’ is used for any rotary instrument, it should
be specifically used only to denote ‘carbides’.
• Diamond stones (also termed as diamond points) and tungsten

carbide burs are most commonly used for tooth preparation. Twist
drills are only used for making small diameter holes.
• ‘Coarse’ diamonds are used for making depth orientation grooves

and gross reductions, while finishing is done with carbide burs or
fine diamonds.
• The diameter and shape of the rotary used is determined by the

required depth of preparation and the required configuration of the
prepared surface.
○ If the entire instrument is to be sunk in to produce

the required configuration, then the diameter of the
rotary should be nearly the same as the depth of
preparation, e.g. shoulder finish lines are provided
by sinking in a flat-end tapering rotary (Fig.
35.33B). Hence, if the required depth of preparation
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is 1 mm then the instrument should also have 1 mm
diameter.
○ If only half the instrument is to be sunk in to

produce the required configuration, then the
diameter of the rotary should be double that of the
depth of preparation, e.g. chamfer finish lines are
provided by sinking in half of round-end tapering
rotary (Fig. 35.33A). Hence, if the required depth of
preparation is 1 mm then the instrument should be
2 mm diameter to produce a 1 mm depth of
preparation as only half of the rotary is sunk in.
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FIGURE 35.32 Diamond stone, carbide bur and twist drill.
FIGURE 35.33 (A) Chamfer finish lines are provided by

sinking in half of round-end tapering rotary. (B) Shoulder
finish lines are provided by sinking in a flat-end tapering
rotary.
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A standard tooth preparation kit should contain at least the
following five rotary instruments:
1. Round-end tapering diamond (Fig. 35.34).
2. Flat-end tapering diamond.
3. Long thin tapering diamond (also termed as long needle diamond).
4. Short thin tapering diamond (also termed as short needle diamond).
5. Wheel diamond.
FIGURE 35.34 Standard tooth preparation kit. (L–R: Round-

end tapering diamond, flat-end tapering diamond, long thin
tapering diamond, short thin tapering diamond, wheel
diamond).
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Complete crowns (full) veneer crowns
Definition: A restoration that covers all the coronal tooth surfaces
(mesial, distal, facial, lingual and occlusal) (GPT8).
• It is also termed as ‘full veneer crowns’ though practically only all-

metal complete crowns are ‘veneers’ or thin coverings.
• The complete crown is the restoration that replaces lost tooth

structure and imparts some measure of structural support to the
tooth.
• It covers all the coronal surfaces of the tooth.
• It can be all-metal, all-ceramic or combination of metal and ceramic.
• It can be used as a single-unit restoration or as a retainer for fixed

partial denture.
Advantages
• Most effective retention and resistance.
• Alteration in tooth form and occlusion possible.
Disadvantages
• Extensive tooth preparation.
• Margins are close to gingivae and need meticulous maintenance.
Indications
Crown
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• Presence of extensive caries.
• Large defective restorations.
• Endodontically treated teeth.
• Fractured tooth.
• Need to change contour for removable partial denture retention.
Retainer for FPD
• Short abutment.
• Long-span fixed partial dentures.
• Abutment alignment needs correction.
• Greater than average occlusal forces.
Contraindications
• Poor oral hygiene.
• Young adults where pulp chambers are large.
Tooth preparation for the following complete-

coverage restorations is discussed:
1. All metal
2. Metal with ceramic facing
i. Anterior
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ii. Posterior
3. All ceramic
All-metal full veneer crown preparation

This preparation is usually done for a posterior crown or fixed partial
bridge.
Tooth preparation on a mandibular molar:
Armamentarium
• Airotor handpiece.
• Round-end tapered diamond.
• Short thin tapering/needle diamond.
• Chamfer diamond/torpedo diamond/bur.
• Baseplate wax sheet – 2 mm thick.
Preparation of a putty index

Before the preparation is begun an index is made.
Purpose: To have a positive check on the amount and configuration of
tooth preparation. This is good guide for the beginner.
Procedure: Half a scoop of base of elastomeric putty impression
material is kneaded with its catalyst paste or activator and adapted
over the tooth to be prepared, covering the entire tooth structure and
at least one adjacent tooth. Once set, index is removed and cut into a
labial and lingual half with a BP blade. Each of these is again divided
into an occlusal and gingival half. Once tooth preparation is
completed, the index is used to verify the amount of reduction (Fig.
35.35A–C).
The steps in preparing a tooth for a full-coverage metal crown are
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2. Axial reduction
3. Proximal reduction
4. Finishing
5. Buccal seating groove
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FIGURE 35.35 (A) Adaptation of a putty for index. (B) Cut
putty index along the incisal/occlusal edges. (C) Verification of
the preparation with the use of the index.
This prepares the occlusal surface.
Depth of preparation: 1 mm on nonfunctional and 1.5 mm on
functional cusp.
Rotary instrument: Round-end tapering diamond.
Procedure:
• The depth cuts of 1 mm are first placed on the occlusal grooves

following the anatomic contour of the occlusal surface (Fig. 35.36A
and B).
• Depth cuts are then placed in the triangular ridges from cusp tip to
the base again following the anatomic contour (Fig. 35.36C).
• It should be 1 mm on nonfunctional cusps and 1.5 mm on functional

cusp.
• The remaining tooth structure between the depth cuts is then

removed uniformly to complete the occlusal reduction (Fig. 35.36D
and E).
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FIGURE 35.36 (A) Depth cuts are placed on the occlusal
grooves. (B) Depth cuts should follow anatomic contour of
tooth. (C) Depth cuts placed in the triangular ridges. (D)
Completed occlusal preparation checked with index. (E)
Completed occlusal reduction using round-end tapering
diamond.
Functional cusp bevel

A wide bevel is then placed on the functional cusp using the round-
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end tapered diamond. It is placed on the buccal cusps of the
mandibular teeth and palatal cusps of the maxillary teeth. The bevel is
desired to be at an angle of 45° and an approximate width of 1.5 mm
(Fig. 35.37A–C). The same round-end tapering diamond is used for
this.
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FIGURE 35.37 (A) A round-end tapered diamond is used to
give a functional cusp bevel at an angle of 45. (B) Functional
cusp bevel at an approximate width of 1.5 mm. (C) Completed
functional cusp bevel using a round-end tapering diamond.
(D) Checking occlusal clearance with a wax caliper.
Checking occlusal clearance

This is verified by asking the patient to bite on 2 mm thick baseplate
wax (Fig. 35.37D). Thin spots in wax indicate inadequate clearance
and the thickness is checked with a wax caliper. The area is again
prepared till adequate clearance is achieved.
2. Axial reduction
This prepares the facial and lingual/palatal surface.
Depth of preparation: 0.8–1 mm and 0.3–0.5 mm cervically.
• As the preparation is accomplished when half the diamond sinks

into the tooth, a round-end tapering diamond of 2 mm diameter is
selected to prepare a depth of 1 mm. The round-end produces the
required chamfer finish line.
• A metal caliper is used to check the diameter of the diamond.
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• The necessary taper of 3–5° is provided in the tapering diamond.
Procedure:
• Depth orientation grooves/depth cuts are placed on the buccal

surface following the existing contour of the respective surfaces.
The tapering diamond half sunk in will reduce 1 mm occlusally and
0.5 mm cervically (Fig. 35.38A and B). These act as a guide to ensure
that adequate and uniform reduction is achieved.
• The cervical part provides the retention form and should be parallel
to the path of insertion.
• Two to three such grooves are placed equally spaced along the facial
and lingual surface. The gingival termination should be established
with the depth cut and it should be placed supragingivally on
enamel (Fig. 35.38C and D).

removed using the round-end tapering diamond and preparation
extended till the junction of facial and proximal surface (Fig. 35.38E
and F).
• The preparation is verified using the putty index (Fig. 35.38G).
• A similar procedure is adopted for preparing the lingual surface

(Fig. 35.38H–K).
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FIGURE 35.38 (A) Depth cut occlusal contour. (B) Depth cut
following cervical contour showing half diamond sunk in,
parallel to path of insertion. (C) Preparation parallel to path of
insertion. (D) Completed depth cuts showing supragingival
placement. (E) Completed buccal reduction – occlusal view.
(F) Buccal view. (G) Facial reduction checked with putty
index. (H) Depth orientation grooves on lingual surface. (I)
Completed lingual preparation – lingual view. (J) Completed
facial and lingual preparation – occlusal view with putty index.
(K) Completed axial reduction using round-end tapering
diamond.
This prepares the mesial and distal surfaces.
Rotary instrument: Short thin tapering diamond/needle diamond
followed by round-end tapering diamond.
Procedure:
• Care should be taken to protect the adjacent teeth. A matrix band

can be used as described previously in this chapter. It is best to use
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the proximal lip of enamel for protection.
• Thin tapering diamond is used in a ‘vertical sawing motion’ in an

occlusogingival direction, from the facial to the lingual surface,
placing the diamond parallel to long axis of the tooth and keeping a
lip of enamel for protection to the adjacent teeth. This portion can
later be removed with a probe (Fig. 35.39A and B).
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FIGURE 35.39 (A) Proximal tooth preparation using thin
tapering diamond leaving a lip of enamel for protecting
adjacent tooth. (B) The lip of enamel can be removed with a
probe. (C) Completed proximal preparation – occlusal view.
(D) Facial view. (E) Completed proximal reduction using short
thin tapering diamond and round-end tapering diamond.
Now there is adequate space proximally to use the round-end

tapering diamond and the surface is prepared to its required
dimensions with a 0.3–0.5 mm chamfer. Fig. 35.39C–E shows
completed proximal reduction.
4. Finishing
The axial surfaces are finished using a torpedo diamond of fine grit or
torpedo bur (Fig. 35.40A).
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FIGURE 35.40 (A) Axial finishing with fine torpedo
bur/diamond. (B) Occlusal finishing – flat-end tapering fissure
bur.
The occlusal surface is finished using flat-end tapering fissure bur

(Fig. 35.40B).
Buccal seating grove
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It prevents rotation of crown during cementation and acts as a guide
during placement. When opposing walls are excessively tapered, in
tipped teeth and long-span fixed partial dentures, additional grooves
may be placed.
Depth of preparation: 1 mm.
Rotary instrument: Flat-end tapering fissure bur.
Procedure: It is placed in the centre of the facial surface parallel to the
path of insertion (Fig. 35.41A–D).
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FIGURE 35.41 (A) Seating groove parallel to path of
insertion. (B) Prepared seating groove – occlusal view. (C)
Prepared seating groove – buccal view. (D) Completed buccal
seating groove using a flat-end tapering fissure bur.
Metal-ceramic full veneer crown preparation

This restoration combines the strength of metal and the aesthetics of
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ceramics.
As discussed in Chapter 31, metal-ceramic crowns may be of two
types:
1. Metal with complete ceramic coverage
2. Metal with ceramic facing
The tooth preparation for ‘metal with complete ceramic coverage’ is

similar to all-ceramic crowns (metal-free ceramics). Hence, the
preparation for ‘metal with ceramic facing’ will be considered here.
Anterior metal with ceramic facing crown
Tooth preparation on a maxillary central incisor
Armamentarium
• Airotor handpiece
• Flat-end tapered diamond
• Round-end tapering diamond
• No. 2 round bur
• Small wheel diamond
• Long thin tapering diamond/needle diamond
• End cutting diamond
• Chamfer diamond/torpedo bur
• Flat-end tapering fissure bur/radial fissure bur
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Preparation of putty index
The index is prepared as discussed for ‘metal crowns’. The index is cut
for the purpose of explanation (Fig. 35.42).
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FIGURE 35.42 (A) Putty index made. (B) Labial half in place.
(C) Lingual half in place. (D) Labiogingival half in place. (E)
Mesial half. (F) Distal half.
Incisal reduction
Depth of preparation: 2 mm
Rotary instrument: Flat-end tapering diamond
Procedure:
• Depth cuts are placed on the incisal edge perpendicular to the

direction of loading by the mandibular teeth (Fig. 35.43A). They are
normally placed at mid-incisal and at the junction of each proximal
surface (Fig. 35.43B).
• The remaining tooth structure is then removed maintaining the

same angulation (Fig. 35.43C and D). Inadequate incisal reduction
results in poor incisal translucency of the finished restoration.
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FIGURE 35.43 (A) Depth cuts are placed perpendicular to
the direction of mandibular teeth. (B) Depth cuts placed at
mid-incisal and at the junction of each proximal surface. (C)
Completed incisal reduction. (D) Incisal reduction with flat-end
tapered diamond.
Labial reduction
Depth of preparation: 1.2–1.5 mm
Rotary instrument: Flat-end tapering diamond
• As the preparation is accomplished when the entire diamond sinks

into the tooth, a flat-end tapering diamond of 1.2 mm diameter is
selected to prepare a depth of 1.5 mm after finishing. The flat-end
produces the required shoulder finish line.
• A metal caliper is used to check the diameter of the diamond (Fig.

35.44A).
• The necessary taper of 3–5° is provided in the tapering diamond.
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Procedure:
• The surface is prepared by placing depth orientation grooves/depth

cuts by sinking the entire flat-end tapering diamond into the tooth.
They are placed in two planes – one set within the gingival half is
parallel to long axis or gingival half of labial surface and the incisal
portion to follow the labial/facial contour (Fig. 35.44B–E).
• Labial surface should be reduced following the anatomic (two)

planes only:
○ If preparation follows gingival contour only, it leads

to insufficient preparation in the incisal half which
produces lack of incisal translucency or a protruded
labial–incisal edge in the finished restoration.
○ If the preparation follows the incisal contour only, it

can encroach upon the pulp.
• Inadequate reduction of facial surface leads to:
○ Less space for ceramic and poor aesthetics
○ Overcontour – poor aesthetics and associated

gingival problems.
removed using the flat-end tapering diamond and preparation
extended proximally 1 mm beyond contact point.
• A shoulder finish line is obtained as the labial surface will have

ceramic.
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• Preparation should parallel the gingival contour to avoid damage to
interdental papilla and excessive extension into the gingival crevice
(Fig. 35.44F).
• The putty index is used to verify the adequacy of the preparation

(Fig. 35.44G).
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FIGURE 35.44 (A) A metal caliper is used to check the
diameter of the diamond. (B) Depth orientation groove in two
planes – first plane following gingival contour of labial surface.
(C) Depth orientation groove – second plane following incisal
contour of labial surface. (D) Completed depth orientation
grooves. (E) Depth orientation grooves in two planes
prepared with flat-end tapered diamond. (F) Preparation
should follow the gingival contour to avoid damage of
interdental papilla and excessive extension into the gingival
crevice. (G) The putty index is used to verify the adequacy of
the preparation. (H) Completed labial reduction using a flat-
end tapering diamond. (I) Subgingival margin should be at
least 1.5 mm away from alveolar crest.
Labial margin placement
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• Supragingival margins are preferred.
• Subgingival margins may be indicated for aesthetic reasons.

Preparation for this should begin when the depth cuts in the
cervical region are placed. They should be placed 0.5 mm apical to
the crest of free gingival, so that after final finishing they will be 1
mm deep.
• The margin should follow the contour of the free gingiva, being
further apical in the middle of the tooth and further incisal
interproximally (Fig. 35.44H).
• Margin should not be placed so far apically that they encroach on

the attachment; extension to within 1.5 mm of the alveolar crest
leads to bone resorption (Fig. 35.44I).
Lingual reduction
This can be divided into two parts:
Lingual axial reduction:

Rotary instrument: Round-end tapering diamond
Procedure:
• This prepares the cervical portion of the lingual surface. It should be

parallel to the path of insertion and produce a taper of 3–5° with the
cervical portion of the labial surface.
• Maintaining this angle, a round-end tapering diamond is used to

prepare the surface producing a chamfer finish line and this is
extended proximally to meet the shoulder preparation.
• A chamfer finish line is recommended as the lingual surface is

covered only by metal (Fig. 35.45A–C).
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FIGURE 35.45 Lingual axial reduction – lingual view. Lingual
axial reduction – occlusal view. Lingual axial reduction using a
chamfer bur or round-end tapered diamond.
Lingual fossa reduction:

Depth of preparation: 0.8–1 mm
Rotary instrument: No. 2 round bur and wheel diamond/football
diamond
Procedure:
• Depth cuts like pot holes are placed on the lingual fossa with a No. 2
round bur which has a diameter of 1 mm. With this depth cuts of
0.5 mm are produced which after finishing will provide the
required depth (Fig. 35.46A and B).
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• The remaining tooth structure is removed with a wheel diamond or
a football diamond (Fig. 35.46C–F).
• The clearance is checked using baseplate wax of 1 mm thickness, as

described for complete metal crown preparation.
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FIGURE 35.46 (A) Depth cuts placed on lingual fossa with
round bur. (B) Completed depth cuts of 0.5 mm depth. (C)
Removal of remaining tooth structure with small wheel
diamond. (D) Football diamond bur can also be used for
lingual reduction. (E) Completed facial and lingual reduction
checked with putty index. (F) Lingual fossa reduction using
round bur/diamond and wheel diamond.
Proximal reduction
Depth of preparation: Varies with formation of wing.
Rotary instrument: Long thin tapering diamond/long needle diamond
and round-end tapering diamond.
Procedure:
• Long thin tapering diamond is used to provide access through the
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proximal surface (Fig. 35.47A). The access is prepared using a
‘vertical sawing motion’ in an incisogingival direction.
• The lingual axial preparation is now continued onto the proximal

surface using the round-end tapering diamond which will produce
the chamfer. A taper of 3–5° is produced by the reduced proximal
surfaces (Fig. 35.47B).
• The final preparation has a labial shoulder and a lingual chamfer

which meet proximally. The junction is called ‘wing’ as their depth
of preparation varies. The shoulder will have a 1–1.5 mm cervical
depth while the chamfer will have a 0.3–0.5 mm depth (Fig. 35.47C).
Finishing:
• Finishing of the labial axial surface is done using a flat-end tapering

fissure bur (Fig. 35.47D). The shoulder is finished using end-cutting
diamond which has noncutting smooth sides with diamond points
impregnated only at the tip (Fig. 35.47E and F).
• The lingual axial surface is finished using fine grit torpedo

diamond/bur.
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FIGURE 35.47 (A) Thin tapering diamond used to gain
access to the proximal surface. (B) Round-end tapering
diamond used to provide a chamfer finish line. (C) Finished
preparation with ‘wing’. (D) Labial axial finishing – flat-end
tapering fissure. (E) Shoulder finishing using end cutting
diamond. (F) Shoulder finishing – end cutting diamond.
Posterior metal with ceramic facing crown

This is generally used in maxillary premolars, maxillary first molars
and mandibular premolars.
Advantages
• Combines the aesthetics of ceramics and a less abrasive metal

occlusal surface.
• More conservative and less expensive than metal with complete

ceramic coverage crown and all-ceramic crown.
Disadvantages
• More tooth preparation and more expensive than all-metal crowns.
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• Risk of ceramic fracture.
Tooth preparation on a maxillary premolar
Armamentarium
• Round-end tapering diamond
• No. 2 round bur
• Long thin tapering diamond/needle diamond
• End cutting diamond
• Chamfer diamond/torpedo bur
• Flat-end tapering fissure bur/radial fissure bur
Preparation of putty index

The index is prepared as discussed for ‘metal crowns’.
Occlusal reduction
Depth of preparation: 1.5 mm.
Procedure:
The depth cuts are placed on the occlusal surface following the
anatomic contour with round-end tapering diamond. It should be 1.5
mm on palatal cusps (covered by metal but it is a functional cusp, if it
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is a nonfunctional cusp 1 mm is sufficient) and 1.5 mm on buccal
cusps (as it is covered by metal and ceramic).
The remaining tooth structure between the depth cuts is then
removed uniformly to complete the occlusal reduction (Fig. 35.48A
and B).
FIGURE 35.48 (A) Planar occlusal reduction using round-end

tapering diamond. (B) Occlusal reduction checked with putty
index.
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Functional cusp bevel
A wide bevel is then placed on the functional cusp (palatal) using the
round-end tapered diamond. The bevel is desired to be at an angle of
45° and an approximate width of 1.5 mm (Fig. 35.49A and B).
FIGURE 35.49 (A) Functional cusp bevel. (B) Functional
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cusp bevel using round-end tapering diamond.
Checking occlusal clearance

This is verified by asking the patient to bite on baseplate wax of
appropriate thickness (1–1.5 mm). Thin spots in wax indicate
inadequate clearance and that area is again prepared till clearance is
achieved.
Facial reduction
This prepares the facial surface.
Depth of preparation: 1.2–1.5 mm.
Rotary instrument: Flat-end tapering diamond.
Procedure:
• Depth orientation grooves/depth cuts are placed on the facial

surface following the existing contour of the respective surfaces.
Two to three such grooves are placed equally, spaced incisally and
cervically following the anatomic planes (Fig. 35.50A–C).
• The cervical part provides the retention form and should be parallel
to the path of insertion.
• The gingival termination should be established with the depth cut

and it should be placed equigingivally on enamel.

removed using the flat-end tapering diamond and preparation is
extended 1 mm beyond contact point on the proximal surfaces (Fig.
35.50D and F).
• The preparation is verified using the putty index (Fig. 35.50E).
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FIGURE 35.50 (A) Depth cuts placed cervically. (B) Depth
cuts placed incisally. (C) Depth orientation grooves placed.
(D) Remaining tooth structure between the depth cuts is
removed. (E) Facial reduction is verified using the putty index.
(F) Facial reduction with flat-end tapering diamond.
Lingual reduction
Procedure:
• It should be parallel to the path of insertion and should produce a

taper of 3–5° with the cervical portion of the labial surface. It should
follow the contour of the lingual surface (two-plane reduction).

prepare the surface producing a chamfer finish line and this is
extended proximally to meet the shoulder finish line.
• The chamfer finish line is recommended as the palatal surface is

covered only by metal (Fig. 35.51A and B).
Proximal reduction
Depth of preparation: Varies with formation of wing.
and round-end tapering diamond.
Procedure:

proximal surface. The access is prepared using a ‘vertical sawing
motion’ in an occlusogingival direction.
• The palatal preparation is now continued onto the proximal surface

using the round-end tapering diamond which will produce the
chamfer. A taper of 3–5° is produced by the reduced proximal
surfaces.
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• A ‘wing’ is produced at the junction where the chamfer meets the
shoulder as their depth of preparation varies (Fig. 35.52). The
shoulder will have a 1–1.5 mm cervical depth while the chamfer
will have a 0.3–0.5 mm depth.
Finishing:
• A shoulder with bevel could also be used as a finish line for the
facial surface. This is produced by the tip of a flame-shaped
diamond/bur with a width of 0.3 mm and at an angle of 45° to the
shoulder (Fig. 35.53A and B).
• Occlusal surface is finished using a flat-end tapering fissure bur.
• Facial surface is finished using a flat-end tapering fissure bur. The

shoulder finish line is finished using end-cutting diamond.
• The lingual surface is finished using fine torpedo diamond/bur.
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FIGURE 35.51 (A) Lingual axial reduction – chamfer finish
line. (B) Lingual axial reduction with round-end tapering
diamond.
FIGURE 35.52 Wing produced at the junction where the

chamfer meets the shoulder.
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FIGURE 35.53 Shoulder with bevel produced by the tip of a
flame-shaped diamond. Shoulder with bevel using a flame-
shaped diamond.
All-ceramic crowns (metal-free ceramic crowns)

This is discussed in detail in Chapter 43. Only tooth preparation for
the same will be discussed here.
Tooth preparation on a maxillary central incisor
Armamentarium
• Handpiece
• No. 6 round bur
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• Flat-end tapering fissure bur
• End-cutting diamond
• Binangle chisel
Incisal reduction
Procedure:
• Depth cuts are placed on the incisal edge perpendicular to the

direction of loading by the mandibular teeth. They are normally
placed at mid-incisal and at the junction of each proximal surface
(Fig. 35.54A).
• The remaining tooth structure is then removed maintaining the

same angulation (Fig. 35.54B and C).
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FIGURE 35.54 (A) Depth cuts placed at mid-incisal and at
the junction of each proximal surface. (B) Completed incisal
reduction. (C) Incisal reduction with flat-end tapering
diamond.
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Labial reduction
Procedure:
• The surface is prepared by placing depth orientation grooves/depth

cuts 1.2 mm deep which after finishing will produce a depth of 1.5
mm. This is done by sinking the entire flat-end tapering diamond or
appropriate diameter into the tooth. They are placed in two planes –
one set within the gingival half is parallel to long axis or gingival
half of labial surface and the incisal portion to follow the
labial/facial contour (Fig. 35.55A and B).

removed using the flat-end tapering diamond and preparation
extended to the facioproximal line angle (Fig 35.55C and D).
• A shoulder finish line is produced by the flat-end tapered diamond.
• Preparation should parallel the gingival contour to avoid cutting of

interdental papilla and excessive extension into the gingival crevice.
• Supragingival/equigingival margins are preferred.
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FIGURE 35.55 (A) Depth cuts placed gingivally by sinking
the entire bur. (B) Depth cuts placed incisally following the
facial contour. (C) Completed labial reduction. (D) Labial
reduction with flat-end tapering diamond.
Lingual reduction
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Lingual axial reduction
Procedure:

parallel to the path of insertion and should produce a taper of 3–5°
with the cervical portion of the labial surface.
• Maintaining this angle, a flat-end tapering diamond is used to

prepare the surface producing a shoulder finish line and this is
extended proximally to meet the labial preparation (Fig. 35.56A and
B).
• A shoulder finish line is recommended as the lingual surface is

covered by ceramic. This is then converted to ‘radial shoulder’
while finishing.
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FIGURE 35.56 (A) Lingual axial reduction – lingual view. (B)
Lingual axial reduction – occlusal view.
Lingual fossa reduction

diamond.
Procedure:
round bur which has a diameter of 1.8 mm. With this depth cuts of
approximately 1 mm are produced, which after finishing will give
the required depth (Fig. 35.57A).

a football diamond (Fig. 35.57B).
• The clearance is checked using baseplate wax of 2 mm thickness, as

described for complete metal crown preparation (Fig. 35.57C).
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FIGURE 35.57 (A) Depth cuts placed on lingual fossa. (B)
The remaining tooth structure is removed with a wheel
diamond. (C) Clearance is checked using baseplate wax of 2
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mm thickness.
Proximal reduction
and flat-end tapering diamond.
Procedure:

proximal surface. The access is prepared using a ‘vertical sawing
motion’ in an incisogingival direction (Fig. 35.58).
• The axial preparation is now continued onto the proximal surface

using the flat-end tapering diamond which will produce the
shoulder. A taper of 3–5° is produced by the reduced proximal
surfaces.
Finishing:
Axial surface is finished using a flat-end tapering fissure bur. The
shoulder is finished with an end-cutting diamond where the sides are
noncutting and smooth and only the tip has fine diamonds stones
(Fig. 35.59A–C).
A heavy chamfer finish line can also be given instead of the shoulder finish
line for all-ceramic crowns (Fig. 35.59D). In that case, a 3 mm diameter
round-end tapering diamond is used for the axial reductions and the same is
finished with a fine grit chamfer diamond/torpedo bur.
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FIGURE 35.58 Proximal reduction with thin tapering
diamond.
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FIGURE 35.59 (A) The shoulder is finished with an end-
cutting diamond. (B) Completed preparation – facial view. (C)
Completed preparation – incisal view. (D) Completed
preparation using a heavy chamfer.
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Partial veneer crowns/partial-coverage
restorations
Definition: A restoration that restores all but one coronal surface of a
tooth or dental implant abutment, usually not covering the facial
surface (GPT8).
• Commonly buccal/facial surface is left intact for better aesthetics.
• It is called three-quarter crown as traditionally it was used in

anterior teeth and it involved preparing three out of four surfaces
and incisal edge was not considered. In the posterior teeth it should
be called four-fifth crown as it involves preparing a definite occlusal
surface.
• It is usually made of cast metal and gold alloys are preferred as they
can be burnished.
• It can be used as a single-unit restoration or as a retainer for fixed

partial denture.
Advantages
• Conservation of tooth structure.
• Margins are accessible by the patient to maintain and operator to

finish.
• Better periodontal response as there is limited contact between the

restoration and gingiva.
• Cementation is easy as there is open margin for the excess cement to

escape.
• Seating of the restoration can be verified.
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• Pulp testing can be performed through the unrestored portion.
Disadvantages
• Lesser retention as compared to full veneers
• There can be some display of metal and it requires high skill to hide
the same.
• May not have adequate rigidity as retainer for a fixed prosthesis.
• Tooth preparation more complicated.
Indications
Teeth with:
• Intact or minimally restored coronal tooth structure.
• Normal crown form.
• Average or greater crown length.
Teeth in aesthetic zone where conserving the buccal/facial surface of

the tooth will be aesthetically advantageous.
As a retainer for:
• Short-span fixed prosthesis.
• Resin-bonded fixed partial dentures.
• Average or below average occlusal forces.
Contraindications
• Short clinical crown.
• Extensively damaged tooth.
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• Endodontically treated tooth.
• Retainer for long-span fixed partial dentures.
• Poorly aligned abutments.
• Dentitions with active caries or periodontal disease.
Partial veneer preparations for posterior teeth on

maxillary premolar
Armamentarium
1. Handpiece
2. Round-end tapered diamond
3. Short thin tapering diamond/needle diamond
4. Fine grit Chamfer diamond/torpedo
5. Flat-end tapering fissure bur
6. Flame-shaped diamond and bur
7. Enamel hatchet
Steps in preparation
2. Lingual reduction
4. Proximal groove
5. Facial flare of proximal groove
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6. Occlusal offset
7. Buccal bevel
Depth of preparation: 1 mm on nonfunctional cusps (buccal) and 1.5
mm on functional cusps (palatal).
Procedure:
The depth cuts are placed on the occlusal surface following the
anatomic contour of the occlusal surface with round-end tapering
diamond (Fig. 35.60A). The depth should be 1 mm on nonfunctional
cusps (buccal) and 1.5 mm on functional cusps (palatal). The depth
should decrease to 0.5 mm at the occlusobuccal line angle to minimize
display of metal.
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FIGURE 35.60 (A) Depth cuts for occlusal reduction. (B)
Completed occlusal reduction. (C) Occlusal reduction using
round-end tapering diamond. (D) Functional cusp bevel. (E)
Functional cusp bevel using round-end tapering diamond.
The remaining tooth structure between the depth cuts is then

removed uniformly to complete the occlusal reduction (Fig. 35.60B
and C).
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Functional cusp bevel: A wide bevel is then placed on the functional
cusp (palatal) using the round-end tapered diamond. The bevel is
desired to be at an angle of 45° and an approximate width of 1.5 mm
(Fig. 35.60D and E).
Checking occlusal clearance: This is verified by asking the patient to
bite on baseplate wax of appropriate thickness (1.5 mm). Thin spots in
wax indicate inadequate clearance and that area is again prepared till
clearance is achieved.
Procedure: Depth orientation grooves are placed in the centre of the
lingual surface and in the linguoproximal line angles with round-end
tapering diamond (Fig. 35.61A). It should be parallel to long axis of
the tooth. The remaining tooth structure is removed and preparation
is carried into the proximal embrasure producing a chamfer finish line
(Fig. 35.61B–D).
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FIGURE 35.61 (A) Depth cuts placed in the centre of the
lingual surface. (B) The remaining tooth structure is removed
and chamfer finish line is given. (C) Preparation verified with
putty index. (D) Lingual reduction completed using round-end
tapering diamond bur.
Rotary instrument: Thin tapering diamond/needle diamond and
round-end tapering diamond.
Procedure:
• The proximal contacts are first broken using a thin tapering

diamond in a vertical sawing motion.
• The round-end tapering diamond is used to then prepare the surface

producing a chamfer finish line (Fig. 35.62A and B).
• The gingivofacial angle of the preparation should not be

underextended as this can cause failure of restoration.
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FIGURE 35.62 (A) Completed proximal reduction. (B)
Proximal reduction using thin tapering diamond followed by
4. Proximal groove
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Depth: 0.3–0.5 mm cervically after proximal reduction.
Width: 1 mm.
Angulation: Parallel to path of insertion.
Rotary instrument: 1 mm diameter flat-end tapering fissure bur.
Procedure:
• They are placed mesially and distally in the facial half of the crown,
parallel to path of insertion or long axis of the tooth. It should be
0.3–0.5 mm deep and should terminate cervically at the beginning
of chamfer. Faciolingual width should be 1 mm. They are designed
to create a definite lingual wall that resists lingual displacement.
• The outline form of the groove is first drawn with a sharp pencil
(Fig. 35.63A). It is then prepared in stages starting with a 1 mm deep
cut, extending to half its length and then finishing to its full length
after verifying the alignment and shape (Fig. 35.63B). The cutting
instrument used is a flat-end tapering diamond with a tip diameter
of 0.8 mm.
• The second groove on the other proximal surface is placed using

first as a guide to maintain parallelism. A bur may be held in the
first groove using baseplate wax to act as a paralleling guide (Fig.
35.63C).
• In general the more important or difficult groove is prepared first

like distal surface of molars and mesial surface of premolars
(aesthetics). A problem in this first groove can be rectified by
aligning the second groove from a more accessible area or without
affecting aesthetics. The completed grooves are shown in Fig.
35.63D and E.
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FIGURE 35.63 (A) Proximal groove outline is drawn with
pencil. (B) Groove is prepared in stages. (C) Second groove
is placed parallel to the first groove. (D) Completed proximal
groove. (E) Proximal groove prepared using a flat-end
tapering fissure bur.
5. Facial flare of proximal groove
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• The facial surface of the groove is flared (prepared in a flat plane) to
meet the labial surface of the tooth (Fig. 35.64A–C).
• Flaring is done with a flame-shaped diamond using short, crisp

strokes in an outward direction and finished with a bur of similar
shape (Fig. 35.64B).
• When facial extension is critical for aesthetics, enamel chisel is used

for flaring.
• Purpose of flaring:
○ Smooths facial wall of groove.
○ Eliminates lip of enamel in contact with adjacent

tooth.
○ Creates a facial margin that meets the unprepared

tooth structure at 90°.
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FIGURE 35.64 (A) Flaring of the facial groove. (B) Proximal
groove with flare completed with flame-shaped bur. (C) (a)
Before flaring of the groove, (b) outlined, (c) after flaring of the
groove.
6. Occlusal offset
Depth: 0.3–0.5 mm lingually, tapers out facially.
Width: 1 mm.
Angulation: 90° to lingual surface.
Procedure:
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• It is an ‘inverted V-shaped’ ledge, 1 mm wide, placed on the lingual
incline of facial cusp. Joins the two proximal grooves and lies at a
uniform distance from finish line labially.
• It is prepared using a flat-end tapering fissure bur (Fig. 35.65A and

B).
• It increases the resistance form by providing bulk which prevents

distortion of restoration (structural durability).
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FIGURE 35.65 (A) An inverted V-shaped ledge placed on the
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lingual incline of facial cusp. (B) Occlusal offset completed.
(C) Occlusal offset prepared with flat-end tapering fissure bur.
7. Buccal bevel
Width: 0.5 mm.
Rotary instrument: Flame-shaped diamond.
Procedure:
• A 0.5 mm bevel is placed on the bucco-occlusal finish line

perpendicular to the path of insertion.
• It is prepared using a flame-shaped diamond.
• It extends over the mesial and distal corners and blends into the
proximal flares (Fig. 35.66A and B).
Finishing:
• Axial surface – fine grit chamfer diamond/torpedo bur.
• Occlusal surface – flat-end tapering fissure bur.
• Occlusal offset – end-cutting diamond.
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FIGURE 35.66 (A) Bevel of 0.5 mm is placed on the bucco-
occlusal finish line. (B) Buccal bevel placed with flame-
shaped diamond bur.
Modifications of posterior partial veneer crown

Depending upon the tooth and its angulations, there are various
modifications that can be incorporated in a posterior partial veneer
crown preparation:
Partial veneer crown with proximal boxes
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• Proximal boxes may be used instead of proximal grooves in case the
proximal surfaces of the tooth are extensively damaged or if the
restoration demands additional retention (Fig. 35.67).
• They are less conservative and hence not preferred.
FIGURE 35.67 Proximal box placed instead of a groove.
Features
Depth: 0.5 mm after proximal reduction, total 0.8–1 mm.
Width: 1.3–1.7 mm.
Form: Tapered occlusally 3–5°.
Location: In facial half of the crown.
Angulation: Parallel to the path of insertion.
Partial veneer crown for mandibular posteriors

This preparation varies from the preparation for maxillary posteriors
in the following aspects:
• The buccal cusps should be covered by the restoration as it is the
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functional cusp. Hence, an occlusal finish line is placed on the facial
surface, cervical to the occlusal contact.
• Occlusal shoulder is prepared on the buccal incline of the buccal

cusps connecting the proximal grooves and providing strength to
the restoration, and not on the lingual inclines (Fig. 35.68).
FIGURE 35.68 Mandibular posterior three-fourth crown.
Reverse three-quarter crown
• It is a partial veneer crown that does not cover the lingual surface
instead of buccal.
• Indicated as a retainer for fixed partial dentures when the abutment

has severe lingual inclination. A full veneer crown in this situation
would need extensive preparation and the reverse three-fourth
crown will be more conservative.
• Proximal grooves are placed at the linguoproximal line angles and

occlusal offset is placed on the buccal incline of lingual cusp (Fig.
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35.69).
FIGURE 35.69 Reverse three-fourth crown. Proximal

grooves are placed at the linguoproximal line angles and
occlusal offset is placed on the buccal incline of lingual cusp.
Seven-eighths crown
• All surfaces except half of buccal surface (usually mesiobuccal cusp)

are covered by the restoration (Fig. 35.70A–C).
• It is usually used in maxillary molars but can also be employed in

mandibular molars and premolars.
• It is indicated when the distal buccal cusp or distal aspect of buccal

surface must be covered due to the presence of any restoration,
caries, decalcification or fracture.
• It is also aesthetically acceptable as intact mesiobuccal cusp hides
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the distobuccal cusp.
• It has much better retention than a three-fourth crown and is used

instead of the three-fourth crown as a retainer for fixed partial
denture when short clinical crown height and when span exceeds
one pontic.
• The two grooves are placed – one in the centre of facial surface and
other in the buccoproximal line angle mesially, and they are joined
by an occlusal offset.
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FIGURE 35.70 (A) The two grooves are placed – one in the
centre of facial surface and other in the buccoproximal line
angle mesially, and they are joined by an occlusal offset. (B)
Completed seven-eighths crown preparation. (C) Restored
seven-eighths crown.
Proximal half crown
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• It is a partial veneer crown that does not cover the distal part of the
tooth.
• It is indicated in mesially tilted mandibular molars. It can be used

only in patients with excellent oral hygiene and low caries
incidence. Distal surface must be caries free.
• Preparation parallels the mesial abutment (also see Fig. 33.49 in

Chapter 33).
• Occlusal reduction gives a clearance of 1.5 mm and terminates on

distal marginal ridge. As the mesial cusps are already below the
occlusal plane, they require little or no reduction.
• Grooves are placed parallel to the path of insertion, on the distal end
of buccal and lingual surface and connected by the occlusal offset.
• An occlusal isthmus (like an inlay preparation) enhances the

retention and rigidity.
• A countersink on the distal fossa resists mesial displacement (Fig.

35.71).
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FIGURE 35.71 Proximal half crown.
Anterior partial veneer crowns

• Preparation does not involve the facial surface of the tooth.
• Preparation design differs from posterior partial veneers as given

below:
○ The path of insertion of the restoration must be

parallel to the incisal one-third to two-third of the
labial surface of the tooth and not long axis of axial
surface. This requires slight lingual inclination of
the grooves.
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○ The proximal extensions must be made carefully
using thin diamonds and hand instruments to
minimize metal display.
Partial veneer preparations for anterior teeth – maxillary canine
Armamentarium
1. Airotor handpiece
2. Round-end tapered diamond
3. Short thin tapering diamond/needle diamond
4. Fine grit chamfer diamond/torpedo
5. Flat-end tapering fissure bur
6. Flame-shaped diamond and bur
7. Enamel hatchet
Step-by-step procedure
The steps in preparation of an anterior crown for a partial veneer
restoration are as follows:
1. Incisal reduction
i. Lingual fossa
ii. Lingual axial

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i. Proximal groove and flare
4. Incisal offset
5. Incisal bevel
Depth of preparation: 0.7 mm at linguoincisal junction.
Procedure:
• It follows the contour of the incisal edge maintaining a flat plane for
incisors and mesial and distal inclines for canines.
• The depth of the reduction is 0.7 mm at the linguoincisal junction

and tapers to barely break through the labioincisal line angle (Fig.
35.72A and B).
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FIGURE 35.72 (A) Incisal reduction of depth 0.7 mm at
linguoincisal junction. (B) Incisal reduction at linguoincisal
junction.
This can be divided into two parts:
Lingual fossa reduction

Depth of preparation: 0.8–1 mm.
diamond.
Procedure:
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round bur which has a diameter of 1 mm. The entire bur is sunk in
(Fig. 35.73A).

a football diamond (Fig. 35.73B).
• Preparation must follow the anatomic planes. Hence, a slight ridge

will be seen for canines along the centre of the surface running
incisocervically (Fig. 35.73C).
• Overpreparation of cingulum will shorten the lingual axial wall

decreasing retention.
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FIGURE 35.73 (A) Depth cuts are placed on the lingual fossa
of 1 mm diameter. (B) Remaining tooth structure removed.
(C) Lingual fossa reduction completed following anatomic
planes using round bur and wheel diamond. (D) Lingual axial
reduction completed with round-end tapering diamond. (E)
The prepared cervical portion should be parallel to the path of
insertion – incisal two-thirds of labial surface. (F) Lingual axial
reduction using roundend tapering diamond.
Lingual axial reduction

Procedure:

parallel to the path of insertion – incisal two-thirds of the labial
surface.
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prepare the surface producing a chamfer finish line and is extended
to the proximal line angles (Fig. 35.73D–F).
• In case of teeth with short lingual axial wall, a shoulder with bevel
or a pinhole at the cingulum can be incorporated to improve
retention.
Procedure:
A long thin tapering diamond is used in a vertical sawing motion to
create space for the proximal reduction up to the contact point. The
contact should be broken with an enamel hatchet and not the
diamond.
The round-end tapering diamond is then used to prepare the
surface producing a chamfer finish line (Fig. 35.74A and B).
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FIGURE 35.74 (A) Proximal reduction completed with round-
end tapering diamond and a chamfer finish line given. (B)
Proximal reduction completed with round-end tapering
diamond.
i. Proximal groove
Depth: 0.3–0.5 mm cervically after proximal reduction.
Width: 1 mm.
Angulation: Parallel to the path of insertion.
Procedure:
• They are placed mesially and distally in the facial half of the crown,
parallel to the path of insertion which is ideally parallel to the
incisal two-thirds of the labial surface.
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• It should be 0.3–0.5 mm deep and should terminate cervically at the
beginning of the chamfer. Faciolingual width should be 1 mm. They
are designed to create a definite lingual wall that resists lingual
displacement (Fig. 35.75).
• The grooves are prepared by a flat-end tapering fissure bur using a

template and procedure similar to that described for posterior three-
fourth crowns.
FIGURE 35.75 A proximal groove placed mesially and

distally in the facial half of the crown.
ii. Facial flare of proximal groove
• The facial surface of the groove is flared (prepared in a flat plane) to

meet the labial surface of the tooth (Fig. 35.76).
• Flaring is done with a flame-shaped diamond using short, crisp

strokes in an outward direction and finished with a bur of similar
shape.
• When facial extension is critical for aesthetics, enamel chisel is used

for flaring.
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FIGURE 35.76 Proximal groove with facial flaring.
4. Incisal offset
It is also referred to as incisal groove.
Depth: 0.3–0.5 mm lingually, tapers out facially.
Width: 1 mm.
Angulation: 90° to lingual surface.
Procedure:
• It is an ‘inverted V-shaped’ ledge, 1 mm wide, placed on the lingual

incline of facial cusp. Joins the two proximal grooves and lies at a
uniform distance from finish line labially. Hence, on canine it will
form a ‘V’ but on incisors it will be a straight line.
• It is prepared using a flat-end tapering fissure bur (Fig. 35.77A–C).
• It increases the resistance form by providing bulk which prevents

distortion of restoration (structural durability).
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FIGURE 35.77 A–C Incisal offset – prepared with flat-end
5. Incisal bevel
Width: 0.5 mm.
Rotary instrument: Flame-shaped diamond.
Procedure:
• A 0.5 mm bevel is placed on the bucco-occlusal finish line

perpendicular to the path of insertion on mesial incline.
• It is prepared using a flame-shaped diamond.
• It extends over the mesial and distal corners and blends into the
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proximal flares (Fig. 35.78A and B).
Finishing:
• Axial surface – fine grit chamfer diamond/ torpedo bur.
• Incisal offset – end-cutting diamond.
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FIGURE 35.78 (A) 0.5 mm bevel is placed on the bucco-
occlusal finish. (B) Incisal bevel completed with flame-shaped
diamond.
Pin-modified anterior three-fourth crown

To improve retention and resistance of the anterior three-fourth
crown, a pinhole is placed in the cingulum area (Fig. 35.79A). This can
be placed in the centre or off-centre (Fig. 35.79B) (increases resistance).
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FIGURE 35.79 (A) Pinhole and ledge placed in centre in
cingulum area. (B) Off-centre ledge and pinhole. (C)
Instruments used for preparing pinhole round bur, twist drill
and flat-end tapering fissure bur.
This requires the following steps:
1. A half-moon-shaped ledge is prepared in the centre of the cingulum

using a flat-end tapering fissure bur. It is 2 mm wide mesiodistally
and 1 mm wide faciolingually.
2. A slight ‘dimple’ is placed in the centre of the ledge by a No. 1/2

round bur to position the pinhole.
3. A pilot hole is prepared by a 0.6 mm twist drill to a depth of 1 mm

(Fig. 35.79C).
4. The pinhole preparation is completed with a flat-end tapered fissure

bur with a tip diameter of 0.6 mm.
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5. A 1 mm diameter round bur is used to ‘countersink’ or bevel the
junction between the pinhole and ledge.
Pinledge partial veneer preparations

Definition: Pinledge is a partial veneer retainer preparation
incorporating pinholes to provide retention (GPT8).
These are partial veneer restorations limited to the anterior teeth
where the labial surface and one or both proximal surface are not
prepared. Retention is augmented by making pinholes on ledges.
Advantages
• Less tooth structure is prepared, hence more conservative.
• Optimal periodontal response as finish line is supragingival.
• Optimal aesthetics.
Disadvantages
• Less resistance to distortion.
• Tooth preparation is complex, needs greater than average skill and

care.
• Limited application.
Indications
• Unrestored anterior teeth with low caries activity.
• As a single restoration to re-establish the anterior guidance.
• Retainers for short-span fixed partial dentures.
• Splinting of periodontally compromised teeth.
• Lingual abrasion of incisors and canines.
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Contraindications
• Poor oral hygiene and high caries rate.
• Young adults with large pulp chambers.
• Nonvital teeth.
• Restorations demanding high retention like long-span FPDs.
• Crown exhibits abnormal form or is thin labiolingually.
Preparation designs
There are three preparation designs depending upon the placement of
pinhole:
1. Conventional pinledge
2. Pinledge with a proximal slice
3. Pinledge with a proximal groove
The conventional preparation is indicated for single tooth restorations

while the other two are indicated as retainers for fixed prosthesis.
1. Conventional pinledge preparation on maxillary central incisor
Armamentarium
• No. 1/2 round bur
• Long thin tapering diamond
• Fine grit chamfer diamond/bur
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• Flame-shaped diamond
• Enamel hatchet
• No. 2 round bur
• 0.6 mm drill
• Nylon bristle
i. Lingual fossa reduction
ii. Lingual incisal bevel
iii. Lingual axial reduction

2. Ledges
3. Indentations
4. Pinhole placement
i. Lingual fossa
Depth of preparation: 0.8–1 mm

Instrument: No. 2 round bur and wheel diamond/football diamond
Procedure:
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• A 1.4 mm diameter round bur is sunk to half its depth to create
depth orientation grooves. The remaining tooth structure between
the grooves is gently removed to get an even 0.7 mm reduction,
which after finishing will be about 0.8–1 mm.
• Small wheel diamond is used to remove the remaining tooth

structure (Fig. 35.80).
ii. Lingual incisal bevel
• It is prepared using a wheel diamond.
• The bevel is placed parallel to the unprepared incisal surface with

an approximate width of 1.5 mm.
• It should stop lingual to the incisal edge so as to prevent the incisal

display of metal (Fig. 35.80).
iii. Lingual axial reduction
• Lingual axial surface is prepared using a round-end tapering

diamond, creating a chamfer finish line (Fig. 35.81).
• The inclination of the diamond point should be kept parallel to the

path of insertion.
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FIGURE 35.80 Lingual fossa reduction with lingual incisal
bevel completed with wheel diamond bur. Bevel should stop
lingual to incisal edge to prevent display of metal incisally.
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FIGURE 35.81 Lingual axial reduction completed with round-
end tapering diamond bur.
2. Ledges
Instrument: Flat-end tapering fissure bur.
Procedure:
• Two ledges are prepared across the reduced lingual surface –

incisally and cervically. They extend from one proximal marginal
ridge to the other (Fig. 35.82A).
• The ledges are prepared parallel to the incisal edge and to each
other. The facial wall of the ledge is parallel to the incisal two-thirds
of the labial surface, while the cervical wall is parallel to the incisal
edge. The ledges are prepared using a flat-end tapering fissure bur
(Fig. 35.82B).
• The incisal ledge is prepared 2–2.5 mm cervical to the incisal edge,

or one-fourth of the total height of the preparation from the incisal
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edge.
• The cervical ledge is placed on the crest of the cingulum at the

centre of the cervical one fourth of the preparation.
• Ledges provide rigidity to the casting and create flat surfaces in

which pinholes can be drilled to provide positive seating of
restoration.
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FIGURE 35.82 (A) Two ledges placed across the reduced
lingual surface incisally and cervically. (B) Incisal and cervical
ledges placed with flat-end tapering fissure bur.
3. Indentations
Procedure:
• They create additional space to locate pinholes and stabilize the

restoration.
• Three indentations are placed with flat-end tapering fissure bur –

two located on incisal ledge and one on cervical ledge. Incisal
indentations are spaced as far apart as possible, 0.5–1 mm medial to
the lingual outline form. The cervical one is also placed (off-centre)
0.5–1 mm medial to the lingual outline form to enhance resistance
(Fig. 35.83).
• The vertical walls must be parallel to the path of insertion and each
other. The floor of the indentation is at the level of the ledge.
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FIGURE 35.83 Three indentations are placed with flat-end
tapering fissure bur – two located on incisal ledge and one on
cervical ledge.
4. Pinhole placement
Instrument: No. 1/2 round bur, 0.6 mm twist drill and flat-end
Procedure:
• A slight ‘dimple’ is placed in the centre of the ledge by a No. 1/2

round bur to position the pinhole.
• A pilot hole is prepared by a 0.6 mm twist drill to a depth of 1 mm.
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• The pinhole preparation is completed with a flat-end tapered fissure
bur with a tip diameter of 0.6 mm.
• A 1 mm diameter round bur is used to ‘countersink’ or bevel the

junction between the pinhole and ledge.
• A nylon bristle is now placed in the prepared pinhole. Using this as

a guide, the second pinhole is drilled at the opposite end. The third
pinhole is drilled in the cervical ledge (Fig. 35.84).
FIGURE 35.84 With pinholes.
2. Pinledge with proximal slice
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The overall preparation of the tooth remains same as conventional
pinledge preparation. A proximal slice is prepared along with the
incisal and cervical pinholes. This is indicated when the preparation is
being used as a retainer for fixed partial denture.
The slice is placed in the proximal surface adjacent to the
edentulous space while the other proximal surface is not prepared.
The proximal slice is prepared first followed by the rest of the
preparation similar to that described for conventional pinledge (Fig.
35.85).
FIGURE 35.85 Pinledge with proximal slice.
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Proximal reduction (slice)
Procedure:
It is prepared parallel to the path of insertion (incisal two-thirds of
labial surface). The preparation provides space for the connector. It is
extended facially to include the contact area but should not extend
onto labial surface for aesthetics.
3. Pinhole with proximal groove
• Instead of one of the pinholes on the incisal ledge – either mesial or

distal, one/two proximal grooves are incorporated on the proximal
surface adjacent to the edentulous space. The other proximal surface
is not prepared.
• The path of insertion of the prosthesis should be parallel to the

proximal groove as well as the pinholes prepared.
• This is indicated in retainers for fixed partial dentures when

increase of retention is required.
Armamentarium
• No. 1/2 round bur
• Long thin tapering diamond
• Fine grit chamfer diamond/bur
• Flame-shaped diamond
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• Enamel hatchet
• No. 2 round bur
• 0.6 mm drill
• Nylon bristle
i. Lingual reduction
Similar to the conventional pinledge preparation.
ii. Proximal reduction

Procedure:
A long thin tapering diamond is used in a vertical sawing motion to
create space for the proximal reduction up to the contact point. The
contact should be broken with an enamel hatchet and not the
diamond.
The round-end tapering diamond is then used to then prepare the
surface producing a chamfer finish line (Fig. 35.86).
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FIGURE 35.86 Proximal reduction completed and a chamfer
finish line given using thin tapering diamond followed by
iii. Grooves
a. Proximal
• This is the primary axial retentive feature.
• Two grooves are placed next to the edentulous space. One is placed
facial and the other little lingual at the same proximal surface (Fig.
35.87A). Care should be taken that these grooves are parallel to each
other and to the path of insertion.
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• In case the region is carious, a proximal box form may be prepared,
but two grooves are preferred as they are conservative and
retention is same.
b. Lingual
• A third groove, much shorter than the previous ones is placed on

the opposite side of cingulum near the vertical finish line on the
lingual surface (Fig. 35.87B).This groove enhances the resistance of
the restoration and accommodates bulk of metal to reinforce the
margin.
• All the grooves are prepared similar to that described for anterior
partial veneer crowns.
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FIGURE 35.87 (A) Two grooves placed proximally are
parallel to each other and to the path of insertion using a flat-
end tapering fissure bur. (B) Third groove placed on the
opposite side of the cingulum.
The facial proximal groove and the lingual grooves are flared as
described for anterior partial veneer crowns, with a flame-shaped
diamond (Fig. 35.88).
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FIGURE 35.88 Flaring of proximal groove (facial) and lingual
groove using flame-shaped diamond opposite side.
iv. Ledges
• Half-moon-shaped incisal and cingulum ledges are prepared with a

flat-end tapering fissure bur (Fig. 35.89).
• Incisal ledge is prepared in the incisal corner opposite to the site of

proximal grooves. It must be gingival to the incisal edge, in dentine,
and lingual to the finish line.
• A ledge is also placed in the middle of the cingulum.
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• These flat areas on the sloping lingual surface provide good
platform for the placement of the pinholes.
FIGURE 35.89 Ledges and offsets.
v. Offset
a. Incisal
• Connects the incisal ledge and facial proximal groove (Fig. 35.89).
• It is narrow and flat, perpendicular to the path of insertion. It is

prepared with a flat-end tapering fissure bur.
b. Lingual
• Connects the incisal ledge and the lingual groove (Fig. 35.89).
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• It is a V-shaped trough which reinforces the linguoproximal margin.
vi. pinhole placement

This is prepared as described for pin-modified anterior partial veneer
crowns and conventional pinledge (Fig. 35.90).
FIGURE 35.90 Pinhole placed using round bur, twist drill and
flat-end tapering fissure bur.
vii. Bevels
The junction of the incisal and lingual offsets and their corresponding
outer surface (incisal and proximal) are bevelled with a flame-shaped
diamond (Fig. 35.91).
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FIGURE 35.91 Incisal proximal grooves are bevelled with
flame-shaped diamond bur.
The various features of tooth preparation in general and the

function served by each of them are summarized in Table 35.3. The
commonly used rotary cutting instruments and their uses are
summarized in Table 35.4.
Table 35.3
Tooth preparation feature and the function/principle served by
them
Feature Function (principle)

Axial reduction – buccal, lingual and proximal Retention, resistance, structural durability
Occlusal, incisal and lingual fossa reduction Structural durability
Finish lines – chamfer, shoulder and shoulder with Marginal integrity
bevel
Proximal groove Retention, resistance, structural durability
Buccal seating groove Retention, resistance
Flare Marginal integrity
Any bevel Marginal integrity
Any offset Structural durability
Ledge and pinhole Retention and resistance
Wing Retention, resistance and conservation of tooth
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structure
Isthmus Retention, resistance, structural durability
Countersink Retention, resistance, structural durability
Table 35.4
Rotary cutting instrument and their functions
Instrument Shape Functions

Round-end tapering Axial reductions to produce chamfer finish line
diamond Occlusal reduction
Flat-end tapering Axial reductions to produce shoulder finish line
diamond
Torpedo diamond Finish axial surfaces where finish line is
(fine)/bur chamfer
Flat-end tapering fissure Finish axial surfaces where finish line is

bur shoulder
Finish occlusal surfaces
Make grooves, boxes and ledges
Prepare offsets
Thin tapering/needle Short thin – proximal reduction on posterior
diamond – short and teeth (short clinical crowns)
long Long thin – proximal reduction on anterior teeth
(long clinical crowns)
Flame-shaped diamond To produce bevels and flares the diamond is
and bur used initially and finishing is done with bur
End-cutting To finish the shoulder

diamond/bur
Round bur Depth orientation grooves (lingual fossa)
Preparation of pinholes
Countersink for pinholes
Wheel diamond and Reduction of lingual fossa of anterior teeth
football diamond
Twist drills Prepare pinholes
SUMMARY
The chapter provides an exhaustive description of different types of
preparations, indications, contraindications and the armamentarium
to be used. A prudent reader will be able to differentiate between the
different configuration of burs and the resultant finish lines.
Although some of the preparations are not very often used or
practiced, they have their own place and indication in crown and
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bridge prosthodontics.
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CHAPTER
36
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Fluid control and gingival
displacement
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 542
Fluid control 542
Objectives 542
Methods 542
Gingival displacement 544
Indications 544
Objectives 544
Methods 545
Summary 553
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Introduction
Control of fluids and appropriate displacement of the gingiva are
essential during tooth preparation to obtain accurate impressions, and
for cementation. They enhance the operator visibility, increase patient
comfort and aid in extracting optimum benefits from the impression
and cementation procedures. The various procedures used in control
of fluids and gingival displacement are discussed in this chapter.
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Fluid control
Objectives
• Primarily to remove fluids, isolate and retract oral tissues.
• To enhance operator visibility and patient comfort during tooth

preparation.
• To prevent injury to the patient’s oral tissues.
• To prevent aspiration of fluids along with restorative debris.
• Isolate specific areas of the oral cavity and ensure a dry operating
field in preparation for impression and cementation procedures.
Methods
The methods employed may perform the task of fluid control,
isolation and retraction of oral tissues, singly or in combination.
Rubber dam
• It is used to isolate the tooth during restorative procedures.
• Some authors indicate its use during preparation, impression and

cementation of indirect restorations.
• When used with elastomeric impression materials, it should be

lubricated and clamp removed. It should not be used with
polyvinyl siloxane (addition silicones) as its polymerization will be
inhibited.
Cotton rolls
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• Simplest method of fluid control and isolation.
• Used during impression and cementation procedures.
• For isolating maxillary arch, single cotton roll in the buccal vestibule
adjacent to maxillary first molar where the parotid duct opens is
sufficient (Fig. 36.1).
• For isolating the mandibular arch, multiple cotton rolls are placed
on the buccal and lingual side of the prepared tooth (Fig. 36.2).
• An alternative to multiple cotton rolls is a single long roll placed in

the maxillary and mandibular mucobuccal folds.
• A saliva ejector is usually placed in the lingual sulcus for fluid

removal whenever cotton rolls are used for isolation (Fig. 36.3).
• An absorbent card may also be placed buccally in conjunction with

cotton rolls for isolation and fluid control.
FIGURE 36.1 Isolation using a single cotton roll in maxillary

arch.
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FIGURE 36.2 Isolation of mandibular arch using multiple
cotton rolls.
FIGURE 36.3 Saliva ejector is placed in lingual sulcus while

using cotton rolls.
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High vacuum suction
• Used for fluid and saliva removal during tooth preparation.
• It is a powerful suction equipment used with an assistant.
• It may also be used to retract the lip simultaneously (Fig. 36.4 A and
B).
FIGURE 36.4 (A) High vacuum suction tube, (B) High

vacuum suction may also be used to retract lip.
Saliva ejector (low vacuum suction)
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• Used for fluid removal during impression and cementation
procedures.
• May be used during tooth preparations in maxillary arch by placing

it in the corner of the mouth opposite the side being prepared, with
the patient’s head turned towards that side. It is not as effective as
high vacuum suction (Fig. 36.5 A and B).
• Can be used without any assistance.
FIGURE 36.5 (A) Low vacuum suction tube. (B) Can be used
without assistance by placing it opposite to the side of tooth
preparation.
Svedopter
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• It is a flange type of saliva ejector made of metal.
• Used for fluid removal and tongue retraction during tooth

preparation on mandibular arch, and isolation during impression
and cementation (Fig. 36.6 A and B).
• Can be used with patient in an upright position, without assistance.
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FIGURE 36.6 (A) Svedopter. (B) Used for fluid removal and
tongue retraction.
Disadvantages
• Access to lingual surface of mandibular teeth may be limited.
• May injure the floor of the mouth if not used carefully, as it is made
of metal. Cotton roll placed between the blade and mylohyoid ridge
may reduce this problem.
• Contraindicated in the presence of mandibular tori.
Antisialogogues
• Drugs may be used to provide fluid control by reducing salivary
flow. This is especially beneficial during impression making.
• Anticholinergic drugs – atropine, dicyclomine and propantheline
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may be used. They are given 1 h prior to commencement of dental
procedure. They are contraindicated in patients having
hypersensitivity to the drug, glaucoma, asthma, obstructive
conditions of the gastrointestinal tract and congestive cardiac
failure.
• Clonidine, an antihypertensive drug may also be used. It is safer

than anticholinergics but should be used with caution with other
antihypertensives. It can cause drowsiness which may not be
desirable.
• Drugs used and their recommended dosages are given in Table 36.1.
Table 36.1
Drugs used for fluid control and their dosage
Drug Dose
Atropine sulphate 0.4 mg
Dicyclomine HCl 10–20 mg
Propantheline bromide 7.5–15 mg
Clonidine 0.2 mg
Local anaesthetic
• In addition to pain control, local anaesthetics also reduce salivary
flow during impression making.
• They act by blocking nerve impulses from the periodontal ligament

that regulate salivary flow.
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Gingival displacement
Definition: The deflection of the marginal gingiva away from a tooth
(GPT8).
• Also called gingival retraction or tissue dilation.
• It is essential that the gingiva is in a healthy state before the tooth

preparation.
Indications
1. To provide adequate reproduction of finish lines.
2. To accurately duplicate subgingival margins.
3. To provide the best possible condition for the impression material,

fluid control.
4. To fabricate accurate restorations thereby preventing periodontal

disease.
Objectives
• To expose the prepared finish line.
• To control the gingival crevicular fluid.
• To evaluate the depth and uniformity of finish line.
• Allows refinement of finish line without laceration of soft tissues.
• Provides access for the impression materials to record accurately the

finished margins and a part of the unprepared tooth beyond the
finish lines.
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• Helps to obtain accurate marginal fit which will reduce the marginal
leakage and subsequent deterioration of the tooth.
Methods
Methods for gingival displacement are classified as follows.
Mechanical
This method physically displaces the gingiva. This can be achieved
with the help of:
1. Copper band
• It carries the impression material and displaces the gingiva.

Impression compound and elastomeric materials have been used.
• One end of a copper band is trimmed to follow the contours of

gingival margins. The top part is plugged with resin or compound.
A vent is placed to allow escape of excess impression material.
Dental floss is threaded through the vent to ease band removal (Fig.
36.7). The tube is filled with impression material and is seated
parallel to the long axis of the prepared tooth such that the
contoured metal margins coincide with the free gingival margin
gently displacing them.
• Though it is no longer used routinely, it may be indicated with

multiple abutments and when full arch impressions of multiple
abutments have not recorded one/two teeth properly (Fig. 36.8A
and B).
• It can cause injury to the gingiva and retraction is also minimal.
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FIGURE 36.7 Dental floss is threaded through the vent to
ease band removal.
FIGURE 36.8 (A) Oversize copper band 2 mm wider than the

mesiodistal width of the tooth. (B) Gingiva is trimmed and
contoured inward to allow the band to clear the preparation
margin during impression procedure.
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2. Rubber dam
• It is used when limited number of teeth in one quadrant are being

restored and when preparations do not have to extend
subgingivally.
• Clamp should be blocked out and addition silicones should be

avoided as rubber interferes with its setting.
3. Cotton threads
• Plain cotton threads have also been used to produce mechanical

gingival displacement.
• The retraction achieved is purely physical without any haemostasis,

very less and transient.
4. Magic foam
This is a recent development. It consists of ‘Comprecap’ – a hollow
cotton and ‘Magic Foamcord’ – a polyvinyl siloxane material. Prior to
impression making, a desired size of the Comprecap is selected (Fig.
36.9). Magic Foamcord is injected around the preparation and inside
the Comprecap and is placed over the prepared tooth (Fig. 36.10). The
patient is instructed to gently bite to hold the Comprecap. After about
3–4 min the Comprecap is removed along with the Magic Formcord
(Fig. 36.11).
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FIGURE 36.9 Different size of Comprecap.
FIGURE 36.10 Injection of Magic Formcord.
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FIGURE 36.11 Patient is instructed to bite and hold the
Comprecap and it is removed after 3–4 min.
Advantage
• Easy to use with less trauma.
Disadvantages
• Less retraction than cord.
• Haemostasis must be established prior to retraction.
Mechanical–chemical
A displacement/retraction cord is used for mechanically separating
the tissue from the prepared margin and is impregnated with a
chemical for astringent action and/or haemostasis as impressions are
made. Cord displaces the gingival tissue both laterally and vertically.
Ideal requirements of cords
1. Dark in colour and never red.
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2. Be made of absorbent material.
3. Strong enough to resist placement and should not snap.
4. It should be available in different diameters to accommodate the

varying morphologies of the gingival sulcus.
Chemicals used
Cord is supplied impregnated with the chemical or cord may be
dipped in specific chemical agents before packing into the gingiva.
These cause a transient ischemia thereby shrinking the tissue, help
control gingival fluids and provide haemostasis.
The most commonly used chemicals are ferric sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3)
20%–25%, and aluminium chloride (AlCl3) 15%–29%. Racemic
epinephrine 8% is also used though not commonly as it causes
tachycardia.
Classification
1. Plain or impregnated
2. Lubricated or nonlubricated
3. Twisted, braided or knitted (Figs 36.12–36.14)
4. According to thickness – 00, 0, 1, 2 (Fig. 36.15)
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FIGURE 36.12 Knitted cords.
FIGURE 36.13 Braided cords.
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FIGURE 36.14 Twisted cords.
FIGURE 36.15 Different thickness of retraction cord.
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Knitted cords are made up of compressible interlocking chains
which transport greater amount of chemical agent. Braided cords do
not separate easily and do not unravel while they are being inserted.
Knitted and braided cords are preferred.
Instrument
Instrument used for packing the cord is called ‘Fischer’s cord packer’
(Fig. 36.16).
FIGURE 36.16 Cord packer.
It should be thin enough to be placed in the gingival sulcus without

damaging the tissues, and the angle of the instrument should allow
packing of the cord all around the tooth. The tip may be serrated to
enhance grip of instrument on cord.
Displacement techniques
Two methods may be employed:
1. Single-cord technique: One cord is placed in the sulcus and the

impression is made immediately following retraction after removing
the cord.
2. Double-cord technique: Two cords are used; one thin cord is first
packed deep into the sulcus and left there during impression making
to provide haemostasis. The second cord is placed over the first cord
to provide retraction, and is removed immediately prior to impression
making.
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Method
Single-cord technique
• This is the most commonly used method.
• Indicated for making impression of one to three prepared teeth with

healthy gingiva tissues.
• It is relatively simple and efficient.
• The operating field must be dry, isolated with cotton rolls and fluid
removed with saliva ejector.
• Cut appropriate length of cord to encircle the tooth 2 inches

approximately (Fig. 36.17).
• If impregnated, moisten cord intraorally, or dip cord in appropriate

chemical agent placed in a dappen dish (Fig. 36.18).
• Form a ‘U’ shape and loop it around the prepared tooth so that the
cut ends are on the lingual side (Fig. 36.19).
• From the lingual side grasp the cut ends of the cord between the
thumb and forefinger and apply tension very slightly in an apical
direction. This apical tension would result in the cord getting
tucked in both the proximal and labial surfaces (Figs 36.19 and
36.20).
• Use the cord packing instrument to secure the cord in the proximal
area first (Fig. 36.21). Instrument should be angled towards the
tooth (Figs 36.22 and 36.23).
• Proceed to the lingual surface and facial surfaces beginning with the
mesiolingual line angle.
• Cut off the excess length of cord protruding from lingual sulcus
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leaving a small tag (Figs 36.24 and 36.25). This tag can be grasped
for easy removal.
• After 10 min, moisten the cord with saline or sterile water and
remove the cord slowly to avoid bleeding. If active bleeding persists
ferric sulphate chemical can be applied to the gingiva (Fig. 36.26).
FIGURE 36.17 Two inches piece of retraction cord is cut off.
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FIGURE 36.18 Retraction cord may be dipped in appropriate
chemical agent (haemostatic) prior to placement.
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FIGURE 36.19 A loop of retraction cord is formed around the
tooth and held tautly with the thumb and forefinger.
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FIGURE 36.20 Cord grasped from the lingual side.
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FIGURE 36.21 Placement of the retraction cord is begun by
pushing it into the sulcus on the mesial surface of the tooth.
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FIGURE 36.22 The instrument must be angled slightly
toward the root to facilitate the subgingival placement of the
cord.
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FIGURE 36.23 Cord packer angled towards the tooth.
FIGURE 36.24 Excess cord is cut off in the mesial

interproximal area.
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FIGURE 36.25 Excess cord will facilitate easy removal.
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FIGURE 36.26 Application of ferric sulphate with infusion tip
to arrest bleeding.
Double-cord technique
• The double-cord technique is indicated when making impressions of

multiple prepared teeth and when tissue health is slightly
compromised with more than normal bleeding anticipated.
• A small diameter cord is first placed into the sulcus. The ends of this
cord should be cut so that they exactly abut against one another in
the sulcus. This cord is left in the sulcus during impression making
(Fig. 36.27A).
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• A second cord, soaked in the haemostatic agent of choice, is placed
in the sulcus above the small diameter cord. The diameter of the
second cord should be the maximum diameter that can be placed
easily in the sulcus (Fig. 36.27B).
• Eight to ten minutes after placement of the second cord, it is

moistened, removed and impressions are made with the first cord
in place.
• After making the impression, the small diameter cord is moistened

and removed from the sulcus.
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FIGURE 36.27 (A) Extra thin cord is placed first (B) followed
by impregnated cord placed on the top which is removed prior
to the impression.
Chemical
This is a recent development where retraction is achieved using only
chemicals.
This consists of an aluminium chloride–containing paste (Expasyl)
(Fig. 36.28) which is injected into the sulcus prior to impression
making (Fig. 36.29). The paste is left in the sulcus for 3–4 min to
achieve the desired retraction. It is washed off and impression is made
(Fig. 36.30).
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FIGURE 36.28 Expasyl.
FIGURE 36.29 Injection of the paste.
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FIGURE 36.30 Paste is washed off to achieve retraction and
haemostasis.
Advantage
• Achieves good haemostasis with less trauma.
Disadvantage
• Retraction is much less compared to cord.
Surgical
1. Rotary curettage (gingettage)
It is also called ‘gingettage’. The concept of using rotary curettage was
described by Amsterdam in 1954.
Rotary curettage is a troughing technique. Epithelial tissue in the
sulcus is removed by a rotary instrument while finish line is being
created.
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This technique is well suited for use with reversible hydrocolloid
impression materials. Rotary curettage must be done only on healthy
gingiva to avoid tissue shrinkage. This technique can be used only
when there is
• Absence of bleeding upon probing.
• Sulcus depth less than 3 mm.
• Presence of adequate keratinized gingiva.
Technique
A supragingival finish line is first created to complete the tooth
preparation (Fig. 36.31).
FIGURE 36.31 A shoulder is formed at the level of gingival

crest prior to rotary curettage.
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A torpedo diamond is used to extend the finish line apically, one-
half to two-thirds the depth of sulcus to produce a chamfer finish line
(Fig. 36.32).
FIGURE 36.32 Epithelial tissue in the sulcus is removed by a

torpedo diamond while finish line is being created.
As only half the diamond is used to produce the chamfer, the other
half will create a trough around the tooth removing a layer of
epithelial tissue achieving the desired retraction (Fig. 36.33).
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FIGURE 36.33 Gingival retraction produced by the creation
of a trough around the finish line.
A retraction cord impregnated with aluminium chloride or alum is

gently placed in the sulcus or a haemostatic agent is injected to control
haemorrhage.
After 4–8 min the cord is removed and sulcus is thoroughly
irrigated with water and impression is made.
Disadvantages
There is poor tactile sensation while using diamonds which can lead
to deepening of the sulcus.
It has potential for destruction of periodontium with inexperienced
hands.
2. Electrosurgery
It produces controlled tissue destruction to achieve a surgical result.
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Mechanism
• High density current from a small cutting electrode produces a

rapid rise of temperature at the point of contact with tissue. The
cells in contact with the electrode are destroyed by this temperature
rise.
• An unmodulated alternating current is recommended for gingival

displacement.
Indications
1. Gingival sulcus enlargement and haemostasis
2. Gingivectomy
3. Crown lengthening
Contraindications
1. Patients with electronic medical devise – cardiac pacemaker, insulin

pump.
2. Patients with delayed healing because of debilitating diseases or

radiotherapy.
3. Not used if attached gingiva is thin.
4. Not to be used with metal instruments as contact with them can

produce electric shock – better to use plastic mouth mirrors and saliva
ejectors.
5. It should not be used in presence of flammable agents, like topical

anaesthetics such as ethyl chloride or other aerosols, nitrous oxide
analgesia as electrosurgery can produce sparks during use.
Electrosurgical equipment (fig. 36.34)
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It consists of the following:
1. Unit – a high frequency oscillator or radio transmitter that generates

heat.
2. Handpiece – holds the electrodes.
3. Electrodes – basically like probes of different shapes that fit into the
handpiece and are used for cutting or coagulation, e.g. coagulating,
diamond loop, round loop, small straight and small loop. The small
straight electrode is used for gingival displacement (Fig. 36.35 A and
B).
4. Grounding plate – Circuit is completed by placing a grounding

plate in the back or under the thigh of the patient. It is important to
prevent burns.
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FIGURE 36.35 (A) Commonly available electrodes, small
straight is used for gingival displacement. (B) Different
shapes of electrodes used. L–R: Coagulating, diamond loop,
round loop, small straight, small loop.
FIGURE 36.34 Electrosurgical equipment.
Technique for gingival displacement

Width of gingival sulcus is enlarged by creating a trough around the
finish line (Fig. 36.36). This allows greater visibility and impressioning
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of the finish line. The height of the sulcus should never be decreased.
FIGURE 36.36 (A) Gingiva prior to electrosurgery. (B)

Enlarged sulcus following the procedure.
There may be gingival recession if not properly performed.

Profound local anaesthesia is necessary.
The working electrode must be clean and without carbonization.
Electrode must be used with very light pressure and quick, deft
strokes. It must be wiped with cotton soaked in alcohol to remove
tissue debris after every stroke. Debris inside the sulcus is removed
with cotton soaked in hydrogen peroxide.
By angling the working electrode at approximately 15–20° and
carrying the tip through the tissue until it rests against the tooth, a
small wedge of tissue can be removed. In cases of thin gingiva the
angle of the working electrode is changed to be more parallel to the
long axis of the tooth (Figs 36.37 and 36.38).
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FIGURE 36.37 (A) Correct angulation and placement of
electrode against the tooth and gingiva. (B) Following tissue
removal.
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FIGURE 36.38 Parallel angulation for thin gingiva.
It must be moved at a speed of 7 mm/s to prevent lateral heat

penetration. No stroke should be immediately repeated. If it is
necessary to retrace the path of a previous cut, at least 5 s should be
allowed to elapse before repeating the strokes.
The sequence of surgery should be, lingual surface first, followed by
the facial surface, mesial surface and lastly the distal surface. This
prevents the heat accumulation in the tissue (Fig. 36.39).
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FIGURE 36.39 Recommended sequence for electrosurgical
gingival displacement.
Moist tissue will cut best if it dries out; sterile water/saline is

sprayed lightly. A high volume vacuum tip should be kept
immediately adjacent to the cutting electrode at all times to remove
the unpleasant odour that is generated.
Impression is made immediately following the procedure.
Proper technique can be summarized as follows:
1. Proper power setting.
2. Quick passes with the electrodes.
3. Adequate time intervals between strokes.
3. Soft tissue lasers

These can also be used for gingival displacement similar to
electrosurgery.
SUMMARY
Gingival displacement is an important procedure for fabricating
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indirect restoration, especially when subgingival finish lines are used.
Gingival displacement is relatively simple and effective when dealing
with healthy gingival tissue and when margins are properly placed.
The most common technique used for gingival displacement is the
use of gingival retraction cord with a haemostatic medicament.
Retraction cords of appropriate diameter should be used.
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CHAPTER
37
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Impression making
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 554
Impression material 554
Ideal requirements 554
Elastic impression materials 555
Consistency 557
Manipulation 557
Impression trays 558
Stock trays 558
Custom trays 558
Triple trays 558
Tray adhesives 558
Impression techniques 558
Single-impression technique: double mix (heavy
+ light body) – using custom tray and automixer
559
Double-impression technique 560
Single-impression technique: double mix (putty
+ light body) – using triple tray and automixer
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562
Copper band 564
Hydraulic and hydrophobic technique (H & H
technique) 566
Matrix impression system 566
Impression for pin retained restorations 568
Disinfection of impressions 569
Evaluation 569
Summary 569
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Introduction
Impression: An imprint or negative likeness of the teeth and adjacent
structures for use in dentistry (GPT8).
This is the first step necessary to fabricate an indirect restoration
because it is not possible to make prosthesis directly in the mouth. An
elastic impression material is loaded in a tray and inserted in the
patient’s mouth. Upon setting, a cast is poured and a positive likeness
of the oral tissues is obtained.
An impression for a cast restoration should meet the following
requirements:
1. Should be an exact duplication of the prepared tooth, inclusive of

the preparation and adequate uncut tooth surface beyond the
preparation to be certain of the configuration of the finish line.
2. Teeth and soft tissues adjacent to the prepared tooth must be

accurately reproduced to permit articulation of the cast and
contouring of the restoration.
3. Should be free of bubbles particularly at the finish lines and the

occlusal surfaces of other teeth in the arch.
To make a successful impression knowledge of the following is

essential:
1. Material
2. Mould or tray
3. Method or technique
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Impression material
Ideal requirements
The fabrication of a cast requires an impression material that produces
an accurate negative likeness of the oral tissues.
The ideal properties of an impression material are as follows:
1. Accurately reproduces the oral tissues for which they need to

exhibit:
i. Complete plasticity before cure – facilitates

seating the impression
ii. Sufficient fluidity – to record fine details like

finish lines
iii. Ability to wet the oral tissues – to record

gingival areas
iv. Dimensional accuracy – absence of dimensional

change during setting
v. Dimensional stability – to enable transport to

laboratory
vi. Complete elasticity after cure – to enable

removal from undercuts in mouth
vii. Optimal stiffness – to prevent deformation
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from weight of poured die material
2. Have an infinite shelf life.
3. No armamentarium.
4. Nontoxic and nonirritating.
5. Acceptable odour, taste and colour.
6. Suitable working and setting times.
7. Strength to resist tear.
8. Compatible with model and die materials.
9. Inexpensive.
10. Easy to dispense, proportion and mix.
11. Easy to cleanup.
12. Facilitates visualization of the finish line.
13. Permits multiple die pours.
14. Facilitates the clinical identification of beginning and end of cure.
Elastic impression materials

Only elastic materials can be used to make impressions for fabricating
fixed restorations because of their ability to record undercuts without
permanent deformation. The following can be used in the order of
their development:
1. Reversible hydrocolloids
2. Elastomeric impression materials
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i. Polysulphides
ii. Condensation silicones
iii. Polyether
iv. Addition silicones

Irreversible hydrocolloids (alginates) do not possess sufficient
accuracy for fabricating fixed prostheses and should not be used. The
above-mentioned materials can produce casts of sufficient accuracy to
fabricate clinically acceptable fixed restorations.
Reversible hydrocolloids
(Synonyms: Agar hydrocolloid, agar agar)
• It is a polysaccharide derived from seaweed.
• It is supplied by the manufacturer as a preformed gel that is

liquefied before use. At high temperatures the agar changes from
gel to a sol. This is reversible; as the material that cools it is
converted from sol to a gel, hence the name reversible hydrocolloid.
Agar changes from gel to a sol at 99°C and remains a sol till about
50°C, forming a gel slightly above room temperature.
• Practically, the required temperature changes are affected with a

special conditioning unit which includes a boiling water bath to
liquefy the hydrocolloid gel, a second bath for storing the material
at 63–66°C and a bath for tempering the material at 44–46°C (Fig.
37.1).
• Water cooled trays (Fig. 37.2) are used for reversible hydrocolloid
impressions. They have internal cooling water channels that
accelerate gelation (set the material).
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• Gelation occurs from the tray towards the tissue hence any
shrinkage is compensated for. Thus they have an excellent
dimensional accuracy. Dimensional stability is, however,
compromised by the ease with which water can be released from
(syneresis) or absorbed (imbibition) by the material. Hence, the
impression must be poured immediately to avoid distortion. They
also have poor tear strength.
• They are available in tubes as a heavy bodied tray material and a

less viscous wash, regular and syringe material.
• The complexity of the equipment combined with inherent

disadvantages of the material limits the widespread use of this
material routinely in fixed prosthodontics.
FIGURE 37.1 Equipment for agar with liquefying, storage and

tempering baths.
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FIGURE 37.2 Water cooled trays with attachment for tubes
connected to a water source.
Elastomeric impression materials

The elastomeric impression materials include polysulphide,
condensation silicones, polyethers and addition silicones.
Polysulphide rubber
(Synonyms: Rubber base, mercaptan, thiokol rubber)
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• They were introduced in the 1950s and were then accepted widely
as they had better dimensional stability and tear strength than
irreversible hydrocolloids.
• The polysulphide base reacts with an appropriate chemical usually

lead dioxide (catalyst) in the presence of sulphur to form the soft
rubber. Lead oxide is responsible for the typical brown colour
which can stain clothing permanently if not handled properly.
Alternatives like copper hydroxide make it more aesthetically
pleasing (green colour) and cleaner in handling. Water and lead
sulphides are by-products of this condensation reaction. The
unpleasant sulphide odour is not well tolerated by patients.
• Loss of water limits the dimensional stability; hence, it also needs to

be poured within an hour after allowing for elastic recovery. It also
has an unfavourably long setting time, almost 10 min. High
humidity (more than 60%) and temperature (more than 25°C) also
dramatically reduce working time which can also affect
dimensional stability.
• With no obvious advantages over other elastomerics and the above-

mentioned disadvantages limit its routine use.
• Available as base and catalyst paste which are mixed to polymerize

the material (Fig. 37.3).
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FIGURE 37.3 A polysulphide impression material (courtesy
GC).
Condensation silicone
(Synonyms: Silicone, polysiloxane) (Fig. 37.4)
• Polysulphide’s disadvantages were overcome by this material. It is

odourless and could be pigmented to any shade. It has a relatively
short setting time (6–8 min) and is also less affected by temperature
and humidity.
• Its dimensional stability is less than that of polysulphide because a

volatile like ethyl alcohol was commonly a by-product of the
condensation setting reaction. The main disadvantage is its poor
wettability because of its hydrophobic nature. Hence, the teeth and
gingival tissues must be completely free of moisture to enable a
perfect impression without trapping air bubbles. A surfactant may
also be required to pour a bubble-free cast.
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FIGURE 37.4 A condensation silicone putty (jar) and light
body base and catalyst (activator) paste (courtesy Coltene–
Whaledent).
Polyether
(Synonym: Epimine)
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• Polyethers were introduced in Germany in 1960s. With no formation
of volatile by-products, dimensional stability is excellent and casts
can be poured even after a day.
• A short setting time (5 min) combined with least polymerization

shrinkage makes it a very useful material with high accuracy.
• Its high rigidity after setting is a disadvantage which causes

problems when separating stone casts from impressions and
making impressions of periodontally compromised teeth. Recently
introduced polyethers have been modified to greatly reduce the
stiffness. The catalyst can be a sensitizer; hence, patients who
develop allergic reactions should avoid further contacts.
• They are available in a wide range of consistencies as base and

catalyst pastes.
Additional silicones
(Synonym: Polyvinyl siloxanes)
• Introduced in 1970s, they are characterized by excellent dimensional

accuracy and long-term dimensional stability. It is also less rigid
than polyether making its properties more desirable.
• They are inherently difficult to wet, making it difficult to pour a

bubble-free cast. Newer materials have also been modified for
improved wettability. Release of hydrogen gas necessitated delayed
pouring of casts, but newer materials contain finely divided
palladium as hydrogen absorber and can be poured immediately.
Setting inhibition can occur with selected latex gloves. This is due to
dithiocarbamates used in gloves manufacturing.
• They are available in a wide range of consistencies as base and

catalyst pastes.
A comparison of the various impression materials is given in Table

37.1.
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Table 37.1
Comparison of elastomeric impression materials
Material Advantages Disadvantages

Reversible hydrocolloid Dimensionally accurate Low tear resistance
Hydrophilic Low dimensional stability
Long working time Expensive equipment
No custom tray required Difficult to disinfect
No mixing
Material cost less
Polysulphide High tear strength Messy
Easier to pour Unpleasant odour
Lower cost Long setting time
High flexibility Stability only fair
Accurate
Addition silicone Dimensionally stable Hydrophobic
Pleasant to use Hydrophilic formulations Imbibes water
Short setting time Some release hydrogen
Automixing
Highly accurate
Condensation silicone Short setting time Hydrophobic
Pleasant to use Poor wetting
Good elastic properties Stability is low
Accurate
Polyether Dimensional stability Short working time
High accuracy Very stiff
Short setting time Imbibition
Automixing Most expensive
Consistency
The elastic impression materials are available in a range of
consistencies depending on the viscosity and amount of filler used.
They can be classified as:
1. Putty
2. Heavy body
3. Medium or regular body
4. Light body or wash or syringe material
• Selection of the material depends on the impression technique.
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• Putty and heavy body materials cannot record fine detail.
• Light body material has very good flow and can be highly accurate.
But light body cannot be used alone as it undergoes most
polymerization shrinkage. So the thicker the light body layer more
will be the shrinkage and less accurate will be the impression.
• Putty and heavy body are generally used as tray materials in

combination with a light body as wash material.
• The medium or regular or monophase materials can be used as tray

materials and because of their thixotropic properties; they can also
be used as syringe materials. They require custom trays so that
uniform material thickness can be maintained to reduce any
polymerization shrinkage.
Manipulation
The elastomeric impression materials can manipulated as follows:
1. Manual: By mixing the base and catalyst by hand (Fig. 37.5).
2. Automixing: Most manufacturers now offer the materials as

cartridges which include the base and catalyst, along with a mixing tip
(spiral). The cartridge is inserted into a caulking gun-like device.
Extrusion of material into the mixing spiral automatically mixes the
base and catalyst and it can be directly placed into the tray or oral
cavity depending on the need and consistency (Fig. 37.6).
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FIGURE 37.5 A typical putty, regular and light body material
for manual mixing (courtesy GC).
FIGURE 37.6 Anautomix gun with material: spiral mixing tip

(a), cartridge containing base and catalyst (b), plunger (c),
trigger (d), intraoral tip (e).
Advantages
• Mixing is certainly more homogenous with less voids; hence,

mechanical properties are better.
• Less material wastage.
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• No clean-up mess.
• Reduced chairside time.
This is not available for polysulphide materials as they are too

sticky.
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Impression trays
The choice of impression material and technique influence a tray
selection. Time, expense and accuracy must all be considered for
making a tray selection.
Trays can be classified as follows.
Stock trays
• These are prefabricated trays made in metal or plastic. Metal trays
are preferred as they are rigid and not susceptible to distortion (Fig.
37.7).
• Retention for the material is provided by perforations, rim locks

and/or tray adhesives.
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FIGURE 37.7 Stock trays.
Advantages
• Stock trays eliminate the time and expense of making custom trays.
• Can be reused.
Disadvantages
• As their fit in the mouth is only an approximation, it is not possible
to obtain a uniform thickness of impression material which could
cause more distortion than when custom trays are used.
• More material is also required.
Custom trays
These are fabricated individually for each patient.
Advantages
• Less material is used.
• A uniform thickness of impression material minimizes distortion

resulting from polymerization shrinkage.
Disadvantages
• It requires more time for construction.
• It is more expensive.
Triple trays
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• They record the prepared and adjacent teeth, opposing teeth and the
maximum intercuspal occlusion (bite), hence the name triple tray
(Fig. 37.8).
• These are indicated for single unit, less extensive restorations in

each arch.
• When a triple tray is used the technique is called closed-mouth

impression as the patient is required to occlude while the material
polymerizes.
FIGURE 37.8 Triple trays – anterior (left) and posterior

(right).
Advantages
• They eliminate the need for an articulator.
• Utilize less material.
• Minimize deformation of the mandible during opening.
Disadvantages
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• Chances of distorted impression are high if the patient is not trained
properly to occlude in maximum intercuspation prior to impression
making.
• Distribution of impression material is not uniform.
• Eccentric occlusion needs to be evaluated and adjusted during

restoration delivery.
Tray adhesives
These are applied to impression trays to enhance the adhesion of
impression materials to intraoral impression trays. They ensure that
the completed impression remains firmly attached to the tray upon
removal from the mouth.
Generally, it is composed of silicone adhesive, alcohol and a
colourant. It is supplied in dark bottles which should be immediately
closed after use and kept out of sunlight. Every impression material
manufacturer supplies the adhesive compatible with the material.
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Impression techniques
There are two impression techniques that can be employed:
1. Single impression: While making an impression, tray is inserted

into the patient’s mouth only once. Depending on whether one/two
viscosities of material are used it can be further classified as:
i. Single mix
ii. Double mix

2. Double impression: Impression is made once with high-viscosity
material, a space is created and a second impression is made with
low-viscosity material.
○ Both of the above techniques can be performed

using stock trays, custom trays and triple trays.
○ While making single impression with single mix

technique a custom tray is mandatory as uniform
thickness of material is required.
Single-impression technique: Double mix (heavy +

light body) – using custom tray and automixer
• A custom tray is fabricated in autopolymerizing resin using two
sheets of baseplate wax (3 mm) as spacer and four widely placed
tissue stops in nonfunctional surfaces of the teeth (Fig. 37.9). This
helps in proper orientation of special tray. It should extend 3–5 mm
from the gingival margin and extend 3 mm beyond the distal tooth.
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There is no need to cover the palate for maxillary special trays (Fig.
37.10). The wax spacer is then removed after the final set of the
resin. It is stored at room temperature for about 24 h to minimize
distortion.
• Evaluate the custom tray in the mouth and correct the extension.
• Gingival retraction cords are placed in sulcus of abutment teeth.
• Apply tray adhesive to the tissue surface and also cover the border
of the tray with the same (Fig. 37.11).
• Fix the light body cartridge in the gun with the spiral and the
intraoral tip.
• Remove the cord from the sulcus and gently dry with compressed
air.
• Place the intraoral tip of the spiral of the light body cartridge in the
margin of abutment and inject material slowly. Start with distal
embrasure and follow the material. After the abutment is covered,
place additional light body material onto edentulous spaces and
occlusal surfaces of posterior teeth (Fig. 37.12).
• Simultaneously have the assistant extrude the heavy body material

onto the custom tray (Fig. 37.13).
• Seat the tray in the mouth from posterior to anterior allowing excess
material to extrude anteriorly and hold it immobile while it
polymerizes. The time varies with the material (Fig. 37.14).
• Remove the tray in a snap after checking if material has set (Fig.
37.15).
• Rinse with ambient water and dry with short bursts of compressed
air.
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FIGURE 37.9 Wax spacer with stops.
FIGURE 37.10 Custom tray fabricated without palatal portion.
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FIGURE 37.11 Tray painted with tray adhesive.
FIGURE 37.12 Light body injected on preparation using

automixer.
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FIGURE 37.13 Heavy body dispensed onto custom tray
using automixer.
FIGURE 37.14 Tray seated in patient’s mouth.
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FIGURE 37.15 Completed impression.
The procedure for single-impression technique using a single mix is similar

to the above method except that the same regular body or monophase material
is used both as a tray and as a syringe material.
Double-impression technique
Method 1: Double-impression technique with

stock trays using putty and light body (manual
mix) with spacer
This is one of the most commonly used methods of making an
impression for a fixed prosthesis.
• A stock tray is selected based on the shape and size of the patient’s
arch. It is then coated evenly with a tray adhesive.
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• The high-viscosity putty material is mixed according to the
manufacturer’s instructions and rolled into an elongated cylinder. If
addition silicones are used, mixing putty with latex gloves must be
avoided as it retards the setting of the material. It is then loaded
onto the stock impression tray (Fig. 37.16A–D).
• A sheet of polyethylene is used to cover the putty as a spacer. The

spacer provides space for the final impression material and also
allows tray to be repositioned a second time easily by blocking the
undercuts (Fig. 37.17).
• The tray is then inserted and seated in a rocking type of motion. It is

kept in place for approximately 2 min and removed (Fig. 37.18A
and B).
• The spacer is then peeled off and excess impression material is

removed with a sharp knife.
• The gingiva is then displaced with a gingival retraction cord after

isolation with cotton rolls and drying the preparation with
compressed air. The cords are left in place for 8–10 min.
• A large mixing pad (6 × 8 inches) or a glass slab is selected. Equal

lengths of base and catalyst pastes of light body manual mix
impression material are dispensed (Fig. 37.19).
• The low-viscosity material is then mixed according to the

manufacturer’s instruction. First, using a circular motion and then a
figure eight motion to blend and flatten the mixture onto the mixing
pad in order to reduce the number of voids in the mixture. Half of
the material is loaded into the light body syringe by holding the
barrel at an angle pushing it through the mix and sliding it over the
mixing pad (Fig. 37.20). The remaining material is loaded onto the
tray on top of the putty without overfilling it (Fig. 37.21).
• The gingival cord is then removed and the light body is syringed
onto the abutments and other areas (Fig. 37.22).
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• The tray is then positioned over the arch and seated from posterior
to anterior allowing the excess to extrude anteriorly. Force is
applied in vertical direction until further seating is not possible (Fig.
37.23).
• The tray is removed after the material sets (Fig. 37.24).
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FIGURE 37.16 (A) Equal scoops of putty base and catalyst
are taken. (B) Mixed homogenously. (C) Rolled into a
cylinder. (D) Putty is loaded onto the stock tray.
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FIGURE 37.17 Polyethylene spacer.
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FIGURE 37.18 (A) Tray inserted and positioned in the
patient’s mouth. (B) Tray with spacer after removal from
mouth.
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FIGURE 37.19 Equal lengths of light body base and catalyst
paste dispensed.
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FIGURE 37.20 Part of material is loaded into light-body
syringe.
FIGURE 37.21 Remaining material is loaded onto tray.
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FIGURE 37.22 Light body injected on the prepared teeth.
FIGURE 37.23 Tray placed in the mouth.
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FIGURE 37.24 Final impression.
Method 2: Double-impression technique with

stock tray using putty and light body (manual mix)
by scraping
• Instead of cellophane sheet, the putty material around the prepared
tooth in the interdental spaces and over the palatal surface to
displace the excess light body material is scraped out using a ‘putty
cutter’ instrument or surgical blade to provide space for the light
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body material (Fig. 37.25A–C).
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FIGURE 37.25 (A) Putty impression following removal from
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patient’s mouth. (B) Scraping of the putty material done. (C)
Final impression made using the light body.
The impression techniques so far, were ‘open-mouth’ techniques where the

patient’s mouth remains open while the impressions are made. The following
technique is a ‘closed-mouth’ technique where patient is made to close the
mouth in Maximal intercuspal position while the impression is made.
Single-impression technique: Double mix (putty +

light body) – using triple tray and automixer
• Select a triple tray and check its fit to ensure patient closes in
maximum intercuspation without interference. Also get the patient
to practice closing in that position.
• Remove the retraction cord and inject the automixing light body
material with intraoral tip onto the abutment tooth and opposing
teeth (Fig. 37.26).
• Concurrently make the assistant load the putty on both sides of the
triple tray after mixing the same with a machine mixing system for
putty (Fig. 37.27A–C). Example: Pentamix, Sympress.
• Place the loaded tray onto the arch and have the patient close in the
desired position. Check contralateral side to verify occlusion (Fig.
37.28A and B).
• Remove the set impression by applying pressure on unprepared

side and helping the patient to open the mouth (Fig. 37.29).
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FIGURE 37.26 Light body from automix cartridge injected
onto prepared tooth.
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FIGURE 37.27 (A) and (B) Putty loaded using an automixing
system. (C) Putty loaded onto both sides of triple tray.
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FIGURE 37.28 (A) Patient made to close in maximum
intercuspation on tray. (B) Contralateral side check for correct
occlusion.
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FIGURE 37.29 Final impression.
Making a cast with triple tray impression

A cast can be made with a plaster index to perform the role of an
articulator but eccentric occlusion cannot be checked.
The surface of impression with the tooth preparation is poured with
die stone, while the counter surface is poured with dental stone.
Retention tags are made for retention to base. This is allowed to set
(Fig. 37.30).
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FIGURE 37.30 Upper and lower surfaces poured with tags
for retention.
A base is made in plaster and the mandibular impression with the

set stone is positioned on the base. The base is extended posteriorly
and a ‘T’-shaped index is created. This is then allowed to set (Fig.
37.31).
FIGURE 37.31 Extended base made in plaster with index.
Separating medium is applied on the set base and plaster is poured

on the base and extended to cover the upper part of the impression. It
is allowed to set.
The impression is separated from the upper and lower parts of the
fabricated cast (Fig 37.32).
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FIGURE 37.32 Showing the two parts with index.
The upper part fits into the index created which acts as a hinge
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FIGURE 37.33 Index used as a hinge articulator.
Copper band
It is used when the margins of some abutments in an impression of
multiple abutments are not clearly replicated. Instead of repeating the
whole impression, copper band can be used to make impression of
only that particular abutment which needs correction. But proper
orientation of die with the other dies may be difficult.
• The copper band is selected and annealed by heating in flame and

quenching in alcohol.
• The fit is evaluated to extend 1 mm beyond the finish line with

minimal tissue blanching (Fig. 37.34).
• Fingers are then covered with light coat of petroleum jelly and the
green stick compound is gently heated and manipulated with the
lubricated fingers.
• After evaluating the viscosity it is inserted to fill up to one-third of
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the copper tube and placed on abutment to ensure space for
• Using the Backhaus towel clamp the copper tube is then removed
from the mouth. After cutting holes in the band for the retention of
the elastomeric material, the internal surface is coated with an
adhesive.
• The preparation is cleaned and isolated. Medium-viscosity material

is then mixed and injected into the copper band which is then
seated over the tooth (Fig. 37.35).
• The impression is then removed and boxed and poured in die stone.
The die stone is then trimmed to form an elongated tapered
cylinder base for convenient manipulation during wax-up.
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FIGURE 37.34 Fit of copper band evaluated on abutment.
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FIGURE 37.35 Copper band impression: copper band (a),
green stick compound (b), medium body (c).
Hydraulic and hydrophobic technique (H & H

technique)
This technique was developed by Dr Jeff Hoos.
The proponents of this technique state that the hydraulic and the
hydrophobic technique of impression making is one of the easiest and
predictable method of impression making in a crown preparation
with subgingival finish lines eliminating the need for tissue retraction,
haemostasis and isolation. It also eliminates the pain and discomfort
experienced by the patient.
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A double arch impression is made using a quadrant tray with a
thixotropic addition silicone bite registration material which in turn
captures the impression of the prepared tooth down to the gingival.
After the initial set, the impression is held onto the arch opposing
the prepared tooth and the patient is asked to open the mouth. The
prepared tooth surface is then washed and dried and then a small
amount of low-viscosity vinyl addition silicone is delivered to the
cervical area of the first impression.
The patient is then asked to close the mouth which in turn generates
a hydraulic force by compressing the low-viscosity material into the
sulcus, insinuating itself in between the gingival and root interface
thereby displacing saliva and blood.
All the disadvantages of closed-mouth impressions and dual arch
trays will also be seen with this technique.
Matrix impression system

The matrix impression system was described by Livaditis in 1998.
It uses a custom matrix to control the sulcular environment and to
deliver the impression material to the subgingival parts which need to
be impressed. Four types of forces, namely retraction, displacement,
collapsing and relapsing forces are involved in gingival displacement
during impressions. Effective delivery of impression material with
simultaneous sulcular cleansing and simplification of complex
impressions with or without segmentation is made possible with the
matrix system (Fig. 37.36).
• A matrix (impression) with occlusal/bite registration elastomeric

material is made over the tooth preparation and removed after it
sets (Fig. 37.37A and B). The matrix maybe made in one piece or in
two or more sections depending on the distribution and complexity
of the preparations.
• The matrix is selectively trimmed interproximally and internally to

prescribed dimensions and tray adhesive is applied to the fitting
surface of the matrix.
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• After the retraction cord is removed, the matrix is filled with
medium body elastomeric impression material (Fig. 37.37C).
Simultaneously the same material is syringed onto the preparations.
Definitive impression is made by seating the matrix on the
abutments (Fig. 37.37D).
• A stock tray filled with putty or heavy viscosity elastomeric

impression material is seated over the matrix and the remaining
teeth to make an impression of the entire arch (Fig. 37.37E and F).
The matrix facilitates the formation of the optimum flange. Tearing
is virtually eliminated because of the improved configuration of the
sulcular flange and by elimination of the voids and contaminants in
the sulcus.
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FIGURE 37.36 Matrix-bite registration material (a) is fully
seated as seen by contact of untrimmed occlusal area. Matrix
extrudes out medium body material (b) displacing air and fluid
contaminants from sulcus. Tray impression material (c) picks
up the matrix and also registers remaining natural teeth.
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FIGURE 37.37 (A) Bite registration injected over the
prepared teeth to make the matrix. (B) Matrix removed after it
sets. (C) Matrix is filled with medium-viscosity material. (D)
Definitive impression made by seating matrix and medium
body. (E) Tray material seated over matrix to make
impression of entire arch. (F) Completed matrix impression.
Impression for pin retained restorations

To make an impression of a preparation for a pin retained restoration
two methods can be employed.
Lentulo spiral
Use a lentulo spiral with a slow speed handpiece. Pick up the light
body impression material in the lentulo spiral and place it in the
pinhole with clockwise rotation.
While removing the lentulo spiral from pinhole, increase the speed
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to prevent material from being pulled out. Using the lentulo spiral
prevents formation of air bubbles in the pinhole.
An orthodontic wire cut to fit the pinhole and coated with tray
adhesive, may be inserted into the hole to stabilize the light body
The rest of the prepared tooth is now covered with light body and
the tray material is seated on the preparation using the double-
impression technique.
Prefabricated plastic pin/bristle

Plastic bristles may be used to duplicate the pinholes (Fig. 37.38). The
bristle is supplied corresponding to the size of the final drill preparing
the pinhole along with the tooth preparation kit.
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FIGURE 37.38 Prefabricated castable palstic pins.
The length of the bristle is cut to appropriate dimensions to fit the

tray. The bristle is placed in each of the pinholes and impression
material is injected all the way around the head of the bristle.
While removing the impression, the bristle will come secured to the
impression and a cast is poured after applying separating medium on
the exposed bristle. The bristle will now be incorporated in the cast
and a wax pattern is made on the same and burnt out. The casting will
now contain the pin retained restoration.
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Disinfection of impressions
After the impression is removed from the patient’s mouth, it is rinsed
with tap water and dried with air syringe.
Then appropriate chemicals are used to disinfect the impression.
This is an essential procedure to prevent cross-infection and exposure
of dental auxiliary and lab personnel. It does not affect the accuracy or
surface reproduction of the impression if performed properly.
There are five types of chemical disinfectants that can be used for
this purpose – glutaraldehydes, chlorine compounds, phenolic
compounds, iodophors and phenolic glutaraldehydes.
A 2% glutaraldehyde solution is commonly used and is
recommended for silicones and polysulphide impressions. The
impressions are soaked in this solution for 10 min.
As hydrocolloids, ‘hydrophilic’ addition silicones and polyethers
absorb moisture, they should not be immersed in disinfectant, instead
they should be sprayed with sodium hypochlorite (1:10) and stored in
a plastic bag.
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Evaluation
After disinfection the impression is inspected for any discrepancy and
then poured. The following may be checked:
• Retention of impression material to tray – any separation.
• Streaks of base/catalyst – impression not mixed properly.
• Tray exposure – whether exposure is in a critical area.
• Voids, folds and creases – criticality to be assessed.
• Extension of impression adequately beyond margins of preparation.
SUMMARY
Impression making is an important and mandatory procedure for
fabrication of fixed cast prosthesis. There are three ‘M’s to remember
during this process – mould or tray, material used and method of
impression making. There are innumerable companies,
manufacturing these materials, but they all manufacture only the five
basic consistencies like putty, heavy, monophase, medium and light-
bodied materials. The methods vary depending on the clinical
situation and the operator’s choice. The most commonly used
technique is a double or single impression using putty and light body
combinations.
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CHAPTER
38
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 570
Ideal requirements of provisional restoration 570
Biologic requirements 570
Mechanical requirements 570
Aesthetic requirements 571
Classification 571
According to the method of fabrication 571
According to the material used 571
According to the duration of use 571
According to the technique of fabrication 571
Provisional restorative materials 572
Ideal requirements of provisional restorative
materials 572
Custom-made materials 572
Preformed crowns 573
Recent advances in provisional materials 574
Techniques of fabrication 574
Direct technique 574
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Indirect technique 577
Direct–indirect technique 580
Limitations of provisional restoration 583
Cementation 583
Ideal properties 583
Cements 583
Procedure 583
Removal of provisional restoration 583
Summary 583
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Introduction
The term provisional, temporary, interim and transitional are
routinely and interchangeably used in dentistry. It is a restoration
which is fabricated for a particular period of time until definitive
restoration is fabricated. It is fabricated immediately following tooth
preparation preferably in the same appointment. Provisional
restorations can also be readily modified and serve as a blueprint for
fabrication of the definitive restoration.
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Ideal requirements of provisional
restoration
These can be classified as:
1. Biologic requirements
2. Mechanical requirements
3. Aesthetic requirements
Biologic requirements
Pulp protection
It should protect the prepared tooth from the oral environment,
thereby preventing sensitivity and irritation to the pulp.
Periodontal health
It must have good marginal fit, proper contour and a smooth surface
to prevent plaque accumulation, facilitate easy plaque removal and
maintain periodontal health.
Positional stability
It should provide a comfortable, stable and functional occlusal
relationship by maintaining interarch and intra-arch stability thereby
preventing tooth migration, supraeruption and joint or
neuromuscular imbalance.
Prevention of fracture
It should protect the prepared tooth surface from fracture which is
commonly seen with partial coverage restorations in which margin of
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the preparation is close to the occlusal surface of the tooth and could
be damaged during chewing.
Mechanical requirements
Functional
It should possess good compressive and flexural strength. The
strength of materials used for fabricating provisional restorations is
always much lower than that of the definitive restoration material.
Thus, cross-sectional size of the connector needs to be larger than the
final restoration to reduce potential failure produced by stresses.
Loss of retention
It should have close adaptation to the prepared tooth surface to
prevent displacement and recementation, which will increase patient
visits.
Removal for reuse

Temporary restorations may need to be removed and recemented
often. If they are well fabricated with adequate thickness and
cemented with weak cement, it can be removed without breakage and
can be reused.
Aesthetic requirements
It should match the shape, size, colour and texture of the restored
tooth especially in the anterior region. Colour stability is also
important if the provisionals are to function for a prolonged period. It
also serves as a guide to achieve aesthetics for the final restoration.
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Classification
Provisional restorations are classified on the following basis.
According to the method of fabrication
Preformed
The anatomic form is prefabricated and readily available in different
tooth types and sizes. The appropriate type is selected, modified and
mostly relined to fit the prepared tooth.
Indication
• Single-tooth restorations.
Advantages
• Less technique sensitive to fabricate.
• Requires less chairside time.
Disadvantages
• Cannot be used for fixed partial dentures (FPDs).
• Most types need some modification to fit the preparation.
Custom-made
The anatomic form and shape of the tooth being restored (the entire
provisional restoration) is fabricated by the dentist/dental technician.
The technique provides intimate contact between a provisional
restoration and prepared tooth. It is the most commonly used method
for FPDs.
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Advantages
• Most versatile, can be used for any clinical situation.
• Better fit.
Disadvantage
• Requires more time.
According to the material used

According to the material used provisional restorations are classified
as:
1. Resins
i. Preformed
a. Polycarbonate
b. Cellulose acetate
ii. Custom-made
a. Acrylics
b. Bis-acryl composites
2. Metals
i. Preformed
a. Aluminium
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b. Tin–silver
c. Nickel–chromium
ii. Custom-made
a. Cast metal alloys
According to the duration of use
Short-term temporary restoration

• Most common.
• These are used for up to 2 weeks.
• Cast metal is not used – all other preformed and custom-made

materials can be used.
• They are used routinely as an interim restoration until a final

restoration is fabricated, such as for crowns and FPDs.
Long-term temporary restoration

• May be used for few months.
• Usually cast metal is indicated.
Indications
• FPDs for patients with conditions which are difficult to diagnose

like gross maxillomandibular discrepancies and TMD.
• Maintenance of vertical dimension while restoring anterior teeth.
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• Evaluation of tolerance when extensive rehabilitation is planned.
• Healing after periodontal surgery.
• If orthodontic treatment is required prior to fabrication of final

restoration.
According to the technique of fabrication

1. Direct technique – restorations are fabricated intraorally.
2. Indirect technique – restorations are fabricated extraorally on a

cast.
3. Direct/indirect – restoration are fabricated using a combination of

intraoral and extraoral procedures.
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Provisional restorative materials
Ideal requirements of provisional restorative
materials
Following are the ideal requirements of provisional restorative
materials:
• Adequate strength and wear resistance.
• Biocompatibility.
• Dimensional stability.
• Easy to contour and polish.
• Odourless and nonirritating.
• Chemically compatible with the luting cements.
• Aesthetically acceptable.
• Adequate working and setting time.
• Easy to repair.
Custom-made materials
Custom-made materials are classified as:
1. Resins
i. Acrylics
a. Polymethylmethacrylates
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b. Poly-R’ methacrylates (R’ – ethyl, vinyl, isobutyl)
ii. Bis-acryl composites
a. Chemically
b. Light activated
c. Dual activated
2. Metals
i. Cast metal alloys
Resins
1. Acrylics
• These have been used as provisional materials since 1930s.
• Most commonly used autopolymerizing materials, available as

powder and liquid and in various shades (Fig. 38.1).
• Used for single- and multiple-unit restorations.
• Advantages: Low cost, aesthetic, easy to smooth and polish,

versatile.
• Disadvantages: Polymerization shrinkage, objectionable odour,

exothermic heat generation during setting.
• These are divided into two categories:
○ Polymethylmethacrylates (PMMA)
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○ Poly-R’methacrylates (R’ – ethyl, vinyl or isobutyl).
• PMMA has greater colour stability and strength, but more
polymerization shrinkage and exothermic heat than PRMA.
FIGURE 38.1 Autopolymerizing acrylic resin – Unifast

(courtesy GC).
2. Bis-acryl composites
• They are basically bis-GMA resins, which are available in a variety

of shades and can be automixed in cartridges (Fig. 38.2).
• They evolve less exothermic heat, odour and show less

polymerization shrinkage but are more brittle and expensive than
acrylics.
• They are generally not glossy like the acrylics and also have a
pronounced oxygen-inhibited layer that should be removed
(usually with alcohol-saturated gauze) prior to finishing and
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polishing.
• They are available as chemical, light and dual activated types. The
light activated resins have greater working time, but poor colour
stability.
FIGURE 38.2 Bis-acryl composite materials.
Tables 38.1–38.3 compare the advantages and disadvantages of

various resin provisional materials.
Table 38.1
Advantages and disadvantages of polymethylmethacrylates
Advantages Disadvantages
• Low cost • Significant amount of heat given off by exothermic reaction
• Good wear resistance • High degree of shrinkage (about 8%)
• Good aesthetics • Strong, objectionable odour
• High polishability • Short working time
• Good colour stability • Hard to repair
• Must be mixed
• Radiolucent
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Table 38.2
Advantages and disadvantages of poly-R’ methacrylates
• Low cost • Less aesthetic
• Less exothermic heat and shrinkage than PMMA • Poor wear resistance
• Extended working time • Poor colour stability
• Strong, objectionable odour
• Hard to repair
• Must be mixed
• Radiolucent
Table 38.3
Advantages and disadvantages of bis-acryl composites
• Less shrinkage than acrylics • Greater cost than acrylics
• Minimal heat generation • Viscosity cannot be altered
• Minimal odour • Sticky surface layer present after
• Excellent aesthetics polymerization
• Most products use automix delivery • More brittle than acrylics
• Can be repaired or characterized using resin
composite
• Easy to trim
• Good colour stability
• Radiopaque
Cast metal alloys

These are used as ‘long-term temporary restorations’. The indications
are given under that category. These are rarely used.
Preformed crowns
According to the type of material used for the fabrication of the
anatomic form crowns are classified into two types:
1. Resins
i. Polycarbonate
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ii. Cellulose acetate
2. Metals
i. Aluminium
ii. Tin–silver
iii. Nickel–chromium alloy
Resins
1. Polycarbonate crowns
• They combine microglass fibres with a polycarbonate plastic

material.
• It is used as a matrix material around a prepared tooth that is

relined with acrylic resin to customize fit.
• It possesses high impact strength, abrasion resistance and good

bond with methyl acrylate resin.
• Best aesthetics among all preformed crowns.
• Available in a single shade which can be modified by the shade of

lining resin.
• Available in the shape of incisors, canines and premolars in varying

sizes (Fig. 38.3).
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FIGURE 38.3 Prefabricated polycarbonate crowns.
2. Cellulose acetate
• It is a thin, soft and transparent scaffold material.
• It is available in all tooth shapes and different sizes.
• It does not bond to the relining resin.
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• Shade is entirely dependent on the relined resin.
• An appropriate size of this transparent anatomic form is selected

from a mould guide and filled with autopolymerizing resin of
appropriate shade. This is inserted over the lubricated tooth
preparation. The cellulose acetate is peeled off once the resin sets.
Proximal contact needs to be re-established with the relining resin.
Metals
1. Aluminium and tin–silver
• These are generally limited to posteriors for aesthetic reasons.
• Available as simple shells (which resemble a tin can) and in

anatomic forms.
• They provide good adaptation due to softness and ductility of the

material, but can also promote rapid wear resulting in perforation.
• They may require cervical enlargement during insertion and this

may be accomplished by pushing down on a swaging or stretching
block.
• They may be relined with a resin to obtain better fit and rigidity and
then luted to the prepared tooth.
2. Nickel–chromium
• Indicated for use in children with damaged primary teeth.
• They need not be relined with resin.
• They are trimmed, contoured and adapted to the tooth.
• Strong cements are used for luting.
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• They are very hard and hence used as long-term temporary
restorations (Fig. 38.4).
• Preformed crowns are summarized in Table 38.4.
FIGURE 38.4 Preformed nickel–chromium crowns.
Table 38.4
Summary of properties of various types of preformed crowns
Preformed crowns Properties

1. Polycarbonate crowns Aesthetically acceptable
Supplied in incisor, canine and premolar tooth types
2. Cellulose acetate Thin transparent material available in all tooth ranges
Colour depends on the autopolymerizing resin
3. Aluminium–tin silver Suitable for posteriors
Different size and shapes are available
Care should be taken while adapting to the tooth surface
4. Nickel–chromium Extensively damaged primary tooth mostly used
Relatively hard and used as long-term provisional restoration
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Recent advances in provisional materials
Computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided engineering (CAE)
aided fabrication using precision-milled acrylate polymer-filled
contoured single- and multiple-unit provisional restorations are now
available that offer increased strength and fit along with a
customizable solution for even the most demanding of patients. The
main disadvantage is increased cost.
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Techniques of fabrication
The following techniques are used for fabrication:
1. Direct technique – restorations are fabricated intraorally
i. Preformed with polycarbonate crowns
ii. Custom-made with index

2. Indirect technique – restorations are fabricated extraorally on a cast
i. Preformed with nickel–chromium crowns
ii. Custom-made with template

3. Direct–indirect technique – restorations are fabricated using a
combination of intraoral and extraoral procedures.
Direct technique
Restoration is fabricated intraorally directly in the patient’s mouth.
Advantages
• Less time
• Less cost as there is no need to make a cast
Disadvantages
• Only used for single-unit restorations and short-span bridges.
• Patient cooperation is required.
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• Exothermic heat may cause pulpal irritation.
• Offensive odour.
• May be difficult to remove the provisional restoration if attention is

not given to setting characteristics.
Direct technique: Preformed (polycarbonate)

provisionals
Measure the mesiodistal width and the occlusocervical length and
select a preformed polycarbonate crown of appropriate shade that is
slightly larger from the assorted kit (Fig. 38.5A and B).
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FIGURE 38.5 (A) Mesiodistal and incisocervical
measurements made with the help of a divider. (B)
Appropriate size of crown is selected from the assorted kit.
(C) Selected crown is tried in the patient’s mouth. (D) Excess
portion is marked on the cervical portion. (E) Excess is
trimmed carefully at the cervical and never at the incisal
portion. (F) The trimmed crown is filled with autopolymerizing
acrylic and seated on the prepared tooth. (G) The
polymerized crown is trimmed, finished, polished and
cemented with provisional cement.
The selected crown is tried in the patient’s mouth and trimmed to fit
using mounted stones or vulcanite trimmers. Care should be taken to
reduce the cervical portion and never the incisal aspect to adjust the
height (Fig. 38.5C–E).
Apply petrolatum/Vaseline to the prepared teeth and adjacent
gingiva to prevent irritation from monomer and easy removal of
temporary. The crown is filled with autopolymerizing acrylic resin
(poly-R’ methacrylate preferred) and seated on the prepared tooth
while in a flowable consistency (Fig. 38.5F). The excess is removed
with a probe.
Once the dough stage is reached (approximately 2 min after mixing)
the crown is removed by rocking faciolingually and placed in warm
water to set (5 min). The polymerized crown is trimmed, finished,
polished and cemented with provisional cement (Fig. 38.5G).
Direct technique: Custom-made provisionals

using index
The anatomic form of the provisional restoration is obtained by
making an impression prior to tooth preparation and
restoring/replacing the teeth to be temporized.
Single-unit restorations
If the tooth is damaged, it is restored with wax and an index is made
intraorally with putty/irreversible hydrocolloid impression material.
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Existing RPD can be used to make the index intraorally (Fig. 38.6A–
D).
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FIGURE 38.6 (A) Preoperative picture – missing maxillary
central incisor (tooth No. 11). (B) Removable partial denture
in place. (C) Making putty index intraorally with existing RPD.
(D) Putty index with existing RPD and flanges trimmed. (E)
Application of separating medium on prepared teeth. (F)
Resin mixed and poured in index. (G) Index reseated in
mouth. (H) Allowed to set in index. (I) Provisional prosthesis
needs to be trimmed after removal from index. (J) Trimmed
provisional prosthesis. (K) Cemented provisional prosthesis.
If there is no existing denture/restoration, the teeth to be replaced

are arranged/waxed-up on the diagnostic cast and an index is made
with putty/irreversible hydrocolloid of the teeth to be restored, on the
cast.
• Tooth preparation is performed.
• Separating medium like petroleum jelly is applied to the prepared

tooth and adjacent tissues (Fig. 38.6E).
• Autopolymerizing resin (preferably bis-acryl composite) is mixed

and poured in the putty index on the teeth to be restored and
positioned in the patient’s mouth (Fig. 38.6F and G).
• The index with the provisional material is removed from the oral
cavity before the exothermic heat is evolved.
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• The restoration is allowed to set completely in the putty index (Fig.
38.6H).
• The restoration is removed from the index and will need some
adjustment to be refixed in the mouth due to polymerization
shrinkage (Fig. 38.6I).
• It is then contoured, polished and cemented (Fig. 38.6J and K).
Indirect technique
• Restoration is fabricated extraorally on a cast.
• Preferred method for making provisionals for FPDs.
Advantage
• Patient is not affected by material properties like odour and

exothermic heat.
Disadvantages
• Takes more time as impressions are made after tooth preparation.
• More cost.
Indirect technique: Preformed nickel–chromium

crowns
• An impression is made after tooth preparation with irreversible
hydrocolloid (alginate), and cast is poured in quick setting plaster.
• The mesiodistal width of the restoration is measured with a divider

or calipers and an appropriate size of the preformed nickel–
chromium crown is selected (Fig. 38.7A).
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• If the gingival margin is too tight, the crown is pushed down on an
appropriate stretching block to flare the gingival margin.
• The gingival margin is then trimmed and festooned till the correct
occlusogingival height and contour are obtained (Fig. 38.7B and C).
• The axial surface is contoured with pliers to obtain a convex surface

(Fig. 38.7D).
• The crown is checked in the mouth, occlusal correction done and

margins burnished (Fig. 38.7E).
• It is then cemented using provisional cement (Fig. 38.7F–H).
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FIGURE 38.7 (A) Appropriate size of nickel–chromium crown
is selected. (B) Excess height is removed from the gingival
margin. (C) Gingival margin is smoothened. (D) Contouring
axial surfaces with pliers. (E) Occlusion is checked with
articulating paper. (F) Crown filled with provisional cement is
seated. (G) Excess cement is removed from the crevice with
an explorer. (H) Cemented crown.
Indirect technique: Custom-made provisionals

using vacuum-formed template
• A diagnostic cast is obtained and artificial teeth are arranged (Fig.
38.8A and B). Putty is used to stabilize the artificial teeth on the cast
instead of wax. Wax will melt while using the thermoforming
machine.
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• Place a hole in the middle of the cast in midpalatal or midlingual
region, and place the cast at the centre of the vacuum machine.
• Place the temporary splint material in the vacuum machine.
• Turn on the heating element and allow the sheet to sag (Fig. 38.8C).
• At the appropriate level of sagging, forcefully lower the frame over

the cast and turn on the vacuum, and adapt the sheet over the cast
and allow it to cool (Fig. 38.8D).
• The artificial teeth are removed from the cast and the thermoformed
sheet is trimmed to fit the gingival contours and a template
(anatomic contour/index) is obtained of the restoration.
• Index can also be obtained as described previously using putty.
• The abutment teeth are prepared in the mouth (Fig. 38.8E).
• A quick setting plaster cast is made from an alginate impression of

the tooth preparation (Fig. 38.8F).
• The thermoformed template is tried on the model to check fit and is

removed (Fig. 38.8G).
• Separating medium is applied on the cast and autopolymerizing

acrylic resin of appropriate shade is mixed and poured into the
template in the area of the restoration.
• The template is now positioned on the cast with the provisional

material, ensuring correct seating (Fig. 38.8H).
• Hold the template to the cast using rubber bands.
• Finally after polymerization is complete the provisional is removed

from the cast and index, the excess is trimmed and the pontic area is
contoured (Fig. 38.8I and J).
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• After finishing and polishing occlusion is checked and cemented
using temporary cement (Fig. 38.8K).
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FIGURE 38.8 (A) Diagnostic cast with missing mandibular
anterior teeth. (B) Teeth arranged. (C) Cast placed in
machine and thermoformed sheet heated and allowed to sag.
(D) Cast with artificial teeth vacuum formed. (E) Tooth
preparation done. (F) Plaster cast following tooth preparation.
(G) Template placed on cast to check fit. (H) Template seated
on cast filled with the provisional material in the area of the
restoration. (I) Template removed from cast after
polymerization. (J) Provisional restoration trimmed and fitted
on cast – buccal view. (K) Final provisional cemented in
mouth.
Direct–indirect technique
This technique combines the merits of the indirect and direct
techniques. A shell (anatomic form) of the provisional restoration is
fabricated indirectly on a cast with the material used for the
restoration, before tooth preparation. The shell is relined with the
same material intraorally after tooth preparation to ensure accurate fit.
• The diagnostic impression is made before preparation and cast is

• The edentulous areas are restored with acrylic denture teeth and
necessary corrections are made on the abutment teeth with wax
(Fig. 38.9B).
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• A putty index is made up of the restored cast (Fig. 38.9C).
• The arranged artificial teeth are removed and the abutment teeth are
prepared on the cast. Care is taken to ensure that preparation is
minimal and less than that intended for the final restoration in the
mouth (Fig. 38.9D and E).
• Autopolymerizing acrylic resin of appropriate shade is mixed and

poured in the putty index (Fig. 38.9F).
• The putty index filled with resin is then correctly repositioned on

the cast after applying separating medium on cast. The index is
secured with rubber bands for maximum adaptation (Fig. 38.9G).
• After setting, the provisional restoration is trimmed and replaced on

the cast (Fig. 38.9H).
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FIGURE 38.9 (A) Intraoral picture showing missing first
premolar, first molar and fractured anterior FPD requiring
replacement. (B) On the diagnostic cast, edentulous areas
are restored and wax corrections are done. (C) Putty index
fabricated. (D) Tooth prepared minimally in the stone model.
(E) Preparation completed on stone model. (F)
Autopolymerizing acrylic resin is poured into the putty index.
(G) Putty index secured onto cast using rubber bands. (H)
Indirect provisional restoration trimmed and fitted on the cast.
(I) Abutment teeth prepared in the patient’s mouth. (J) After
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tooth preparation in the patient’s mouth acrylic resin is added
to retainers in the indirect provisional. (K) Stabilized using
finger pressure in the patient’s mouth and allowed to partially
set. (L) Relined provisional after removal from mouth. (M)
Final indirect–direct provisional cemented after trimming and
polishing.
This provisional is fabricated indirectly on the cast with a tentative tooth

preparation and so will not fit accurately after final tooth preparation. This
restoration is fabricated and kept ready before the abutment teeth are prepared
in the patient’s mouth.
• The abutment teeth are prepared in the patient’s mouth to its final
shape (Fig. 38.9I).
• The retainers of the indirectly made provisional are relined with the
same acrylic resin used for its fabrication (Fig.38.9J).
• This is placed in the mouth after application of separating medium

on the teeth and adjacent areas and held with finger pressure till the
initial set (Fig. 38.9K).
• It is removed before the final set or exothermic reaction begins, and

allowed to polymerize in warm water (Fig. 38.9L).
This is the direct method performed intraorally to obtain accurate fit.
• The restoration is trimmed, checked for fit, occlusal correction done,

polished and cemented (Fig. 38.9M).
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Limitations of provisional restoration
• Lack of adequate strength – fracture of provisional is possible in
long span FPDs, patients with bruxism and reduced interocclusal
clearance.
• Inadequate marginal adaptation.
• Poor aesthetics in long term provisional restoration.
• Plaque accumulation due to poor surface characteristics.
• Compromised bonding characteristics.
• Mild to moderate tissue irritation.
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Cementation
Ideal properties
• Ability to seal against leakage of oral fluid.
• Strength consistent with intentional removal.
• Low solubility.
• Blandness or obtundency.
• Chemical compatibility with the provisional polymer.
• Convenience of dispensing and mixing.
• Ease of eliminating excess.
• Adequate working time and short setting time.
• Compatibility with the definitive luting agent.
Cements
1. Zinc oxide eugenol
2. Reinforced zinc oxide eugenol
3. Noneugenol cements.
Noneugenol cements are used as free eugenol interferes with the

setting of acrylic resins and bonding of composite to tooth if final
cement is a resin cement.
Eugenol has good antimicrobial properties and reduces
postpreparation sensitivity. If this is desired, then reinforced zinc
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oxide eugenol is used.
Zinc phosphate, zinc polycarboxylate and glass ionomer cement are
not recommended because their comparatively high strength makes
intentional removal difficult. The cements are available as powder–
liquid, paste–paste and automixing varieties.
Procedure
• The external surfaces of the restoration are lubricated with
petrolatum to facilitate removal of excess cement.
• Mix the base and catalyst together rapidly and apply small quantity
just occlusal to the margins. This forms the required seal against
oral fluids. Completely filling the crown or abutment retainers
should be avoided, because it prolongs cleanup and increases the
risk of leaving the debris in the sulcus.
• Seat the restoration and allow the cement to set.
• Carefully remove excess with an explorer and dental floss.
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Removal of provisional restoration
Provisional restoration can be removed using forces given parallel to
long axis of tooth preparation. Haemostatic artery forceps are used for
single-unit restorations giving slight buccolingual movement to break
the cement seal. Looping dental floss under the connector at each end
of the connector is useful in case of FPD. Crown removers and cutting
of crowns are more often used only with definitive restorations (see
Chapter 42).
SUMMARY
Provisional restoration is essential immediately after tooth
preparation to prevent the tooth from injury, abnormal tooth
movement. It should fulfil the ideal requirements and should be well
tolerated and easily accepted by patients. Each provisional restorative
material has certain advantages and disadvantages and is selected
based on the clinical situation. Various techniques for fabrication
have been discussed in detail and the techniques can be selected
depending on the patient comfort, feasibility, and cost factor.
Temporary cementation provides easy removal of the restoration.
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CHAPTER
39
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Shade selection and lab
communication
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 584
Colour and light 584
Colour mixing 584
Colour wheel 584
Colour description 586
Colour of human teeth 587
Colour perception 587
Shade guides 587
Visual 587
Electronic shade taking devices 589
Shade distribution chart 589
Shade selection guidelines 590
Lab communication 591
Summary 591
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Introduction
To provide aesthetic restorations to the patients, the dentist must
understand the scientific as well as artistic basis of shade selection. To
accomplish this, a thorough knowledge of the concepts of colour and
light is necessary with clear communication to the laboratory. All
these aspects will be discussed in this chapter.
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Colour and light
Colour of an object is determined by the light that enters the human
eye from that object.
Light is a form of visible energy that is part of the radiant energy
spectrum. Radiant energy possesses specific wavelengths measured in
nanometres (nm).
Visible light spectrum ranges from 400–700 nm. Wavelengths lesser
than visible light include ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma and cosmic rays.
Above visible spectrum there are infrared, microwaves, television,
radio and electrical waves.
Colour mixing
In the additive or light-mixture colour mixing system; red, green, blue
are the primary colours. Mixing two primary colours produces a
secondary colour.
Red + green = yellow
Green + blue = cyan
Red + blue = magenta
This system applies only to combining lights and illuminants (Fig.
39.1).
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FIGURE 39.1 Additive colour mixing system.
In the subtractive or pigment-mixture colour mixing system, the

secondary colours in the additive system yellow-cyan-magenta are the
primary colours. Mixing any two of them produces a secondary
colour – red, green, blue.
Yellow + cyan = green
Cyan + magenta = blue
Magenta + yellow = red
This system is used in fields such as painting and printing (Fig.
39.2). In dental ceramics both additive and subtractive colour concepts
are used.
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FIGURE 39.2 Subtractive colour mixing system.
Colour wheel
Primary and secondary colours are arranged in the form of a wheel
(Fig. 39.3). It is produced by bending the spectrum of light into a
circle.
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FIGURE 39.3 Colour wheel showing complementary colours.
Colours directly opposite each other are called complementary

colours. For example, the complementary colour of yellow is blue.
Mixing of a colour with its complementary gives an achromatic result.
Mixing of three primary colours also produces an achromatic result.
Colour description
Two systems may be used to describe colour:
1. Munsell colour order system – more visually descriptive.
2. Cielab colour system – more quantitative.
Munsell colour order system

Developed by Albert Henry Munsell in 1915, the system describes
colour possessing three dimensions – hue, chroma and value (Figs
39.4A and 39.5).
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FIGURE 39.5 Munsell colour order system – showing effects
of variations in hue, value and chroma.
Hue
It is the particular variety of a colour (Figs 39.4B and 39.5). Often
referred to as the basic colour, hue is used to distinguish one family of
colour from another – red, green, blue, as determined by the
wavelength.
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FIGURE 39.4 (A) Three dimensions of colour. (B) Hues –
blue, yellow, red and green. (C) Saturation of the hue red. (D)
Values of light intensities or saturations.
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There are 10 hue families:
1. R – red
2. YR – yellow-red
3. Y – yellow
4. GY – green-yellow
5. G – green
6. BG – blue-green
7. B – blue
8. PB – purple-blue
9. P – purple
10. RP – red-purple
Each of these is further divided into 10 numbered segments, e.g.

middle of red would be 5R.
Chroma
It is the intensity or saturation of the colour (Figs 39.4C and 39.5). The
chroma scale starts from achromatic, or zero, with increasing values
indicating stronger colour.
A particular colour is classified as weak, moderate or strong
according to chroma.
Value
It is the brightness or the relative amount of darkness or lightness in
the hue (Figs 39.4D and 39.5).
It is an achromatic or colourless distinction. Black is zero and white
is 10. Colours with low values are dark, while colours with high
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values are light.
For shade matching, value is the most important characteristic.
This is because value differences are easily detected by even the
individuals untrained in colour perception. They are also easily
detected even from a distance. Whenever it is not possible to match
perfectly using the shade guide, it is better to select the lighter shade
which will allow modifications via staining later.
These are designated as HV/C, e.g. 5R 4/6, would mean hue is
medium red, value is 4 and chroma is 6.
Cielab colour system

In 1976, the International Commission of I’Eclairage (CIE) introduced
this system to describe colour. For the first time it was possible to
express colour in numbers and to calculate the difference in two
colours quantitatively using a formula.
The method used in dentistry is the uniform colour space, known as
CIEL*a*b* (Fig. 39.6). Colour space is a numerical value that expresses
the object’s colour.
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FIGURE 39.6 Cielab colour system.
L* indicates the lightness coordinate of the object, with values from

0 (absolute black) to 100 (absolute white).
The values a* and b* indicate the chromaticity coordinates, showing
the three-dimensional position of the object in the colour space and its
direction. When the coordinate a* is positive (+a*), the object colour
tends to be red. When this coordinate is negative (−a*), the trend is
green. This coordination can range from −90 to 70 Δa*. The coordinate
b* indicates the direction to yellow (+b*) or blue (−b*), and can vary
from −80 to 100 Δb*.
Colour differences or ΔE represent equally perceived shade
gradations.
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Colour of human teeth
Spectrophotometer studies show a hue range of 6 YR to 9.3 Y, a value
range of 4–8 and a chroma range from 0 to 6. Hence, the human teeth
lie in the yellow-red to yellow portion of colour wheel, with value
range in the lighter portion, which indicates that very dark teeth are
uncommon. The chroma range is towards the lower scale, which
indicates that strong colours are not found.
Colour perception
This involves the participation of three factors:
1. The observer
2. The object being observed
3. The light source
Observer
Perception of colour is a subjective process and depends on the
observer’s visual individuality. It depends on the age, duration of
exposure of the eye, fatigue or illness related to the colour like colour
blindness. It is important that a dentist should be aware if a visual
deficiency exists in him. If so, he could rely on a well-trained assistant
or lab technician to match shades.
Object
When light falls on an object, it is absorbed, reflected, transmitted or
refracted depending on the light transmitting ability of the object. This
produces a characteristic quality of that colour.
Different parts of the same object can also exhibit varying light
transmission thereby changing the perceived colour.
Light scattering or reflecting off the operatory walls, and furniture
also influences the colour of an object. Hence the operatory should
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have neutral colours.
Light source
The light source utilized has a definite effect on the perception of
colour. There are commonly three available sources – natural daylight,
incandescent light and fluorescent light (Fig. 39.7). Light-emitting
diode (LED) lights are also being used currently. Colour corrected
lights are also available which emit light with a more uniform
distribution of colour. Each light source produces a characteristic
distribution of colour in the light it emits. Natural daylight is also
extremely variable, with a different hue of light during morning,
noon, afternoon and when it is cloudy. Hence, it is necessary to select
shade first with colour corrected lights and then check the same with
other sources so that metamerism is minimized. Examples of
commercially available colour corrected lights are – Demetron shade
light and Vita-Lite.
FIGURE 39.7 Three common sources of light (a) natural

daylight, (b) incandescent light (dental chair) and (c)
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fluorescent light (operatory).
Metamerism: An object appears to be having different colours

when viewed under different light sources.
A spectrally balanced light source with a colour temperature close
to 5500 K is ideal for shade selection. Table 39.1 gives the colour
temperature of common light sources.
Table 39.1
Colour temperature of common light sources
Source Colour temperature (K)

Incandescent bulb 2900
Warm fluorescent bulb 3000
Cool white fluorescent bulb 4200
White LED light 2700
Overcast sky 6500
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Shade guides
Visual
Shade matching is performed visually using shade guides. It is
preferable that the porcelain powder manufacturer has the powders in
that shade.
Each shade tab has an opaque backing colour, neck, body and
incisal colours (Fig. 39.8 A and B). They are made of high fusing
porcelains without a metal backing, where the thickness of the
porcelain is much more than that on the restoration. Selecting shade
with a lower value may be beneficial with metal-ceramic restorations.
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FIGURE 39.8 (A) Tabs of different shades, (B) Shade tab. (a)
Incisal, (b) opaque backing, (c) body, (d) neck.
Three shade guides are used commonly and universally.
Vita lumin vacuum shade guide

The first shade guide was introduced in the market by Vita
Zahnfabrik in 1956. It consists of 16 tabs arranged in four groups
depending on hue (A–D). Each is further divided in an increasing
order of chroma (1–4) (Fig. 39.9).
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FIGURE 39.9 Vita Lumin vacuum shade guide (courtesy
VITA Zahnfabrik).
Ivoclar vivadent chromascop

It consists of 20 tabs arranged in five groups based on hue (1 – white, 2
– light yellow, 3 – dark yellow, 4 – grey, 5 – brown) and within the
groups according to increasing chroma (10–40) (Fig. 39.10).
FIGURE 39.10 Ivoclar Vivadent chromascop shade guide

(courtesy Ivoclar Vivadent).
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In both the above guides, hue is selected first followed by chroma
and value.
Vita 3D-master
This is claimed to be the most scientifically based guide and is based
on the value rather than the hue. It consists of 26 tabs. They are
divided into 5 groups (1–5) based on lightness (value). Each group has
evenly spaced hue and chroma variations. Hues are separated into L –
yellow, M – middle, R – red. Each hue is then segregated based on the
chroma. The value is selected first, followed by hue and finally by
chroma (Fig. 39.11).
FIGURE 39.11 Vita 3D-Master shade guide (courtesy VITA

Zahnfabrik).
Arrangement of the shade tabs of the three systems in the colour

space shows more uniform distribution for Vita 3D-Master (Fig.
39.12).
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FIGURE 39.12 Arrangement of shade tabs in colour space of
the three shade guides – 3D Master shows even distribution.
Electronic shade taking devices

These are electronic instruments which record the colour of the tooth.
They allow an improved understanding of colour perception and its
correlation with clinical aspects. They are more expensive.
They can be divided into two categories.
Colourimeters
It measures the absorbance of different wavelengths of light in a
solution. Different filters are used to select the wavelength of light that
the solution absorbs the most, e.g. shade eye – shofu (Fig. 39.13).
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FIGURE 39.13 Shade eye (courtesy Shofu).
Spectrophotometers
It quantitatively measures the reflection or transmission properties of
a material as a function of wavelength, e.g. easy shade – vita (Fig.
39.14).
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FIGURE 39.14 Easy shade – vita (courtesy VITA
Zahnfabrik).
Shade distribution chart

The tooth is divided into incisal, middle and cervical portions and the
colour of each region is matched independently.
Various patterns of translucency must be recognized to attain good
results. In younger patients the incisal enamel is thick and very
translucent. As translucency increases the value decreases. Over years
of function, this enamel is lost. Similarly the thickness of the enamel
on the buccal aspect of the teeth also decreases and allows the dentine
to dominate the shade.
Individual characteristics are then marked (Fig. 39.15). The surface
of the tooth or the restoration determines how much of the light is
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reflected away. This produces changes in the perceived colour of the
restoration. Younger teeth show a great deal of surface
characterization like stippling, developmental lobes, ridges and
striations. Older teeth, due to wear show a smoother, highly polished
surface. Communicating this characteristic is extremely difficult and
the use of custom shade guides or extracted teeth has been advocated
by some authors.
FIGURE 39.15 Shade distribution chart.
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Shade selection guidelines
1. The external environment like walls and cabinets should be in
grey/pastel colours. Colour corrected light is used.
2. The shade should be matched at the beginning of an

appointment/procedure. Teeth become dehydrated following a
procedure and the operator’s eye is also fatigued after focussing on
the same. It may be a good option to select shade during the
diagnostic appointment itself.
3. All distractions like makeup, heavy jewellery should be removed

prior to shade selection. Bright clothing is covered.
4. The teeth should be free of plaque and stains and should be kept
moist.
5. The patient is seated upright with the teeth at eye level of operator
who is positioned between the patient and the light source. A viewing
distance of 10 inch is maintained (Fig. 39.16).
6. A shade guide that corresponds to the porcelain that the technician

uses should be selected.
7. The entire shade guide is first scanned quickly placing it adjacent to

the teeth, and the worst matches are eliminated.
8. Quick 5 s observations are made with matching shade tabs placed

next to the tooth being matched, to avoid fatigue. In between the
dentist should rest his eyes by glancing at a neutral grey surface. The
shade is matched in the order of hue, chroma and value depending on
the guide. Value is selected better by squinting the eyes.
9. In case a decision has to be made between two shades, the tabs are
held on either side of the tooth. If none of the tabs allow a good match,
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the gingival portion is matched separately followed by the incisal
portion (Figs 39.17–39.19).
10. Selection is first made in a corrected light source; the process is

then repeated in another light source.
11. Finally, the teeth are examined for any characterizations like
hypocalcifications, craze lines and internal stains. The location of these
can be measured using a periodontal probe and is noted on the shade
distribution chart.
12. Finally the shade guide is disinfected.
FIGURE 39.16 Position of patient and operator.
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FIGURE 39.17 Tabs are held on either side of the tooth, if
choice has to be made between two shades.
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FIGURE 39.18 Gingival portion shade matching.
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FIGURE 39.19 Incisal portion shade matching.
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Lab communication
There is nothing more frustrating for the clinician than to modify
restorations at the try-in appointment. Usually these problems occur
due to improper communication between the clinician and technician.
This problem can be prevented to a great extent through improved
communication with written work authorization. A sample laboratory
prescription form is given below.
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SUMMARY
Colour is the visual perception of light that permits the differentiation
of otherwise similar objects. There are three factors upon which this
colour perception is dependent – the observer, the object and the light
source.
Selecting the basic shade of the restoration is the first step to
aesthetic restorations. Other factors such as translucency, surface
texture and lustre play an important role in bringing natural looking
results to ceramic restorations. Effectively communicating the
information to the laboratory technician is equally important. There
are various methods available such as shade guides and shade
distribution charts where the relevant information is marked out
graphically.
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CHAPTER
40
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Lab procedures
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 592
Working cast and dies 592
Requirements 592
Materials for working casts and dies 593
Fabrication 593
Die spacer 599
Wax patterns 600
Wax 600
Waxing instruments 601
Fabricating wax pattern 601
Spruing 608
Sprue 608
Crucible former 611
Casting rings and liners 612
Procedure 612
Investing 613
Investment material 614
Procedure 614
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Burnout or wax elimination 614
Casting 615
Casting equipment 615
Casting using a torch flame and centrifugal
casting machine 615
Veneering 620
Ceramic veneering 620
Resin veneering 621
Soldering 622
Requirements of a solder 622
Soldering materials 622
Soldering procedure 623
Summary 625
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Introduction
The fabrication of a fixed partial denture is an indirect laboratory
procedure as direct fabrication in mouth is not possible. This
commences with the receipt of impression from the clinician along
with the necessary instructions for the fabrication (lab
communication). The procedures discussed here are aimed at
fabricating a cast metal prosthesis veneered with resin or ceramic. It
involves making a working (master) cast with removable dies on
which the wax pattern is fabricated. The pattern is invested and cast
using the lost wax process. The metal restoration is then veneered
with resin or most commonly ceramic as required.
The lab procedures involved in fabricating a fixed partial denture
involve:
• Pouring working casts and dies
• Fabricating wax patterns
• Spruing
• Investing
• Casting
• Veneering
• Soldering
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Working cast and dies
• Working cast is a master cast that reproduces the entire arch
including the prepared and unprepared teeth, relevant soft tissues
and edentulous areas.
• The die is a positive reproduction of only the prepared teeth

(abutments).
• Wax patterns are fabricated and the critical margins are finished on
a die. This is then placed on the articulated working cast to check
the occlusion, axial contours and interproximal contacts.
• Dies may be removable but are an integral part of the same working
cast or they can be also separate from the cast.
Requirements
Working casts
• The prepared and unprepared tooth surfaces must be accurately
reproduced.
• The cast must be free of voids in critical areas like prepared teeth
and adjacent teeth.
• Should allow proper articulation with the opposing casts.
• The soft tissues including the residual ridges should be recorded

properly.
Dies
• They must be an accurate reproduction of the prepared tooth, both
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in dimension and surface details, without voids.
• Unprepared tooth structure cervical to finish line should also be

accurately reproduced to aid in development of proper cervical
contour.
• The margins must be clearly visible and easily accessible.
• Its form should aid easy handling during waxing and other
procedures.
Materials for working casts and dies
Requirements
• Should be accurate.
• Should be strong and resistant to abrasion.
• Should be easy to section and trim.
• Must be in a contrasting colour to that of the wax so that the

margins can be easily visualized.
• Must be compatible with the impression material.
• Must be wettable by wax and should also be compatible with

separating agents so that the prepared wax pattern does not stick to
it.
Gypsum products
The most commonly used die material is type IV gypsum also called
die stone. Type V gypsum can also be used if higher expansion is
required.
Advantages
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• Easy to use and are cost effective.
• Good compatibility with all impression materials.
• Adequate surface detail reproduction and dimensional accuracy.
Disadvantage
• Poor abrasion resistance.
Several methods have been used to increase abrasion resistance:
• Gypsum hardeners such as aqueous colloidal silica or soluble resin

solutions can be used instead of water.
• The surface of the die stone can be treated with a resin such as
epoxy, acrylic or cyanoacrylate (such a treatment can form an
excessively thick surface layer).
Resins
Epoxy resin and polyurethanes are used.
Advantages
• High strength and abrasion resistance.
• Good detail reproduction.
Disadvantages
• Expensive.
• Polymerization shrinkage (less of a problem with newer materials

and polyurethanes).
• Not compatible with polysulphides and hydrocolloids.
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Electroformed dies
This is the process of coating the impression by placing the impression
in an electroplating bath. Pure silver or copper is deposited on the
impression and a cast is then poured with type IV gypsum or resin.
Advantage
• Good abrasion resistance and detail reproduction.
Disadvantages
• Distortion may occur if not handled properly.
• Time-consuming procedure and special equipment is required.
• Incompatible with polyethers and sometimes even with some

brands of silicones.
• Silver electroplating uses cyanide solution which is extremely toxic.
Divestment
• This is a gypsum-bonded material which is used both as a die and
investment material. To make the working cast and die, it is mixed
with colloidal silica. The wax pattern is fabricated on this. The wax
pattern along with the cast is invested in the same material. This
eliminates the need to remove the wax pattern for investing and
prevents distortion.
• It cannot be used with high-fusing alloys (base metal and metal

ceramic) and can be used only for conventional gold alloys.
Type IV gypsum is the most popular and commonly used die material for
fixed prosthodontics.
Fabrication
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There are two methods of fabrication:
1. Working cast with separate dies
2. Working cast with removable dies
Working cast with separate dies

The impression is poured twice. First, only the prepared teeth are
poured with type IV gypsum for making a die and the partial cast is
removed from the impression. Then a full arch cast is poured for the
working cast, which is then articulated. The wax pattern is first
fabricated on the die and then transferred to the working cast for
checking contour, contact and occlusion. It is finally returned to the
die to refine the margins.
Advantages
• Simple method.
• Working cast requires only minimal trimming.
• Intact gingival tissues around the prepared teeth in the working cast
guide proper contouring of cervical aspect.
Disadvantages
• May be difficult to transfer and seat delicate patterns from dies and
working casts.
• Distortion is a concern.
Technique
• Moisture is removed from the elastomeric impressions by using a

surfactant and from hydrocolloid impressions by blowing with air.
• The required amount of die stone is mixed as per the manufacturer’s
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instructions and the prepared and adjacent sections of the cast are
poured.
• The stone is built up to a height of approximately 1.0 inch (2.5 cm)

over the preparation. This allows bulk for an adequate handle on
the die.
• It is allowed to set for 1 h and the sectional cast is removed from the
impression.
• The handle of the die should be octagonal in cross-section, slightly

larger in diameter than the preparation and parallel to the long axis
of the tooth. The ideal length of the handle should be about 1 inch
(Fig. 40.1).
• An acrylic bur is used to trim the die below the margin and the
contour near the margin can be finished using a scalpel blade. The
contour of the die apical to the finish line should be similar to
natural tooth root to allow good axial contours of the finished
restoration (Fig. 40.2A and B).
• A separate working cast is then poured of the entire arch with base
and articulated.
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FIGURE 40.1 Handle should be octagonal and one inch in
length.
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FIGURE 40.2 (A) Contour below margin similar to natural
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tooth. (B) Die trimming influences axial contours.
Working cast with removable dies

In these, the die is an integral part of the working cast and can be
removed to facilitate fabrication and finishing of the restoration.
Advantage
The wax pattern need not be removed from the die while transferring
it to the working cast. This reduces the chances of distortion of the
wax pattern.
Disadvantage
Gingival portion of the abutment is destroyed while making the die
and hence it becomes difficult to verify the emergence profile of the
restoration.
Removable dies can be made using the following:
1. Dowel pins
2. Di-Lok trays
1. Dowel pins
Dowel pins are most commonly used to make removable dies. These
are also called ‘die pins’.
Definition: A metal pin used in stone casts to remove die sections and
replace them accurately in the original position (GPT8).
Types
There are various types of commercially available dowel pins all only
differing in their mechanism to prevent rotation of the removable die.
They are also available with a metal or plastic sleeve to facilitate
accurate repositioning on cast (Fig. 40.3A–E).
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FIGURE 40.3 (A) Flat-sided single dowel, (B) curved dowel,
(C) straight double dowel with common head, (D) two
separate parallel dowels, (E) dowel with plastic sleeve.
The following methods are employed to position the dowel pin in

the working cast:
1. Prepour technique: The pins are oriented before the impression is

poured.
2. Postpour technique: The pins are placed after the cast has been
poured.
i. Prepour technique
• Any type of dowel pin can be used.
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• A bobby pin is most commonly used to hold and position the dowel
pin. Other materials that can be used for this purpose are
anaesthetic needles, paper clips and paper matches.
• A dowel pin is placed between the arms of a bobby pin. The bobby
pin is then positioned buccolingually across the impression such
that the dowel pin will be centred directly over the preparation,
without touching the impression, and along its long axis. The bobby
pin is attached to the impression with sticky wax (Fig. 40.4).
• Die stone is mixed and poured into the impression covering the
knurled end of the dowel pin and at least 3–4 mm beyond the
gingival margins of the teeth. Paper clips are placed in the stone
before it sets in other areas of the cast to aid retention to the base
(Fig. 40.5).
• After the stone sets, the bobby pins are removed from the
impression and a small ball of soft utility wax 5 mm in diameter is
placed on the tip of each dowel to aid in removing the dowel pin
after setting (Fig. 40.5). A ‘V’-shaped groove is carved on the cast
with a Bard–Parker (BP) blade running buccolingually from each
dowel pin to aid in reseating the die completely and accurately
during use (Fig. 40.5).
• The open lingual/palatal space of the impression is covered with

baseplate wax or a paper towel to enable pouring of a complete base
(Fig. 40.5).
• The cast is lubricated around each dowel with Vaseline or

separating medium to permit easy separation of the dies from the
working cast.
• The base of the cast is poured with dental stone. After the stone has
set, the cast is removed from the impression and the excess is
trimmed till the wax balls are exposed. The wax is removed to
expose the tips of the dowel pins (Fig. 40.6).
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• A die cutting saw with thin blades is used to section the dies. Cuts
are made vertically and interproximally on either side of the
prepared teeth, such that it converges towards the base (Fig. 40.7).
• The exposed end of the dowel is gently tapped with an instrument

handle to loosen and remove the die (Fig. 40.8).
• Advantage: Simple method without any elaborate equipment.
• Disadvantage: Pins can be displaced while the cast is poured.
FIGURE 40.4 Dowel pins positioned with bobby pins

attached to impression with pins or sticky wax.
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FIGURE 40.5 Wax ball (a), groove (b), paper clips (c) and
lingual/palatal space coverage (d).
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FIGURE 40.6 Wax removed to expose tip of dowel pin.
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FIGURE 40.7 Die sectioned with saw.
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FIGURE 40.8 End of pin tapped with an instrument handle to
remove die pin.
ii. Postpour technique
• In the postpour technique, a full arch cast is first poured to cover the
entire impression (Fig. 40.9).
• After setting, the cast is removed from the impression and base is
trimmed such that at least 5 mm of base is available beyond the
gingival margins of the teeth (Fig. 40.10).
• Holes are drilled with fissure bur on the base of the cast
corresponding to the centre of the prepared teeth and other areas of
cast so that all the holes are parallel (Fig. 40.11).
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• Dowel pins are cemented with cyanoacrylate or luting cement such
as zinc phosphate on the prepared holes (Fig. 40.12A and B).
• Wax ball and grooves are placed as described previously (Fig.

40.13A). Separating media is applied around the dowels on the
prepared teeth (Fig. 40.13B). The cast is boxed and the base is
poured with dental stone (Fig. 40.13C).
• Die is sectioned and removed as described with the previous

technique (Fig. 40.14A–C).
• Advantages:
○ Final impression can be poured immediately

without any obstructing pins.
○ Removable section is planned with master cast

rather than impressions.
• Disadvantage: Fracture of first pour of cast if made too thin.
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FIGURE 40.9 Full arch cast poured to cover the entire
impression.
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FIGURE 40.10 Cast is removed and trimmed.
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FIGURE 40.11 Holes drilled corresponding to the teeth.
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FIGURE 40.12 (A) Cyanoacrylate applied on base of dowel
pin. (B) Pin is then fixed in the holes made.
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FIGURE 40.13 (A) Wax ball and grooves placed. (B)
Separating media applied. (C) Base poured.
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FIGURE 40.14 (A) The die is sectioned interproximally to the
abutments, tapering to the base. (B) They are removed by
tapping the exposed end. (C) Removed individual die.
Pindex system
• This is basically a postpour technique and the Pindex machine is

used to place the dowel pins accurately parallel over the centre of
the prepared teeth (Fig. 40.15).
• After the cast is retrieved and trimmed to appropriate dimension as

described previously, the pins are placed with the help of the
Pindex system.
• The desired location of the pins is marked on the occlusal surfaces of
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the teeth and preparations. There should be two pins for each die,
each for an edentulous area and the segment containing unprepared
teeth.
• The machine is turned on and the cast is placed on the worktable.

The red illuminated dot from the light beam director is aligned with
the pencil dot marked on the cast (Fig. 40.16). A hole is drilled by
the machine directly below the red light on the base of the cast as
the cast is pressed down. All the marked areas are drilled and
dowel pins are cemented with cyanoacrylate.
• When the cement has dried, the sleeves are placed over the pins
such that the flat sides of their bases face each other.
• The base of the cast can be added by either boxing the cast
conventionally or by using specially fabricated base formers. After
sectioning the dies, die hardener and die spacer are added and the
casts are mounted.
• Advantage: Pins are placed accurately and parallel to each other.
• Disadvantage: Special equipment is required.
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FIGURE 40.15 Pindex machine: laser pointer (a), platform
(b).
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FIGURE 40.16 Pindex machine platform. Drill in the platform
makes a hole on the base of cast whereas indicated by the
laser pointer.
2. Di-lok trays
It involves the use of a specially fabricated tray that allows precise
reassembling of a sectioned working cast.
• Impression is poured with die stone to a height of 1 inch or 2.5 cm.
• The ‘U’-shaped cast, must have an open lingual area, and must be
trimmed so that it fits into a Di-Lok tray (Fig. 40.17).
• Stone is mixed and vibrated into the tray until it is three-quarters

full.
• The cast is seated such that the cervical lines of the teeth are about 4
mm above the edge of the tray.
• The stone is allowed to set.
• The cast can be removed by tapping on the front of the base of the
tray with the handle of a laboratory knife.
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• A saw blade is used to cut between the prepared and adjacent teeth.
• The die and the other parts of the cast can be removed and
reassembled as required (Figs 40.18 and 40.19).
• The Di-Lok trays can be attached to an articulator by means of

undercut rails on it.
• Advantage: It is a simple procedure.
• Disadvantage: The large size of the tray makes articulation and

manipulation cumbersome.
FIGURE 40.17 A Di-Lok tray.
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FIGURE 40.18 Parts of tray can be removed.
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FIGURE 40.19 Cast reassembled after sectioning the die.
Die trimming
Whichever procedure is used to fabricate removable dies, the apical
portion below the margins should be trimmed similar to that
described for working cast with separate dies.
Die spacer
Definition: An agent applied to a die to provide space for the luting
agent in the finished casting (GPT8).
• It is applied prior to commencing the fabrication of wax patterns.
• The die spacer is a material that is applied to the surface of a die to

create space between the tooth and the restoration. This space is
required for the cementing material.
• The margins should not be coated with the spacer (Fig. 40.20A and
B). A band of about 1 mm adjacent to the finish line is not coated.
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This allows for adequate marginal adaptation.
• The thickness of the die spacer depends on the number of coats

applied. A thickness of about 20–40 µm is adequate.
• The solvent of the die spacer has a tendency to evaporate, hence a

thinner is supplied along with the spacer.
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FIGURE 40.20 (A) Die coated with commercially available
die spacer. (B) Spacer should not cover the margins.
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Wax patterns
A wax pattern of the restoration is the next step in the fabrication of a
fixed partial denture. For any restoration involving castings (lost wax
process), a wax pattern is essential. It is used for making the metal
portion of all metal and metal veneered with ceramic or resins.
A wax pattern can be fabricated directly or indirectly.
• In the direct technique the pattern is waxed on the prepared tooth in

the patient’s mouth. It is made with type I inlay wax and can be
adopted for small restorations like inlays and posts. It is practically
impossible to make extracoronal restorations directly as it is
cumbersome, technique sensitive and will take away a lot of
chairside time.
• The indirect technique is the most commonly used method for

fabricating fixed partial dentures. The pattern is fabricated on a die
made from an impression of the prepared tooth. It offers the
following advantages:
○ Allows better visualization of the restoration.
○ Margins can be accessed and finished better.
○ Chairside time of clinician is reduced.
○ Better standardization in technique as it is

fabricated in a laboratory.
Wax
Type II inlay wax is used to fabricate indirect restorations.
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Ideal requirements
• It should soften uniformly.
• The wax colour should be in contrast to that of the die to facilitate

proper finishing of margins.
• It should not flake or chip when carved.
• It should burn out without any residue.
• It should be rigid and dimensionally stable.
• Must not flow at room temperatures.
Composition
1. Paraffin wax (40%–60%) – main ingredient.
2. Carnauba wax, ceresin, candelilla wax – decreases the flow at

mouth temperature.
3. Gum dammar – reduces flaking.
4. Synthetic waxes – replace carnauba wax to improve the working

characteristics.
5. Dyes – give colour.
Properties
1. Flow
• At 45°C – type I and II should flow between 70% and 90%.
• At 37°C – type I should not flow more than 1%.
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• At 30°C – type II should not flow more than 1%.
• Flow should be as low as possible during removal from die and

subsequent handling.
2. Thermal properties
• Low thermal conductivity – takes time for them to heat and cool
uniformly.
• High coefficient of thermal expansion – expand and contract when

heated and cooled.
3. Wax distortion
When distortion occurs, the wax is bent and the inner molecules are
under compression and the outer ones are in tension. Once the
stresses are gradually relieved, the wax tends to straighten and
distort.
To minimize distortion:
• Wax should be added in melted increments or drops, or by dipping

in melted wax.
• Margins must be remade just before investing.
• Wax pattern should be invested as soon as it is completed.
Waxing instruments
1. PKT set: The waxing instruments designed by Dr Peter K. Thomas
(PKT) are the most commonly used (Fig. 40.21). It consists of five
instruments each with a specific use:
○ No. 1 and No. 2 – wax adding
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○ No. 3 – burnishing
○ No. 4 and No. 5 – carving

2. No. 7: Wax spatula is used for adding large amount of wax.
3. Electric waxing instruments: These are also available for adding

wax (Fig. 40.22).
• Advantages:
○ Allows precise temperature control.
○ Carbon buildup in instrument due to overheating

will be minimal.
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FIGURE 40.21 PKT instruments No: 1–5.
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FIGURE 40.22 Electric waxing unit.
Fabricating wax pattern
Posterior crown/retainer
1. Coping fabrication
• The coping can be made up of wax or resin. Wax is commonly used.

It must reproduce the retentive features of the restoration.
• The die is first coated with a die lubricant (separating medium) to
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facilitate easy removal of pattern (Fig. 40.23).
• The coping is formed by adding wax with a No. 7 wax spatula (Fig.
40.24) or dipping the die into molten wax (Fig. 40.25).
• Ensure that the previous layer of wax is melted before the addition
of new layers of wax. This prevents the formation of voids and flow
lines.
• The proximal areas should be given extra bulk to help removal from
die.
• Excess wax is trimmed from the margins so that the coping can be
removed and evaluated (Fig. 40.26).
FIGURE 40.23 Applying die lubricant.
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FIGURE 40.24 Adding with wax spatula.
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FIGURE 40.25 Die dipped in molten wax.
FIGURE 40.26 Excess wax in margin trimmed.
2. Axial contours
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This involves fabrication of the proximal, buccal and lingual surfaces.
Proximal
• Size and location of contact is first established. If the contact area is

too narrow, there may be wedging of food and on the other hand, if
the contact area is wide, it may injure the gingival tissues.
• When viewed from the occlusal aspect, the contact of maxillary

posteriors is located facially, except for the maxillary molars where
it is located centrally (Fig. 40.27A and B). The contact of mandibular
posteriors is located centrally (Fig. 40.28).
• When viewed buccally, the contact of maxillary and mandibular

posterior teeth is located in the occlusal third with the exception of
the maxillary first and second molars, which are located in the
middle third (Fig. 40.29A and B).
• Contour of the proximal axial surface below the contact point

should be flat or slightly concave (Fig. 40.30). Overcontouring
makes flossing and maintenance of periodontal health difficult.
▪ Fabrication: The wax coping is replaced on the die. Wax is added in

the contact areas ensuring that its size and location are in harmony
with the anatomic form. The proximal surface gingival to the
contact area is then correctly contoured (Fig. 40.31).
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FIGURE 40.27 (A) Occlusal view of contact of maxillary
posterior teeth. (B) Correct (a), large (b), narrow (c).
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FIGURE 40.28 Occlusal view of contact of mandibular
posterior teeth.
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FIGURE 40.29 (A) Buccal view of maxillary posterior contact
– contact present in occlusal third except for I and II molar
where it is present in middle third. It is similar for mandibular
posteriors. (B) Proximal contact: correct (a), too large (b),
narrow (c).
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FIGURE 40.30 Contour of proximal surface below contact
point, should be flat or slightly concave.
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FIGURE 40.31 Proximal contact is established and the
surface is contoured.
Buccal and lingual surfaces
▪ They should follow the contour of the adjacent teeth (Fig. 40.32).
▪ Height of contour of the buccal surface of posterior teeth occurs in

the cervical third of the teeth (Fig. 40.33).
▪ Height of contour of the lingual surface of maxillary posteriors also

occurs in the cervical third, but on the lingual surface of mandibular
posteriors it occurs in the middle third (Fig. 40.34).
• Emergence profile is the contour of a tooth in relation to the gingival

tissues or below the height of contour. It should be straight or
concave. Overcontouring this part results in gingival inflammation
and hyperplasia (Fig. 40.35).
• Fabrication: The buccal and lingual surfaces are contoured to their
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anatomic form using the adjacent and contralateral teeth as guides.
A smooth flat emergence profile is shaped (Fig. 40.36).
FIGURE 40.32 Buccal and lingual contour should follow the

adjacent teeth: (A) correct, (B) incorrect.
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FIGURE 40.33 Height of contour of maxillary posterior tooth
located in the cervical third both buccally and lingually.
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FIGURE 40.34 Height of contour of mandibular posterior
tooth occurs in the cervical third buccally and in the middle
third lingually.
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FIGURE 40.35 Straight emergence profile.
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FIGURE 40.36 Axial surfaces contoured.
3. Occlusal surface
Functional cusps: The posterior maxillary palatal cusps and the
mandibular buccal cusps are termed as functional cusps. They contact
the opposing occlusal fossa or marginal ridge and are used to grind
food during mastication.
Nonfunctional cusps: The posterior maxillary buccal cusps and the

mandibular lingual cusps are termed as nonfunctional cusps. They
do not contact the opposing teeth, prevent food from overflowing
and protect the cheek and tongue during mastication.
Two types of occlusal schemes can be developed based on the
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location of contact of the functional cusps:
i. Cusp-marginal ridge
• Natural occlusion found in 95% adults.
• The functional cusps contact the embrasure (two teeth) of the

opposing teeth. It is a one tooth-to-two teeth occlusal arrangement
(Tables 40.1and 40.2).
• Most commonly used and indicated for most short span

replacements.
• Food impaction into lingual embrasures causing displacement of

teeth is sometimes a disadvantage.
• The waxing technique for this scheme was devised by E.V. Payne.
Table 40.1
Location of mandibular functional contact in cusp-fossa and
cusp-marginal ridge occlusion
Table 40.2
Location of maxillary functional contact in cusp-fossa and cusp-
marginal ridge occlusion
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ii. Cusp-fossa
• Rarely found in natural dentition.
• The functional cusps contact the fossa of the opposing teeth. It is a

one tooth-to-tooth occlusal arrangement (Tables 40.1 and 40.2).
• Indicated in full mouth occlusal reconstructions.
• Occlusal forces are directed centrally and along the long axis of the
teeth, with less food impaction. Tripod contact produces greater
stability.
• Can be used only when several teeth are being replaced.
• The waxing technique for this scheme was devised by P.K. Thomas.
Fabrication: Whichever occlusal scheme is used, the following

procedure is adopted to fabricate the occlusal surface:
i. Placement of cusp cones

Cones are placed at the desired location and height of the cusps with a
PKT No. 1 instrument. Location and height of functional cusp is
determined by the area of location of its contact with its antagonist
(depending on whether it is a cusp-fossa or cusp-marginal occlusal
scheme). The location and height of nonfunctional cusp is determined
by the curve of Spee and curve of Wilson, the adjacent teeth and the
clearance required in excursive movements (Fig. 40.37A and B).
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FIGURE 40.37 (A) Placement of cusp cones. (B) Curve of
Spee (a) and curve of Wilson determining cusp height (b).
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ii. Placement of marginal and cusp ridges
The cusps are connected by placing the marginal and cusp ridges with
the same instrument. Occlusion is checked by closing the articulator
so that vertical dimension is not raised. The axial surface is carved
with a PKT No. 4 instrument (Fig. 40.38).
FIGURE 40.38 Placement of buccal and lingual cusp ridges

and marginal ridges.
iii. Placement of triangular ridges

A triangular ridge is placed for each cusp which runs towards the
centre of the tooth. The apex of the triangle is at the cusp tip and the
base is at the tooth centre. The bases should be convex buccolingually
and mesiodistally (Fig. 40.39). Occlusion is checked.
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FIGURE 40.39 Placement of triangular ridge.
iv. Completing the occlusal surface

Remaining areas (pits) between the ridges are filled with wax by using
PKT No. 2 instrument. Secondary and supplemental grooves are
carved with a PKT No. 3 instrument (Fig. 40.40). Occlusal surface is
dusted with a powder such as zinc stearate and contacts are verified
by closing the articulator.
FIGURE 40.40 Secondary grooves carved with PKT No. 3

instrument.
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4. Remargination
To obtain optimum fit, the margins must be refabricated and finished
just before investing the wax pattern. This is termed as remargination.
Procedure
• The die is lubricated and pattern is reseated.
• The entire margin is remelted using a PKT No. 1 instrument

ensuring that the wax is melted through to the die (Fig. 40.41). This
results in a depression around the entire margin (Fig. 40.42).
• The depression is filled with additional wax (Fig. 40.43).
• The margin is finished by carving the excess wax with a PKT No. 4
instrument (Fig. 40.44). A sharp instrument should not be used as it
may destroy the delicate margin in the die.
• Marginal discrepancies and their consequences are given in Table

40.3.
FIGURE 40.41 Wax melted with PKT No. 1.
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FIGURE 40.42 Depression formed.
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FIGURE 40.43 Wax added with No. 7 wax spatula.
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FIGURE 40.44 Finished with a PKT No. 4.
Table 40.3
Marginal discrepancies and their consequences
Problem Consequence
1. Overextended margin Prevents seating of casting
2. Short margin Inadequate marginal seal
3. Thick margin Overcontour
4. Rough margins (ripples) Plaque accumulation
• Cotton pellet held by tweezers and dipped in die lubricant is used to

finish the occlusal surface (Fig. 40.45).
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• The axial surfaces are smoothed and finished using wet silk cloth
and liquid detergent. It can also be finished by applying die
lubricant dipped in cotton roll and then buffing with dry cotton.
FIGURE 40.45 Cotton pellet used to finish occlusal surface.
6. Removing the wax pattern

Whenever the pattern is removed, the following technique is adopted.
The pattern is held by the thumb and forefinger of one hand while
force in the opposite direction is applied by holding the die with the
thumb and forefinger of the other hand (Fig. 40.46). A small piece of
rubber dam can also be used to hold the pattern, thereby increasing
the frictional grip.
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FIGURE 40.46 Technique to remove wax pattern.
Anterior crown/retainer
A coping is first fabricated as described for the posterior teeth.
Cusp cones are placed on the coping to determine the position of the
incisal edge. For incisors, two proximoincisal cones are used, on
mesioincisal and distoincisal angles of the crown. For canines, a third
cone extending to the cusp tip is used.
Proximal contour
Wax is placed between the margin and each proximoincisal cone. The
pattern with die is reseated on working cast with the wax still soft so
that the adjacent teeth displace the excess wax. The location of contact,
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contour of proximal surface and embrasure form are then established.
Incisal edge form

Another rim of wax is placed between the proximoincisal cones to
establish the curvature and thickness of the incisal edge. The position
of the incisal edge is determined by adjacent teeth, arch form and
eccentric occlusal relationships.
Labial surface
The labial surface is then contoured in harmony with the adjacent
teeth, arch form and aesthetics.
Lingual surface
For maxillary incisors, there should be even contact with opposing
incisors during protrusive movements, no contact during lateral
movements and slightly out of contact in maximum intercuspation. A
concavity in the lingual surface is necessary to achieve this. Lingual
surface of mandibular anteriors should be contoured for plaque
control.
Wax cutback
• All anterior teeth will need to be veneered with resin or ceramic for
aesthetics. Posterior teeth may also need to be veneered.
• A full contour wax pattern of the entire crown is first made in wax
and then the required space for the resin or ceramic is cutback (Figs
40.47 and 40.48).
• Advantages of full contour wax pattern:
○ It is a valuable aid in determining the form of the

final restoration.
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○ Cervical areas are reproduced better.
○ The veneering material is supported better.
FIGURE 40.47 Anterior wax adding technique using wax

cones: (A) labial view, (B) occlusal view.
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FIGURE 40.48 (A) Cutback for anterior metal with ceramic
facing. (B) Cutback for maxillary posterior metal with ceramic
facing. (C) Cutback for mandibular metal with ceramic facing.
(D and E) Cutback for metal with complete ceramic coverage
– (D) anterior, (E) posterior. (F) Cutback for resin facing. Note
provision of undercut and noncoverage of incisal edge.
Procedure
• The outline of the cutback is marked with a BP blade.
• Depth-orientation grooves are made with a discoid carver.
• Remaining wax is removed such that a uniform thickness is

provided for veneering material.
• Design of cutback depends on the type of restoration – metal with

ceramic facing, metal with complete ceramic coverage, metal with
resin facings.
Pontic
• For waxing fixed partial dentures, the retainers are fabricated as

described previously.
• They are placed on the working cast after a full contour wax-up.
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• The retainers are connected with a piece of inlay wax (Fig. 40.49).
• The occlusal surface is made flat and the occlusal scheme is

developed with the wax-adding technique as described for retainers
(Fig. 40.50).
• The axial, proximal and gingival contours are developed as

determined by the design of the pontic (Fig. 40.51).
• The wax is cutback if a veneered restoration is planned.
• The entire assembly is cast as such. Alternately, the retainers are

sectioned from the pontics at the connector area by a ribbon saw or
3–0 silk suture; the components are cast separately and later are
attached by soldering.
FIGURE 40.49 Retainers attached with inlay wax.
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FIGURE 40.50 Occlusal surface is made flat and gingival
surface is contoured according to pontic design.
FIGURE 40.51 Completed wax pattern.
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Spruing
Sprue
Sprue: The channel or hole through which plastic or metal is poured
or cast into a gate or reservoir and then into a mould (GPT8).
Sprue former: A wax, plastic or metal pattern used to form the

channel or channels allowing molten metal to flow into a mould to
make a casting (GPT8).
After the wax pattern is completed, it is attached with a sprue

former to a crucible former into which a casting ring is inserted to
contain the investment (Fig. 40.52).
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FIGURE 40.52 Sprue former with other components of the
casting assembly.
The channel formed is the sprue and the material used to form the
channel is the sprue former.
Requirements of sprue
1. It must allow molten metal to flow into the mould without
turbulence.
2. It must allow molten wax to escape from mould.
3. It must provide a reservoir of metal to compensate for casting

shrinkage.
Materials (sprue formers)

The sprues may be formed in wax, metal or plastic. Wax is the most
commonly used and preferred material.
Wax
• Versatile, as it can be made in different shapes, sizes and lengths.
• Melt at the same rate as the pattern.
• Allow easy escape of molten wax.
Plastic
• More rigid, hence less distortion than wax.
• Indicated for one-piece castings.
• Solid plastic sprues soften at higher temperatures than wax pattern,

thus preventing escape of wax producing rough castings. Hollow
plastic sprues are available which overcome this problem.
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Metal
• A noncorroding metal is used to prevent contamination of casting.
• The metal sprues are made hollow to increase the area of contact
and strengthen attachment with pattern.
• They must be removed along with crucible former before casting.

Care must be taken during removal to ensure that bits of
investment are not broken as these may block the channel leading to
incomplete castings.
Placement
1. Location of sprue
• Must be attached to the thickest portion of the wax pattern to

prevent ‘shrinkage porosity’.
• It should not be located in critical areas like margins or centric

contacts. Nonfunctional cusps are generally preferred locations for
sprue former attachment.
2. Angulation
• The angulation should allow the molten metal to flow to all parts of
the mould without having to flow in an opposite direction (Figs
40.53 and 40.54A).
• Should not be placed perpendicular to a flat portion as this will

cause turbulence (Fig. 40.54B). Hence, it should not be attached to a
proximal surface.
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FIGURE 40.53 Correct angle of placement of sprue former.
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FIGURE 40.54 (A) Incorrect placement – metal has to flow in
a direction opposite to the casting force, to fill the cusp tips.
(B) Incorrect placement of sprue perpendicular to a proximal
surface.
3. Diameter
• The diameter should be thicker than the thickest portion of wax

pattern to prevent shrinkage porosity (Fig. 40.55).
• A 2.5 mm diameter (10 gauge) sprue is recommended for molars
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and 2 mm (12 gauge) for premolars and partial veneer crowns.
FIGURE 40.55 Sprue – should be thicker than thickest

portion of wax pattern.
4. Length
• It should not exceed 6 mm or should be less than 2 mm.
• Short sprue former does not allow escape of gases leading to back
pressure porosity. Portion of pattern farthest from the sprue former
should be 6 mm from the base of the mould (Fig. 40.52).
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• Long sprue former will cause shrinkage porosity. This can be
prevented by attaching a reservoir in case the length is too long
(Fig. 40.56).
FIGURE 40.56 Reservoir to avoid shrinkage porosity.
5. Attachment
• The point of attachment of the sprue former to the pattern should be

smooth without any pits and irregularities. It may be flared.
• Auxiliary sprues or vents can be used in thin patterns to ensure

casting of critical areas (Fig. 40.57).
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FIGURE 40.57 Auxiliary sprue or vent.
6. Multiple unit spruing
• To cast multiple units, a transverse bar or runner bar is used. The

individual sprue formers are connected to a transverse or runner
bar with a slightly larger diameter. The runner bar can be attached
to the crucible former by one or two feeder sprues of larger
diameter than the runner bar (Fig. 40.58).
• For casting two units, sprue formers attached to the individual units
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can be angled towards each other and joined with the crucible
former (Fig. 40.59). A runner bar can also be used.
FIGURE 40.58 Multiple unit spruing using runner bar.
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FIGURE 40.59 Two unit spruing.
Crucible former
Definition: The base to which a sprue former is attached while the
wax pattern is being invested in refractory investment; a convex
rubber, plastic or metal base that forms a concave depression or
crucible in the refractory investment (GPT8).
The crucible former is attached to the sprue former till the
investment procedure is completed and removed once the investment
sets, prior to burnout (Fig. 40.60). The crucible present in the casting
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machine where the alloy is melted will direct the molten metal into
the sprue through the conical depression formed in the mould by the
crucible former (Fig. 40.61).
FIGURE 40.60 Sprue former attached to the conical part of

sprue former, which after investing and burnout forms the
entry to the mould space.
FIGURE 40.61 Ring placed in casting machine with crucible
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(B) containing metal pellets directed towards the space
created by the conical crucible former (A).
Casting rings and liners

Definition: Casting ring is a metal tube in which a refractory mould is
made for casting dental restorations (GPT8).
• Casting ring is placed on the crucible former, surrounding the wax

pattern and confines the fluid investment around the wax until it
hardens.
• It also allows the hardened investment to be handled safely during

burnout and casting.
• It is made of a metal that can withstand high heat.
• A wet liner is placed on the inside of the ring to allow setting

expansion of the investment. Liners were previously made with
asbestos, but to avoid the carcinogenic potential of asbestos a
cellulose material or a silica–alumina compound is now used (Fig.
40.62A and B). The liner should end 2 mm below the open end of
the casting ring (Fig. 40.52).
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FIGURE 40.62 (A) Ring liner (B) Liner adapted inside ring 2
mm short of open end.
Ringless castings
These are used with high strength phosphate-bonded investments and
high-melting alloys (base metal) which shrink more. A paper, rubber
or plastic ring is used to initially confine the investment, which is then
removed once the investment hardens. This allows for more
expansion to compensate for the metal shrinkage (Fig. 40.63).
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FIGURE 40.63 Rubber casting ring for ringless casting.
Procedure
• The wax pattern with the attached sprue former is removed from
the die.
• The crucible former is cleaned and coated with petroleum jelly to

prevent adherence of investment.
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• Sticky wax is applied to the apex of the cone-shaped portion of the
crucible former.
• End of sprue former is placed into the molten sticky wax and is held
there until the wax hardens. The area of attachment should be
smooth (Fig. 40.64).
• The pattern is sprayed with a surfactant (surface tension–reducing

agent) to enhance the wetting of the pattern during investing.
• The pattern should be centred in the ring (Fig. 40.65). The end of the
pattern must be at least 6 mm from the open end of the ring (Fig.
40.52). If necessary, sprue length may be shortened or a longer ring
may be chosen.
• The pattern is now ready for investing.
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FIGURE 40.64 End of sprue former is attached with molten
sticky wax to the cone-shaped portion of crucible former.
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FIGURE 40.65 Wax pattern is centred in the ring.
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Investing
Definition: The process of covering or enveloping, wholly or in part,
an object such as a denture, tooth, wax form, crown, etc. with a
suitable investment material before processing, soldering or casting
(GPT8).
Investment material
Investment materials are composed of a refractory material, binder
and modifiers.
They are classified according to the type of binder such as –
gypsum-bonded, phosphate-bonded and silica-bonded investments.
Gypsum-bonded investments are used for noble metal alloys,
phosphate-bonded investments are used for base-metal and metal-
ceramic alloys, and silica-bonded investments are used for high heat
alloys used in removable cast partial dentures.
Three types of expansions can be manipulated from the investment
material to compensate for casting shrinkage – setting, hygroscopic
and thermal. They can be manipulated by changing the powder–
liquid ratio, thickness of liner and allowing the investment to set in
water (hygroscopic).
Ideal requirements
Ideal requirements for investment materials are
• Ability to produce smooth castings.
• Controllable expansion to compensate for casting shrinkage.
• Stability at high temperatures.
• Good strength to resist forces of casting.
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• Enough porosity to allow escape of gases.
• Easy recovery of castings.
Procedure
• The powder and liquid of the investment material are hand
spatulated or mixed under vacuum.
• The material is first applied on the wax pattern with a brush (Fig.
40.66).
• The casting ring is then placed over the pattern and then the entire
ring is filled with investment material under vibration (Fig. 40.67).
• The investment is allowed to set for 1 h.
• For the hygroscopic technique, the casting ring is immediately

immersed in a water bath at 38°C for 1 h.
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FIGURE 40.66 Applying with brush.
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FIGURE 40.67 Filling ring with investment.
Burnout or wax elimination

Definition: The removal of wax from a mould, usually by heat
(GPT8).
Procedure
• The crucible former is removed from the casting after the setting of
the investment.
• The ring is placed in the burnout or muffle furnace with the sprue
hole down to facilitate flushing out of wax (Fig. 40.68).
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FIGURE 40.68 The ring should be placed with the sprue hole
facing down.
Casting temperature
• For gypsum-bonded investments, when using noble metal alloys,

the ring can be placed in the furnace at 200°C temperature for 30
min to eliminate the wax. The temperature is then raised to 480°C
(hygroscopic expansion technique) or 650°C (thermal expansion
technique) and maintained for 1 h. It should not be heated beyond
700°C as investment may disintegrate to release sulphur dioxide
and contaminate the alloy.
• For phosphate-bonded investments, when using base metal alloys,

the ring is placed in a cold furnace and the temperature is raised to
815°C in 1 h and maintained for 2 h.
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Casting
Definition: An object formed by the solidification of a fluid that has
been poured or injected into a mould (GPT8).
Casting equipment
1. Heat source – melts the alloy.
2. Casting machine – drives the molten alloy into the mould.
3. Crucible – holds the alloy during melting.
Heat source
Two types of heat sources are available:
1. Torch
Torch is used to direct the flame. There are two types of torches –
single orifice, used for noble metal alloys, and multiorifice, used for
metal-ceramic and base metal alloys. The fuel is obtained from a
combination of gas–air (for low-melting noble metal alloys), gas–
oxygen (for higher melting metal-ceramic alloys) and oxyacetylene
(for base metal alloys).
2. Electricity
• Electrical resistance or an induction field is used to melt the alloy.
• Advantage: Heating is evenly controlled with minimal changes in

alloy composition.
• Disadvantage: Expensive.
Casting machines
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1. Air-pressure casting machine
This machine uses air pressure to push the alloy into the mould.
Mostly it is used for noble metal alloys. Alloy is premelted on a
charcoal block and is placed in the air pressure casting machine
directly on the crucible formed in the investment. It is melted again
and a piston above the ring applies air pressure to push the metal into
the mould. Vacuum is also activated as the pressure is applied. This
technique is rarely used now. The alloy is melted using a torch.
2. Centrifugal casting machine

The alloy is melted in a crucible separate from the ring. The arm of the
machine is spring loaded. As the metal melts, the spring is released,
which pushes the alloy into the mould by centrifugal force. To
provide adequate force 3–4 counter turns are sufficient to load the
spring. The alloy is melted using a torch.
3. Induction casting machine

The alloy is melted in the machine itself using an induction field to
generate electricity and molten metal is pushed into the mould using a
centrifugal force. Advantages of electrical melting are discussed above
(heat source – electricity) and the procedure for using the machine is
discussed in Chapter 27.
4. Electrical resistance-heated machine

Similar to induction casting, current is passed through a resistance
heating conductor to melt the alloy and the metal is pushed into the
mould with a spring wound casting machine.
Crucible
Definition: A vessel or container made of any refractory material
(frequently porcelain) used for melting or calcining any substance that
requires a high degree of heat (GPT8).
Crucibles are made of clay, quartz or zirconium. Quartz and
zirconium are used for casting high-melting alloys (Fig. 40.69).
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FIGURE 40.69 Quartz crucible used for (A) induction casting
and (B) centrifugal casting.
The crucible contains an opening which is aligned with the sprue

opening in the mould and is used to push the molten metal into the
mould.
Casting using a torch flame and centrifugal

casting machine
Procedure
• The parts of a broken arm centrifugal casting machine are shown in
(Fig. 40.70).
• The arm of the machine is given three turns and is locked with the
pin. Four turns are given for metal-ceramic and base metal alloys as
they have less density than gold alloys (Fig. 40.71).
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• The cradle is checked for appropriate size of casting ring. The
counter weights are adjusted for balance.
• The blow torch is lit and adjusted to produce a conical flame. The
reducing zone should be used for heating as this is the hottest part
(Fig. 40.72).
• The crucible is preheated with the flame to avoid freezing of alloy

and incomplete casting (Fig. 40.73).
• Sufficient amount of alloy is placed in the crucible. 6 g – for

premolar and anterior castings, 9 g – for molar castings and 12 g –
for pontics.
• The alloy is heated in the reducing zone of the flame. Some flux can
be added for noble metal alloys.
• Gold alloys present a mirror like shiny surface when ready to be

cast. Rounding of ingot edges of base metal alloys indicate that they
have melted.
• The casting ring is removed from the furnace and placed in the
cradle of the casting machine (Fig. 40.74A–C). The flame is kept
directed at the molten metal (Fig. 40.75).
• The casting arm is released to make the casting (Fig. 40.76).
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FIGURE 40.70 Parts of a centrifugal casting machine.
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FIGURE 40.71 The arm of the machine is given three turns
and locked with the pin.
FIGURE 40.72 Parts of the flame.
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FIGURE 40.73 The crucible is preheated with the flame.
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FIGURE 40.74 (A) The casting ring is removed from the
furnace. (B) The casting ring is placed in the cradle of the
casting machine. (C) The crucible containing metal pellets
directed towards the mould space created by the conical
crucible former.
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FIGURE 40.75 The flame is kept directed at the molten
metal.
FIGURE 40.76 The completed casting.
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Casting recovery
• After the machine has stopped spinning, the ring is removed with
tongs.
• Once the glow disappears from the casting, it is placed under cold
running water.
• Gypsum-bonded investments disintegrate quickly and the residual

material is removed with a brush, followed by ultrasonic cleaning
and pickling with 50% hydrochloric acid.
• Phosphate-bonded investments are tougher to remove. A knife is

used to trim the material around the edge of the ring to expose the
liner. The mould is then pushed out of the ring and the investment
is broken from the casting with a blunt instrument (Fig. 40.77). Base
metal alloys cannot be pickled. Gross removal of investment is
achieved with fissure bur on a slow-speed lathe and then it is
sandblasted using 200–250 micron alumina (Fig. 40.78).
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FIGURE 40.77 Casting recovery.
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FIGURE 40.78 The investment material is removed by
sandblasting.
Finishing and polishing of all metal restorations

Finishing and polishing is accomplished starting with coarse abrasives
followed by abrasives of smaller particle size.
The casting is evaluated for acceptability. If there are any gross
defects, it should be discarded.
The fitting surface of the casting is inspected for irregularities (Figs
40.79 and 40.80). These are removed with a small round bur. Coloured
liquids that rub off and transfer a mark can be painted on a die to
determine any obstruction in fitting surface.
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FIGURE 40.79 The fitting surface is checked for
irregularities.
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FIGURE 40.80 Obstructions in the fitting surfaces are
removed.
The margins are then evaluated and if they are short, casting should
be discarded. Some burnishing can be attempted with noble metal
alloys.
The sprue is now separated from the casting using a carborundum
disc without altering the normal contour of the surface (Fig. 40.81).
The normal contour is established with the same disc or with abrasive
stones (Fig. 40.82).
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FIGURE 40.81 The sprue is separated from the casting using
a carborundum disc.
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FIGURE 40.82 The normal contour is established.
The proximal contact is adjusted with cuttle disc or fine rubber

wheel.
The occlusion is checked with two colours of articulating paper – one
for centric contact and other for eccentric contact. Care should be
taken to avoid eliminating the centric contact. The correction is done
using medium-grit stones (Figs 40.83 and 40.84).
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FIGURE 40.83 Occlusion is checked.
FIGURE 40.84 Occlusion is corrected.
Final polishing is achieved using abrasive discs, rubber points and

wheels, tripoli on wheel brush and rouge on a leather chamois wheel.
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For base metal alloys, the abrasives used should be coarser and
harder. Rough finishing is accomplished using aluminium oxide coral
wheel. Final finishing is done with rubber wheels and mounted points
(Fig. 40.85A–D).
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FIGURE 40.85 (A) Finishing and polishing kit. (B) Finishing
of the proximal surface. (C) Finishing of the occlusal surface.
(D) Final finishing. (E) Final polishing.
Finishing of metal for ceramic application

• The same procedure as described for metal crowns is followed till
the sprue is separated.
• The metal thickness of the veneering surface is reduced using discs

on a high-speed lathe to 0.2 mm for base metal alloys and 0.3 mm
for gold alloys. A metal caliper is used to check the thickness as the
surface is reduced using abrasive stones and carbide burs (Fig.
40.86).
• Instruments used for grinding conventional alloys should not be

used with metal-ceramic alloys to prevent contamination.
• Veneering surface should have a rounded form and surface should

be smooth and should have a distinct margin for the ceramic joint
(Fig. 40.87). The nonveneered surface should be finished as
described for metal crowns.
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• Gold alloys are then cleaned with 52% hydrofluoric acid and
ultrasonics for 20 min. The veneering surface of base metal alloys is
sandblasted with 50 µm alumina followed by ultrasonic cleaning for
20 min (Figs 40.88 and 40.89).
FIGURE 40.86 The metal caliper is used to check the

thickness.
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FIGURE 40.87 Veneering surface should have a rounded
form and surface should be smooth.
FIGURE 40.88 The veneering surface is sandblasted.
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FIGURE 40.89 The sandblasted metal surface.
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Veneering
The metal surface can be veneered with ceramic or resin for aesthetics.
Ceramic veneering
This is the most popular and commonly used veneering material.
Advantages
• Excellent aesthetics.
• Good wear resistance and colour stability.
• Chemical bonding to metal through oxide formation.
Disadvantages
• Wear of opposing tooth.
• Difficult to repair.
• Expensive.
Procedure
After the metal is finished for the ceramic application, gold alloys are
oxidized to produce a controlled oxide layer for bonding with
ceramics. The metal substructure is placed in a porcelain furnace and
heated according to the manufacturer’s instruction for the specific
alloy. Porcelain application begins after the coping is removed from
the furnace and cooled. Base metal alloys do not require any oxidation
procedure and porcelain application begins immediately following
the metal finishing.
The appropriate shade of the porcelain powders is selected.
Opaque porcelain powder is mixed with the modelling liquid and
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the paste is applied on the metal substructure in a thin layer first (Fig.
40.90). After firing in the ceramic furnace, a second thicker layer is
added with a brush with light vibration, which will completely mask
the metal (Fig. 40.91). This is again fired according to the
manufacturers’ instruction applicable for that particular ceramic
powder. Some manufacturers also supply the opaque porcelain as a
paste.
FIGURE 40.90 Thin layer of opaque porcelain is first applied.
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FIGURE 40.91 A thicker layer of opaque is applied second to
cover all the metal completely.
The dentine and enamel powders are then mixed with modelling
liquid and the tooth contour is built up with specific brushes (Fig.
40.92A and B).
FIGURE 40.92 A, B Dentine and enamel powders are mixed

and built to the required tooth contour.
A second application and firing of the dentine and enamel portions

may be necessary to complete the contour of the restoration (Figs
40.93–40.95).
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FIGURE 40.93 After first firing of dentine and enamel.
FIGURE 40.94 A second build-up is done in the required

areas, occlusion is checked and fired.
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FIGURE 40.95 Complete contour achieved after the second
firing.
A porcelain release agent is applied to the die while adding

porcelain under pontics and cervical areas.
Finally the restoration is glazed to produce a glass-like surface and
characterizations like stains are added as required (Figs 40.96 and
40.97).
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FIGURE 40.96 (A) The surface is stained to produce
necessary characterizations (B) after glazing.
FIGURE 40.97 Completed ceramic veneering.
Resin veneering
Acrylic and composite resins are used.
Advantages
• Low cost.
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• Ease of manipulation.
Disadvantages
• Poor wear resistance.
• Colour instability.
• Mechanical retention to metal.
Procedure
Only the labial surface will be covered by resin. Proximal contact and
occlusal/lingual surfaces are in metal. Incisal edge should not be
covered by resin as shown in the cutback.
Mechanical undercuts must be provided on the metal surface for
retention of resin. This is achieved by incorporating 27 or 28 gauge
wire loops or retention beads in the wax pattern. The junction or
margin of metal with resin should also be undercut.
After casting and finishing of metal as described previously, the
labial surface of metal that is to be veneered, is built up to the
appropriate contour with wax. This is flasked and dewaxed as for any
acrylic resin. After dewaxing, an opaque resin is painted on the labial
metal surface to mask the metal and heat-cure tooth colour acrylic
resin of appropriate shade is mixed and packed on the surface. The
flask is then closed and the resin is cured under heat and pressure as
recommended. The resin is finished and polished with acrylic
trimmers and polishing agents.
Heat and/or light activated lab composites can also be used.
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Soldering
Fixed partial dentures can be fabricated as single piece casting or
pontics and retainers can be joined after casting them individually
through the process of soldering. Thus, the connector of the fixed
partial denture can be fabricated using either method.
Although the single piece casting is the more popular and
commonly used method for fabricating fixed partial dentures, it may
be preferable to make large castings in two to three pieces and join
them by soldering. The marginal adaptation is better with this
technique.
Definition: Soldering is the act of uniting two pieces of metal/alloy
by a filler metal whose fusion temperature is lower than the
metals/alloys being soldered.
The filler metal is called solder.
Apart from fabricating connectors in fixed partial dentures,
soldering can also be used to:
1. Add proximal contact.
2. Repair casting voids.
3. Repair single piece fixed partial dentures with poor seating.
Requirements of a solder
1. Lower fusion temperature than the alloys being soldered at least
55°C lower
2. Corrosion resistant
3. Strong
4. Nonpitting
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5. Free flowing
6. Similar colour as metals being soldered
Soldering materials
The following materials are necessary for soldering.
Solder
A solder constitutes the following:
1. Gold-based solders
Mainly composed of Au–Ag–Cu to which zinc, tin and indium have
been added to control melting temperature and flow. They are
designated by their fineness – pure gold is 1000 fine. Conventional
crown and bridge gold alloys are soldered by 600 fine solders. Metal-
ceramic gold alloys will use much lower fineness.
2. Silver-based solders
Composed mainly of Ag–Cu–Zn to which small amounts of tin have
been added. They can be used for base metal alloys.
Higher fusing solders for high-fusing alloys are specially
formulated for a particular alloy composition by the manufacturer.
Flux
Definition: Any substance applied to surfaces to be joined by brazing,
soldering or welding to clean and free them from oxides and promote
union (GPT8).
Flux means flow. It acts as a surface protector, reduces or dissolves
oxides.
For noble metals, the flux used is composed of borax glass (55%),
boric acid (35%) and silica (10%). The composition of flux for base
metal alloys is fluoride based but the ingredients are not published.
In general, soldering of base metal alloys is unpredictable.
Fluxes are available in powder, liquid or paste form. They can also
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be made into a paste by mixing with petrolatum. The petrolatum
prevents oxidation and then carbonizes and vapourizes.
Antiflux
Definition: Antifluxes are materials that prevent or confine solder
attachment or flow (GPT8).
They prevent flow of excess solder into undesirable areas. Graphite
(pencil) is used as antiflux, but it evaporates at high temperatures.
Iron oxide (rouge) in chloroform or turpentine can also be used.
Soldering investment
It is similar to casting investments but contain fused quartz to reduce
the thermal expansion.
Heat source
The following heat sources can be used:
1. Torch
A gas–air or gas–oxygen flame torch as described for casting is most
commonly used for soldering. As for casting, the reducing part of the
flame should be used to prevent oxidation.
2. Oven soldering
This is performed in a furnace under vacuum or air. The soldering
index along with the castings and the solder is heated in a furnace up
to the melting temperature of the solder. Although a strong joint is
obtained, the melting of solder cannot be observed and the longer the
solder is molten, it can dissolve the parent metal producing a weak
joint.
3. Laser welding
This has demonstrated joints with high strength and reduced
corrosion compared to conventional torch soldering. Fatigue failure
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has been a problem. It may be more suitable to solder titanium.
Soldering procedure
The soldering procedure involves the following:
1. Soldering index
2. Investing
3. Soldering
Soldering index
Definition: A mould used to record the relative position of multiple
cast restorations prior to investing for a soldering procedure (GPT8).
The position of the retainers and pontic is recorded so that the
connector can be made accurately.
The index can be made intraorally or it can be made on the working
cast. Accurate assembling of components and soldering can be done
with both methods. But if there is any change in position of abutments
following impression making, then the prosthesis made by the
working cast method will not fit.
Intraoral index
• The component parts – retainers and pontics are verified for fit and
occlusion and necessary corrections are made.
• The retainers can be fixed to the abutments with light body

impression material or zinc oxide eugenol cement so that their
position is not disturbed while making the index. The pontic can be
attached to the retainer with sticky wax. The connector space where
the soldering is to be performed should be 0.2 mm.
• A tray is fabricated with baseplate wax to carry the indexing

material. Sectional stock trays can also be used. It should extend one
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tooth beyond each retainer. It should also extend 6 mm facially and
lingually beyond the perimeter of the prosthesis components.
• Impression plaster or zinc oxide eugenol impression paste is loaded

onto the tray and seated over the castings such that the occlusal
surfaces are covered with minimal extension facially and lingually.
Care should also be taken to ensure that the material does not flow
into the tooth undercuts.
• The index is removed after the material sets and the components
will come attached to the index.
• Intraoral index can also be made with green stick impression

compound and pattern resin.
Working cast index
• The components are seated on the cast and attached with sticky
wax. Wax is also flowed in the connector space after a gap of 0.2
mm is made between the pontic and retainers (Fig. 40.98).
• The components are blocked out with modelling clay leaving only
the occlusal surface with some extension to the facial and lingual
surface (Fig. 40.99).
• The components are boxed and model plaster is poured on the

occlusal surface and built up to a height of 5 mm (Fig. 40.100).
• The plaster index is removed after the material sets. The

components will come attached to the index.
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FIGURE 40.98 Components attached with sticky wax.
FIGURE 40.99 Connector space filled with wax and

restoration is blocked out with modelling clay.
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FIGURE 40.100 Boxed and plaster index poured.
Investing
The components are attached to the index with sticky wax. Index is
trimmed such that 6 mm of plaster surrounds the castings (Fig.
40.101).
FIGURE 40.101 Components fixed with sticky wax.
Wax is flowed into the connector area to prevent investment from

flowing into the gap. Wax is also added facially and lingually, in a
triangular shape, to the connector joint, to produce sluiceways. This
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helps in directing the flame through the joint area (Fig. 40.102).
FIGURE 40.102 Sluiceway created in wax.
Separating medium is applied to the exposed plaster and the index

is boxed and poured with appropriate investment. The height of the
soldering index should be 12 mm above the margin of the castings
(Fig. 40.103).
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FIGURE 40.103 Index boxed and investment poured to make
the soldering index of appropriate height.
After setting, the boxing wax is removed and sticky wax is flushed
out with boiling water.
Soldering
All metal restoration
The following procedure is followed when soldering restorations are
made up of metal only.
A graphite pencil is used to outline the soldering area to act as
antiflux. Soldering flux is placed in the soldering area (Fig. 40.104).
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FIGURE 40.104 Area marked with graphite pencil.
The assembly is preheated in a burnout furnace to 650°C or 850°C

depending on the fusion temperature of the alloy. It is removed and
placed in a wire mesh stood over a Bunsen burner flame. The
assembly is heated with a torch flame, first with a brush flame and
then a hotter reducing flame, continuously moving the flame around
the assembly.
As soon as the castings exhibit a reddish glow, the solder is dipped
in flux and is placed in the lingual side of the joint area (Fig. 40.105).
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FIGURE 40.105 Solder placed on lingual side.
The flame is directed towards the buccal notch ensuring the solder
will flow towards that side (Fig. 40.106). The flame should never be
directed directly on solder.
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FIGURE 40.106 Flame is directed towards buccal notch.
The assembly is allowed to cool for 5 min and then quenched in

water, which will disintegrate the investment.
Soldering metal-ceramic fixed partial dentures

Soldering can be performed either before or after ceramic application
– preceramic and postceramic soldering. The solders vary depending
on the procedure and alloy used.
Preceramic soldering
Advantages
• Trial of the soldered prosthesis can be done in an unglazed state.
• Any adjustments required on porcelain can be made.
Disadvantages
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• Contouring proximal embrasures is difficult.
• As porcelain has to be applied to a longer structure, sag may be a

problem with some alloys.
Postceramic soldering
Advantages
• Proximal surface can be shaped properly.
• No problem of sag.
Disadvantage
• Adjustments on porcelain not possible after soldering, as it has to be

finished completely before the soldering procedure.
SUMMARY
The lab procedures and the technicians play a major role in the
success of a prosthodontic procedure. The lab procedure starts from
pouring the models till finishing the restoration. All precautions
should be taken to make sure that the procedures are done according
to the prescribed methods, because any mistake in the first step will
only have a snowball effect with a poor restoration at the end. This
chapter has dealt with casting, ceramic veneering, soldering, etc.
However, all clinicians are not good technicians and it is good to
know all the procedures involved in fabrication of a ceramic
restoration.
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CHAPTER
41
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Try-in and cementation
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 626
Evaluation of prosthesis on cast 626
Tissue surface of retainers 626
Proximal contact 627
Margins 627
Stability 627
Occlusion 627
Try-in 627
Seating the crown and checking fit 627
Proximal contacts 628
Marginal integrity 629
Occlusion 629
Contours and aesthetics 630
Finishing and polishing 630
Cementation 631
Mechanisms of cementation 631
Cementation procedure for conventional restorations 635
Post cementation instructions 636
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Summary 636
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Introduction
This is the first clinical procedure after the completion of the
laboratory procedures involved in fabrication of the fixed partial
denture. This comprises of the following procedures:
1. Evaluation of prosthesis on cast
2. Try-in in the mouth
3. Cementation
The restoration is first checked intraorally for its clinical

acceptability and correctness. Cementation is then performed by a
dental luting agent which provides the link between a fixed prosthesis
and the prepared tooth structure. There are several types of available
luting agents, each possessing unique properties and handling
characteristics. A single product is not ideal for every type of
restoration and hence the choice of cement is mandated to a large
degree by the functional and biological demands of the particular
clinical situation.
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Evaluation of prosthesis on cast
Upon receiving the prosthesis from the laboratory, it is placed on the
master cast and the following are evaluated:
Tissue surface of retainers

The fitting surface or tissue surface of the retainer is checked for any
irregularity like blebs and nodules. These are removed if present.
The surface is also checked for any white spots (Fig. 41.1). This is
usually a perforation in the metal coping of a metal-ceramic
restoration. The perforation is seen clearly when viewed under a light
source (Fig. 41.2). If this is present, the prosthesis is sent back to the
lab to be remade as the ceramic over the perforation is unsupported
and will fracture over a period of time if cemented in the mouth.
FIGURE 41.1 White spot on tissue surface.
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FIGURE 41.2 Perforation seen when viewed under a light
source.
Proximal contact
The proximal contact of the retainer with the adjacent natural teeth is
checked with dental floss (Fig. 41.3).
FIGURE 41.3 The proximal contact of the retainer with the

adjacent natural teeth is checked with dental floss.
If the floss moves freely or if there is a space between the retainer

and natural teeth, the contact needs to be added. In case of metal
restorations, the contact can be added only by soldering or the
restoration may need to be refabricated. It is easier to add contact in
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metal-ceramic restorations as ceramic can be fired to develop the
same.
If the contact is too tight on cast, the same is again evaluated in the
mouth before any correction.
Margins
The retainers are placed on the sectioned dies and margins are
evaluated for over and underextension (Fig. 41.4).
FIGURE 41.4 Marginal fit checked on cast.
Stability
The prosthesis should not rock or rotate when force is applied. This
will cause the restoration to fail. If the cause is a nodule on the fitting
surface, then it is removed. Otherwise the stability is reviewed during
try-in in the patient’s mouth and if the same persists, the prosthesis is
refabricated.
Occlusion
Occlusion on cast is verified with articulating paper. Contact in
maximum intercuspation (MIP) or centric contacts is verified (Fig.
41.5A and B) and corrected, eccentric contacts are corrected during
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try-in.
FIGURE 41.5 Contacts are verified on casts in MIP.
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Try-in
• During try-in the restoration is checked intraorally.
• The provisional restoration is removed and preparation is cleaned of

all temporary cement.
• Try-in can be performed without local anaesthesia as the patient’s

unimpaired tactile sense provides valuable information while
checking contacts and occlusion. Local anaesthetic is administered
only if the teeth are sensitive and patient is uncomfortable during
the adjustment procedure.
• During try-in, the following are evaluated in a sequence:
1. Seating the crown and checking fit
2. Proximal contact
3. Marginal integrity
4. Occlusion
5. Contours and aesthetics
Seating the crown and checking fit

First the crown is placed on the abutment and seating is attempted. If
complete seating is prevented, it is due to the following reasons:
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1. Tight proximal contact
2. Binding on abutment surface
3. Blebs on fitting surface
4. Distorted impression or die
The first two can be checked and corrected. The same is discussed
below.
Blebs are corrected while evaluating the restoration on the cast as
discussed previously.
If the prosthesis does not seat properly following these corrections,
then the problem could be a distorted impression or a damaged die. In
either case a new impression is made and prosthesis is refabricated.
Correction of tight contact

A thin articulating paper/shim stock should be placed between the
casting and the adjacent natural tooth and the restoration is seated
(Fig. 41.6). This helps in identifying the exact area where the contact
on the restoration needs to be corrected. Arbitrarily trimming a tight
contact to seat a restoration may open up the contact. Alternately the
proximal surface of the retainer can be painted with colour aerosol
spray or marker pen, and the area where the marking is removed is
corrected. After the correction to seat the restoration, the proximal
surface is polished.
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FIGURE 41.6 Correction of tight contact using articulating
paper.
Correction of binding
Any binding area preventing seating of restoration is relieved by
grinding after identification. This is accomplished using disclosing
waxes, colour aerosol sprays or elastomeric pastes. Elastomeric pastes
such as Fit CheckerTM are similar to light body silicone impression
materials with viscosity comparable to luting cements. The paste is
loaded in the fitting surface of the retainer and seated on the
abutment. The crown is removed after the material sets and inspected.
Areas where the paste is eliminated reveal binding and are trimmed.
The paste can be easily peeled off (Figs 41.7–41.9).
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FIGURE 41.7 (A) Fit CheckerTM commercially available
pressure indicating paste (courtesy GC). (B) The paste is
loaded in the fitting surface of the retainer.
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FIGURE 41.8 The retainer is seated onto the abutment.
FIGURE 41.9 The crown is removed after the material sets

and is inspected.
Proximal contacts
• The proximal contacts are checked with a floss or Mylar strip. The
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contact is compared to that of the other teeth. A proper contact
allows the floss to snap through with resistance, without tearing.
• Tight contacts may interfere with correct seating as previously

described, produce discomfort, cause pressure on adjacent teeth and
make it difficult for the patient to floss. They are checked as
described previously for correcting a tight contact.
If the contact is open allowing easy movement of floss without

resistance, then it causes food impaction which can lead to secondary
caries, caries on adjacent teeth and interproximal gingivitis with bone
loss. The contact can be added as follows:
• In case of metal restorations, contact is added by soldering or the

prosthesis is refabricated.
• In metal-ceramic restorations, the contact can be easily added by

refiring porcelain.
• Rarely, if time is a constraint, then contact may be built up on

adjacent natural teeth with composite resin.
Marginal integrity
The margin of the restoration is evaluated using a sharp explorer
probe. The tip of the probe is held perpendicular to the marginal area
and is moved occlusocervically across the margin. This is performed
around the entire tooth circumference giving finger pressure to seat
the crown. A marginal discrepancy of about 50 microns only is
acceptable.
Overextended margins in depth (overhangs) and width (positive
ledges) (Fig. 41.10) can be corrected by trimming and finishing. If not
corrected, they cause gingival and periodontal problems.
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FIGURE 41.10 Overextended margin.
Underextended margin in width (negative ledges) and

underextended margins in depth (open margins) run the risk of
recurrent secondary caries and the restoration must be refabricated
(Figs 41.11 and 41.12).
FIGURE 41.11 Underextension in width.
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FIGURE 41.12 Open margins – underextension in height.
Marginal fit can also be evaluated with an elastomeric paste as

described previously for binding. Supragingival margins can be
evaluated easily and finished intraorally with fine grit stones and
rubbers. It may be difficult to detect discrepancies with subgingival
margins.
Occlusion
Occlusal adjustments are performed after the fit and seating of the
restoration are satisfactory. Occlusal contacts are established in static
and dynamic relationships to the opposing arch.
A pair of teeth near the prepared tooth is located and the patient is
asked to close onto a strip of 12 microns shim stock in maximum
intercuspation without the restoration. The restoration is then inserted
and the process is repeated. If the patient is not able to hold the strip
then the restoration is high in intercuspal position.
A 12 microns articulating paper is now held with artery forceps or
Miller’s forceps; and the patient is asked to close in MIP (Fig. 41.13).
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Contact areas with heavy contact are identified and the marks are
removed with carbides in case of metal restorations and diamonds for
ceramic restorations (Fig. 41.14).
FIGURE 41.13 Articulating paper placed in maximum

intercuspation with the restoration in position.
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FIGURE 41.14 The marks on restoration showing high
contacts.
The procedure is repeated until shim stock or Mylar strip can be

held between adjacent pair of unprepared teeth. The thickness of the
occlusal surface restoration should be constantly checked with a metal
caliper to ensure that the surface is not perforated by grinding.
Following the correction in MIP, eccentric interferences are also
removed. A different colour paper is used for this purpose (Fig. 41.15)
so that the MIP contacts are not eliminated (Figs 41.16A and B).
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FIGURE 41.15 Different colour papers used to check
eccentric interferences.
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FIGURE 41.16 A, B Marks showing the MIP contacts (blue)
and eccentric interferences (red).
Contours and aesthetics

Health of the gingival tissues adjacent to the restoration depends on
the contours of the restoration (Fig. 41.17) and the same is true with
posterior and anterior restorations.
FIGURE 41.17 Gingival embrasures showing proper
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contours.
Overcontouring also affects aesthetics of anterior teeth with ceramic

restorations. Only minor correction is possible clinically if inadequate
tooth preparation is the cause. Undercontouring affects the colour of
metal-ceramic restoration as it will look opaque.
The gingival embrasures of anterior restorations are also checked
for contour and dark spaces (Figs 41.18 and 41.19).
FIGURE 41.18 Gingival embrasures showing improper

contouring.
FIGURE 41.19 Embrasures showing dark spaces.
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The shade is checked and minor corrections are possible by staining
if restoration is lighter in shade.
The incisal edge is verified for translucency (Fig. 41.20A).
Characterizations like enamel cracks, stain lines and incisal halo may
be incorporated (Fig. 41.20B).
FIGURE 41.20 A,B Showing incisal edge translucency and

gingival stain lines.

The final step before cementation is finishing and polishing. Rough
surfaces tend to accumulate plaque more and with porcelains they
will rapidly wear the opposing natural tooth.
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It is very important to use a sequence of abrasives designed for each
material to achieve a smooth surface.
Metal surfaces can be finished with finishing burs (Fig. 41.21A and
B) followed by rubber abrasive points.
FIGURE 41.21 A,B Metal finishing burs.
Porcelain finishing is achieved with diamond abrasive points and

ceramic finishing stones (Figs 41.22 and 41.23) followed by a felt
wheel or rubber cup coated with diamond polishing paste. The best
method to finish porcelain is to reglaze it in the furnace.
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FIGURE 41.22 Ceramic trimmers.
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FIGURE 41.23 Ceramic finishing silicone points.
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Cementation
Definition: The process of attaching parts by means of cement
(GPT8).
The clinical success of these luting agents depends on the
cementation procedure and clinical handling of these materials. The
word ‘luting’ is often used to describe the use of a mouldable
substance to seal a space or to cement two components together.
Mechanisms of cementation
1. Nonadhesive luting: It holds the restoration in place by engaging
small irregularities in the intaglio surface of tooth and restoration
measuring 20–100 microns. This is applicable to all cements – zinc
phosphate possesses only this mechanism.
2. Micromechanical bonding: It holds the restoration in place by

engaging finer surface irregularities less than 2 microns created on the
intaglio surface of the tooth and restoration. These are produced on
enamel by etching with phosphoric acid, on ceramics by etching with
hydrofluoric acid and on metal surfaces by electrolytic etching,
chemical etching or sandblasting. It is usually in combination with a
dentine bonding agent with formation of hybrid layer – resin cements.
3. Chemical (molecular) bonding: Adhesion produced by bipolar, van

der Waals forces and chemical bonds – glass ionomers, zinc
polycarboxylates and resin modified glass ionomers.
Cements used for luting
Ideal requirements
• Provide a durable bond between dissimilar materials.
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• Possess favourable compressive and tensile strengths.
• Have sufficient fracture toughness to prevent dislodgement.
• Be able to wet the tooth and the restoration.
• Exhibit adequate film thickness and viscosity to ensure complete

sealing.
• Should be resistant to disintegration in the oral cavity.
• Be tissue compatible.
• Demonstrate adequate working and setting times.
Classification
1. Provisional (soft) cements: Used for cementing provisional
restorations.
2. Definitive (hard) cements: Used for cementing definitive

permanent restorations.
The currently available cements for definitive cementation of fixed

prosthesis are the following:
1. Zinc phosphate cement
Indications
Permanent luting of posts, metal inlays, onlays, crowns and short-
span fixed partial dentures.
Advantages
• Long track record (used since 1878).
• Good compressive strength.
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• Good film thickness (25 microns).
• Reasonable working time.
• Resistant to water dissolution.
Disadvantages
• Low tensile strength.
• No chemical bonding.
• Not resistant to acid dissolution.
• Adverse effect on pulp as it is initially acidic, only if preparation is

close to pulp.

It is supplied as powder and liquid. Powder is principally zinc oxide
and liquid is phosphoric acid and water. Metallic salts are added to
increase the working time. When the powder is mixed with liquid,
solid zinc phosphate is formed with considerable evolution of heat.
Manipulation
A cool mixing slab should be employed. The cool slab prolongs the
working and setting times. This can be achieved by keeping slab in
refrigerator. The liquid should not be dispensed until the mixing is to
be initiated to prevent loss of water. Mixing is initiated by
incorporation of small portions of powder into the liquid over a wide
area to minimize the heat and effectively dissipate it. Setting time is 5–
9 min.
2. Zinc polycarboxylate cement
Indications
Used for the cementation of single-unit crowns and short-span bridges
in low-stress areas on vital and sensitive teeth.
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Advantages
• Reasonable track record.
• Good compressive strength.
• Bonds to enamel and dentine.
• Adequate resistance to water dissolution (but less than zinc

phosphate).
• No adverse effect on pulp.
• Anticariogenic property but less than glass ionomer.
Disadvantages
• Short working time – difficult to use with multiple units.
• Offers less retention than zinc phosphate.
• Can deform under loading.
• It is very viscous, can be difficult to obtain low film thickness.

Supplied as powder and liquid. Powder is similar to zinc phosphates
and consists of zinc oxide, magnesium oxide/stannic oxide and
stannous fluoride. Liquid consists of polyacrylic acid, itaconic and
tartaric acid. When the powder is mixed with liquid, the acid reacts
with zinc ions via the carboxyl groups and a crosslinked structure is
formed. The polyacrylic acid also reacts with the calcium of the tooth
in the same manner to chemical adhered to it. Adhesion to enamel is
stronger than that to the dentine.
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Manipulation
The cement should be mixed on a surface that does not absorb liquid.
Hence, a glass slab is preferred to treated paper pads. The liquid
should not be dispensed prior to mixing since it tends to lose water.
The powder is rapidly incorporated into the liquid in large
quantities for a period of 30–60 s. Mixing on a cooled glass slab
prolongs the working time.
The cement must be placed on the inner surface of casting and on
the tooth surface before it loses its glossy appearance. Loss of gloss
indicates decreased availability of carboxyl groups, poor bonding,
poor wettability due to stringiness and increased film thickness
causing incomplete seating of the casting.
3. Glass ionomer cement (GIC)
Indications
• Used commonly to cement cast posts, metal inlays, onlays, crowns,

short- and long-span fixed partial dentures.
• Patients with high caries activity.
Advantages
• Better mechanical properties and retention than zinc phosphate and

polycarboxylates.
• Chemical bond to enamel and dentine.
• Good bacteriostatic and anticariogenic properties.
• Resistant to water dissolution.
Disadvantages
• Sensitive to early moisture contamination which causes rapid

cement dissolution.
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• Causes sensitivity during initial set and may also produce post
cementation sensitivity. This may be compounded by desiccation of
dentine by the operator.

Type I glass ionomers are used for luting. They are supplied as
powder and liquid and capsules.
Powder consists of soluble fluoroaluminosilicate glass, with calcium
fluoride, sodium fluoride and lanthanum, strontium, barium or zinc
oxide for radiopacity. Liquid mainly contains water along with
polyacrylic acid in the form of a copolymer with itaconic, maleic or
tricarboxylic acids. When the powder is mixed with liquid, the acid
etches the glass particles and the polyacrylic acid chains are
crosslinked by calcium ions which is replaced by aluminium in 24 h.
This becomes hydrated with time. The adhesion mechanism to tooth is
similar to polycarboxylate cement.
Manipulation
A glass slab or a paper pad is used for mixing. A plastic spatula
should be used. Use of a metal spatula, causes abrasion by the glass
particles of the metal surfaces resulting in discolouration of the set
cement.
P/L ratio for GIC type I is 1.3:1. The powder is introduced into the
liquid in large increments and spatulated rapidly for 30–45 s (Figs
41.24–41.26). The cement must be used before it loses its glossy
appearance. Once the cement has achieved its initial set (7 min), the
cement margins should be coated with a varnish. The field must be
isolated completely.
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FIGURE 41.24 Cement mixed in small increments.
FIGURE 41.25 Mixing with sweeping strokes.
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FIGURE 41.26 Cement that is ready to use will string out
from the lifted spatula.
Encapsulated products typically are mixed for 10 s in a mechanical

mixer and dispensed directly. Advantages of capsules are convenient
and control of P/L ratio consistently (Fig. 41.27A and B).
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FIGURE 41.27 ( A) Capsule. (B) Mechanical mixer used for
manipulation of the capsule.
4. Resin modified glass ionomer cements
Indications
• Similar to type I glass ionomers.
• Metal or metal ceramic crowns, especially where preparation

retention is borderline.
Advantages
• Similar to type I glass ionomers.
• Good compressive and tensile strengths, better than type I glass

ionomers.
• Reasonable working time.
• Less sensitive to moisture than conventional glass ionomers.
• Resistance to water dissolution.
Disadvantages
• Initial setting and postcementation sensitivity similar to GIC.
• They may expand and crack overlying porcelain because of water

absorption, therefore, not indicated for all ceramic restorations.

They are dispensed as powder and liquid, two pastes and capsules.
The composition is similar to GIC except that the liquid component
is modified with methacrylate and hydroxyethyl methacrylate
monomers. The initial setting reaction is by polymerization of
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methacrylate groups, the acid–base reaction is responsible for
maturing and final strength. The bonding to tooth is similar to
conventional GIC but stronger.
Manipulation
Manipulation is similar to type I GIC. Setting time is less than 6 min.
Hence, the restorations should be promptly seated and excess cement
should be removed immediately as it sets to a harder consistency.
5. Resin cements
Indications
• Material of choice for porcelain laminate veneers, ceramic inlays and

onlays, resin-bonded bridges, fibre-reinforced composite
restorations and all ceramic crowns and fixed partial dentures.
• May be used to improve retention where preparation geometry is

suboptimal.
Advantages
• Good compressive and excellent tensile strengths.
• Insoluble in oral fluids.
• Enhances the strength of all ceramic restorations.
• Chemical and mechanical bond to tooth structure.
Disadvantages
• Excess material extruded at margin may be difficult to remove

especially proximally.
• Film thickness varies substantially between materials.
• No anticariogenic property.
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• High cost.
• Pulpal irritation.

They are basically microfilled bis–GMA resins with low viscosity;
mechanical adhesion occurs due to the flow of resin tags in between
the etched enamel crystals; chemical adhesion can be obtained by
using bonding agents like HEMA (hydroxyethyl methacrylate) or 4-
META (4-methacryl ethyl trimellitic anhydride).
Manipulation
The chemically activated systems are available in powder–liquid
system or as two paste systems. The peroxide initiator is in one
component and the amine activator is contained in the other. The
components are mixed on a paper pad for 20–30 s. The restorations
should be promptly seated and excess cement should be removed
immediately.
Light-activated systems are single-component systems. The time of
exposure to light needed for polymerization of the resin cement is
dependent on the light transmitted through the ceramic restoration. It
should never be less than 40 s.
The dual cure systems are two-component systems. Chemical
activation is slow and provides extended working time till the cement
is exposed to curing light after which it solidifies rapidly.
Cementation procedure with resin cements is discussed in detail in
the chapter on all-ceramic restorations.
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Cementation procedure for
conventional restorations
The prepared tooth should be cleaned prior to cementation. Any
contamination will hinder the performance of the luting agent. It
should be gently dried without desiccating the odontoblasts and
isolated with cotton rolls to prevent saliva contamination. A saliva
ejector is also placed.
If zinc phosphate cement is used then a cavity varnish should be
applied. The fitting surface of casting is prepared by sandblasting
with 50 microns alumina. Alternately, steam cleaning, ultrasonic
cleaning or organic solvents may be used.
The cement is mixed to a luting consistency and applied to the
internal surface of the casting according to the manufacturer’s
instructions. The prosthesis is inserted with a rocking, dynamic-
seating force. A static force will lead to incomplete seating. Margins
are examined to ensure correct seating of the prosthesis.
Seating force on the crown is maintained for 1 min either by the
dentist or by the patient biting onto a cotton roll. Some operators
prefer patients to bite on an orangewood stick. If not done carefully, it
can tip the crown. Patient is asked to close in maximal intercuspal
position and occlusion is verified on unprepared teeth.
An explorer is used to remove the excess cement after it has set (Fig.
41.28). Dental floss may be used to remove the cement from the
interproximal areas (Fig. 41.29).
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FIGURE 41.28 A,B Explorer used to remove excess cement
after setting.
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FIGURE 41.29 Dental floss is used to remove cement in
interproximal areas.
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Post cementation instructions
1. Patient is advised against chewing for at least 1 h after cementation.
2. Patient is warned to expect sensitivity for a few days in vital

cementations with zinc phosphate and glass ionomers. This should
subside, if not, the patient should report back to the dentist.
3. Patient is advised against flossing for a couple of days but regular

brushing with a soft toothbrush should be commenced immediately.
Regular methods to maintain oral hygiene should then be routinely
followed.
4. Biting on hard food like nuts is avoided for 24 h and patient should
report back if he/she feels any obstruction while chewing (occlusal
discrepancy).
5. Patient is instructed on recall appointments.
SUMMARY
Proper moisture control is important for successful cementation.
Careful tooth preparation including air abrasion of the fitting surface
and cement selection are critical for the longevity of the restoration.
The cement must be protected from moisture during its initial set.
Removal of excess cement from the gingival sulcus is critical for
continued periodontal health.
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CHAPTER
42
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Failures in fixed partial dentures
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 637
Classification 637
Biologic failure 637
Mechanical failure 643
Aesthetic failure 650
Psychogenic failure 650
Methods of removing a failed FPD 650
Summary 651
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Introduction
It is important to analyse failure so that the reasons can be evaluated
and prevention is imparted. A fixed partial denture (FPD) can fail as a
result of poor patient care or defective design and inadequate
execution of clinical and lab procedures. The various causes of such
failure have been classified as biologic, mechanical, aesthetic and
psychogenic and the reasons and treatment for the same have been
discussed.
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Classification
Failures in FPDs can be classified as (Table 42.1):
• Biologic
• Mechanical
• Aesthetic
• Psychogenic
Table 42.1
Failures in fixed partial dentures
Biologic failure
Caries
Caries is the most common cause of biologic failure. This can be of the
following types:
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1. Secondary caries
This can happen under the margins of the retainers (Fig. 42.1A and B).
FIGURE 42.1 Caries under the retainer.
Causes
Marginal leakage due to poor margins (open margins) or poor
maintenance by patient.
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Symptoms
Secondary caries may be perceived by the patient as pain or
sensitivity to hot, cold and sweet food/liquids, bad taste, bad breath,
loose restorations, fractured teeth and discoloured teeth.
Detection
The caries can be detected visually (if present on labial surface), by
probing and with radiographs (if present interproximally) (Fig. 42.2A
and B).
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FIGURE 42.2 (A) Secondary caries seen visually. (B)
Interproximal secondary caries under molar retainer.
Treatment
If the caries is minor and restricted to the facial surface, it can be
restored without removing the prosthesis. Material used for such
restoration in order of preference is gold foil, silver amalgam,
composite resins and glass ionomers, depending on location on
anterior or posterior teeth.
Extensive lesions may require removal of prosthesis and
restoration, endodontic treatment or extraction followed by
fabrication of a new prosthesis.
Prevention
Ensuring adequate marginal adaptation during try-in of restoration
(discussed in Chapter 41) and educating the patient in maintaining
oral hygiene and reviewing the same during recall appointments can
prevent this failure.
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2. Caries of tooth adjacent to retainer
The main cause for this is lack of proximal contact at the time of
cementation (Fig. 42.3A and B).
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FIGURE 42.3 (A) Lack of proximal contact. (B) Lack of
proximal contact causing carious of proximal tooth.
This could have been easily prevented if the contact was checked as
described in Chapter 41.
3. Root caries
This is a problem associated in the elderly patients with FPDs (Fig.
42.4). It can occur even in the absence of gingival recession and
pockets. As the elderly patients may also have reduced salivary flow
due to medications and sometimes radiation, the problem is
accentuated.
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FIGURE 42.4 Root caries in abutments.
The cause has been identified as Actinomyces viscosus commonly

present in the filiform papillae of the tongue.
Advising meticulous oral hygiene measure along with cleaning of
tongue for such patients may reduce the risk of developing this
problem.
Pulpal degeneration of abutment

Causes
• Tooth preparation without sufficient cooling or an improperly

directed water spray (Fig. 42.5A and B).
• An abutment with an old restoration with secondary caries or

unrestored carious lesion (Fig. 42.6).
• Cements like zinc phosphate, glass ionomers and resin cements can
cause pulpal irritation, especially if the preparation is close to the
pulp. This can also lead to degeneration.
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• Presence of interfering occlusal contacts.
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FIGURE 42.5 (A) Spray not directed on handpiece. (B) Spray
not directed on tip.
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FIGURE 42.6 Unrestored abutment.
Symptoms
Perceived by patient as pain which could be spontaneous or related to
hot/cold/sweet food or accentuated by lying down/exercising.
Detection
Usually based on symptoms as vitality testing is difficult because of
the presence of retainer. Radiograph may be useful only if periapical
lesions are present.
Treatment
Access is made through the retainer and endodontic treatment is
performed (Fig. 42.7A and B). The access opening can then be restored
with a post and/or a core. If occlusion is the problem, it should be
corrected.
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FIGURE 42.7 (A) Access made through retainer. (B)
Endodontic treatment completed.
Prevention
• The water spray of the high speed handpiece should be cleaned

regularly and checked before tooth preparation.
• All caries lesions on abutment teeth should be restored prior to

preparation. Even old restorations may be removed and new
restorations made.
• Correct cement should be selected for sensitive teeth.
• Occlusion should be corrected before cementing the prosthesis and
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the same should be verified in recall appointments.
Endodontic failure of abutment

Causes
• The endodontic treatment of the abutment was improper or

inadequate (Fig 42.8).
• A root perforation or crack of the tooth during the old endodontic

treatment may manifest much later.
FIGURE 42.8 Inadequate endodontic treatment of first

premolar abutment causes periapical infection and failure of
FPD.
Symptom
Perceived by patient as pain on biting or swelling.
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Detection
With the help of symptoms and radiographs.
Treatment
Extraction must be postponed if possible. Endodontic retreatment and
apicoectomy may be attempted through the retainer or after removing
the prosthesis.
Karlsson (1986) demonstrated that 10% of 641 bridge abutments
exhibited periapical lesions after 10 years, 19.8% of 303 root filled
abutments exhibited nonhealed periapical lesions. This conveys that
just the presence of lesions on radiographs may not necessitate any
treatment. Patient symptoms need to be assessed.
Prevention
Endodontically treated teeth must be used as abutments only after
thorough evaluation. If endodontic treatment is found inadequate,
retreatment may be performed. When in doubt, the design of the
prosthesis should be altered to exclude the tooth as abutment.
Periodontal failure
Causes
1. Faulty prosthesis which hinders maintenance of oral hygiene is due

to:
○ Poor marginal adaptation (Fig. 42.9A).
○ Overcontouring of retainer axial surfaces.
○ Large connectors.
○ Pontic contact a large tissue area.
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○ Prostheses with rough surfaces.
2. Poor maintenance by patient (Fig. 42.9B).
3. Patient with existing periodontal disease.
4. Lack of abutment support due to improper treatment planning.
FIGURE 42.9 ( A) Poor margin adaptation. (B) Poor

maintenance by patient.
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Treatment
Severe bone loss results in loss of abutment teeth and attached
prosthesis.
In less severe breakdown, it may be corrected by periodontal
surgery but may produce an unacceptable relationship between the
prosthesis and soft tissue.
If the problem is localized and related to a prosthesis that hinders
effective oral hygiene, prosthesis may be recontoured or remade to
correct the defect.
Prevention
• Any existing periodontal disease must be eliminated and tissues

should return to optimal health before commencing fixed
prosthodontics treatment.
• The prosthesis should be supported adequately by sufficient

number of abutments to function on a long term basis as described
in Chapter 35.
• Patient should be instructed on proper oral hygiene measures and

implementation must be verified through recall appointments.
Tooth perforation
Causes
Tooth perforation may have occurred during:
• Placement of pinholes/pins
• Endodontic treatment
• Preparation for post and core
Treatment
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• Endodontic treatment is performed when pinholes or pins perforate
into pulp chamber.
• If perforation is located occlusal to alveolar crest, preparation can be

extended to cover defect.
• If located below crest and is accessible, perforation can be sealed

through periodontal surgery.
• If perforation is inaccessible then the abutment requires extraction.
• The location of the perforation can be verified by passing a gutta-

percha point through the sinus tract and making a radiograph (Fig.
42.10A–C).
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FIGURE 42.10 (A) Periapical infection in second premolar
abutment due to perforated root canal. (B) Gutta-percha point
passed through sinus tract. (C) Perforation located.
Subpontic inflammation
Causes
• Excessive pressure by pontic due to improper pontic design and

pontic contacting too large an area (Fig 42.11A).
• Improper prosthesis design (Fig. 42.11B).
• Poor maintenance by the patient.
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FIGURE 42.11 (A) Subpontic inflammation due to pontic
contacting a large area. (B) Improper prosthesis design with a
lateral incisor used as a cantilever abutment to replace a
central incisor, resulting in intermittent pressure under pontic
surface resulting in hyperplastic tissue. (C) Superfloss in use
to clean beneath the pontics.
Symptoms
Perceived by the patient as pain, swelling, bad breath, bad taste,
bleeding gums and poor aesthetics.
Treatment
If improper design is the problem, the prosthesis should be
refabricated with proper design after allowing the inflammation to
subside.
Patient should be educated to maintain the pontic space using aids
like superfloss (Fig. 42.11C).
Occlusal problems
Causes and treatments
1. Interfering centric or eccentric contacts can cause tooth mobility and

irreversible pulpal damage. Tooth mobility is reversible if problem is
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detected early and adjusted but correction may cause prostheses
failure due to perforation and loss of aesthetics. Pulpal damage should
receive endodontic treatment following occlusal correction.
Mobility due to long term occlusal interferences on

normal teeth and due to traumatic occlusion on
teeth weakened by periodontal disease, are treated
by removing FPD and splinting teeth with
removable prosthesis. If mobility is severe
extraction is necessary.
2. An altered vertical dimension also leads to occlusal problems. This
is the result of poor treatment planning and needs to be identified and
corrected. It may also lead to temporomandibular disorders.
Symptoms
Problems in occlusion is perceived by the patient as discomfort on
biting, sore teeth, loose teeth or bridges, sensitive teeth and tired or
sore muscles.
General pathosis
Failure to diagnose a pathological change, having a vital bearing on
the patient’s life expectancy is a failure. For example a patient with a
squamous cell carcinoma being treated for missing teeth with a FPD
instead of the more important condition is a failure.
Patients may come back to the dentist after many years for
restorative treatment. Patient’s current medical condition should be
evaluated. A change in a patient’s medical condition like cerebral
haemorrhage alters patient’s motivation, physical ability to maintain
teeth, diet and general resistance, leading to a deterioration of
restorations and abutments.
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Maintenance failure
Maintenance of the prosthesis is very important for the biologic
survival of the restoration.
Failure may be due to:
• Failure of the dentist to prescribe a maintenance programme.
• Failure to implement or prescribe a recall system.
• Inadequate motivation of patient.
• Inadequate motivation by dentist.
Mechanical failure
Loss of retention
Causes
• Improper cementation procedure.
• Poor retention and resistance form.
• Poor fit of casting.
• Excessive span length.
• Heavy occlusal forces like cantilevers if designed improperly.
If not detected early, a loose retainer can lead to extensive caries of

the abutment.
Symptoms
Patient may perceive a loose retainer as sensitivity to temperature or
sweets and bad taste or odour.
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Detection
A curved explorer is placed under the connector and an occlusal force
is applied. The retainer is then pressed cervically with a finger. If
retainer is loose, the occlusal force causes fluids to be drawn under the
casting is reseated with a cervical force, the fluid is expressed in the
form of bubbles as air and liquid are simultaneously displaced (Fig.
42.12).
FIGURE 42.12 Loose retainer causing bubbles.
Treatment
• Prosthesis must be removed intact or otherwise. It can be

recemented if the reason was a cementation problem and it is intact.
• If loss of retention is due to preparation design, the teeth should be

modified to improve retention and resistance form and new
prosthesis fabricated.
• If excessive span length is the problem, a removable partial denture
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may be the only option.
Connector failure
Causes
Inadequate connector width if posterior (occlusocervical), if anterior
(buccolingual). This is usually due to supraeruption leaving no space
for pontic in height (Fig. 42.13A and B).
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FIGURE 42.13 ( A) Supraeruption of upper first molar. (B)
Causing connector failure.
Internal porosity, incomplete casting or soldering which has

weakened the metal can also cause connector failure.
Treatment
If the cause is supraeruption, then the offending tooth may be
contoured to provide adequate clearance. If severe, intentional
endodontics may be required. Following this a new prosthesis is
made.
If casting defect was the problem, an inlay like dovetailed
preparation can be prepared in the metal to span the fracture site and
a casting can be cemented to stabilize the prosthesis. Most often a new
prosthesis is made.
Occlusal wear
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Causes
• Insufficient thickness of restoration due to inadequate preparation

of occlusal surface, lack of functional cusp bevel (Fig. 42.14).
• Heavy chewing forces/bruxism.
• Rough porcelain occlusal surfaces cause wear of opposing natural

teeth.
FIGURE 42.14 Inadequate occlusal preparation.
Treatment
• If wear is due to inadequate preparation, a new prosthesis is made

after providing adequate clearance.
• Any rough porcelain surface should be polished or glazed.
• For bruxers, a night guard may be a solution.
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• When occlusal wear is anticipated, it is better to plan metal occlusal
surfaces opposing natural teeth or metallic restorations.
Tooth fracture
1. Crown fracture
Causes
• Excessive tooth preparation leaving insufficient tooth structure to

resist occlusal forces.
• Endodontically treated abutment without post.
• Abutment mostly comprises of restorative material.
• Interfering centric/eccentric contacts.
• Attempting to forcibly seat an improperly fitting prosthesis.
• Unseating a cemented bridge incorrectly.
Treatment
• Small coronal fractures common around inlays and partial veneer

crowns. These can be restored.
• Large fractures around partial veneer crowns require a build-up and

full veneer crown.
• Fracture around partial veneer crowns with pulp exposure will

require endodontic treatment, post and core followed by full veneer
crown.
• Fracture around full crowns if occurs horizontally at level of finish

line, is treated by endodontics, followed by post and core and a new
prosthesis.
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• If finish line is intact then ‘retrofit technique’ can be attempted to
salvage the retainer or crown.
Retrofit technique
In this technique, a post and core is fabricated to fit an existing
fractured abutment tooth with an intact crown or retainer. Hence, it is
termed ‘retrofit’.
The procedure for fabricating a retrofit cast post and core is as
follows:
A post space is prepared in the abutment tooth (Fig. 42.15A–C). A
resin pattern of the post and core is fabricated to fit the crown (Fig.
42.15D–I). The pattern is cast and cemented along with the crown (Fig.
42.15J–M).
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FIGURE 42.15 (A) Fractured coronal portion on
endodontically treated mandibular lateral incisor (32). (B)
Intact crown with damaged coronal portion. (C) Post space is
prepared. (D) Plastic pattern used to record the radicular
anatomy. (E) Height of core is marked on the post and
trimmed. (F) The fitting surface of the crown is cleaned and
sandblasted. (G) Separating medium is applied on the fitting
surface of crown, it is filled with pattern resin and placed on
the cut portion of core to build the same, ensuring the core fits
existing crown. (H) The core fabricated to fit the crown. (I)
Resin pattern ready for casting. (J) Casting ready for
cementation. (K) Cast post and core cemented. (L) Old crown
cemented on the core. Lingual view showing good margin
adaptation of crown. (M) Labial view of cemented crown.
2. Root fracture
Causes
• Improperly designed or a poorly fitting post.
• Root fracture occurring during endodontic or post treatment, but

manifests later.
• Trauma.
• Reduced neural feedback leading to increased loading in

endodontically treated teeth.
Treatment
• Extraction followed by a new prosthesis.
Porcelain fracture
1. Metal-ceramic fracture
Causes
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i. Improper framework design:
○ Sharp angles or extremely rough and irregular areas

over coping surface cause stress concentrations
which leads to cracks.
○ Perforations in metal (Fig. 42.16A and B).
○ Overly thin metal casting does not adequately

support the porcelain.
○ With facings, occlusal contact on or adjacent to

metal-to-ceramic junction causes porcelain fracture
(Fig. 42.17).
○ In facings, when angle between veneering surface

and nonveneered aspect of casting is less than 90°
(Fig. 42.18).
○ Any unsupported porcelain can fracture.

ii. Occlusion:
○ Heavy occlusal forces like clenching, bruxism.
○ Centric or eccentric occlusal interferences.

iii. Metal handling procedures:
○ Improper handling of alloy during casting, finishing
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or porcelain application can cause contamination
which leads to ceramic fracture.
○ Excessive oxide formation in metal can also cause

porcelain fracture. This is caused by improper
conditioning of base metal alloys.
Clinician has no role in the above-mentioned causes.

iv. During clinical procedures:
○ Teeth prepared with slight undercut can cause

binding of prostheses during insertion, which
initiates crack propagation.
○ Distorted impressions can also cause similar failure.
○ When teeth are prepared with feather-edge finish

lines or if finish lines are not recorded properly in
impression, the technician may extend the metal
beyond finish line as finish line is vague. The thin
metal may bind against tooth and initiate crack of
overlying porcelain.
○ Attempts to seat a prosthesis using mallet and

wooden stick during try-in or cementation can
crack the porcelain.
○ Cleaning fitting surface of prosthesis using
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ultrasonic scalers can initiate cracks in the
porcelain. This typically happens when the
prosthesis has been fixed provisionally or when a
dislodged prosthesis is recemented (Fig. 42.19A and
B).
v. Metal and porcelain incompatibility: This happens rarely. This can
be easily prevented if manufacturer’s instructions are followed when
choosing the porcelains for a particular metal.
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FIGURE 42.16 (A) Fractured ceramic portion on second
molar retainer. (B) Examination reveals metal perforation.
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FIGURE 42.17 (A) Fracture of ceramic due to placement of
metal ceramic junction at the contact of mandibular incisal
edge. (B) Ceramic should end at a stress-free rounded but
joint prepared on the metal.
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FIGURE 42.18 (A) Incorrect acute angle formed between
veneering surface and nonveneered aspect of casting, will
lead to porcelain fracture. (B) Correct incisolingual angle.
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FIGURE 42.19 (A) Ultrasonic cleaning to remove cement. (B)
Cracks in porcelain following such cleaning.
Treatment
The best method is to fabricate a new prosthesis. Repairs can be
attempted until a new prosthesis is fabricated.
i. Resin repair
○ Composite resins of appropriate shade are used and

repair is made directly in the mouth.
○ The exposed ceramic surface is etched with

hydrofluoric acid for 30 s. The exposed metal
surface can either be sandblasted intraorally or
roughened for mechanical retention (Fig. 42.20A).
○ A silane coupling agent is applied and allowed to

remain on the surface for 1 min. It is not light cured.
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○ A composite bonding agent is applied and light
cured for 10 s.
○ An opaque composite paste is applied on the

exposed metal surface to mask the colour of metal
and light cured for 20 s (Fig. 42.20B).
○ Composite resin of appropriate shade is selected

and contoured on the surface, light cured for 20 s,
finished and polished (Fig. 42.20C).
ii. Facing repair
○ This is a repair made with porcelain indirectly in

the laboratory. It is a more definitive repair but
requires adequate framework thickness. It works
well with facings (Fig. 42.21).
○ The fractured porcelain is completely removed from

the metal by grinding.
○ Four to five pinholes are made on the metal surface.
○ Impression is made and a thin metal with porcelain

superstructure is fabricated.
○ This is cemented over the labial metal surface.
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FIGURE 42.20 (A) Resin repair of porcelain fracture –
porcelain surface etched with hydrofluoric acid and exposed
metal is sandblasted intraorally or roughened. (B) Silane
coupling agent applied, followed by bonding agent and
application of opaque composite paste. (C) Composite resin
of appropriate shade contoured and finished.
FIGURE 42.21 Facing repair. A thin metal with porcelain
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superstructure is fabricated indirectly and cemented over the
labial metal surface.
2. All ceramic fracture
Causes
i. Vertical fracture:
○ Inadequate finish lines like feather edge.
○ Sharp areas on prepared tooth.
○ Large portion of proximal preparation form is

missing and not restored prior to impression
procedure (Fig. 42.22).
○ Round preparation form without resistance to

rotational forces.
ii. Facial-cervical fracture:
○ If tooth is overprepared and it is less than two-third

or three-fourth of final restoration in height, this
fracture occurs due to poor resistance.
○ Opposing tooth contact located incisally to

prepared tooth.
iii. Lingual fracture:
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○ Inadequate lingual tooth preparation.
FIGURE 42.22 Proximal surface not restored prior to

preparation can cause vertical fracture of all ceramic
restoration.
Aesthetic failure
Immediate aesthetic failure

Aesthetic problems at the time of cementation can be due to:
• Poor shade match – reasons for this may be:
○ Inadequate selection and communication
○ Metamerism
○ Insufficient tooth preparation
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○ Failure to properly apply and fire porcelain
• Poor tooth contour, gingival contour, pontic ridge contour and
embrasure.
• Poor margin placement.
• Framework design that displays metal.
• Unrealistic expectations of patient due to poor communication.
Delayed aesthetic failure

These occur over a period of time following cementation due to:
• Gingival recession (Fig. 42.23) due to:
○ Poor fit
○ Overcontour
○ Excessive trauma during tooth preparation and

impression making.
• Subpontic tissue shrinkage following extraction – if sufficient time is
not allowed for healing following extraction, then the tissue shrinks
after cementation and a gap is formed between the pontic and ridge
which can be unaesthetic especially in anteriors.
• After periodontal surgery – margins will be exposed due to gingival

recession if sufficient healing time is not given following any
surgery.
• Unglazed porcelain can cause unsightly wear of opposing natural

teeth.
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• Poorly glazed porcelain restorations also develop black specks over
time.
FIGURE 42.23 Aesthetic failure due to gingival recession.
Psychogenic failure
When all the parameters for a successful FPD have been met with,
rarely a patient may still feel uncomfortable with the restoration. This
has been attributed to the stress and behavioural changes in the
individual. The patient may require counselling to get over this
problem. A failure to recognize this problem during the diagnostic
phase itself, can lead to a failure of the prosthesis.
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Methods of removing a failed FPD
If a FPD fails; usually it needs to be removed for any treatment. Most
often it cannot be removed intact and must be cut off from the
abutment. It is necessary at least to attempt intact removal.
The following methods can be employed with abundant caution not
to damage the abutment:
1. Using a straight chisel: By applying a sharp force in an occlusal

direction using a mallet, with a sharp chisel placed under the retainer
margin. The tapping should be done parallel to the path of
withdrawal of prosthesis.
2. Using a crown remover: These are commercially available and may

be of the following common types:
i. Back action: Uses a weight to deliver a force

directed backward with the tip placed such that it
transfers the force occlusally (Fig. 42.24).
ii. Spring loaded: Uses a spring mechanism to

deliver a sudden force (Fig. 42.25).
iii. Pneumatic: Uses compressed air to deliver a

controlled force to remove crowns and bridges
(Fig. 42.26).
They are all manufactured with different tips to

engage retainers and pontics. Other commercial
examples include – Richwill, Metalift and
Coronaflex, each with its own unique method of
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usage.
3. By cutting retainer: This is the best method to prevent any damage
to the abutment. But it will destroy the prosthesis.
FIGURE 42.24 Back action crown remover.
FIGURE 42.25 Spring loaded crown remover.
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FIGURE 42.26 Pneumatic crown remover.
A thin groove is placed in the middle of the restoration with a high

speed airotor handpiece using diamonds (ceramic) and carbides
(metal) (Fig. 42.27A and B). This should cut through the restoration
and expose the abutment. The grove can be placed in the facial aspect
but placing it lingually especially for anteriors, may allow the
restoration to be used provisionally after removal. A facial slot works
best for maxillary and mandibular molars because lingual access is
difficult.
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FIGURE 42.27 (A) Diamond used to cut the ceramic. (B)
Carbide bur used to cut the metal. (C) Using a sharp
instrument the cut metal is pried open. (D) Prosthesis
removed.
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Removal is attempted with a crown remover following cutting
through one surface, if not, both facial and lingual surfaces are cut
dividing the retainer into two halves. It is now easy to remove with a
crown remover or a sharp instrument is used to wedge the two halves
(Fig. 42.27C and D).
SUMMARY
The first consideration when confronted with any failure is to
ascertain the cause. The causes have been classified and discussed.
Most failures are unique and present varying challenges to the
dentist. Treatment plan for each situation differs and is
individualized. Great satisfaction can be achieved in meeting a
situation and solving it in an effective and economical manner.
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CHAPTER
43
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Metal-free ceramic restorations
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 652
History and development 652
Strengthening ceramics 653
Mechanisms 653
Materials used to strengthen ceramics 653
Advantages 654
Disadvantages 654
Indications 654
Classification 654
Firing temperature 654
Processing technique 654
Glass content 654
Methods of fabrication 655
Powder slurry 655
Castable 655
Slip-casting 655
Heat-pressed 655
CAD–CAM 655
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Fixed partial dentures 659
Clinical procedures 660
Cementation 660
Summary 662
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Introduction
The brittle nature and poor flexural strength of ceramics lead to the
development of metal-ceramic restorations, which have been used
extensively in fixed prosthodontic restorations for decades. As
discussed in Chapter 40, it involves making a coping or core in metal
that gives the strength, and then firing ceramic on the metal, which
provides the aesthetics. The opaque nature of these restorations due to
poor light transmission and the need to place margins subgingivally
to hide the metal, lead to the development of high strength ceramics
or metal-free ceramic restorations. Metal-free ceramics or all ceramic
systems have currently gained huge popularity due to their excellent
aesthetics and ability to be designed and fabricated by CAD–CAM.
Though metal-free ceramics have superior aesthetics, their constant
development can be traced to find a system that can match the
strength of metal ceramics.
In this chapter we will discuss the development, clinical procedures
and methods of fabrication of various metal-free ceramics.
The metal-ceramic restorations, which these metal-free ceramics are
trying to replace, have the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of metal-ceramic restorations
• Predictable – used for a number of years with good success.
• Excellent strength – compressive and tensile.
• Good fit.
• Versatile.
• Less knowledge required in choosing a particular system.
Disadvantages of metal-ceramic restorations
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• Lack of translucency, as metal is opaque.
• Metal margin may be seen as a black reflection.
• Subgingival placement is necessary to hide the margin.
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History and development
1887 – C.H. Land made the first all ceramic crowns using the platinum
foil technique.
1965 – Maclean and Hughes developed aluminous porcelain with
40%–50% alumina.
1984 – Peter Adair and David Grossman introduced castable ceramic –
DICOR. A glass structure was obtained by casting, and
tetrasilicicfluoromica crystals were introduced into the glass by a
‘ceramming’ process to increase the strength.
Early 1980s – Direct intraoral scanning of prepared tooth introduced
by Cerec. Transfer moulded shrink-free all ceramic system ‘Cerestore’
reinforced with Spinel, was introduced and developed by the Coors
Biomedical Co.
1987 – Mcrmann et al. introduced the first CAD–CAM milling unit
CEREC (Siemens, A.G. Munchen).
1988 – Sadoun introduced In-Ceram – spinel, alumina and zirconia.
These were ‘infiltrated’ ceramics fabricated by a method called ‘slip-
casting’.
1990 – ‘IPS Empress’ leucite-reinforced ‘heat pressed’ ceramic was
presented to the profession by Ivoclar Vivadent. They introduced
‘lithium-di-silicate’ reinforced ‘heat pressed’ ceramics in the late
1990s.
1990 – Anderson and Oden developed Procera alumina – dry pressed
and sintered using CAD–CAM technology.
Development of all-ceramic restorations was aided by the following
discoveries:
• Etching of enamel by Buonocore (1955).
• Bowen’s Bis-GMA resins (1960s).
• Ceramic surface treatment and bonding by Rochette (1973).
• Introduction of CAD–CAM to dentistry by Duret (1972).
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Strengthening ceramics
Metal-free ceramic restorations commonly utilize two ceramic
materials – a high strength ceramic, which is used as a core (similar to
a metal coping in metal ceramics). This core is veneered by feldspathic
porcelain (similar to porcelains used for veneering metal ceramics).
Alternately, the entire restoration can be fabricated with a single
moderately high strength ceramic.
The higher the strength of the ceramic, the more opaque is the
ceramic with poor light transmission and aesthetics. Hence, these
materials are used as core materials and are veneered with low
strength ceramics with good translucency and aesthetics.
Mechanisms
Ceramics contain fabrication defects and surface flaws which initiate
cracks, making them susceptible to fracture. Mechanisms to
strengthen ceramics include the following.
Crack tip interactions

Obstacles in the microstructure prevent crack propagation by
reorienting and deflecting the plane of fracture. Alumina, leucite,
zirconia and magnesium-aluminium oxide spinel crystals are used to
strengthen ceramics by this method (Fig. 43.1).
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FIGURE 43.1 Aluminium oxide and zirconium oxide crystals
strengthen ceramics by crack tip interactions.
Crack tip shielding

Increase in grain volume near the crack tip can prevent crack
propagation. This is called ‘transformation toughening’ and is
applicable to zirconia. The crystal structure of zirconia is monoclinic at
room temperature and tetragonal at high temperature. The tetragonal
form can be retained at room temperature by addition of oxides such
as yttrium. Stress transforms the zirconia to monoclinic form leading
to an increase in volume and subsequent strengthening (Fig. 43.2).
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FIGURE 43.2 Transformation toughening – change from
tetragonal structure to monoclinic.
Crack bridging
This presents a second crystalline phase to prevent crack propagation.
Crystallization of glasses by ‘ceramming’ as with castable glass
ceramics is an example of this type of strengthening.
Materials used to strengthen ceramics
Leucite
• This is a glass ceramic reinforced with leucite crystals (potassium
and aluminium tectosilicate).
• Highly translucent hence excellent aesthetics.
• Flexural strength – 150 MPa.
• Fabricated by heat-pressed technique and CAD–CAM.
• May be used as a core material and as a single material.
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• Indicated for inlays, onlays, veneers and anterior crowns.
• Have to be adhesively cemented using resin.
• Commercial example – IPS Empress.
Lithium disilicate
• This is a glass-ceramic reinforced with lithium disilicate.
• Good translucency with excellent aesthetics.
• Flexural strength – 400 MPa.
• Fabricated by heat-pressed technique and CAD–CAM.
• May be used as a core material and as a single material.
• Indicated for inlays, onlays, veneers, anterior and posterior crowns,

and anterior three-unit fixed partial dentures.
• Have to be adhesively cemented using resin.
• Commercial example – IPS e.max.
Spinel
• Ceramic is reinforced with MgAl2O4.
• Good translucency, but flexural strength of only 350 MPa.
• Fabricated using slip-casting and CAD–CAM.
• Used only as a core material.
• Indicated for anterior crowns.
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• Adhesive cementation not critical.
• Commercial example – In-Ceram spinel.
Alumina
• Ceramic is reinforced with aluminium oxide.
• More opaque, so can be used only as a core material.
• Strength depends on amount of alumina:
○ 50% Alumina – flexural strength is 120–180 MPa

(Hi-ceram).
○ 70% Alumina – flexural strength is 500 MPa (In-

Ceram).
○ 99% Alumina – flexural strength is 600 MPa

(Procera).
• Fabricated with powder-slurry method, slip-casting and CAD–
CAM.
• Indicated for anterior and posterior crowns, and anterior three-unit

fixed partial dentures.
• Commercial examples – In-Ceram alumina, Procera alumina.
Zirconia
• Most commonly used now for all ceramic fixed partial dentures.
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• Ceramic is reinforced with yttrium oxide partially stabilized
zirconia (Y-TZP.)
• Very opaque, so can be used only as a core material.
• High strength – 900–1200 MPa.
• Fabricated using slip-casting and CAD–CAM.
• Indicated for anterior and posterior crowns and bridges.
• Commercial examples – Lava, Cercon, Procera Zirconia.
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Advantages
• Translucency and light transmission.
• Excellent tissue response – researchers report recovering smaller

amounts of plaque and adherence molecules.
• Eliminate need for ceramic opaque.
• Subgingival placement avoided.
• Reduced risk of overcontouring.
• Reduced thermal conductivity.
• No allergic potential.
• Superior to metals with respect to corrosion, galvanism and

biocompatibility.
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Disadvantages
• Strength still not comparable to metal-ceramic restorations.
• Long-term performance using fixed partial dentures – no data

available yet.
• Proper tooth preparation design is critical to ensure mechanical

success.
• More knowledge required in choosing appropriate material.
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Indications
This has been discussed under each material used for strengthening
ceramic, as translucent materials will have different indications than
opaque ceramics.
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Contraindications
• Occlusal clearance after tooth preparation is less than 0.8 mm.
• Thin teeth labiolingually.
• Deep bite with lingual wear facets.
• Bruxism and parafunctional activity.
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Classification
Ceramics are commonly classified according to:
Firing temperature
• High fusing: >1300°C
• Medium fusing: 1101–1300°C
• Low fusing: 850–1101°C
• Ultra low fusing: <850°C.
Processing technique
• Powder slurry
• Castable
• Slip-casting
• Heat pressed
• CAD–CAM
Glass content
• Predominantly glass-veneering porcelains like feldspathic
porcelains.
• Particle filled glass (also called glass ceramics).
○ High glass content – leucite reinforced.
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○ Low glass content:
▪ Lithium-disilicate reinforced
▪ Infiltrated – In-Ceram
• Polycrystalline – alumina and zirconia.
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All-ceramic restorations can be fabricated by the following methods.
Powder slurry
• The core porcelain is fabricated by mixing the powder with
modelling liquid and firing in a ceramic furnace similar to
fabricating conventional feldspathic porcelains. The veneering
porcelain is then built up over the core (Figs 43.3 and 43.4).
• This method was used for the early aluminous porcelains and is no
longer used. Commercial examples are Hi-Ceram and Duceram.
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FIGURE 43.3 Alumina core fired.
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FIGURE 43.4 Veneering ceramic built up on core and fired
(courtesy VITA Zahnfabrik manual).
Castable
• The restoration is fabricated by the lost wax process, similar to
making metal copings in metal-ceramic restorations.
• A wax pattern is made, invested, burnt-out and molten glass is cast

into the mould. The glass is then heat-treated in the ceramic furnace
to form the glass-ceramic and then stained to form the final
restoration (Figs 43.5 and 43.6).
• This method and the ceramics used are now obsolete. Commercial
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examples are Dicor, Cerapearl.
FIGURE 43.5 Wax pattern sprued.
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FIGURE 43.6 Glass after casting.
Slip-casting
• The ‘slip’ which is a mixture of the reinforced ceramic with an
aqueous medium, is first applied on a gypsum die (Fig. 43.7). This is
sintered (fired) in a ceramic furnace (Fig. 43.8). Special glass
particles are then applied on this sintered ceramic and again
sintered (fired). This allows the glass to get ‘infiltrated’ into the
ceramic. This forms the core (Figs 43.9 and 43.10). Veneering
porcelains are then built up to complete the restoration (Fig. 43.11).
• This procedure was developed by the VITA Zahnfabrikcompany to
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fabricate all-ceramic restorations called ‘In-Ceram’. Three materials
were used with this method – spinel, alumina and zirconia.
FIGURE 43.7 Slip fabricated (courtesy VITA Zahnfabrik

manual).
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FIGURE 43.8 Following sintering of slip (courtesy VITA
Zahnfabrik manual).
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FIGURE 43.9 Glass infiltration (courtesy VITA Zahnfabrik
manual).
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FIGURE 43.10 Following sintering of glass infiltrate (courtesy
VITA Zahnfabrik manual).
FIGURE 43.11 Build-up of veneering porcelains (courtesy

VITA Zahnfabrik manual).
Heat-pressed
• The procedure is similar to the lost wax casting procedure. The
ceramic block is heated and allowed to flow into the mould using
hydrostatic pressure (Figs 43.12–43.17).
• This procedure was developed to fabricate all-ceramic restorations

reinforced with leucite and lithium disilicate. They are hence called
‘pressable ceramics’.
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• As the materials have good translucency they can be fabricated as a
core ceramic (layering technique) or as a single fully contoured
restoration (staining technique).
FIGURE 43.12 Full contour wax up done.
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FIGURE 43.13 Wax pattern invested.
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FIGURE 43.14 Ingot placed.
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FIGURE 43.15 Plunger positioned.
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FIGURE 43.16 Heat pressing in ceramic furnace.
FIGURE 43.17 Staining and finishing the final restoration.
CAD–CAM
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The restorations are fabricated using computer-aided designing
(CAD) and computer-aided machining (CAM).
Restorations can be fabricated using two types of processing
methods.
Dry pressed and sintered

• One of the first systems to use computer technology in its
fabrication was ‘Procera’, involving an industrial CAD–CAM
process.
• Dies are scanned and coping is designed using CAD (Figs 43.18 and
43.19). The data are sent to a centralized workstation where an
enlarged computer-aided model is produced to exactly compensate
for sintering shrinkage of the ceramic. High alumina-based core
ceramic (99% alumina) is then dry-pressed and sintered on the dies
using an industrial process (Fig. 43.20). The core or coping is sent
back to the respective laboratories where veneering porcelain is
built up and restoration is completed. The same technology is also
available for zirconia-based core ceramics.
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FIGURE 43.18 Scanning of die (courtesy Nobel-Biocare).
FIGURE 43.19 Computer generated die after scanning where

coping is designed (courtesy Nobel-Biocare).
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FIGURE 43.20 Finished coping after fabrication (courtesy
Nobel-Biocare).
Machined
Restorations are milled from blocks of reinforced ceramic materials
(Fig. 43.21). All the materials – leucite, lithium-disilicate, spinel,
alumina and zirconia can be used with this method.
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FIGURE 43.21 A ceramic blank for milling (courtesy VITA
Zahnfabrik).
In general, blocks are made from the respective ceramic powders by

mixing them with a binder and pressing them into a mould. The
blocks are then sintered and ready for milling. This type of fabrication
results in an increase in density and mechanical properties of the
ceramic.
Two methods can be used to make machined restorations:
1. Direct technique
An intraoral scanner is used to scan the preparation directly in the
mouth. The restoration is designed on the computer (CAD) and the
data are transferred to a milling machine, which mills the restoration
to the designed shape (CAM).
Commercial examples of intraoral scanners are CerecBluecam, Lava
(Fig. 43.22) and CadentItero.
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FIGURE 43.22 Intraoral scanner.
2. Indirect technique
A model is fabricated using conventional impression materials and
dies. The model is scanned and the restoration is designed using CAD
and data are transferred to a milling machine for fabrication (Fig.
43.23).
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FIGURE 43.23 Milling a restoration using CAD–CAM.
Alternately, the wax pattern can also be scanned and a coping or

core milled accordingly. This is known as ‘copy milling’.
Both cores and fully contoured restorations can be made with the
above methods depending on the ceramic used. Alumina and zirconia
can only be used as core materials, which are then veneered with
conventional porcelains.
Commercial systems that design and fabricate all-ceramic
restorations by milling using indirect technique are Lava, Cercon,
Cerec-in-lab.
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• Fracture of all-ceramic fixed partial dentures is related to size, shape
and position of connectors (Fig. 43.24). Hence, the dimension of the
connector is critical for success. For zirconia-based ceramics the
minimal thickness of connector should be 3 mm buccolingually and
occulusogingivally. In comparison, metal-ceramic fixed partial
dentures can function with a connector size of 2.5 mm.
• Gingival and lingual surfaces of connectors and intaglio surface of

pontic made with core material.
• Span of pontic should not be greater than length of one molar.
• Currently only the following reinforcing materials are indicated:
○ Anterior FPDs – lithium disilicate, alumina and

zirconia
○ Posterior FPDs – zirconia

• Contraindications:
○ Periodontally involved teeth
○ Cantilevers
○ Deep bite
○ Parafunctional activity
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FIGURE 43.24 Connector size is important for success of all-
ceramic fixed partial dentures.
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Clinical procedures
Tooth preparation for all ceramic restorations is discussed in Chapter
35.
Impression making, fabricating provisional restorations and shade
selection is similar to that described for any fixed prosthodontic
restoration.
Cementation
The procedures differ only for cementation. Adhesive cementation
(bonding) using resin cements is critical for ceramic systems using
leucite and lithium-disilicate. Although this is not critical for alumina-
and zirconia-based systems, adhesive cementation has demonstrated
reduced microleakage. Resin-modified glass ionomer cements are
contraindicated for use with all-ceramic systems as they may undergo
expansion due to water absorption following cementation.
Adhesive cementation using resin cements

• Fit of all-ceramic crown is checked on cast (Fig. 43.25).
• The fitting surface of crown is etched with 15%–30% hydrofluoric

acid, rinsed and dried (Fig. 43.26). Alumina and zirconia cannot be
etched, so they are sandblasted. Zirconia can also be silicoated.
• Ceramic primer or silane coupling agent is then applied and

allowed to dry for one minute (Fig. 43.27).
• Regular bonding agent is then applied. Light curing may form a

layer that can prevent seating, so it can be avoided.
• The prepared tooth is then etched with 37% phosphoric acid and
bonding agent applied. Again light curing may be avoided (Figs
43.28 and 43.29).
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• The resin cement is mixed, applied to the fitting surface of crown
and seated on the prepared tooth (Figs 43.30 and 43.31). For dual
cure cements, light curing is done for 5 s after which the excess
cement is removed (Fig. 43.32). It may be difficult to remove the
excess if resin hardens completely (Fig. 43.33). The margins are then
light cured for 1 min.
• The margins are finished with fine grit diamonds (Fig. 43.34).
Occlusion is also checked and corrected only after cementation.
• A self-etch, self-bond single component resin cement is now

available for adhesive cementation (Fig. 43.35). The manufacturers
claim enhanced bond strength to both ceramic and tooth and it is
also not necessary to etch and bond the tooth and restoration. This
is available in capsule form and is mixed using an automixer.
Commercial examples: G-CEM (GC) and RelyX (3M).
FIGURE 43.25 Check fit on cast.
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FIGURE 43.26 Etch with hydrofluoric acid.
FIGURE 43.27 Application of silane.
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FIGURE 43.28 Etching tooth.
FIGURE 43.29 Application of bonding agent.
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FIGURE 43.30 Resin cement mixed and loaded on crown.
FIGURE 43.31 Crown placed on tooth.
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FIGURE 43.32 Initial light curing for 5 s.
FIGURE 43.33 Excess cement is removed from margins.
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FIGURE 43.34 Finishing with fine grit diamonds.
FIGURE 43.35 A self-etch, single bond, single component

resin cement in capsule.
SUMMARY
Metal-free ceramic restorations will probably replace metal-ceramic
restorations, especially for anterior regions due to their superior
aesthetics. All the development in these ceramics has been aimed at
matching the strength of metal-ceramic restorations. A plethora of
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systems and manufacturers make selection of a particular system
difficult. In general, only the reinforcing material and method of
fabrication dictate the strength and aesthetics and not the system
used. Leucite and lithium disilicate reinforced ceramics are more
translucent and used for anterior inlays, veneers and crowns with
adhesive cementation. Alumina-based restorations fabricated by the
CAD–CAM technology can also be used for anterior fixed partial
dentures, while zirconia-based materials are indicated for posterior
fixed partial dentures. Data on long-term success of these materials
for posterior fixed partial dentures are still not available. Alumina
and zirconia are both opaque materials and are used only as core
materials. They do not require adhesive cementation.
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CHAPTER
44
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Resin-bonded fixed partial
dentures
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 663
Indications and contraindications 663
Classification 663
Mechanical (Rochette bridge) 663
Micromechanical (Maryland bridge) 664
Macromechanical 664
Chemical (adhesive bridges) 665
Fabrication 665
Tooth preparation 665
Impressions and provisionals 668
Bonding 668
Maintenance and recall 668
Failures 668
Summary 668
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Introduction
Definition: A fixed dental prosthesis that is luted to tooth structures,
primarily enamel, which has been etched to provide mechanical
retention for the resin cement (GPT8).
• It is also termed as ‘adhesive bridge’.
• First described by Rochette in 1973 (mandibular anterior teeth).
• It involves replacing teeth by attaching pontics to thin metal

retainers, which are bonded to the palatal/lingual surface of the
abutments using resin cements. The retention to metal formed the
basis of development of this prosthesis.
• Buonocore acid-etch technique and Bowen’s resins assisted the

development of this concept.
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Indications and contraindications of resin-bonded fixed partial
dentures (RBFPDs) are presented in Table 44.1.
Table 44.1
Indications and contraindications of resin-bonded fixed partial
dentures
Indications Contraindications
1. Replacement of missing anteriors in children and 1. Insufficient occlusal clearance
adolescents 2. Thin anterior teeth faciolingually
2. Abutments with sufficient enamel to etch for 3. Short clinical crowns
retention 4. When facial aesthetics of teeth require a change
3. Short-span bridges 5. Deep vertical overlap
4. Splinting periodontally weak teeth 6. Insufficient enamel available for bonding – caries,
5. Medically compromised patients restorations, hypoplasias
6. As a long-term temporary restoration in patients 7. Parafunctional habits
with craniofacial anomalies 8. Long-span bridges
7. Postorthodontic retention 9. Sensitivity to base metal alloys
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Advantages and disadvantages of RBFPDs are presented in Table 44.2.
Table 44.2
Advantages and disadvantages of resin-bonded fixed partial
dentures
1. Conservation of tooth structure, preparation 1. Longevity is in question
is confined to enamel 2. Technique sensitive
2. Tolerant to tissues with no pulpal trauma 3. Space, contour and alignment correction of abutment
and supragingival margins not possible
3. Anaesthesia not required 4. Possibility of overcontouring is high which can lead to
4. Impression making is easy increased plaque accumulation
5. Provisional restorations are not required 5. Can be used to replace only one tooth
6. Less chairside time 6. Can cause ‘greying’ in thin teeth
7. Does not require cast alterations or 7. Aesthetics is moderate
removable dies
8. Reduced cost
9. Rebonding possible
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Classification
RBFPDs are classified based on the type of retention utilized by the
retainers which also incidentally forms the basis of their development,
as follows:
1. Mechanical
2. Micromechanical
3. Macromechanical
4. Chemical
Mechanical (Rochette bridge)

• It was developed in 1973 by Rochette.
• This was the first resin-bonded prosthesis to be developed.
• Rochette utilized a wing-like retainer with multiple flared

perforations to provide mechanical retention for resin cement (Fig.
44.1).
• This was used at that time for both anterior and posterior fixed
partial dentures.
• A clinical study by Boyer et al. (1993) reported that anterior FPDs

with perforated retainers had a 50% failure in 110 months and 63%
in 130 months.
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FIGURE 44.1 Rochette bridge with perforation in metal
retainers.
Limitations
• Perforations weakened the metal retainers.
• The resin in the perforations was exposed to oral fluids, which

caused wear and microleakage.
• Retention provided by the perforations was limited.
Micromechanical (Maryland bridge)

• It was developed by Livaditis and Thompson at the University of
Maryland in 1981.
• Electrolytic etching was used to provide micromechanical retention

to nonperforated base metal retainers, bonded by resin cement (Fig.
44.2).
• For etching they used a 3.5% solution of nitric acid with a current of
250 mA/cm2 for 5 min followed by immersion in 18% hydrochloric
acid solution in an ultrasonic cleaner for 10 min.
• Ten per cent sulphuric acid in 300 mA/cm2 current has been used for
etching beryllium containing alloys and a one step technique has
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also been advocated using a combination of sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids placed in an ultrasonic cleaner for 99 s while
current is passed. Chemical etching and gel etching have also
yielded similar results. Retention of similar values was provided by
all these techniques.
FIGURE 44.2 Maryland bridge.
Advantages
• Better retention than perforated retainers.
• Highly polished retainers prevented plaque accumulation.
Limitations
• Highly technique sensitive depending on procedure adopted at
laboratory.
• Variable results were reported for etching the same alloy.
• Retention decreased with time.
Macromechanical
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Virginia bridge
• It was developed by Moon and Hudgins at the University of
Virginia in 1983.
• Utilized macroscopic mechanical retention using ‘lost salt crystal

technique’ (Fig. 44.3).
FIGURE 44.3 Virginia bridge.
Procedure
• The die is lubricated and sieved cubic salt (NaCl) 150–250 microns is
sprinkled on the surface leaving out the margins.
• A resin pattern is now constructed over the salt allowing it to get

incorporated in the resin.
• The salt is then dissolved by placing the set pattern in an ultrasonic

cleaner. This leaves behind voids in the pattern, which are
reproduced in the casting. This provides the retention.
Advantages
• Procedure can be used with any metal.
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• Bonding to metal superior to electrolytic method.
Disadvantage
• Thickness of retainer is increased to allow for retentive layer.
Cast mesh fixed partial denture

A nylon mesh is placed on the palatal/lingual surface of the abutment
die and the pattern is fabricated over this mesh (Fig. 44.4). The mesh
gets incorporated and following casting provides retention for resin to
metal.
FIGURE 44.4 Cast mesh fixed partial denture.
Disadvantages
• Adaptation of the nylon mesh to the cast is not good.
• The wax may flow in between the mesh locking all the undercuts.
The retention of the metal to the resin in all the above types of RBFPDs
can be improved with silanation and/or air abrasion with aluminium oxide.
Chemical (adhesive bridges)

These are now the most commonly used methods for bonding the
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resin cements to metal. Their high bond strength, fracture toughness
and long-term clinical success have rendered alloy etching and
macroscopic retention mechanisms obsolete. The following materials
are employed:
Modified bis-GMA cement

This was developed in the mid-1980s. A metal primer (similar to a
silane coupling agent) is used to bond the resin cement to metal alloys.
This is effective for both noble and base metal alloys. Different resin
cement manufacturers use different primers. A popular resin, cement
Panavia uses 10-methacryloyloxydecyl dihydrogen phosphate (10-
MDP) as the adhesion promoter or primer. This primer is applied to
the fitting surface of the metal retainer following sandblasting with 50
microns alumina, before cementing the prosthesis.
Superbond
This resin cement was developed in Japan in the 1983. In this resin
system, the powder is a polymer of methyl methacrylate and liquid is
composed of methyl methacrylate modified with adhesion primer 4-
META (4-methacryloxyethyl trimellitic anhydride). A unique catalyst
tri-n-butylborane is added to the liquid before mixing with powder.
The set resin cement has a chemical bond to base metal alloys. For
bonding to noble metal alloys, a special primer has been developed.
Rocatec system
This is a laboratory method of bonding to both noble and base metal
alloys. Fitting surface of metal is sandblasted (abraded) with 120
microns alumina. This is followed by abrasion with a special silicate-
particle containing alumina, which deposits a coating of silica and
alumina on alloy surface. A silane coupling agent is then applied to
bond the metal to the resin cement. There is a risk of contamination of
the silica treated surface before or during clinical procedures.
Whichever technique is employed to achieve bonding, to limit the
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stress on the bonding interfaces and prevent cement dissolution, it is
important for the framework to achieve mechanical retention through
the tooth preparation design.
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Fabrication
Tooth preparation
Principles
• Lingual-axial reduction following the anatomic planes.
• Proximal preparation must extend labially just beyond contact

dictated by aesthetics.
• Should encompass at least 180° of tooth.
• Supragingival chamfer finish line.
• Occlusal clearance of 0.5 mm where required.
• Resistance can be enhanced with proximal grooves, boxes (Fig. 44.5).
• Vertical stops or support can be provided by countersinks or

cingulum rest in anterior abutments and occlusal rests in posteriors
(Fig. 44.6).
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FIGURE 44.5 Grooves and boxes to increase resistance.
FIGURE 44.6 Countersinks, cingulum rests and occlusal

rests provide support.
Anterior preparation design and sequence
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Lingual cingulum
Depth orientation grooves are placed with a No. 1 round bur (1 mm
diameter) on the lingual cingulum surface and reduced with a wheel
diamond to provide 0.5 mm clearance (Fig. 44.7 A and B). Preparation
is terminated 1.5–2 mm from the incisal edge.
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FIGURE 44.7 (A) Lingual cingulum reduction: depth
orientation grooves with round bur. (B) Lingual cingulum –
remaining tooth structure is removed with wheel diamond.
Countersink or cingulum rest

Flat notches or countersinks are prepared on lingual surface using a
flat-end tapering diamond (Fig. 44.8A). Alternately, a cingulum rest
can also be prepared (Fig. 44.8B).
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FIGURE 44.8 (A) Countersink prepared with flat-end tapering
diamond. (B) Cingulum rest prepared with a flat-end tapering
diamond.
Proximal
Proximal reduction adjacent to edentulous space should ensure
resistance form and prevent any unsightly metal display. It is
prepared in two planes – labial and lingual (Fig. 44.9A and B) using
round-end tapering diamond. If creation of labial plane will display
metal, then a proximal groove is placed far enough labially as dictated
by aesthetics. The groove is prepared with a flat-end tapering fissure
bur parallel to the incisal two-thirds of the labial surface (Fig. 44.10).
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FIGURE 44.9 (A) Proximal reduction in two planes. (B) Two
planes proximal reduction with round-end tapering diamond.
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FIGURE 44.10 Proximal groove prepared with flat-end
Lingual axial
The lingual-axial preparation is continued from the proximal
preparation adjacent to the edentulous space, continued around the
cingulum and stopped just short of the contact on the other proximal
surface. The surface is prepared with round-end tapering diamond
parallel to the path of placement (Fig. 44.11).
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FIGURE 44.11 Lingual-axial reduction with round-end
tapering diamond.
Posterior preparation design and sequence

• Proximal and lingual-axial preparations are only aimed at lowering
the height of contour and creating parallel surfaces (Fig. 44.12).
Height of the contour is lowered to within 2 mm of the gingival
margin.
• The proximal preparation adjacent to the edentulous space should

extend beyond the facial line angle. It is extended as far as possible
to the embrasure of the opposite side such that 180° encirclement is
achieved (Fig. 44.13). A short thin tapering diamond/needle
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diamond is used for the preparation which results in a knife-edge
finish line.
• An occlusal rest is prepared adjacent to the edentulous space similar

to the removable partial dentures (Fig. 44.14). Its dimensions should
be 1.5–2 mm faciolingually and mesiodistally, and 1–1.5 mm in
depth. The vertical walls should be very distinct unlike rests for
RPD to prevent lateral movement and preparation should be
progressively deeper as it moves from the marginal ridge to fossa.
• In most cases occlusal clearance may not be needed because of

placement of centric stops away from the framework. If required, a
clearance of 0.5 mm is given.
FIGURE 44.12 Lowering the height of the contour.
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FIGURE 44.13 180° Encirclement.
FIGURE 44.14 Occlusal rest.
Impressions and provisionals

Impression making is similar to any other fixed partial denture.
Elastomeric impression materials are indicated. A single-impression
technique, double mix using putty and light body is preferred as
amount of tooth preparation is minimal.
Bonding
• The prepared tooth surface is cleaned using pumice and water.
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• Thirty- seven per cent phosphoric acid is used to etch the prepared
enamel for 15 s. It is then rinsed and dried.
• Specially formulated composite resin cements are available for

bonding RBFPDs as discussed previously.
• A metal primer or silane is applied on the fitting surface of the

casting as recommended by the manufacturer of the resin cement.
• A bonding agent or primer is also applied on the prepared enamel

surface as recommended by the manufacturer.
• Resin cement is mixed and placed on the internal surface of the

retainer.
• The prosthesis is inserted and finger pressure is maintained for 60 s

till the initial set. The excess cement is removed and material is
allowed to completely set. The manufacturer’s instructions are
followed regarding protecting the margins from oxygen depending
on whether the cement is autopolymerizing or dual cured.
• The occlusion is adjusted and the margins are finished and polished.
Maintenance and recall

Resin-bonded restorations should be reviewed and maintained
through periodic recall appointments. Any signs of debonding if
detected early can prevent unnecessary damage to the abutments.
Periodontal health should also be reviewed and maintained due to the
propensity of the retainer to accumulate plaque and overcontouring of
lingual surface.
Failures
The causes for failure of RBFPDs are summarized in Table 44.3.
Table 44.3
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Causes of failure of resin-bonded FPDs
Inappropriate patient selection Incomplete tooth preparation Bonding failure

1. Malalignment of teeth resulting in poor 1. Inadequate proximal and lingual 1. Contamination
path of insertion reduction 2. Prolonged mixing
2. Short abutments 2. Less than 180° extension of the 3. Inappropriate luting
3. Thin abutments retainer agent
4. Inadequate enamel for bonding 3. Lack of clearance in protrusion
5. History of metal sensitivity
6. Heavy occlusal forces
SUMMARY
Resin-bonded prostheses are viable prostheses in select situations.
They should receive the same attention to detail as conventional fixed
partial dentures for long-term success. Patient selection is vitally
important and the tooth preparation or enamel activation is
mandatory. Although newer metal-free ceramic resin-bonded bridges
show promising results, we have to wait for long-term results to
replace the conventional metal resin-bonded restorations.
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CHAPTER
45
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Restoration of Endodontically
Treated Teeth
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 669
Post 669
Rationale for the use of post 670
Classification of posts 670
Selection of post 672
Tooth preparation for post 673
Custom-made posts (cast posts) 674
Prefabricated posts 677
Post cementation 685
Cores 685
Retention of post to core 685
Post crown 685
Summary 686
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Introduction
The loss of vitality in teeth decreases the physical properties (due to
loss of collagen-bound water) and fracture resistance of the remaining
tooth structure. The poor resistance to fracture can be attributed to
loss of tooth structure due to access preparation, caries, absence of
pulp and moisture, effect of root canal preparation and loss of
mechanoreception.
The complete coverage crown is the most ideal restoration to
protect the remaining natural teeth in endodontically treated teeth. As
coronal tooth structure is mostly damaged, the crown requires a core
or a post and core for retention, depending on the extent of damage
and location of the tooth.
Tooth preparation and fabrication of crowns have been discussed in
various chapters in the FPD section. In this chapter, we will discuss
‘posts and cores’.
Principles of restoration of endodontically treated

teeth
• Provide good coronal seal.
• Protect/conserve remaining tooth structure.
• Satisfy functional and aesthetic needs.
• Reduction of stresses with favourable distribution within remaining

tooth structure.
Treatment options
Anterior teeth
1. Intact coronal tooth structure except for prepared access opening –
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access opening is restored with composite resin if no discolouration is
present.
2. Less than 25% coronal tooth structure is damaged – a complete

coverage crown is required.
3. More than 25% coronal tooth structure is damaged – a post and core
with crown is required.
Posterior teeth
1. Less than 50% coronal tooth structure is damaged – core and crown
are required.
2. More than 50% coronal tooth structure is damaged – post, core and
crown are required.
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Post
It is that part of the prosthesis usually made of metal that is fitted into
a prepared canal of a natural tooth (Fig. 45.1). The basic purpose of a
post is to retain a core.
FIGURE 45.1 Parts of a post.
Rationale for the use of post

An endodontically treated tooth may require a post due to the
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following reasons:
• Decreased moisture content.
• Subsequent brittleness of pulpless teeth.
• Loss of both internal and external tooth structure (Fig. 45.2).
• Unrestored teeth less resistant to stress and an undesirable

abutment.
• Increase the resistance to horizontal and vertical forces (Fig. 45.3).
• Coverage of the entire occlusal surface of the tooth with a

restoration reduces the incidence of vertical fracture.
• Internal reinforcement using the residual root for anchorage will

resist horizontal fractures.
FIGURE 45.2 Loss of both internal and external tooth

structure.
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FIGURE 45.3 Post provides better resistance to horizontal
and vertical forces.
Ideal requirements
• Maximal retentiveness of the core, with minimal removal of dentine.
• Physical properties compatible to dentine, and with core material.
• Even distribution of functional forces along the root surface.
• Aesthetic compatibility with the definitive restoration and

surrounding tissue.
• Minimal stress during placement and cementation.
• Resistance to displacement yet easy retrievability.
• Ease of use, safety and reliability.
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• Reasonable cost.
Classification of posts
All posts can be classified as rigid and nonrigid, which can be
subclassified according to the post material, shape and surface
configuration (Flowchart 45.1). Posts can be classified according to the
following features:
• Shape – parallel, tapered
• Stiffness – rigid, nonrigid
• Surface – smooth, serrated, threaded
• Colour – aesthetic, nonaesthetic
• Pressure on root – active, passive
• Fabrication – prefabricated, custom-made (cast posts).
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FLOWCHART 45.1 Classification of posts.
Parallel and tapered posts

Parallel-sided posts direct the occlusal forces apically while tapered
posts direct the forces laterally by producing a wedging effect (Fig.
45.4). Hence, occlusal forces are better directed by parallel posts. They
are also more retentive than tapered posts. Tapered posts are more
conservative of tooth structure.
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FIGURE 45.4 Tapered post directs force laterally.
Rigid and nonrigid

If a post has higher rigidity than anchoring material (dentine), stress is
transmitted adjacent to the bottom of post, which can cause root
fracture. On the other hand, a flexible post can distort and open crown
margins. Hence, the post should be resilient enough to cushion an impact
and strong enough to resist permanent deformation.
Rigid posts
• Can be made of crown and bridge alloys (cast posts), stainless steel,
titanium, zirconia (prefabricated posts).
• Zirconia has greatest stiffness followed by steel and titanium alloy.
• More chance of root fracture than nonrigid.
• Indicated for teeth with less than 3–4 mm vertical height or less than
25% tooth remains.
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Nonrigid posts
• Made of glass, quartz or carbon fibres embedded in a resin matrix,

also called ‘fibre-reinforced composite’ posts (FRC).
• They have to be adhesively bonded to the root canal space.
• Can reinforce weak teeth with flared canals.
• Require less preparation – preserve integrity and strength of

dentine.
• Less root fracture.
• Indicated in teeth with more than 25% remaining tooth structure.
Smooth, serrated, threaded posts

• Smooth posts provide least retention, but are passive (no force
transmitted to tooth).
• Serrated posts provide better retention and are also passive.
• Threaded posts provide best retention, but are active; hence, root
fractures may occur.
Aesthetic and nonaesthetic posts

• Metal posts are nonaesthetic, as they may reflect through an all-
ceramic crown (Figs 45.5 and 45.6).
• Zirconia posts and fibre-reinforced composite posts are called

aesthetic posts. They are indicated for use with all-ceramic
restorations. The glass fibre posts can also be used to reinforce the
root surface in case of excessively large canal space.
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FIGURE 45.5 Prefabricated metal (unaesthetic) post on 11
and fibre post (aesthetic) on 12 (courtesy Coltene–
Whaledent).
FIGURE 45.6 Metal seen through following core build-up

(courtesy Coltene–Whaledent).
Active and passive

• All threaded posts are active as they exert pressure on the root.
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• Smooth and serrated posts are passive.
Custom-made and prefabricated posts

The only custom-made post is the ‘cast post’. It is also called ‘one-
piece’ post, as the post and core are not separable. The use of this post
is declining.
Cast post and core

A one-piece foundation restoration for an endodontically treated tooth
that comprises a post within the root canal and a core replacing
missing coronal structure to form the tooth preparation (GPT8).
Advantages of cast post
○ Conservative of tooth structure.
○ High strength.
Disadvantages of cast post
• Time – requires two appointments.
• Wedging effect – because they can only be made tapering and high
rigidity.
• Porosity – problem and casting procedure.
• Fit – may not be very accurate because of indirect method.
• Unaesthetic – as it can be made only of crown and bridge alloys.

Hence, it cannot be used with all-ceramic restorations.
• Cost – lab costs will be incurred.
Prefabricated posts
• They are versatile. They are available in different configurations and
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can be selected as per the given clinical situation.
• They are also available in different diameters corresponding to the

size of the drill. Hence, the fit is accurate.
• Though post and core is inserted in two separate procedures, it

requires only one appointment with no laboratory costs.
A classification of posts can be made combining the above

categories as depicted in Flowchart 45.1.
Selection of post
The following parameters govern post selection:
• Length
• Diameter
• Shape
• Surface configuration
• Location
Length
Adequate length of post is very important for retention. The post
should be as long as possible without compromising the apical seal
and strength or integrity of remaining root structure.
Guidelines for determining post length are
• Equal to half the remaining length of the tooth.
• Equal to two-thirds the root length of the root.
• Equal to the length of the remaining crown.
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• Half the length of root contained in bone.
• Have minimum of 4 mm of gutta-percha apically to provide

adequate seal.
Diameter
Resistance to fracture is directly related to the remaining root
structure. Hence, the diameter of post:
1. Should not exceed one-third the mesiodistal root diameter (Fig.

45.7).
2. At least 1 mm of dentine should surround the preparation (Fig.

45.8).
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FIGURE 45.7 Post diameter should not exceed one-third
mesiodistal root diameter.
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FIGURE 45.8 1 mm dentine should surround the post
preparation.
Minimal preparation of root canal limited to removal of undercuts

has also been advocated.
Shape
• Parallel-sided posts are preferred as they have better retention and
more favourable stress distribution.
• Tapered posts are indicated for the significantly tapered canal

system, where use of a parallel-sided dowel would involve
vigorous preparation of the radicular dentine walls. To minimize
the splitting potential of a tapered dowel, there should be flat seat at
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the occlusal end of the preparation to resist apically directed forces
and prevent wedging.
Surface configuration
• Parallel-sided serrated posts are generally indicated.
• If root length is less, threaded posts offer better retention.
Location
• Posts should be placed in roots that are round straight and long.
• In the anterior teeth, roots are seen mostly with circular cross-
section.
• Root anatomy of multirooted teeth is most suitable in the palatal

roots of maxillary molars, palatal roots of maxillary premolars and
distal roots of mandibular molars.
Tooth preparation for post
Preparation of coronal tooth structure

Coronal tooth structure is prepared according to the type of
extracoronal restoration planned (Fig. 45.9). All existing caries,
restorations, cements, bases and unsupported tooth structures are
removed (Fig. 45.10A). Preserve as much of intact coronal tooth
structure as possible to externally brace the tooth.
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FIGURE 45.9 (A) Coronal preparation according to the type
of extracoronal restoration. (B) Coronal preparation.
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FIGURE 45.10 (A) All unsupported tooth structure is
removed. (B) Ferrule effect. (C) Placement of contrabevel.
Ferrule
Minimum of 1.5 mm of sound tooth structure 360° around the tooth
should be present, apical to the core. It improves structural integrity of
the tooth and prevents fracture (Fig. 45.10B).
Contrabevel
This is provided for cast post preparations. A flame-shaped diamond
is used to make a 360° wide bevel on the incisal part of the coronal
portion. This aids in bracing the tooth against fracture (Fig. 45.10C).
Preparation of post space

Peeso reamers and Gates Glidden drills are used to remove the gutta-
percha as they are safe-sided instruments as they are not end-cutting.
They come is different sizes according to diameter (Figs 45.11 and
45.12, Table 45.1).
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FIGURE 45.11 Peeso reamers.
FIGURE 45.12 Gates Glidden drills.
Table 45.1
Diameter of Peeso and Gates and their sizes
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Appropriate length and diameter of the post are determined using a
radiograph as a guide and following the guidelines (Fig. 45.13A and
B). The dimensions of the previous endodontic filling, if available, can
also be a good guide to determine length and diameter. An
endodontic stopper is placed in the shank of reamer or drill to ensure
appropriate length.
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FIGURE 45.13 (A) Peeso reamer in use is placed and
radiograph taken. (B) Radiograph with reamer in position is
used as a guide to determine length and diameter.
The procedure is begun with the largest Peeso or Gates that will fit
into the canal. Once the root filling is removed, successively larger
Peeso or Gates is used to enlarge the canal to desired dimensions.
Some prefabricated post systems are provided with specific drills
corresponding to the diameter of the posts (Fig. 45.14). These drills are
used to enlarge the canals to the required diameter, when available.
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FIGURE 45.14 Prefabricated posts (ParaPost) of varying
widths with their corresponding drills.
Antirotational feature
Two antirotational features can be incorporated.
1. Pins: Used with prefabricated posts. Placed in the area of greatest

bulk between the canal and periphery of the tooth. One or two holes
0.6 mm diameter may be drilled to a depth of 2 mm (Fig. 45.15).
2. Key-way: Used with cast posts. Placed in the orifice of canal in an

area of greatest bulk. Flat-end tapering fissure bur is used to place the
groove to a depth of 0.6 mm and length of 4 mm (Fig. 45.16).
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FIGURE 45.15 Pins placed for antirotation.
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FIGURE 45.16 Key-way placed for antirotation.
Custom-made posts (cast posts)

Custom-made posts are categorized as rigid, metal, tapered, smooth,
in the classification for posts (Flowchart 45.1). They can be fabricated:
1. Directly
2. Indirectly
Direct method
A pattern of the post and core is fabricated directly in the patient’s
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mouth and then cast in the laboratory.
Disadvantages
• Consumes a lot of clinical time.
• Any problem in casting, procedure has to be repeated intraorally.
Procedure
A 14-gauge plastic sprue (a plastic toothpick or stainless steel wire can
also be used) is trimmed to check the fit in canal. Grooves are cut on
the surface for retention of the pattern material. A mark or notch is
made facially to allow re-orientation subsequently (Fig. 45.17).
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FIGURE 45.17 A plastic sprue is grooved and trimmed to fit
canal with a coronal extension.
Canal and surrounding areas are lubricated with petroleum jelly.

Autopolymerizing acrylic resin is mixed to a running consistency,
coated on sprue and inserted in the canal (Fig. 45.18). As the resin
becomes doughy, move the pattern up and down to ensure it is
relieved from any undercuts. Any voids can also be filled with new
resin, pattern reseated and finally allowed to set outside the mouth.
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FIGURE 45.18 Plastic sprue coated with autopolymerizing
resin and inserted in canal.
After the resin in the post portion sets, the core is built up with the
same material and moulded with fingers (Fig. 45.19). After setting, it is
prepared to the appropriate shape of core (Fig. 45.20). The pattern is
then sprued, invested and cast in designated crown and bridge alloy.
The cast post and core is then cemented using conventional definitive
cements (Figs 45.21 and 45.22).
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FIGURE 45.19 Core material is built up.
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FIGURE 45.20 Core trimmed appropriately exposing finish
lines.
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FIGURE 45.21 Spruing of post in the cingulum area,
investing and casting.
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FIGURE 45.22 (A) The luting cement is coated in the canal
space using lentulo spiral. (B) Cemented core.
Indirect method
In this technique, an impression is made of the canal space using a
putty and light body wash, and the pattern is fabricated indirectly on
a model and cast (Fig. 45.23). This is indicated for multiple posts and
posts in multirooted teeth.
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FIGURE 45.23 (A) Putty impression is made of prepared
tooth along with the entire arch. (B) Light body material
injected into post space and placed on the putty impression
after creating adequate space – a second impression is
made. (C) Following removal of final impression – cast can be
poured where the post can be fabricated.
Advantages
There is less usage of chairside time and as a cast is available, any
problems in casting can be easily repeated.
Fabrication of cast post in molar

1. Post can be made in one-piece if the canals are convergent or
parallel (Fig. 45.24).
2. Post for posterior teeth may need to be made in two parts if canals
are divergent (Fig. 45.25A–K).
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FIGURE 45.24 (A) Upper molar palatal and distobuccal canal
prepared for cast post. (B) One piece cast post fabricated. (C)
Cemented cast post and core.
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FIGURE 45.25 (A) Post space in mesiobuccal, distobuccal
and distal canals in mandibular molar with divergent canals.
(B) Post space impression made with putty and light body
wash. (C) Cast is poured and cast post to fit distal canal
(overextended occlusally) is fabricated first. (D) Wax pattern
fabricated for the remaining posts along with the core is
fabricated around the distal post. (E) Wax pattern minus the
distal post. (F) Wax pattern with distal post. (G) The pattern is
cast and distal post is fitted. (H) Larger casting (buccal posts
with core). (I) Distal post is cemented next. (J) After the
cement sets overextension in distal post is trimmed. (K)
Cemented two piece cast post.
Prefabricated posts
Prefabricated posts are available in all the categories given in the
classification (Flowchart 45.1).
Some common examples of each category are shown in Figs
45.26–45.31.
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FIGURE 45.26 Rigid, metal, tapered, threaded (Dentatus)
post.
FIGURE 45.27 Rigid, metal, parallel, threaded (Flexi-Post).
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FIGURE 45.28 Rigid, metal, parallel, serrated (ParaPost).
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FIGURE 45.29 Nonrigid carbon (Mirafit posteriors) – quartz
coated (right) for anteriors.
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FIGURE 45.30 Nonrigid glass fibre-reinforced, tapered,
smooth post.
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FIGURE 45.31 Nonrigid glass fibre-reinforced, parallel,
serrated post (ParaPost Fibre Lux).
Procedure
Threaded post (metal, tapered, threaded post – dentatus)
• Available in sizes 1–6 (according to diameter) and length – short,

medium, long (Fig. 45.32).
• A radiograph is used to determine the length and diameter as per

the guidelines (Fig. 45.33A).
• According to the size, the canal is prepared with Peeso reamers or
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Gates drills, with a rubber stopper to achieve appropriate length.
The final size of drilling is one more than post size while using
Peeso reamer, and two more than the post size while using Gates
(Fig. 45.33B).
• Drills may also be provided by the manufacturer to match the post

size. The gutta-percha is always removed only with safe-sided
Peeso or Gates.
• The threaded post is held with a driver and screwed in the canal till
the ledged top part is flush with the incisal edge (Fig. 45.33C and
D). They do not require to be cemented.
• The slit top part of the threaded post can be opened with an
instrument to provide retention to core (Fig. 45.33E and F).
• A core is then built up with appropriate material (Fig. 45.33G).
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FIGURE 45.32 Assorted kit of threaded posts in varying sizes
and lengths with drivers.
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FIGURE 45.33 (A) Radiograph to determine length and
diameter. (B) If post size selected is 4, the final Peeso used
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should be size 5, and Gates should be size 6. (C) The post
held with a driver is screwed into the canal. (D) Final
placement. (E) The slit in the top is engaged by an
appropriate instrument provided in the kit and opened. (F) Slit
after opening, affords more retention to core. (G) Following
core build up with reinforced glass ionomer.
Parallel post (metal, parallel, serrated post – parapost)
• These are commonly used posts as the parallel walls have no

wedging effect and the serrated sides are passive, and offer good
retention.
• They are available in various sizes and drills to match the post
diameters (Fig. 45.14). The desired length can be cut from the apical
end.
• As before, the Peeso reamers or Gates drills are used to remove the
gutta-percha with a rubber stopper for length.
• The drills provided in the kit are used to enlarge the canal to the
selected diameter of post (Fig. 45.34A).
• The post corresponding to the final drill is selected and tried in the
canal space (Fig. 45.34B). If length is too long, it is cut from the
apical end (Fig. 45.34C).
• The post is then cemented and the core is built up (Fig. 45.34D–G).
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FIGURE 45.34 (A) Sequential drilling to enlarge canal space
to appropriate diameter. (B) Try-in of post. (C) Cutting of post
apically to get desired length. (D) Cement mixed and placed
in canal with a lentulo spiral. (E) Post coated with cement. (F)
Post inserted in canal. (G) Core builtup with composite resin.
Aesthetic post (nonrigid, glass, tapered, serrated

– parapost taper lux)
These are used with all-ceramic crowns. They are bonded to the tooth
using adhesive cementation (Fig. 45.35A–I).
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FIGURE 45.35 (A) Gutta-percha removed with Gates drill.
(B) Canal enlarged to appropriate size with corresponding
drills. (C) Post tried-in. (D) Canal space etched with
phosphoric acid. (E) Bonding agent is applied, but not cured.
(F) Dual-cure resin cement is mixed and placed in canal. The
post is also coated with cement. (G) The post is inserted in
canal and light-cured. (H) A core is built-up with composite
resin. (I) Provisional restoration fabricated.
Post cementation
Retention of post to the root canal depends on:
• Post – material, length and surface texture
• Amount of remaining tooth structure
• Cement
Cements used
• Zinc phosphate cement (Table 45.2)
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• Glass ionomer cement (Table 45.3)
• Resin cement (Table 45.4)
Table 45.2
Advantages and disadvantages of zinc phosphate
• Economical • Mechanical retention only
• Wide application • Brittle
• Easy to use
• Easy to remove
Table 45.3
Advantages and disadvantages of glass ionomers
• Adhesion to dentine • Requires several days until maximum strength is achieved
• Fluoride release • Resin-modified GIC is not used as expansion may cause root fracture
• Water soluble
• Brittle
Table 45.4
Advantages and disadvantages of resin cements
• Adhesion to dentine • Additional step of conditioning is necessary
• No expansion • Root canal sealers may affect bonding
• Low solubility • More expensive
• Elasticity – fewer root fractures
• Reaches strength immediately after setting
• Better bonding to most posts
• Self-cure, light-cure, dual-cure
Selection of cement
• The type of cement used has little effect on retention or fracture
resistance in teeth with adequate tooth structure.
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• Resin cements improve the performance of posts with improved
retention.
• Resin cements indicated for FRC posts.
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Cores
Ideal requirements
• Easy to use
• High compressive strength
• Easy to manipulate
• Short setting time
• Good dimensional stability
• Less microleakage
• Ability to bond to tooth and post
Materials
• Cast core
• Amalgam
• Glass ionomers
• Composite resin
1. Cast cores
Used with cast post and as it is cast along with post there is no chance
of core separating from post. It cannot be used with all-ceramic
restorations and possesses all the other disadvantages of cast posts.
2. Amalgam (table 45.5)
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3. Glass-ionomers
• Low strength, brittle but anticariogenic.
• Used for small build-ups especially in posterior teeth where

significant sound dentine remains.
• Resin-modified GIC better, used for moderate build ups, but not
with all-ceramic crowns.
Table 45.5
Advantages and disadvantages of amalgam
• High strength and modulus of • Corrosion
elasticity • Discolouration of gingiva and dentine
• Easy to manipulate • Use declining worldwide due to legislative, safety and
• Good setting time environmental reasons
• Good retention
4. Composite resins
• Adhesive bonding, ease of manipulation, rapid set, translucent or

opaque, good compressive strength.
• Better protection for teeth with metal posts from fracture compared
to amalgam and GIC.
Retention of post to core

• Extremely critical for restoration survival.
• Important criteria with prefabricated posts, not a problem with cast

post and core.
• May be adhesive and/or mechanical.
• Posts with mechanical interlocking feature in the heads and
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roughened texture provide better retention.
• Fibre and zirconia posts chemically bond to composite core

materials.
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Post crown
This is a one-piece post crown. It is also called ‘Richmond crown’ (Fig.
45.36A–E). Indicated in patients with deep incisal overbite where it is
difficult to provide space for a core and crown separately.
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FIGURE 45.36 (A) Fracture maxillary central incisor (tooth
no: 11) with lack of occlusal clearance. (B) Coronal tooth
preparation. (C) Preparation of canal space. (D) Post crown
fabricated by indirect method. (E) Cemented post crown.
SUMMARY
It is important to understand that posts only retain a core and do not
reinforce the tooth. In general, parallel-serrated cementable post may
be used with most clinical situations. With short roots, threaded posts
may be used to increase the retention. Where aesthetics is a concern
especially with all-ceramic restorations, fibre-reinforced posts are
indicated with adhesive cementation. The use of custom-made cast
post is declining, due to its rigidity, wedging potential, poor
aesthetics and time consuming clinical and lab procedures.
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SECTION 4
Miscellaneous
OUTLINE
46. Ceramic laminate veneers
47. Attachment-retained dentures
48. Overdentures
49. Oral implantology
50. Maxillofacial prosthetics
51. Smile design
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CHAPTER
46
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Ceramic laminate veneers
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 689
Definitions 689
History 689
Indications 689
Shade selection 690
Tooth preparation 690
Principles of tooth preparation 690
Rationale 690
Types of preparation 690
Armamentarium 691
Procedure 691
Soft tissue management 694
Impression procedure 694
Provisional restorations 694
Direct method 695
Indirect method 695
Laboratory procedures 695
Cementation 695
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Initial veneer inspection 695
Preparation of site 695
Try-in 695
Bonding 697
Finishing 699
Maintenance 699
Failures of laminate veneers 699
Summary 700
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Introduction
Laminate veneers have evolved over the last several decades to
become one of aesthetic dentistry’s most popular restorations. The
laminate veneer is a conservative alternative to full coverage for
improving the appearance of an anterior tooth.
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Definitions
Porcelain laminate veneer: A thin bonded ceramic restoration that
restores the facial surface and part of the proximal surfaces of teeth
requiring aesthetic restoration (GPT).
Veneer: A thin sheet of material usually used as a finish (GPT8).
Laminating: Constructing a veneer and bonding it to etched tooth
structure.
It is the prosthetic treatment that consists of replacing the visible
portion of the dental enamel with a ceramic substitute, intimately
bonded to the tooth surface, yielding optical, mechanical and
biological properties closely resembling those of the natural enamel.
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History
In 1930s, Dr Charles Pincus first used thin resin facings and then air
fired porcelain facings to create the ‘Hollywood smile’ for American
actors. He used denture adhesive to hold the veneer in place. In the
1970s, preformed plastic laminates were bonded to the teeth using
composite resin, but bonding to the plastic was poor along with
colour instability. The evolution of the modern ceramic laminate was
assisted by the following discoveries:
1. Etching of enamel by Buonocore (1955)
2. Bowen’s BIS-GMA resins (1960s)
3. Ceramic etching and bonding by Rochette (1973).
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Indications
• Extreme discolourations: Such as tetracycline staining, fluorosis,
devitalized teeth and teeth darkened by age which are not
conducive for bleaching.
• Enamel defects: Small cracks in the enamel due to ageing, trauma or

hypoplasias.
• Diastemas: Single or multiple spaces between the teeth.
• Attritions and root exposure: Can be used to restore localized

attrition and root sensitivity due to cemental exposure.
• Malpositioned teeth and abnormalities of shape: Peg laterals and

rotated teeth.
• Repair of functionally sound metal-ceramic or all-ceramic

restoration with unsatisfactory colour: The labial surface of old
porcelain restoration is prepared and a ceramic laminate is bonded
correcting the anomaly.
• Tooth fracture: Restricted to incisal thirds.
• Restoring anterior guidance in worn mandibular incisors.
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Contraindications
• Insufficient coronal tooth structure: Fractured teeth with more than
one-third loss of tooth structure, grossly carious or extensively
restored teeth. Full coverage restorations are preferred.
• Actively erupting teeth.
• Parafunctional habits like bruxism.
• Severe periodontal involvement and crowding.
• Endodontically treated teeth: Present a poorly receptive surface for

bonding and full coverage restorations are indicated.
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The advantages and disadvantages of ceramic veneer laminates are
enumerated in Table 46.1.
Table 46.1
Advantages and disadvantages of ceramic laminate veneers
• Minimally invasive – conservative • Tooth preparation, however minimal, is required
• Excellent colour and light transmission – good • Cementation is time-consuming and technique
aesthetics sensitive
• High colour stability • Fragile – may fracture if improperly handled
• Good tissue response during try-in or cementation
• Excellent durability – good strength, wear • Proper selection of underlying cement is critical
resistance and no fluid absorption for success
• Speed and simplicity • Difficult to repair
• Cost
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Shade selection
This should be done at the beginning, during the consultation or
treatment planning appointment. It has to be done when the teeth
have not been dried out for any period of time. It is done under a
colour corrected light or outside in daylight. The conventional shade
guides such as vita porcelain shade guide are not ideal for veneers
because their porcelain thickness is high. It is best for a ceramist to
make an individualized shade guide (also refer Chapter 39).
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Tooth preparation
Conservation of tooth structure: The preparation should be
conservative, which is the main principle governing the fabrication of
the ceramic laminate.
Retention is solely by adhesion: Adhesive luting or bonding using
resin cements is the main contributor to retention rather than tooth
preparation.
Rationale
Enamel preparation is done:
1. To provide adequate space for porcelain opaquing and composite

resin luting materials.
2. To remove convexities in the surface and provide a definite path for

insertion.
3. To assist veneer seating during placement and bonding.
4. To provide a receptive enamel surface for etching and bonding the

laminate.
5. To facilitate margin placement.
6. To provide adequate contour and colour without overcontouring.
Types of preparation
Tooth preparation can be classified into three types (Fig. 46.1A–C):
1. Type I – contact lens type: Does not cover the incisal edge.
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2. Type II – classic or conventional type: Most commonly used;
covers the incisal edge and terminates lingually; thickness of tooth,
need for increasing tooth length and occlusion determine whether
type I or II is used.
3. Type III – wrap-around or three-fourth type: Almost similar to full

coverage preparations; indicated for extensive changes and colour and
contour.
FIGURE 46.1 Different preparation types. (A) Labial view L–

R – type I, II, III. (B) Proximal view. (C) Palatal view.
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Armamentarium
1. A diamond depth cutter with three 2 mm diameter wheels mounted
on a 1.0 mm diameter noncutting shaft. The radius of wheels from the
noncutting shaft is 0.5 mm. Produces a depth cut of 0.5 mm (Fig. 46.2).
2. A diamond depth cutter with a wheel diameter of 1.6 mm produces

a depth cut of 0.3 mm (Fig. 46.2).
3. Round bur (No. 1).
4. Round-end tapering diamond (medium and fine grit).
5. Finishing diamond and burs.
6. Airotor handpiece
FIGURE 46.2 Depth cutters.
Procedure
The preparation for the conventional type is described below. It
involves the following steps:
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1. Labial reduction
3. Sulcular extension
Labial reduction
The thickness of the ceramic laminate should be 0.5 mm. To achieve
this, the labial preparation should achieve a uniform reduction of 0.3–
0.5 mm, less gingivally and more incisally. This involves:
1. Depth cuts
2. Reducing remaining enamel
1. Depth cuts
These can be prepared using round bur only or a combination of
round bur and the depth cutter.
Depth cuts using only round bur

Depth cuts are placed on the labial surface with a No. 1 round bur
along the gingival margins, and extended proximally and incisally.
The 0.8 mm diameter will produce a 0.4 mm depth of preparation
(Fig. 46.3A and B).
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FIGURE 46.3 (A) Depth cuts along gingival margins with a
No. 1 round bur. (B) Depth cuts extended proximally and
incisally.
The labial surface is then divided into a mesial and distal half by
placing a depth cut cervicoincisally in the centre of labial surface with
the round bur (Fig. 46.4).
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FIGURE 46.4 Depth cut along centre of tooth.
The labial surface is then divided into cervical, middle and incisal
third by placing two depth cuts mesiodistally with the round bur (Fig.
46.5).
FIGURE 46.5 Two depth cuts placed mesiodistally.
Depth cuts diamond depth cutter
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After the first depth cut around the gingival margin with a round bur,
depth cuts are placed on the entire labial surface by running the
diamond depth cutter mesiodistally (Fig. 46.6). The depth of
preparation dictates the choice of depth cutter. The cuts are placed in
two planes following the contour of the labial surface. Also the wider
depth cutter can be used on the incisal part and the other on the
gingival part if the amount of preparation on the gingival half is to be
lesser (because of reduced enamel).
FIGURE 46.6 Depth cuts with depth cutter diamond.
2. Reducing remaining enamel

Whichever method is used to produce the depth cut, the remaining
enamel on the labial surface is reduced using a round-end tapering
diamond, which will produce a chamfer finish line. Only the direction
of reduction varies depending on direction of the cut (Figs 46.7 and
46.8).
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FIGURE 46.7 Direction of instrument to reduce remaining
enamel if depth cuts are prepared using round bur only. If a
direction parallel to the tooth is used here, it will only deepen
the groove.
FIGURE 46.8 Direction of instrument if a depth cutter has
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been used.
Proximal reduction
Depth can often be as great as 0.8–1 mm, since the enamel layer is
thick towards proximal surface. The facial reduction using the round-
end tapered diamond is just continued into the proximal area. It is
ensured that the diamond is parallel with the long axis of the tooth.
The proximal reduction should stop just short of breaking the contact
(Fig. 46.9).
FIGURE 46.9 Proximal reduction just short of contact.
Reasons to preserve contact area
• It is an anatomical feature that is extremely difficult to reproduce.
• It prevents displacement of the tooth between the preparation and
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placement appointment if no provisional restorations are planned.
• Postinsertion oral care is easier.
• Simplifies try-in – no need to adjust the contact.
• Simplifies bonding and finishing.
Sulcular extension
Routinely the margins are placed supragingivally. When
discolouration is excessive, the margins are extended subgingivally. A
rounded 0.3 mm chamfer serves as an ideal margin for ceramic
laminate veneer (Fig. 46.10).
FIGURE 46.10 Supragingival margin placement.
Advantages of supragingival margin
• Increased areas of enamel in the preparation.
• Simplified moisture control.
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• Visual confirmation of marginal fit.
• Margins are accessible for finishing and polishing.
• Access to margins for routine maintenance and dental hygiene

procedure.
Advantages of chamfer finish line
• Conservative, distinct.
• Provides increased bulk of porcelain giving adequate strength,

avoids over contouring.
• Good marginal seal.
• Accuracy of fit – veneer is easily inserted at try-in and final

placement.
For type I preparations, the tooth reduction ends here. For type II
preparations, incisal and lingual reductions are necessary.
Incisal reduction
As porcelain is stronger in compression than in tension, wrapping the
porcelain over the incisal edge and terminating it on the lingual
surface places the veneer in compression during function. It also
provides a vertical stop that aids in proper seating of the veneer and
improves translucency. Incisal reduction should provide a ceramic
layer of at least 1 mm in thickness. Depth orientation grooves of 0.5
mm are placed in the incisal edge using a depth cutter or round-end
tapering diamond (Fig. 46.11). A round-end tapered diamond is used
to remove the tooth structure in between the grooves (Fig. 46.12).
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FIGURE 46.11 Incisal depth cuts.
FIGURE 46.12 Incisal reduction.
Never end incisal edge where excursive movements of the mandible will
cause shearing stresses across the junction of porcelain laminates and tooth.
Indications for incisal coverage
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• The incisal thickness is too thin to support the veneer.
• A lengthening of the incisal edge of 1.0–2 mm is desired.
• Facioincisal margin is visible and unaesthetic.
• Incisal enamel is structurally compromised.
• The incisal edge is subject to functional stress.
Lingual reduction
The round-end tapered diamond is held parallel to the lingual surface
with its end forming a slight chamfer 0.5 mm deep (Fig. 46.13).
FIGURE 46.13 Lingual reduction.
Besides placing the porcelain under compression lingual extension

will also enhance the retention and increase the surface areas for
bonding.
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Soft tissue management
Gingival retraction can be done just prior to tooth preparation when
the finish line is placed 0.5 mm subgingivally. It can also be done prior
to impression making (Fig. 46.14). During cementation, placement of
retraction cord prevents the contamination of the cervical margins
with sulcular fluid and facilitates the finishing of the cervical margin.
FIGURE 46.14 Gingival retraction following tooth preparation.
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Impression procedure
A single impression technique, double mix, using a combination of
putty and light body is recommended for laminates. A double
impression technique using a spacer is not recommended due to the
reduced thickness of a laminate compared to a crown, which leads to
greater shrinkage of light body. The impression is normally made
with a standard fixed prosthodontic impression material such as
addition silicones as they have excellent accuracy, remarkable
mechanical properties and good dimensional stability.
The light body is syringed on the prepared teeth and gently spread
so that the entire preparation is covered and no air bubbles exist. A
simultaneously mixed putty material is loaded on a stock tray and
inserted over the light body material. Tray is filled with putty and is
kept in place (Fig. 46.15A–D).
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FIGURE 46.15 (A) Light body syringed around the
preparation. (B) Putty mixed and loaded onto stock tray. (C)
Tray placed over the syringed light body. (D) Single
impression made using double mix.
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Provisional restorations for laminates may not be essential as there is
no exposure of dentine (no sensitivity) and the proximal contacts are
maintained (no drifting of the adjacent teeth). But most often it may be
necessary for a patient to maintain their social engagements and if
proximal contact is broken (wrap-around technique).
Two methods may be used:
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
Direct method
The provisional restoration is fabricated intraorally. It can be done by
using the following.
Composite resin
A few spots on the prepared tooth or a central spot is etched (spot
etching) with phosphoric acid and bonded. Restorative composite is
built up on prepared tooth and light cured. This acts as a provisional
restoration as it can be easily removed prior to try-in, as the entire
surface was not etched (Fig. 46.16A and B).
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FIGURE 46.16 (A) Spot etching of prepared laminate
surface. (B) Composite resin built-up provisionally.
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Autopolymerizing acrylic resin
Tooth coloured acrylics can also be used similar to routine fixed
prosthodontics. A putty index of the tooth made prior to tooth
preparation, is filled with resin following the preparation and inserted
in the mouth. It is removed following initial set, allowed to
polymerize, trimmed and can be luted using provisional cements or
spot etched and bonded with resin cements (Fig. 46.17A–E).
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FIGURE 46.17 (A) Laminates to be made on maxillary
laterals to close diastema. (B) Contour built-up with
composite resin prior to tooth preparation and a putty index is
fabricated. (C) Putty index filled with resin where laminate has
been prepared. (D) Inserted in the mouth following application
of separating medium. (E) Acrylic provisionals, to be trimmed
and luted.
Indirect method
A model fabricated following tooth preparation will allow the acrylic
provisional to be made indirectly on a cast (Fig. 46.18A–C). For a
detailed discussion refer Chapter 38.
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FIGURE 46.18 (A) Cast made following tooth preparation.
(B) Putty index (made prior to tooth preparation) is filled with
resin and reinserted over the cast. (C) Provisional trimmed
and fitted on cast following polymerization.
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Any of the all-ceramic materials described in Chapter 43 can be used
to fabricate the ceramic laminate veneer. Leucite and lithium
disilicate–reinforced ceramics are preferred due to their excellent
translucency and aesthetics. The methods of fabrication are discussed
in Chapter 43.
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Cementation
Following the fabrication of the laminate in the laboratory, the same is
cemented. This involves the following steps:
1. Initial veneer inspection
2. Preparation of site
3. Try-in
4. Bonding
5. Finishing
Initial veneer inspection

The veneer is placed on the cast (Fig. 46.19A and B) and assessed for
the following:
• Imperfections
• Individual fit
• Collective fit (for multiple veneers)
• Veneer colour
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FIGURE 46.19 (A) Individual fit is verified on cast. (B)
Collective fit verified.
Preparation of site
The prepared teeth are isolated, provisional removed and cleaned
with pumice (Fig. 46.20).
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FIGURE 46.20 Prepared teeth cleaned with pumice.
Try-in
The veneers are then tried-in the patient’s mouth (Fig. 46.21). They are
checked for:
• Individual fit
• Collective fit
• Colour
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Water-soluble glycerin, transparent silicones and colour keyed try-

in pastes can be used to attach the laminate to the tooth during try-in.
Factors influencing colour

Since most often laminates are indicated to correct discolourations, it
is important to understand the factors influencing the same.
• Original tooth colour
• Porcelain shade and opacifier
• Luting resin colour and opacity
Tooth not requiring major colour change is influenced by the factors

as follows:
• 80% Ceramic
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• 10% Cement
• 10% Tooth
Tooth requiring major colour change:
• 70% Ceramic
• 10% Cement
• 20% Tooth
Hence, the most influential factor in changing colour is the ceramic

itself, which can be achieved by using opaque dentines. Composite
opaquers can be also applied on the tooth to mask colour. The colour
or shade of resin cement can only make a minor correction in colour.
For minor colour corrections, if laminate appears darker, a light colour
resin is used and vice versa.
Bonding
Bonding involves the following procedures:
• Preparation of veneer
• Preparation of tooth
• Luting
The steps involved in preparation of veneer and tooth is

enumerated in Table 46.2.
Table 46.2
Steps involved in preparing veneer and tooth for cementation of
veneer
Preparation of veneer Preparation of tooth

Clean Clean
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Etch Isolate
Silane Etch
Bond Bond
Preparation of veneer
Following cleaning of the veneer with a solvent such as acetone, it is
etched with 10%–15% hydrofluoric acid for 30 s to 1 min according to
the manufacturer’s instructions and the ceramic used (Fig. 46.22).
Some clinicians tend to get the veneer etched by the laboratory; this is
not recommended as the etched surface may get contaminated during
handling and try-in procedures.
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FIGURE 46.22 Fitting surface filled with ceramic etchant.
A silane coupling agent is now applied to the fitting surface of the

veneer and is allowed to remain for 1 min. It is then air dried (Fig.
46.23). The silane creates a chemical bond between composite cement
and ceramic.
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FIGURE 46.23 Application of silane coupling agent.
A normal composite bonding agent is finally applied to the fitting

surface at the same time when the tooth surface is also bonded. It is
not light cured.
Preparation of tooth
The prepared teeth are pumiced again to remove any try-in paste or
cement. They are isolated using soft metal bands or Mylar strips (Fig.
46.24). The tooth is etched with 35% phosphoric acid for 15 s (Fig.
46.25). It is thoroughly rinsed and gently air-dried. Surface should
appear typically frosty following the etching procedure.
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FIGURE 46.24 Isolation with soft metal bands.
FIGURE 46.25 Etching with phosphoric acid.
Composite bonding agent is applied on the tooth surface and is not

light-cured now (Fig. 46.26).
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FIGURE 46.26 Application of bonding agent on tooth.
Luting
The cement of choice for luting ceramic laminate veneers is resin
cement. The resin is adhesively cemented or bonded to the tooth and
the laminate. Although the resin cements are available as chemical-,
light- and dual-cured varieties, the light-cured cement is preferred as
it gives adequate working time and the open margins allow good light
polymerization.
Ideal requirements of the luting cement:
1. Thin film thickness, 10–20 microns
2. High compressive and tensile strength
3. Ability to tint, opaque and characterize
4. Low viscosity
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5. Low polymerization shrinkage
6. Good colour stability
Several manufacturers produce resin cements in variable shades

with flowable viscosity and with opaquers. The cement is mixed and
applied on the fitting surface of veneer and spread uniformly (Fig.
46.27A and B). Veneer is then placed on the prepared tooth giving
finger pressure labially. When position is verified to be correct, veneer
is initially light-cured for 5 s. The excess material is removed with a
probe and then the light curing is continued for 45–60 s (Fig. 46.28A–
C).
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FIGURE 46.27 (A) Cement mixed. (B) Cement applied on
fitting surface and spread evenly.
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FIGURE 46.28 (A) Initially light cured for 5 s. (B) Excess
removed. (C) Final curing for 45–60 s.
Finishing
• Fine grit diamonds are used to remove any excess cement from
margins (Fig. 46.29A). Final finishing is accomplished with discs
and diamond polishing pastes (Fig. 46.29B).
• Occlusion is checked only after veneer is bonded to tooth.
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• Proximal areas are finished with finishing strips (Fig. 46.29C).
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FIGURE 46.29 (A) Margins finished with fine grit diamonds.
(B) Discs are used for final finishing. (C) Finishing strips are
used for proximal surfaces.
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Maintenance
• For 72–96 h following insertion, patients should avoid highly
coloured foods, tea or coffee, hard food and extreme temperatures.
• Routine scaling should be done at least every 4 months, ultrasonic

scalers may be avoided.
• Abrasive and highly fluoridated tooth paste should be avoided.
• Excessive biting forces and nail biting and pencil chewing habits
should be avoided.
• Soft acrylic mouth guard can be used during contact sports.
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Failures of laminate veneers
The causes of failure of laminate veneers can be classified as (Table
46.3):
• Mechanical
• Biological
• Aesthetic
Table 46.3
Causes of failure of ceramic laminate veneers
Mechanical Biological Aesthetic

• Fracture – poor positioning of • Postoperative sensitivity – • Improper shade selection
incisal margin, less incisal thickness, improper curing of cement, • Visible margins in case of
margin too subgingival poor marginal adaptation discoloured teeth
• Debonding – use of expired cement, • Marginal microleakage – poor • Gingival recession –
faulty veneer/tooth preparation fit and extension overcontour and improper
during luting subgingival placement
SUMMARY
Ceramic laminate veneers remain as prosthetic restorations that best
comply with the principles of present-day aesthetic dentistry. These
are pleasing to the soft tissue and possess excellent aesthetic quality
yet a conservative restoration can be called ‘bonded artificial enamel’.
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CHAPTER
47
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Attachment-retained dentures
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 701
Applications 702
Classification 702
Methods of fabrication 702
Function 703
Retention 706
Location 706
Rationale of using attachments with removable partial dentures
710
Advantages 710
Disadvantages 710
Summary 710
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Introduction
Definition: Attachment is a mechanical device for the fixation,
retention, and stabilization of a prosthesis (GPT8).
In general, all attachments are called ‘precision attachments’. They
are also called parallel attachments, frictional attachments, internal
attachments, key and keyway attachments and slotted attachments.
Attachments can be used to retain removable partial dentures
(eliminating clasps) (Fig. 47.1), some fixed partial dentures and
complete dentures as overdentures (Fig. 47.2).
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FIGURE 47.1 (A) Attachments (male components) fixed to
crowns in tooth numbers 13 and 23. (B) Corresponding
female components attached to removable partial denture.
(C) Attachment-retained removable partial denture (ARRPD).
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FIGURE 47.2 Overdentures.
It generally consists of two parts: male (matrix) and female (patrix).

One part is fixed to the tooth and the other is fixed to the denture (Fig.
47.3).
FIGURE 47.3 Female part (matrix) in denture, male part

(patrix) attached to crown luted to the teeth.
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In this chapter, the various types of attachments will be classified
and attachments for partial dentures will be considered. The
attachments for overdentures will be discussed in the Chapters 48 and
49.
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Applications
• Partial dentures
• Overdentures – tooth and implant supported
• Maxillofacial prosthesis
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Classification
Attachment-retained dentures can be classified based on:
• Method of fabrication
• Function
• Retention
• Location
Precision attachments
Definition: A retainer consisting of a metal receptacle (matrix) and a
closely fitting part (patrix); matrix is usually contained within the
normal or expanded contours of the crown on the abutment/dental
implant and the patrix is attached to a pontic or the removable dental
prostheses framework (GPT8).
• Components are machined and precise (Fig. 47.4A and B).
• They are manufactured with tolerance under 0.01 mm.
• They are interchangeable.
• Intracoronal attachments come under this category.
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FIGURE 47.4 (A) Male and female machined precision
attachments. (B) Precise fitting without any tolerance.
Semiprecision attachments
Definition: A laboratory fabricated rigid metallic extension (patrix) of
a fixed or removable dental prosthesis that fits into a slot-type keyway
(matrix) in a cast restoration, allowing some movement between the
components.
• Fabricated by direct casting of plastic or wax pattern of the

attachment in the dental laboratory. Hence, it is subject to
dimensional changes (Fig. 47.5A and B).
• Has more tolerance compared to precision attachment.
• Economical.
• Easy to fabricate in a wide range of alloys.
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FIGURE 47.5 (A) Wax pattern of semiprecision attachment.
(B) After casting.
Function
Rigid attachments can be classified according to the following types:
1. Rigid
i. Class Ia – rigid
ii. Class Ib – rigid lockable

2. Resilient
i. Vertical
ii. Hinge
iii. Vertical and hinge
iv. Rotational and vertical
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v. Universal, omniplanar
Rigid attachments do not permit any movement of the denture.
Resilient attachments permit some movement of the denture and are
further subdivided depending on the direction of movement
permitted.
These are also classified as class I to VI. Class I attachments are rigid
attachments while class II to class VI are resilient attachments.
Rigid
Class Ia
It includes rigid attachment, permitting no movement, e.g. Beyeler
attachment (Fig. 47.6).
FIGURE 47.6 Class Ia: rigid attachment.
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Class Ib
Rigid, lockable with a ‘U’-pin or screw – same as class Ia but the male
and female components are locked together with screw, e.g. Score-PD
(Fig. 47.7).
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FIGURE 47.7 Class Ib. Rigid with a lockable mechanism –
with screws for locking. (A) Male component cemented. (B)
Female component is then cemented. Both are locked with a
screw.
Resilient
Class II
Vertical, resilient – allows only vertical movement, e.g. TSE (Fig.
47.8A), Allegra attachment (Fig 47.8B and C).
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FIGURE 47.8 (A) TSE – allows vertical movement. (B) Class
II allegra attachment, male component. (C) Class II allegra
attachment – female component with vertical resiliency.
Class III
Hinge, resilient – allows hinge movement, e.g. AI Hinge (Fig. 47.9).
FIGURE 47.9 Class III AI hinge – hinge and resilient.
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Class IV
Vertical and hinge resilient – allows vertical and hinge movement, e.g.
Dalbo attachment (Fig. 47.10).
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FIGURE 47.10 (A) Class IV Dalbo attachment – vertical and
hinge movement. (B) Dalbo male component attached to
tooth – vertical movement due to engagement of female at
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the vertical groove. (C) Dalbo – hinge movement.
Class V
Rotational and vertical resilient – allows rotational and vertical
movement, e.g. Ceka attachment (Fig. 47.11A), ASC 52 (Fig. 47.11B).
FIGURE 47.11 (A) Class V Ceka attachment – rotational and

vertical. (B) Class V – ASC 52.
Class VI
Universal rotation – allows movement is all planes, e.g. Stud
attachments (Fig. 47.12).
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FIGURE 47.12 Class VI stud attachment.
Retention
According to the mechanism of retention provided, attachments can
be classified as follows.
Frictional
Retention is provided by resistance to relative motion of two or more
surfaces due to intimate contact with each other, e.g. Beyeler attachment
(Fig. 47.13).
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FIGURE 47.13 Frictional retention – Beyeler attachment.
Mechanical
Retention provided by resistance to relative motion of two or more
surfaces due to physical undercut, e.g. Hannes anchor plunger (Fig.
47.14).
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FIGURE 47.14 Mechanical retention – Hannes anchor.
Frictional and mechanical

Retention is provided by a combination of the above two methods,
e.g. PT-Snap (Fig. 47.15).
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FIGURE 47.15 Frictional and mechanical retention – PT-
Snap.
Magnetic
Retention is provided by resistance to movement caused by a
magnetic body that attracts certain materials by virtue of a
surrounding field of force produced by motion of its atomic electrons
and alignment of its atoms, e.g. magnetic attachments (Fig. 47.16).
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FIGURE 47.16 Retention using magnets. a. Magnet b.
Keeper c. Coping with radicular extension d. Acrylic tooth of
denture e. Denture base f. Root treated tooth.
Used with overdentures (also see Chapter 48).
Location
According to location the attachments are classified as:
1. Coronal
i. Intracoronal
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ii. Extracoronal
2. Radicular
i. Studs
ii. Bars
iii. Magnets
3. Auxiliary
Coronal
• This is the most commonly used classification based on the location
of the attachment.
• The coronal attachments are used for partial dentures while the
radicular attachments are used for tooth and implant supported
overdentures.
• The auxiliary attachments are accessory attachments used to

enhance retention.
Intracoronal
• In 1906, Dr Herman E.S. Chayes was the first person to formulate

the principle of internal attachment and with only slight
modifications is still in use.
• It is a prefabricated attachment in which male and female

components are positioned within the normal contour of the
abutment tooth (Fig. 47.17).
• Applied occlusal forces are close to long axis of abutments.
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• Requires box preparation.
• Requires adequate space (at least 5 mm) vertically, buccolingually

and mesiodistally (Fig. 47.18A–C).
• As they are nonresilient (rigid), double abutting is preferred – tooth

adjacent to abutment is also crowned.
FIGURE 47.17 Intracoronal attachment placed within the

crown contours.
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FIGURE 47.18 (A) Vertical height. (B) Buccolingual width.
(C) Mesiodistal depth.
Parts
• Slot (female): it is usually incorporated into the contour of the crown

of an abutment tooth.
• Flange (male): it is incorporated into the prosthesis (Fig. 47.19).
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FIGURE 47.19 McCollum attachment with an adjustment slit
that runs part way through the attachment on one side. By
wedging the slit outward retention can be increased.
Retention principle
• Frictional
• Mechanical
• Frictional and mechanical
Classification
• With adjustment potential, e.g. Biloc.
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○ Constant insertion and removal of prosthesis will
cause wear of attachments. So these attachments
have the potential to increase retention if wear
occurs (Fig. 47.19).
• Without adjustment potential, e.g. Interlock, Beyeler (Fig. 47.13).
○ These are useful for joining crowns without a

common path of insertion.
Applications
• Retainers for removable partial dentures.
• Connectors for joining sections of fixed prostheses.
○ Prostheses do not share common path of insertion

yet can be rigidly connected.
○ Limit length of individual castings in long span

fixed partial dentures.
○ Poor prognosis of distal abutment.

Advantages (over extracoronal attachments)
• Reduced bulk – components serve as rest and clasp.
• Applied occlusal forces are close to the long axis of the tooth – better
bracing.
• Elimination of food stagnation.
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Disadvantages
• Extensive preparation of abutment – chances of pulp devitalization

is high.
• Adequate crown length and decreased pulp size is essential.
• Handling by patient more difficult – arthritic patients.
• More difficult to fabricate – alignment of attachment is critical.
Extracoronal attachments
• Have part or all of their mechanism outside the tooth contour (Fig.
47.20).
• It requires a minimum of 5 mm interocclusal space in height and

width.
• Mainly used for distal extension removable partial dentures.
• Double abutments are preferred.
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FIGURE 47.20 Part or all of attachment is present outside
the crown contour.
Retention principle
• Frictional
• Mechanical
• Frictional and mechanical
Advantages (over intracoronal attachments)
• Normal contour of the tooth can be maintained.
• Amount of tooth preparation necessary is less.
• Possibility of devitalizing the abutment tooth is reduced.
• Attachment alignment not as critical.
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• Insertion is easier for patients with dexterity problems.
Disadvantages
• Maintenance of hygiene is more difficult.
• Positioning artificial tooth in the attachment region is more difficult.
Classification
• Projection units
• Connecting units
• Combined units
Projection units
These are the prototype extracoronal attachments. These can be

further subdivided into:
• Rigid units, e.g. Conex attachment (Fig. 47.21).
• Units allowing some play, e.g. Ceka and Dalbo attachments (Fig.
47.22).
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FIGURE 47.21 Conex attachment.
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FIGURE 47.22 Ceka attachment.
Connecting units
• Connect two parts of a removable prosthesis, allowing limited

movement.
• They are of two types: axial rotation joint (allows vertical

movement) and rotation joint (no vertical movement).
• Female part consists of a vertical sleeve soldered to removable

crowns or clasp-retained section of denture.
• Male unit is a flattened rod attached to denture saddle and fits into
sleeve.
• The two parts of the attachment are held together by a small screw
passing through the female and male sections (Fig. 47.23).
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FIGURE 47.23 Connecting units – axial rotation and rotation
joints.
Combined units
• Consist of a hinge connector joined to an intracoronal attachment.
• Hinge is buried in the denture so that when it is in position, the

attachment closely resembles a rigid intracoronal attachment.
• These are used for distal extension bases with questionable

abutments.
• Example: Crismani combined units.
Radicular
Studs, bars and magnets
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These are used for tooth or implant supported overdentures and are
discussed in Chapter 48.
Auxiliary
• These are used to enhance the stability and retention of the
prosthesis.
• It includes the following:
○ Plungers (Fig. 47.24)
○ Hinges (Fig. 47.9)
○ Screws (Fig. 47.25)
FIGURE 47.24 Use of plunger for retention.
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FIGURE 47.25 Use of screws for retention.
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Rationale of using attachments with
removable partial dentures
A clasp assembly should provide for the following (Fig. 47.26):
1. Support (occlusal rest)
2. Stability (reciprocal arm)
3. Retention (retentive arm)
FIGURE 47.26 Components which provide the three

properties in a clasp-retained removable partial denture (1)
support (2) stability (3) retention.
Component parts of precision attachments also fulfil these

properties (Fig. 47.27).
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FIGURE 47.27 Components which provide the three
properties in an attachment-retained removable partial
denture.
Advantages
Advantages of attachments over clasp-retained removable partial
dentures are
• Overloading of terminal abutment prevented by splinting (using

double abutments with crowning).
• The functional load is transferred along the long axis of the

abutments.
• Efficiency of the retention is not affected by the contour of the

abutment teeth.
• Food impaction is prevented by intimate contact of components.
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• Rotation of saddle is controlled.
• Retention, reciprocation and support are incorporated within the

components.
Disadvantages
• Extensive preparation of the abutment teeth is required – minimum
two teeth need to be crowned.
• More clinical time.
• The components can wear and lose their retentive properties.
• The initial and maintenance cost are much higher compared to cast
partial denture.
SUMMARY
Attachments are very effective with distal extension removable
prostheses and with tooth- and implant-supported overdentures.
Attachment-retained removable partial dentures (ARRPD) show
long-term clinical success but crowning and splinting of abutments is
essential. Aesthetics is superior to clasp-retained partial dentures but
fabrication is more complex and expensive. Resilient extracoronal
attachments transfer less stress and are preferred for distal extension
bases.
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CHAPTER
48
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Overdentures
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 711
Requirements 712
Advantages 712
Disadvantages 712
Indications 712
Abutment selection 712
Location 713
Number 713
Space 713
Endodontic considerations 713
Periodontal considerations 713
Types of tooth-supported overdentures 713
Bare root surface 713
Metal copings 714
Attachments 714
Immediate overdentures 723
Summary 725
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Introduction
Definition: Any removable dental prosthesis that covers and rests on
one or more remaining natural teeth, the roots of natural teeth, and/or
dental implants; a dental prosthesis that covers and is partially
supported by natural teeth, natural tooth roots, and/or dental
implants also called overlay denture, overlay prosthesis,
superimposed prosthesis (GPT8).
As stated in the definition, overdentures are of two types:
• Tooth-supported (Fig. 48.1)
• Implant-supported (Fig. 48.2)
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FIGURE 48.1 Tooth-supported overdenture.
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FIGURE 48.2 Implant-supported overdenture.
In this chapter, tooth-supported overdentures will be discussed,

while implant-supported overdentures are discussed in the Chapter
49.
Tooth-supported overdentures alleviate some of the consequences
of conventional complete dentures like:
• Residual ridge resorption.
• Loss of occlusal stability.
• Undermined aesthetic appearance.
• Compromised masticatory appearance.
Hence, it is regarded as a ‘preventive’ therapy. The treatment

involves preservation of teeth (usually canines) on either side of the
arch and extraction of all other teeth. These abutments are restored to
good periodontal health, treated endodontically and coronal portion is
reduced to the desired level depending on the type of overdenture
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(usually 2–3 mm above gingival margin). A conventional complete
denture is then fabricated over these abutments. Attachments can be
used on the abutments to retain the denture.
The various considerations to enable this treatment are discussed in
the chapter.
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Requirements
• Maintenance of health of the abutment teeth.
• Reduction of crown–root ratio to decrease mobility.
• Denture base extended to cover as wide an area as possible to

distribute the load.
• Close fit of denture base to the tissues to prevent food accumulation.
• Easy to manipulate by patient.
• Simple to fabricate and maintain.
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Advantages
• Preservation of residual ridge.
• Maintenance of proprioception – preservation of perceptive ability.
• Improved retention with attachment-retained overdentures.
• Improved stability as horizontal and torquing forces are minimized.
• Excellent support provided by the abutments.
• Reversibility – if abutment fails, it can be easily converted to a

conventional complete denture by relining.
• Psychological gain of not having lost all the natural teeth.
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Disadvantages
• Caries susceptibility of abutments.
• Periodontal breakdown of abutments if plaque control is ineffective.
• More interarch space is required than for conventional complete

dentures.
• Bony undercuts labial to abutments pose problems to close

adaptation of denture base because of limited path of insertion –
this can lead to overcontour or undercontour of denture base.
• Bulkier.
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Indications
• Few remaining teeth with unfavourable distribution.
• Severe loss of periodontal attachment of remaining teeth.
• Significant posterior tooth loss associated with attrition of anterior

teeth.
• Complete denture opposing retained mandibular anterior teeth.
• Conditions where retention is difficult to obtain with complete

dentures:
○ Xerostomia or sialorrhoea.
○ Poor residual ridge.
○ Congenital deformities like cleft palate.
○ Partial loss of maxilla or mandible.
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Contraindications
• Patients who cannot maintain abutment teeth.
• Reduced interocclusal space – overdentures tend to occupy more

vertical space than the tooth substance that they replace. The reason
is more bulk material which is required for the strength of the
denture base material.
• Bony undercuts adjacent to abutments.
• Abutments unsuitable for endodontic and periodontal treatment.
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Abutment selection
Ideal requirements
• The gingival tissue should be firm, pink and tightly attached to the
neck of the tooth and underlying bone.
• A sufficient level of alveolar and supporting bone should remain

free from angular bony defects.
• The abutments should be definitely root filled and free from caries.
• The abutments should exhibit a minimal degree of mobility once

they have been sectioned 2–3 mm above gingival margin.
Location
• Bilateral distribution – at least one tooth on either side of the arch is
selected and retained.
• It is prudent to select the teeth that can be joined by an imaginary

line at right angles to the sagittal plane rather than provide a
diagonal fulcrum line (Fig. 48.3).
• The canines are ideal as overdenture abutments followed by

bicuspids.
• Maxillary incisors may be used as abutments if the lower teeth are

intact.
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FIGURE 48.3 Straight fulcrum better than diagonal.
Number
• One abutment each on opposing side of the arch, in canine regions
will give excellent results.
• If more abutments are retained, it will complicate construction of the

overdenture.
Space
• Vertical space is essential as discussed previously in section
Contraindications. When attachments and copings are used, the
interocclusal space required is further increased.
• Amount of space in between the abutments is also an important

consideration:
○ Adjacent roots can complicate plaque control and

denture construction.
○ If adjacent roots are to be preserved, it is better to
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restore them individually rather than splint them.
But another abutment should be located on the
opposing arch (Fig. 48.4).
FIGURE 48.4 It is better to restore adjacent roots individually

rather than splinting.
Endodontic considerations
• Sound teeth with satisfactory root fillings must be utilized.
• Single-rooted canals are easier to root fill than multirooted teeth.

Multirooted teeth with hemisection procedure are normally
valuable in these areas.
Periodontal considerations
• Periodontal attachment of abutment should be greater than 5 mm
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attachment – at least one-third of the root should remain in the
bone.
• At least 3 mm of attached gingiva should be present.
• Reducing the tooth to the gingival level drastically reduces the

leverage forces.
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Types of tooth-supported overdentures
Bare root surface
• The crown of the abutment is reduced to a height of 2–3 mm, is
treated endodontically and the entrance (occlusal section) is filled
with silver amalgam, glass ionomers or composite restorations. The
occlusal surface should be contoured to a convex or dome-shape
and is highly polished. This type of surface will minimize lateral
occlusal stresses (Fig. 48.5A–C).
• It is the simplest, cheapest and least space-consuming option.
• It is ideal during maturation of the edentulous ridges.
• It can also be used to evaluate the questionable abutments.
• It should not be used on a long-term basis where natural teeth are in

direct opposition – possibility of longitudinal root fracture.
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FIGURE 48.5 (A) Tooth should be endodontically treated. (B)
The crown should be reduced to about 2–3 mm. (C) The
entrance filled with amalgam.
Metal copings
Dome-shaped copings (Short)

• The abutment teeth are endodontically treated and reduced in
height and a post space is created. Dome-shaped cast metal copings
2–3 mm in height with a chamfer finish line and a post are
fabricated and cemented (Fig. 48.6).
• Coping should be at least 1 mm thick to withstand the forces.
• Because of the small size, lateral loads are reduced and space
occupied is minimum.
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• Their contribution to the retention of the prosthesis is negligible.
• Coping must be contoured to facilitate the plaque control.
• As the coping is rounded, the denture itself can be used as the outer
coping because it is easier to adjust the denture and control stability
and to a lesser extent retention.
FIGURE 48.6 (A) The abutment teeth are endodontically

treated and reduced in height and a post space is created. (B)
Dome-shaped cast metal copings 2–3 mm in height with a
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chamfer finish line and a post are fabricated and cemented.
Thimble-shaped copings (Long)

• They are 5–8 mm in height and need considerable space (Fig. 48.7A).
• The retention obtained will vary inversely with taper of the coping.
• The abutment teeth require greater osseous support.
• May not need to be endodontically treated.
• These copings can be used to support telescopic crowns to enhance

retention.
• Telescopic crowns – an artificial crown constructed to fit over a

coping (framework). The coping can be another crown, a bar or any
other suitable rigid support for the dental prosthesis (GPT8).
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FIGURE 48.7 (A) Thimble-shaped coping. (B) Extraradicular
attachment. (1) Female component attached to denture, (2)
male component, (3) denture, (4) abutment tooth.
Attachments
• As the attachments used with overdentures take support from the
root portion of the tooth, they are termed as ‘radicular’ attachments.
• Not only require precise location between the various components,

but may place additional forces on their dowels.
• Best retention.
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• Require adequate interocclusal space to place the components.
• Indicated only in patients with low caries activity.
• Meticulous oral hygiene maintenance is essential.
• Expensive.
• The attachments used for overdentures can be classified as:
○ Stud attachments
○ Bar attachments
○ Magnetic attachments
1. Stud attachments
Stud attachments are further classified into:
• Extraradicular attachments (Fig. 48.7B)
• Intraradicular attachments
Extraradicular attachments
• Male element is fixed to the abutment and projects from the root
surface of the preparation; the female component is attached to the
denture (Fig. 48.8). Attachment of male component to the female
component provides the retention.
• The male parts are available as:
○ Prefabricated metal post – cemented directly to the

root (Fig. 48.9).
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○ Prefabricated resin patterns – which is cast and
cemented to the root (Fig. 48.10).
• The female component is also termed as ‘retentive anchor’ and may
be made in metal or plastic and is in the form of an ‘O’-ring or
matrix (Fig. 48.8A and B).
• Example: ORS-OD, Ceka.
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FIGURE 48.8 (A) Extraradicular attachment – male part with
female (O-ring) attachment. (B) Extraradicular attachment –
male part with female matrix (Dalla bona) attachment.
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FIGURE 48.9 (A) Extraradicular – Ceka attachment. (1) Post
(2) male stud (ball) attachment (3) female component (4)
housing for female component. (B) Guttapercha is removed
with Peeso reamer. (C) Sequential drilling is performed with
appropriate drills to enlarge the post space. (D) The final drill
should correspond to the shape and size of attachment. (E)
Prepared post space. (F) Male component housing is
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cemented on abutment. (G) Male component is attached to
housing. (H) Female component with housing is positioned on
male component prior to attaching it to denture. (I) Female
component attached to denture with autopolymerizing acrylic.
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FIGURE 48.10 (A) ORS-OD system (1) Housing for O-ring,
(2) O-rings, (3) plastic castable stud attachment and (4) lab
analogue for stud. (B) Abutments prior to preparation. (C)
Abutment tooth was endodontically treated, reduced and post
space is created. (D) A wax pattern of the post space with the
resin stud attachment in place is fabricated and invested. (E)
Following casting. (F) The cast attachment is finished and
luted to the abutments and an impression is made. (G) The
lab analogue is positioned in impression and model is poured.
The female component is then attached to the denture in the
laboratory using autopolymerizing acrylic resin. (H) Female
(Housing and O-ring) attached to denture.
Intraradicular attachments
• Male element forms part of the denture base and engages a specially
produced depression within the root contour (Fig. 48.11).
• Indicated in situations of reduced interocclusal space.
• Examples: Logic and Zest attachments.
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FIGURE 48.11 Intraradicular attachment. (1) Male
component attached to denture, (2) female component, (3)
denture, (4) abutment tooth.
Fabrication
The root canal space is prepared similar to the preparation for a post
depending on the type of attachment. Each attachment is provided
with specific drills and the component that fits into the canal space is
first cemented. The corresponding component can be fitted in the
denture chairside or in the laboratory while processing the denture.
Extraradicular attachment
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The fabrication of an overdenture using an extraradicular attachment
(Ceka) which utilizes a prefabricated metal post is shown in Fig. 48.9.
Fabrication using prefabricated resin patterns (ORS-OD) is shown in
Fig. 48.10.
Intraradicular attachment
The fabrication of an overdenture using an intraradicular attachment
(Zest) is shown in Fig. 48.12.
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FIGURE 48.12 (A) Zest attachment. (1) Male component
attached to denture (2) female component fixed on abutment.
(B) Abutments prior to preparation. (C) Preparation of the
abutments with specific drills depending on the system
following endodontic treatment. (D) Post space created in
abutments. (E) Female component is luted in post space. (F)
Male component is positioned on female component prior to
attaching it to denture. (G) Space created in denture for
attachment of male component. (H) Autopolymerizing denture
base acrylic is mixed and the created space is filled with
resin. (I) Denture with filled resin is placed over the positioned
male component. (J) When resin sets, the male component
will get attached to denture. Denture with attached male
component is then removed from the mouth. (K) Overdenture
with intraradicular attachments in occlusion. (L) Overdenture
in function showing excellent retention and stability.
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2. Bar attachment
• It consists of a bar spanning an edentulous area joining copings on
the roots of the abutment teeth on either side of the arch (Fig. 48.13).
• Sleeves/clips placed in the denture attach to the bar when denture is

inserted, providing retention (Fig. 48.14).
• The bar splints the abutment teeth, distributes forces apically.
• Requires vertical and buccolingual space.
• Meticulous oral hygiene maintenance is essential.
• It can be bar joint or bar unit.
FIGURE 48.13 Copings on roots of abutments connected

with a bar.
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FIGURE 48.14 Cross-section showing. (a) Bar, (b) clip and
(c) housing for clip. The clip and housing are attached to the
denture.
Classification
Depending on number
• Single bar (Fig. 48.15)
• Multiple bars (Fig. 48.16).
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FIGURE 48.15 Single sleeve bar.
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FIGURE 48.16 Multiple bars.
The single sleeve bars will show greater resiliency and tendency for
rotation. The multiple sleeve bars are more versatile and will be more
rigid.
Depending on movement (fig. 48.17)
• Bar units: permit no movement between bar and sleeve (solid/rigid).
• Bar joints: permit rotational movement between bar and sleeve

(resilient).
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FIGURE 48.17 Rigid bars allow restricted movement while
resilient bars with spacer between bar and sleeve provide
more movement.
Greater movement is desired when some of the forces accruing on

the attachments can be transferred to the residual ridges provided
they are capable of withstanding the load. But this can cause ridge
resorption.
The resiliency (movement) of a bar-retained denture is affected by:
• Shape of bar
• Spacer
Some of the commonly used bars are described here.
Hader bar
• A rigid bar connecting two or more abutments, which when viewed

in cross-section, resembles a keyhole, consisting of a rectangular bar
with a rounded superior (occlusal) ridge that creates a retentive
undercut for the female clip within the removable prosthesis (GPT8)
(Fig. 48.18).
• Named after the Swiss tool and die technician, Helmut Hader.
• Provides mechanical retention.
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• The round shape of the superior part makes this bar a resilient type,
which allows some movement.
• Available in diameter of 1.8 mm in plastic (cast with coping), gold

(soldered to coping) and titanium (laser welded to coping).
• The sleeves are in plastic though they can be converted to metal if

increased retention is desired.
• The preformed plastic bar can be cut to a small length and also used
as a stud attachment.
FIGURE 48.18 Hader bar.
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Dolder bar
• The bar is straight with parallel sides and a round top. The sleeve or
clip that fits over the bar gains retention by friction only. The bar
may be of variable size and is pear-shaped at cross-section, similar
to its accompanying sleeve. This clip allows for some measure of
rotational movement about the bar (GPT8) (Fig. 48.19).
• Named after Eugene J. Dolder, a prosthodontist from Switzerland.
• It is available in diameters of 1.6 mm and 2.2 mm.
• Available as gold or titanium bars and sleeves.
• If more resiliency or movement is desired, a spacer is used between

the bar and sleeve while attaching the sleeve to the denture. This is
removed and the space provided allows more movement of the
sleeve and denture.
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FIGURE 48.19 Dolder bar.
Ackermann and CM bar
• These bars are round at cross-section and hence are resilient (Fig.
48.20).
• Sleeves or clips are made up of gold.
• Available in 1.8 mm diameter, in plastic and gold.
• Spacer can be used if more movement is required.
FIGURE 48.20 Round Ackermann bar.
Fabrication
If plastic patterns are used, they are attached to wax coping on the
abutments and the entire assembly is cast as one unit and cemented. If
metal bars are used, they are either soldered or welded depending on
the metal, to the copings, and cemented. Following this the denture
fabrication is commenced and the sleeves/clips are incorporated in the
denture during processing or directly during insertion.
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3. Magnetic attachment
• Magnetic attachments consist of (Fig. 48.21):
○ Keeper
○ Denture retention element
FIGURE 48.21 Parts of magnetic attachment. (1) Denture

retention element – magnet and (2) keeper.
The keeper is made of stainless steel and is cemented to the

abutment tooth (Fig. 48.22).
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FIGURE 48.22 Keeper is cemented into root following
endodontic treatment and creation of post space.
The denture retention element contains paired, cylindrical magnets

made of cobalt–samarium with opposite poles placed adjacent. One
end is covered with a knurled housing which fits into the denture and
either end is smooth and fits on the keeper (Fig. 48. 23).
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FIGURE 48.23 (1) Knurled housing of denture retention
element is incorporated into denture while the (2) smooth
extension provides magnetic retention by attaching to keeper.
Retention principle
• It is due to mutual attraction of unlike poles. During dislodging

forces, the magnetic forces reseat the denture if the separation is
within 3 mm. Therefore, minimal forces are transmitted to the root
(Fig. 48.24).
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FIGURE 48.24 A lateral dislodging force on a rigid stud
attachment (left) will transfer all load to the tooth. In a
magnetic attachment (right) the sliding mechanism prevents
transfer of stresses to abutment.
Advantages
• No path of insertion.
• No specialized instrumentation.
• No paralleling of abutment.
• Automatic reseating.
• Ease of repair and reline.
• Freedom in lateral and rotational movements.
• Minimum forces transmitted to roots.
Disadvantages
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• Smaller the root surface – decrease in retention.
• Alloy can corrode and fracture.
• Loss of magnetism is common with ensuing loss of retention – the

elements need constant replacement.
Clinical procedure
The procedure involved in fabricating a magnetic overdenture is
described in Fig. 48.25A–F.
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FIGURE 48.25 (A) Abutments following endodontic
treatment. (B) Post space created. (C) Coping is fabricated
with the keeper. (D) Copings are fixed onto the abutment
teeth. (E) Impression is made. (F) Denture retentive element
– magnet is incorporated in denture.
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Immediate overdentures
• Overdentures can also be provided immediately following the
extraction of the remaining natural teeth (except those planned as
abutments).
• The procedure is similar to conventional complete dentures, except

that the abutment teeth need to be endodontically treated prior to
the denture insertion appointment.
• The abutment teeth are reduced to the desired dimensions in the

cast and immediate denture is fabricated.
• During insertion, the abutments are reduced and the denture is

placed.
• Copings or attachments can be fixed following the healing during

relining or remaking the denture depending on the method used for
making the immediate denture (also see Chapter 17).
SUMMARY
Overdentures provide substantial benefit to the patient in terms of
ridge preservation and retention. Patient should be educated
regarding the provisional nature of the treatment and the inevitable
need to progress to conventional complete dentures. Abutment
selection is vitally important in success of this treatment modality,
though cost is a deterrent, especially while using attachments.
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CHAPTER
49
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Oral Implantology
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 726
History and evolution 726
Indications 727
Advantages of implant-supported prosthesis
727
Disadvantages 727
Classification 727
Based on location 728
Based on exposure during surgery 731
Implant-bone integration 731
Fibro-osseous integration 731
Osseointegration (osseous integration) 732
Component parts of implant restoration 733
Main components 733
Accessories 741
Implant treatment 742
Diagnosis 743
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Surgical phase 760
Prosthetic phase 764
Hygiene and maintenance of implants 769
Failures in implants 769
Implant materials 770
Biologic classification 770
Summary 771
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Introduction
Modern oral implantology can be traced from the 1960s and it is now
a predictable and successful treatment modality for edentulous
situations. The implant is basically analogous to the root of a natural
tooth which is surgically inserted into the alveolar bone followed by
the fabrication of the prosthesis. This chapter will briefly discuss the
current concepts, designs, components and treatment modalities with
dental implants, along with its history and development.
Definition: Dental implant is a prosthetic device made up of
alloplastic material(s) implanted into the oral tissues beneath the
mucosal or/and periosteal layer, and on/or within the bone to provide
retention and support for a fixed or removable dental prosthesis; a
substance that is placed into or/and upon the jaw bone to support a
fixed or removable dental prosthesis.
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History and evolution
Ancient era (up to AD 1000)
Implantation of animal teeth and teeth carved out of ivory was
performed on women in ancient Egyptian dynasties.
AD 600 – Mayans placed shells carved in tooth shape and precious
stones in molar region.
Medieval period (1000–1799)

Transplantation of teeth was popular during this period. It lost its
popularity during the beginning of nineteenth century due to transfer
of diseases.
Foundation period (1800–1910)

1809 – Maggilio placed gold implant into freshly extracted socket.
Others used porcelain, gutta-percha, platinum and lead as implants
during this period.
1898 – Payne described implantation of a silver capsule.
Premodern era (1910–1930)

In 1913, Greenfield used a two-piece hollow basket fabrication (lattice
cage) from 24 gauge iridium soldered with 24 karat gold.
Modern era (1935–1970)
• 1939 – Strock described a method of placing a screw type implant

made of ‘vitallium’ (cobalt–chromium–molybdenum alloy) to
provide anchorage for placement of missing tooth.
• 1940 – Formiggini designed a single helix wire spiral implant made

of stainless steel or tantalum.
• 1943 – Gustav Dahl first suggested the construction of the

subperiosteal type of implant.
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• 1967 – Linkow introduced the blade vent implant.
• 1970 – Goteborg group in Sweden led by Branemark and

Albrektsson presented the Nobelpharma implant – cylindrical root
form implants made of titanium. The term and concept of
‘osseointegration’ was coined and described by Branemark.
Research on it was into progress since 1950s.
• 1974 – Kawahara developed a cylindrical ceramic implant.
• 1978 – Kirsch developed the ‘IMZ’ implant cylindrical implants.

The surface was coated with titanium plasma spray which increased
the surface area. An intramobile element was included in the
abutment assembly to replicate the movement of the natural teeth.
• 1978 – ITI (International Team of Implantologists) developed the

(titanium plasma sprayed screw) and titanium plasma sprayed
hollow cylinder implants.
• 1982 – Niznick developed the ‘core-vent’ cylindrical implants made

of titanium.
Indications
1. Used for any tooth replacement – particularly useful for the
following situations:
○ Single-tooth replacement – to avoid preparation of

sound teeth.
○ Distal extension bases.
○ Completely edentulous state.
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○ Long edentulous spans.
2. When a fixed partial denture is compromised due to:
○ Weak abutments.
○ Long edentulous span.
○ Cantilevers.
○ Unfavourable number and location of abutments.

3. When a conventional complete denture may be compromised due
to:
○ Poor muscular coordination.
○ Low tolerance of mucosal tissues.
○ Compromised denture supporting areas.
○ Parafunctional habits that compromise prostheses

stability.
○ Unrealistic prosthodontics expectations.
○ Hyperactive gag reflex.
○ Patient’s requirement for fixed prostheses or

psychological inability of patient to wear a
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removable prosthesis.
Contraindications
Absolute contraindications
• High dose irradiated patients.
• Haematologic systemic disorders.
• Patients with psychiatric problems such as psychosis and

dysmorphophobia.
• Medically compromised individuals where surgery is

contraindicated.
Relative contraindications
• Low dose irradiated patients.
• Diabetes.
• Smoking, alcohol and drug abuse.
• Children up to 18 years (until the jaw bones have stopped growing).
• Pregnancy.
Advantages of implant-supported prosthesis

Advantages of implant-supported prosthesis over conventional
removable complete dentures are
1. Preservation of bone: The placement of an implant will ensure that

the bone level is maintained in that region.
2. Teeth can be positioned for aesthetics: With an implant, the teeth
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may be positioned where the natural existed rather than in the neutral
zones for stability as dictated by traditional dentures.
3. Maintenance of vertical dimension: In patients with conventional

complete dentures, the loss of vertical dimension decreases due to
wear and bone resorption. Implant dentures can maintain the vertical
dimension, as bone resorption is minimal.
4. Occlusion: Easier to establish proper occlusion and occlusal loads

can be directed better.
5. Improved mastication: Enhanced bite force and masticatory

efficiency.
6. Increased stability and retention.
7. Reduced size of the prostheses.
8. Enhanced success rate of prostheses.
Disadvantages
1. Expensive.
2. Prolonged treatment duration.
3. Involves surgical procedure.
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Classification
Dental implants are classified into the following categories:
I. Based on their location as:

1. Endosteal
i. Spiral
ii. Tripod
iii. Plates
iv. Blades
v. Endodontic
vi. Root forms
a. Depending on shape:
□ Cylinders – threaded, nonthreaded
□ Tapered cylinders – threaded, nonthreaded
b. Depending on connection to abutment:
□ One (single)-piece implants
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□ Two-piece implants
2. Transosteal
▪ Staple bone plates

3. Eposteal
▪ Subperiosteal – complete/unilateral
4. Mucosal
▪ Intramucosal inserts
II. Depending on exposure during surgery:

1. Submerged (two-stage surgery)
2. Nonsubmerged (one-stage surgery).
Based on location
Based on their location dental implants can be classified into the
following categories.
Endosteal dental implants

Definition: A device placed into the alveolar and/or basal bone of the
mandible or maxilla and transecting only one cortical plate (GPT8).
Spiral and tripod implants

These are part of history and are no longer used. They are named after
their shape which is self-explanatory.
Blade dental implants
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A faciolingual narrowed, wedge-shaped dental implant body with
openings or vents through which tissue may grow (GPT8).
The blades and plates are similar and used with narrow ridges (Figs
49.1 and 49.2). They are made of titanium and are available in
buccolingual widths of 1.2 mm.
FIGURE 49.1 Blade implants (A) With single abutment (B)

With 2 abutments.
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FIGURE 49.2 Plate implants.
Endodontic dental implant

A smooth and/or threaded pin implant that extends through the root
canal of a tooth into periapical bone and is used to stabilize a mobile
tooth, sometimes called an endodontic stabilizer (Fig. 49.3) (GPT8).
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FIGURE 49.3 Endodontic stabilizer.
Root forms
Currently, these are the most popular and commonly used implants.
They are made of titanium, though other materials have also been
used.
They can be classified according to:
1. According to shape:
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○ Cylinders
○ Tapered cylinders
2. According to presence of threads:
○ Threaded
○ Nonthreaded
3. According to abutment connection:
○ One piece
○ Two piece
▪ External connections
▪ Internal connections
○ They can be shaped like cylinders or tapered

cylinders (Fig. 49.4A and B).
○ When the surface is threaded, they are then termed

as ‘screws’ (Fig. 49.5A and B).
○ The surface can also contain vents, slots, dimples

and coatings to enhance surface area and bonding
to bone (Figs 49.6–49.8).
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○ When the fixture and abutment are joined together
they are termed as one-piece implants (Fig. 49.9).
○ When the fixture and abutment are separable, they

are termed as two-piece implants (Fig. 49.10).
○ Two-piece implants are further classified depending

on whether the connection to the abutment is
within the implant or outside as – external
connections (Fig. 49.11A) or internal connections
(Fig. 49.11B).
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FIGURE 49.4 (A) Cylinder implant. (B) Tapered implant.
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FIGURE 49.5 (A) Threaded implant. (B) Nonthreaded
implant.
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FIGURE 49.6 Vents.
FIGURE 49.7 Slots.
FIGURE 49.8 Surface coated implant (right).
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FIGURE 49.9 One-piece implant where the fixture and
abutment are not separable.
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FIGURE 49.10 Two-piece implant where the abutment and
fixture are separable.
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FIGURE 49.11 (A) External connection – the connection of
fixture to the abutment is located outside the implant body.
(B) Internal connection – connection of fixture to the abutment
is located within the implant body.
Transosteal dental implants
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Definition: A dental implant that penetrates both cortical plates and
passes through the full thickness of the alveolar bone (GPT8).
It is also called staple bone implant, mandibular staple implant,
transmandibular implant. It is normally used to support an
overdenture. It is not widely used because of the possible damage to
the infrabony soft tissue structures like the nerves and the vessels (Fig.
49.12).
FIGURE 49.12 Transosteal implant.
Eposteal dental implant (subperiosteal)

Definition: A dental implant that receives its primary support by
means of resting upon the bone (GPT8).
The subperiosteal implant (Fig. 49.13) is an example of an eposteal
implant.
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FIGURE 49.13 Subperiosteal implant.
Subperiosteal implant: An eposteal dental implant that is placed

beneath the periosteum while overlying the bony cortex – first
attributed to Swedish dentist, G.S. Dahl (GPT8).
The implant body lies over the bony ridge. It is made similar to a
cast-partial denture frame. An impression is made of the bone after
elevating a flap and the frame is fabricated. The frame is made with
abutments projecting and this is then fitted on the bone following a
second surgery.
When the subperiosteal implant supports a partial denture it is
termed as unilateral subperiosteal implant, and when it supports a
complete denture, it is termed as complete subperiosteal implant.
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Mucosal
Any metal form attached to the tissue surface of a removable dental
prosthesis that mechanically engages undercuts in a surgically
prepared mucosal site – called also button implant, intramucosal
insert, mucosal implant (GPT8).
Also termed as subdermal implants (Fig. 49.14).
FIGURE 49.14 Mucosal insert – attached to denture base

and mucosa (multiple inserts are utilized).
Based on exposure during surgery

Depending on the exposure during surgery, dental implants are of
two types:
• Submerged (two-stage surgery)
• Nonsubmerged (one-stage surgery)
Submerged implants are not exposed to the oral cavity following

the first surgery to place the implant. A second surgery is performed
to expose them and proceed with impression making. Hence, they are
termed as two-stage implants (Fig. 49.15A and B).
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FIGURE 49.15 (A) Submerged implants – implant placed
along with cover screw. (B) Flap sutured over the implant so
that they are not exposed after the surgery.
Nonsubmerged implants are left exposed after the first surgery, so a

second surgery is avoided. Hence, they are called one-stage/single-
stage implants (Fig. 49.16).
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FIGURE 49.16 Nonsubmerged implants. Top of implant
(cover screw) left exposed after the implant placement
surgery.
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Implant-bone integration
Two mechanisms have been put forth for the attachment of implant to
bone.
Fibro-osseous integration
Definition: Tissue to implant contact with interposition of healthy,
dense collagenous tissue between implant and bone (American
Academy of Implant Dentistry [AAID], Glossary of Terms [1986]).
This theory was put forth by Weiss, who proposed the presence of
collagen fibres at the bone-implant interface. He interpreted it as peri-
implant membrane with osteogenic effect.
This fibrous integration was stated to be similar to periodontal
ligament around natural teeth. The theory was more suited for blades,
plates and subperiosteal implants, but for root form of implants, any
evidence of fibrous tissue around the implant, is now deemed as
implant failure. Hence, this mechanism is not anymore associated
with contemporary root form of implants.
Osseointegration (osseous integration)

Definition: The apparent direct attachment or connection of osseous
tissue to an inert, alloplastic material without intervening connective
tissue (GPT8).
• The word osseointegration consists of ‘os’, which is the Latin word

for bone and ‘integration’ derived from Latin meaning the state of
being combined into a whole.
• The concept was developed and the term was coined by Dr Per-
Ingvar Branemark (1972). He discovered a direct strong bone
anchorage of titanium chamber he was using while studying
microcirculation in bone repair mechanisms. The titanium chamber
was surgically inserted into the tibia of a rabbit.
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• This is now proven to be the mechanism of attachment of implants
to bone (Fig. 49.17). It is similar to ankylosis; there is no intervening
connective tissue (periodontal ligament) unlike natural teeth.
FIGURE 49.17 Histology of implant-supported region. IP,

implant; CT, connective tissues; JE, junctional epithelium; A,
alveolar bone.
Key factors in osseointegration

Branemark suggested that the following were essential for an implant
to osseointegrate:
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1. Implant material
Titanium is the material of choice. Branemark fixtures were made of
commercially pure titanium. When the fixture comes into contact with
atmosphere, an oxide layer, 50–100 Å thick, immediately forms. When
fixture has properly healed in bone, a glycoprotein layer, then a
calcified layer approximately 100 Ǻ thick, surrounds the oxide layer.
Prior to insertion of fixture into bone the surface of titanium fixture
must be kept sterile and contact with any other material should be
strictly avoided.
2. Implant design
Root form implants are advocated.
3. Surface area
Osseointegration depends on surface area of implant. The surface area
can be increased by using wider diameters, threading the surface
and/or roughening the surface.
4. Implant site
Precision fit in vital bone is essential – this prevents soft tissue
proliferation which would occur if a gap was present and helps
stabilizing the implant in poor bone density situations. This precise fit
of implant in bone without any observed movement is termed as
primary stability.
5. Implant surgery
Prevention of excessive heat during bone drilling procedures is
essential for osseointegration. Bone should not be heated beyond 43°C
to maintain vitality and ideally it should not exceed 39°C. This is
achieved by the following:
• Low drilling speeds below 2000 rpm, with minimal trauma.
• Use of coolant while drilling.
• Using sharp drills and widening the site gradually.
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• Inserting the implant into bone at very low speeds (15–20 rpm).
6. Asepsis
Strict infection control measures should be adopted during surgery.
The site should also be free of infection.
7. Loading
Maintaining fixtures in the bone without occlusal forces or load for 3–
4 months with mandibular implants (better bone quality or density)
and 6 months for maxilla. The restoration is commenced only after
this period. Bone healing begins within the first week after insertion of
fixtures and reaches a peak at the 3rd and 4th weeks. It gradually
becomes bony tissue after 6–8 weeks.
Soft tissue interface

This is similar to gingiva around natural dentition:
• Junctional epithelium surrounds the abutment surface at the crevice

and connective tissue adapts to abutment surface beneath.
• Sulcular epithelium consists of keratinized epithelial cells (Fig.

49.17).
Criteria for successful osseointegration

Albrektsson, Zarb, Worthington and Eriksson (1986) proposed
following standards:
• That an individual, unattached implant is immobile when tested

clinically.
• That a radiograph does not demonstrate an evidence of peri-implant

radiolucency.
• That vertical bone loss should be less than 0.2 mm annually

following the first year of service of implant.
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• That individual implant performance should be characterized by an
absence of persistent and/or irreversible signs and symptoms such
as pain, infections, neuropathies, paraesthesia or violation of
mandibular canal.
• A success rate of 85% at the end of a 5-year observation period and

80% at the end of a 10-year period.
Biointegration
Putter (1985) differentiated biointegration from osseointegration. He
stated that biointegration was achieved by coating the implant surface
with bioactive materials such as hydroxyapatite, which bond to bone,
using plasma spraying and ion-sputtering techniques.
Osseointegration involved contact of metallic surfaces (titanium) with
bone. He described osseointegration as a mechanical retention of
implant to bone as opposed to bioactive retention obtained with
hydroxyapatite coating.
As root form implants are most popular and commonly used
contemporarily, they will be discussed in detail.
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Component parts of implant restoration
Implant components can be categorized as:
1. Main component
i. Fixture
ii. Abutment
iii. Superstructure
2. Accessories
i. Surgical
▪ Cover screw
▪ Gingival former
ii. Prosthetic
▪ Implant analogue
▪ Impression post
Main components (fig. 49.18)
Implant fixture
The implant fixture is the component that is surgically placed into the
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bone. It is also termed as ‘implant body’. The fixture can be divided
into the following parts (Fig. 49.19):
1. Body
2. Crest module
3. Collar
FIGURE 49.18 Main components. (1) Implant fixture, (2)

abutment, (3) superstructure.
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FIGURE 49.19 Parts of implant fixture. (a) Body, (b) collar,
(c) crest module.
Body
The body of the root form implant can be cylindrical or tapered
cylindrical, with a smooth or threaded surface (implant screws). The
implant body can also be solid or contain holes or vents to allow bone
to grow through. The threaded implant is suitable for placement in
dense cortical and fine trabecular bone. It can be easily removed
during surgery, if needed. Threads maximize initial contact with bone,
enhance surface area and facilitate dissipation of stresses. They are
tapped (screwed into bone) using ratchet or handpiece.
The functional surface area of a thread is dependent on:
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• Thread pitch – distance between the threads (Fig. 49.20).
• Thread shape – ‘V’-shaped, square and buttress (Fig. 49.21A–C).
• Thread depth – distance between the most outside thread and most
inside thread (Fig. 49.20).
FIGURE 49.20 Thread depth and thread pitch.
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FIGURE 49.21 (A) ‘V’-shaped thread. (B) Square shaped
thread. (C) Buttress shaped thread.
Smaller the pitch, there will be more threads/unit length and greater
is surface area. The square thread produces the least stress (shear) on
the implant. Greater the thread depth, greater is the surface area.
Smooth-sided implants are easier to place even in areas difficult to
access, like posterior maxilla, as they can just be pressed into bone – a
threaded implant would require a ratchet or handpiece for placement.
For the same reason, smooth implants are easier to place in single-
tooth implant cases when crown height of the adjacent teeth is large.
Surface treatment: The surface of any implant type can be
roughened using porous coatings or blasting with various materials
and acid etching. Commonly used surface treatments are titanium
plasma spray (TPS) and hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings and SLA
surface. Cost, increased chances of flaking and bacterial accumulation
are some disadvantages of coatings.
SLA (Sandblasting-large grit-acid etching) surface is produced by
sandblasting with large-grit corundum particles followed by acid
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etching with a mixture of HCl/H2SO4 at elevated temperature for
several minutes.
Advantages of surface treatments are
• Increased surface area.
• Increased roughness for primary stability.
• Stronger bone-implant interface.
Crest module
This is the portion of the fixture that provides a connection to the
abutment or attachment. It offers resistance to axial occlusal loads and
aims to provide a precise fitting of abutment on the fixture with
minimal tolerance. It consists of a platform and antirotation features.
The platform contains a connection to the abutment that is either
present above or below the crestal bone level. If present above, it is
termed as external connection and if present below, it is termed as
internal connection. The antirotation feature in an external connection
implant is usually a hexagon (Fig. 49.11A). A variety of antirotation
features have been incorporated in the internal connection implant
systems like hexagon, octagon, morse taper, grooves, etc. (Fig. 49.22).
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FIGURE 49.22 Internal connections – hex is shown.
External connections
This type of connection is advantageous in restoring multiple
implants where a passive fit is essential. Screw loosening is a common
problem along with difficulty in assessing abutment seating
radiographically. There is a documented 4–6° rotational wobble and
3–5° tipping of abutment depending on hex height, due to nonaxial
transfer of occlusal forces.
Internal connections
This overcame the problems of external connections and contributed
to axial loading. Most implant companies now manufacture only
internal connection implants.
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Implant collar
A smooth machined collar is usually designed on the superior surface
of the crest module. For submerged implants, it is usually 0.5–1 mm in
height, while it is 3–5 mm for nonsubmerged implant (Fig. 49.23). It
serves the following purposes:
• Allows functional remodelling of bone to occur to a more consistent

region on implant with migration of sulcular epithelium to the base
of the collar.
• Improves the abutment-fixture interface.
• Prevents exposure of surface coatings.
FIGURE 49.23 Implant collar height for submerged (left) and

nonsubmerged implant (right).
Implant abutment
Definition: The portion of a dental implant that serves to support
and/or retain any fixed or removable dental prosthesis (GPT8). It is
screwed to the implant fixture.
Abutments can be classified as:
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1. Abutments for fixed prosthesis
i. Definitive
a. Prefabricated
□ Solid abutment
□ Hollow (two-piece abutments)
– Straight
– Angled
b. Custom-made
□ Castable abutments
□ CAD–CAM abutments
ii. Provisional or temporary

2. Abutments for removable prostheses (overdenture attachments)
i. Stud attachments
ii. Bar attachments
iii. Magnetic attachments
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iv. Telescopic attachments
1. Abutments for fixed prosthesis
i. Definitive abutments
a. Prefabricated abutments
• They are available in specific heights or dimensions.
• They are made of titanium or zirconium.
• Solid abutments: These are one-piece abutments where the abutment

and the abutment screw (used to attach the abutment to fixture) are
not separable (Fig. 49.24). Hence, there is no channel provided
inside the abutment for a screw, making it a solid piece. They are
not versatile and have to be prepared in the mouth.
• Hollow (two-piece) abutments: These are the commonly used

abutments. The hollow inside provides a path for the abutment to
be screwed onto the fixture with a separate abutment screw (Fig.
49.25A and B). These abutments can be either straight or angled.
Straight abutments are positioned straight and parallel to the
implant fixture. The angled abutment is used to correct divergence
between implant axis and neighbouring teeth (Fig. 49.26A and B).
They are manufactured in angulations of 15–30°.
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FIGURE 49.24 Solid abutment. Prosthetic platform (a),
transmucosal area (b) and nonengaging internal connection
(c).
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FIGURE 49.25 (A) Hollow abutment (two piece) (a).
Abutment and screw are separate components. This is a
straight abutment (b). (B) Angled abutment.
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FIGURE 49.26 (A) Implant axis out of arch in site 33 if a
straight abutment is used. (B) Implant axis corrected using
angled abutment in 33.
b. Custom-made abutments
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• These abutments can be fabricated to fit the individual space.
• They can be made of any castable or machinable alloy or material.
• Castable abutments: They are available in materials like plastic sleeves

which can be easily modified and cast in metal to the desired shape
and dimensions (Fig. 49.27). They are also termed as waxing sleeves
or UCLA-type abutments.
• CAD–CAM abutments: These are custom abutments fabricated using

computer-aided design and milling. Very precise abutments can be
made using titanium and zirconium and other machinable
materials. The model is scanned, abutment is designed and milled
similar to fabricating all-ceramic restorations.
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FIGURE 49.27 Castable abutment with sleeve.
ii. Provisional abutments

These are also called temporary abutments and are used to shape the
gingival contour in the aesthetic zone and place a provisional
restoration prior to the definitive restoration. They are usually made
of resin (Fig. 49.28).
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FIGURE 49.28 Provisional abutment (Courtesy: Myriad
Implant System).
2. Overdenture attachments
These are similar to attachments used for tooth-supported
overdentures described in Chapter 48. The following types of
overdenture attachments are used:
1. Studs
2. Bars
3. Magnets
4. Telescopic
They are also discussed later in this chapter under section

‘Treatment Planning’.
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i. Studs
• They may also be referred to as ‘ball attachments’.
• Consist of two components – stud (male) and retentive anchor

(female) (Fig. 49.29A).
• One of them is attached to the implant and the other to the denture.
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FIGURE 49.29 (A) Stud attachment (ball) – external
connection. (B) Stud attachment – internal connection. (C)
Bar attached to bar abutments on implants (a), Clip in denture
for retention (Courtesy: Dr Shahvir) (b). (D) Magnet
attachment. The keeper is normally fastened to the implant
and the magnet will be incorporated in the denture. (a)
Magnet, (b) keeper, (c) implant, (d) teeth, (e) acrylic flange, (f)
alveolar bone.
Advantages
• Easy to change.
• Wide range of movement.
• Low cost.
• Different degrees of retention.
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• Elimination of time and cost of superstructure.
Types
Basically stud attachments are of two types (similar to tooth-
supported overdenture attachments).
• External connection (Fig. 49.29A) – stud (male) is attached to

implant and retentive component (female) is attached to denture.
Examples: Dalla Bona, O-ring, Cap attachments.
• Internal connection (Fig. 49.29B) – stud (male) is attached to denture

and retentive component (female) is attached to implant. Examples:
Locator, ERA.
ii. Bars
Bars consist of three components (Fig. 49.29C) bar retainer (abutment
with coping), sleeve (bar) and clip.
• Splints the implants, distribute forces apical.
• Require more vertical and buccolingual space than studs.
• Require meticulous oral hygiene.
• Equal retention for bar retainers.
iii. Magnets (fig. 49.29D)
• They offer low profile retention.
• Less retention and stability compared to studs and bars.
• Frequent loss of magnetism has been a problem due to saliva

contact.
iv. Telescopic
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• Similar to those used on natural teeth.
• Good retention and stability.
Implant superstructure
This is the prosthesis that is fabricated with the support of dental
implants. Implant superstructures can be of the following types:
1. Fixed prostheses
i. Crowns
ii. Bridges
2. Removable prostheses
i. Overdentures
3. Fixed-detachable prostheses
i. Hybrid dentures
1. Fixed prostheses
Implant crowns and bridges can be used to replace single or multiple
teeth in a fixed manner (Figs 49.30 and 49.31).
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FIGURE 49.30 (A) Superstructure can be in the form of
single crowns. (B) Superstructure in the form of multiple
crowns.
FIGURE 49.31 Superstructure can be in the form of bridges.
These crowns and bridges are attached to the abutments using

cement (similar to tooth-supported crowns) or screws. They are then
termed as cement-retained or screw-retained prosthesis, respectively (Fig.
49.32).
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FIGURE 49.32 (A) Cement-retained prosthesis. (B) Screw-
retained prosthesis.
2. Removable prostheses
Implant overdentures
These are removable prostheses supported by implants. Similar to
tooth-supported overdentures, they also require attachments as
abutments (Fig. 49.29A–D).
3. Fixed-detachable dentures
These are screw-retained complete dentures which cannot be removed
by the patient, but can be removed by the dentist. Their fabrication is
complex (Fig. 49.33).
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FIGURE 49.33 Fixed detachable prosthesis – hybrid denture.
The prosthetic options in implant dentistry were classified by Misch

(1989) as follows:
1. FP-1
2. FP-2
3. FP-3
4. RP-4
5. RP-5
○ FP – Fixed prosthodontics options
○ RP – Removable prosthodontics options
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1. FP-1 (Fig. 49.34A)
○ Fixed prosthesis.
○ Replaces only crown.
○ Minimal loss of soft and hard tissue.
○ Looks like a natural tooth.

2. FP-2 (Fig. 49.34B)
○ Fixed prosthesis.
○ Replaces crown and a portion of the root.
○ Crown contour appears normal in incisal or occlusal

half, but is elongated in gingival half.
3. FP-3 (Fig. 49.33)
○ Fixed-detachable hybrid prosthesis.
○ Replacement of teeth and a portion of soft tissue.
○ Prostheses most often use denture acrylic teeth and

gingiva on a metal frame.
4. RP-4 (Fig. 49.35)
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○ Removable overdenture prosthesis is completely
supported by implants.
○ Usually five implants in mandible and six to eight

implants in maxilla are required for this type of
prosthesis.
○ The prosthesis is rigid when seated.

5. RP-5 (Fig. 49.36)
○ Removable overdenture prosthesis is supported by

implants anteriorly and soft tissue posteriorly.
○ Usually one to three implants in mandible and two

to four implants in maxilla are required for this
type of prosthesis.
○ The prosthesis is not completely rigid and shows

movement depending on the number and type of
attachment.
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FIGURE 49.34 (A) FP1: Implant crown looks similar to
natural tooth with minimal loss of soft and hard tissue. (B)
FP2: Implant crown is elongated – gingival porcelain is added
to mask the same.
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FIGURE 49.35 RP-4 – Removable overdenture prosthesis is
supported by implants anteriorly and posteriorly.
FIGURE 49.36 RP-5 – Removable overdenture prosthesis

supported by implants anteriorly.
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Accessories
Surgical
1. Cover screw
After surgical placement of implant, a screw is placed in the superior
aspect of two-piece implants to cover the connection for abutment
during the healing period (Figs 49.37, 49.15 and 49.16). It is usually
low in profile to facilitate the suturing of soft tissue in two-stage
implants and to minimize loading in the one-stage implants. It is also
termed as healing screw.
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FIGURE 49.37 Cover screws of different implant systems.
2. Gingival former
This component is required only for two-stage implants (Fig. 49.38A).
Following the second surgery to expose the implant, the cover screws
are removed and gingival formers, which are available in varying
heights, are placed on the implant fixture (Fig. 49.39). They extend
above the soft tissue into the oral cavity and form a gingival cuff
around the implant (Fig. 49.38B). They are usually in place for 2–5
weeks depending on the healing, following which they are removed
and impression procedures are commenced. They will be replaced by
the abutment in the final restoration. They are also termed as healing
abutments or permucosal extensions.
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FIGURE 49.38 (A) Gingival former (Courtesy: Uniti Implant
System). (B) Formation of gingival cuff following placement of
gingival former.
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FIGURE 49.39 (A) Opening the implant site and removing
cover screw. (B) Gingival former placed and suturing done
exposing the site.
Prosthetic
1. Implant analogue
Definition: A replica of the entire dental implant, not intended for
human implantation (GPT8).
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This component is similar to the implant fixture, but used in the
model to fabricate the prosthesis in the laboratory. It need not be of
the same shape as the fixture but has to replicate the coronal portion
of the fixture, which provides attachment to the abutment. A ‘transfer
impression’ is made (described later in the chapter) of the implant in
the mouth and the analogue replicates the implant position in the
poured model. The abutment is fitted to the analogue and the
prosthesis is fabricated in the laboratory (Fig. 49.40). It is also termed
as implant replica or lab analogue.
FIGURE 49.40 Implant analogue.
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2. Impression coping
Definition: That component of a dental implant system used to
provide a spatial relationship of an endosteal dental implant to the
alveolar ridge and adjacent dentition or other structures (GPT8). It is
used with ‘transfer impressions’ to transfer the location of the implant
body or abutment to a dental cast.
The coping is attached to the implant fixture during impression
procedures using an impression screw. Following impression making,
the coping is removed from the implant fixture and attached to the
implant analogue, to pour a cast. It is also called impression post,
impression pin or transfer coping (Fig. 49.41).
FIGURE 49.41 Impression coping with screw.
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Implant treatment
Implant treatment includes diagnosis and treatment planning,
surgical phase and prosthetic phase.
Implant treatment is prosthetically driven. It follows the following
sequence:
• Designing the prosthesis.
• Determining the number of implants needed to support the

prostheses.
• Determining the location of the implants.
Diagnosis
Medical evaluation
• A thorough medical evaluation should be performed for the implant
patient. Systemic diseases have a range of effects on the patient,
depending on their severity. Any condition that contraindicates
surgery should be noted.
• The recording of vital signs like blood pressure, pulse, temperature,

respiration, weight and height are part of the physical examination.
• The most common laboratory evaluation for implant dentistry may

include a complete blood cell count (CBC), sequential multiple
analysis (SMA) and bleeding disorder tests. The dentist should also
select the tests needed to assist in the diagnosis of systemic diseases
affecting implant treatment.
• Contraindications have been listed previously.
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Dental evaluation
Diagnostic casts
Articulated diagnostic casts are essential for diagnosis and treatment
planning. This includes edentulous patients also (Figs 49.42 and
49.43).
FIGURE 49.42 Articulated completely edentulous cast.
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FIGURE 49.43 Articulated partially edentulous cast.
They provide information regarding:
1. Existing occlusion.
2. Relation of edentulous ridge to adjacent teeth and opposing arches.
3. Arch location of future abutments.
4. Direction of forces in potential implant sites.
5. Position and morphology of potential natural abutments.
6. Interarch space.
7. Arch form.
8. Opposing dentition.
9. Occlusal plane.
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10. Missing teeth.
Diagnostic casts are used to fabricate the following:
• Diagnostic wax up
• Bone mapping
• Implant stents and guides
Radiographs
They provide the following information:
1. Quality, quantity and angulation of bone.
2. Relationship of critical structures to prospective implant sites.
3. Presence or absence of disease at the proposed surgery sites.
The following procedures may be used:
1. Periapical
Provides information regarding the quality of bone in implant site. It
is also a valuable tool for monitoring crestal bone maintenance after
implant placement.
2. Digital radiographs/radiovisiography (RVG)

Very useful during surgical placement to verify sequentially the
location of implant in relation to critical anatomical structures.
3. Occlusal radiograph
Provides information regarding the width of bone and bone density.
4. Lateral cephalogram
Provides information regarding amount and angulation of bone in
anterior regions and skeletal arch relationship (Fig. 49.44A).
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FIGURE 49.44 (A) RVG verifying the relation of implant to
inferior alveolar nerve during surgery. (B) OPG for implant
treatment planning. Current software allows placement of
specific implant in the edentulous space to review its position.
(C) CT images used for implant treatment planning. They will
provide three-dimensional information.
5. Orthopantomogram (OPG)
This is the most commonly used radiograph. It provides information
about the height of available bone, its relation to critical structures and
bone quality. It is commonly used with radiographic stents (Fig.
49.44B).
6. Computed tomography (CT)
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Both sectional and cone bean CT can be used. They are very accurate
in providing information regarding bone width, height, quality and
relation to critical anatomical structures (Fig. 49.44C). 3D models of
the implant site can be fabricated using CT which help in making
implant stents to guide accurate implant placement during surgery
(surgical guides) (Fig. 49.45).
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FIGURE 49.45 (A–D) Precision surgical guide fabricated
using rapid prototyped model. (A) Stone model. (B) Surgical
stent (note the metal sleeves for the drill to access the bone).
(C) Rapid prototype model. (D) Stent on the model with
marking 2,0 indicating the diameter of the drill.
Preimplant assessment
The following factors need to be assessed prior to implant placement:
1. Available bone
The most important consideration for placing implants is the quantity
and quality of bone available in the implant site. The important
anatomical landmarks which limit the available bone are (Fig. 49.46)
• Floor of the nares
• Maxillary sinus
• Inferior mandibular canal
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• Mental foramen
FIGURE 49.46 Anatomical landmarks. Floor of nares (a),

maxillary sinus (b), inferior alveolar nerve (c), mental foramen
(d).
As a general guideline, 2 mm is maintained between the implant

and any anatomical landmark.
Classification
Misch and Judy (1985) classified available bone in the proposed
implant site into four types:
• Division A (abundant bone)
• Division B (barely sufficient bone)
• Division C (compromised bone)
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• Division D (deficient bone)
It describes the amount of bone in the edentulous area considered

for implantation. It is measured in height, width, length, angulation
(between prostheses and bone) and crown:implant body ratio (Fig.
49.47). The classification assists in treatment planning and implant
selection. It is determined using radiographs and CT scans.
1. Division A
○ More than 5 mm width
○ More than 12 mm height
○ More than 7 mm length
○ Less than 1 crown:implant ratio
○ 25° angulation
2. Division B
○ 2.5–5 mm width
○ More than 12 mm height
○ More than 6 mm length
○ Less than 1 crown:implant ratio
○ 20° angulation
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3. Division C
○ 0–2.5 mm width (C-w) – deficient width
○ Less than 12 mm height (C-h) – deficient height
○ More than 30° of angulation
○ More than 1 – crown-implant ratio

4. Division D
○ Sever atrophy
○ Basal bone loss – flat maxilla, pencil-thin mandible
○ More than 1 – crown-implant ratio
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FIGURE 49.47 Calculation of available bone height, width
and length.
2. Bone density
The bone density determines the quality of the available bone.
Misch classified bone into four types depending on the quality (Fig.
49.48).
• D1 – dense cortical bone
• D2 – thick dense to porous cortical bone on crest and coarse

trabecular bone within
• D3 – thin porous cortical bone on crest and fine trabecular bone
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within
• D4 – fine trabecular bone
FIGURE 49.48 Misch classification of bone density.
The density is determined with radiographs and CT provides the

data in Hounsfield units:
• D1: more than 1250
• D2: 850–1250
• D3: 350–850
• D4: 130–350
Anatomical location of bone types:

• Anterior maxilla – D2 and D3 bone
• Posterior maxilla – D3 and D4 bone
• Anterior mandible – D1 and D2 bone
• Posterior mandible – D2 and D3 bone
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Bone density and treatment planning
Qu M and co-workers observed a ten-fold decrease in bone strength
from D1–D4 bone density. The following will help reduce the load in
poor quality bone:
• Having narrower occlusal tables.
• Minimizing off-vertical loads.
• Shortening or eliminating cantilevers.
• Directing the loads axially.
• Increasing the functional area over which the force is applied by:
○ Increasing the number of implants to support a

given prostheses, e.g. using three implants to
support three missing teeth rather than two.
○ Increasing the implant macrogeometry.
○ Using longer implants for initial fixation.
○ Increased width (diameter of implants) – every 0.5

mm increase in width increases surface area by
10%–15%.
○ Using threaded implants with deep threads for D3

and D4 bone to increase surface area.
○ Using implants with surface coatings to increase

available area.
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• Using ‘progressive loading protocol’ in softer bone.
• In complete edentulous situations using RP5 restorations rather than

fixed prostheses to distribute stress to soft tissues.
• Using night guards and acrylic occlusal surfaces to distribute and

dissipate parafunctional forces on an implant system.
3. Existing occlusion
Centric occlusion and its relationship to centric relation should be
assessed and deflective occlusal contacts should be corrected by
enameloplasty or crowns.
4. Implant permucosal position or arch location of future

abutments
An implant placed too facial or lingual position can compromise the
final results in aesthetics, biomechanics and maintenance. Ideally, the
implant should be positioned under the incisal edge of anteriors and
central fossa of posteriors. This is critical when FP1 type of prostheses
is planned. The surgical guide or stent is important to ensure proper
placement of implant in relation to the prostheses. The prostheses of a
lingually placed implant are easier to correct and adjust aesthetically
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FIGURE 49.49 (A) Ideal implant position labiolingually. (B)
Labially and lingually placed implants will compromise
aesthetics because of their less than ideal angulations.
Interarch space
The required space is given in Table 49.1 for fixed and removable
implant-supported prosthesis, when implants are placed anteriorly
and posteriorly. A reduced interarch space can be treated by:
• Osteoplasty and/or soft tissue reduction of implant region.
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• Selective grinding.
• Root canal and/or crowns of opposing teeth.
• Surgical reduction of tuberosities.
Table 49.1
Interarch space required for implant restorations
Type of restoration Anterior Posterior

Fixed 8–10 mm 7 mm
Removable 12 mm 12 mm
An increased interarch space is beneficial for a removable prosthesis

to provide space for the attachment components, but in a fixed
restoration there will be an increased crown–implant ratio, which is
detrimental to the implant. The space can be decreased by addition of
onlay grafts before implant placement. This has the following benefits:
• Improves crown–implant ratio.
• Better aesthetics.
• Increased surface area permits wider implant selection.
6. Arch form (anteroposterior distance or A-P spread)

This is critical when anterior implants are splinted to cantilever the
posterior teeth.
The distance from the centre of the most anterior implant to a line
joining the distal aspect of the two most distal implants – provides an
indication of the amount of cantilever that can be planned (Fig. 49.50).
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FIGURE 49.50 Arch form – tapered arch can take greater
cantilever.
If this is ‘x’, then the prostheses can be cantilevered up to ‘2.5x’.

Hence, a tapered arch is beneficial in this situation compared to a
square arch.
The cantilever distance also depends on the following:
• Presence of parafunction
• Implant size and number
• Bone density
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• Crown height
• Opposing arch restoration
7. Maxillomandibular relation
The pattern of resorption in anterior and posterior regions of the
maxilla and mandible, changes the position of the arches depending
on the presence or absence of teeth in the opposing arches. A jaw
discrepancy is easier to correct with implant-supported prostheses
than conventional dentures as neutral zone can be violated to some
extent by implant prostheses.
8. Occlusal plane
• A proper plane is essential for proper aesthetics and to prevent

posterior lateral interferences during excursion.
• Occlusal plane can be corrected by strategic extractions, intentional

root canals and/or crowns.
• A diagnostic wax-up provides information on the required

corrections.
9. Missing teeth
i. Location
• The second mandibular molar is generally not replaced.
• The mandibular first molar is designed to occlude with the mesial

marginal ridge of a natural second molar to prevent extrusion.
• Maxillary second molar implants are often indicated.
• Single canine replacement is risky, requires occlusal planning.
• Implant should be placed with caution in 1st premolar area due to
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distal angulation of canine root.
ii. Number
• The deflection or bending of a fixed prosthesis varies directly with

the cube of the length of edentulous span. To limit the bending,
independent implant-supported crowns or use of nonprecious
alloys is recommended. The number of posterior pontics in fixed
restoration should not extend beyond two.
10. Lip line and smile line

The lip line and smile line are important when replacing anterior teeth
with implants. The FP2 type of prosthesis is indicated for patients
with a low lip line.
11. Mandibular flexure
• The amplitude of mandibular movement on mouth opening is 0.8

mm in molar area and 1.5 mm in ramus area.
• Complete cross-arch splinting of posterior molar rigid, fixated

implants is usually contraindicated in the mandible.
• Options:
○ Segmenting the restoration into two or more

independent prostheses.
○ Using nonrigid connectors in midline.
○ Inserting posterior implants only in one section.

12. Soft tissue support
Soft tissue support is required in RP5 type of prostheses. If the soft
tissues are capable of providing adequate support, the number of
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implants can be decreased. This depends on:
• Arch form – square arches provide better support than tapering.
• Ridge parallelism – parallel ridges are better than divergent.
• Height of muscle attachments and lateral throat form (similar to

conventional complete dentures).
13. Existing prostheses

When present, existing prostheses are evaluated for proper design
and function and the reasons for patient’s dissatisfaction, if any, are
noted. An acceptable pre-existing removable prosthesis, which will be
replaced with fixed implant prosthesis, is used as a template or guide
to evaluate the soft tissue support, position of teeth and the need for
grafting.
14. Temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

The TMJ should ideally be free of symptoms before implant treatment
is commenced.
Some patients suffering from TMJ problems may benefit from the
stability and support provided by implant prostheses which can have
favourable effect on the joint. So the cause of the problem needs to be
assessed and addressed.
Implant stents
Stents or templates can be used for the following:
• Case diagnosis
• Radiographic evaluation
• Surgical guide
• Abutment selection
• Impression transfer
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• To establish occlusal vertical dimension and centric relation in
edentulous patients
Stents can be of two types:
1. Radiographic stent/template
• A radiographic stent is fabricated to evaluate the amount of bone

available and its relation to important anatomic structures.
• A simple radiographic stent is fabricated as follows:
○ A clear acrylic plate is fabricated to cover the

edentulous area.
○ A stainless steel ball bearing (BB) of known

diameter is placed in the plate on the proposed
implant site (Fig. 49.51).
○ An OPG is now made with the patient wearing the

plate (Fig. 49.52).
○ The actual height of bone and percentage of

elongation in the radiograph can now be easily
calculated as follows:
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○ Making an occlusal radiograph with the stent will provide similar
information regarding the maximum width of available bone.
• If a CT scan is used to make the image, gutta-percha

can be used instead of the metal ball bearing.
Radiopaque artificial denture teeth are also
available, which can be used for diagnostic wax-up
and the stent (Fig. 49.53).
FIGURE 49.51 Stainless steel ball bearings placed on clear

acrylic plate on proposed implant site.
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FIGURE 49.52 OPG shows the ball bearing above the
proposed implant area.
FIGURE 49.53 Diagnostic template used in CT scan with

radiopaque denture teeth (Courtesy: Dr Shahvir).
2. Surgical guide
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As stated previously, the prosthesis dictates the position of the
implant and this is determined with a diagnostic wax-up. A transfer
device is essential to convey the position of the proposed prosthesis so
that the surgeon could place the implant in the correct location to
support the prosthesis accurately.
Definition: A guide used to assist in proper surgical placement and
angulation of dental implants.
Ideal requirements:
• Stable and rigid.
• Should take support from natural teeth whenever possible to

stabilize it. If teeth are not present, it should extend over unreflected
soft tissues.
• Should provide for accurate location and angulation of implant.
• Should be transparent so the surgical drill can be visualized.
• Should be easy to insert, not bulky.
• It should be sterile.
Procedure
These are generally fabricated using clear acrylic. Most of the guides,
which do not use a CT scan for its fabrication, can only provide
information regarding the location of the implant. The angulation is
adjusted during surgery (Fig. 49.54A and B). A radiographic stent can
also be converted into a surgical guide.
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FIGURE 49.54 (A) A diagnostic wax-up with artificial teeth is
made and a hole is drilled through the centre of the teeth to
provide the correct location of implant. (B) During surgery, by
drilling through the hole, the location is transferred to the
patient.
Advanced surgical guides

Currently, surgical guides are made using 3D models fabricated with
CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) and CT scan images. Using
rapid prototyped models precision surgical guides can be fabricated
which even enable flapless surgery. Prostheses can also be
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prefabricated on these models and fitted in the patient’s mouth
immediately after implant placement.
Bone mapping
This is a technique to determine the soft tissue thickness and
indirectly the bone width and angulation, in the implant region. This
is a useful diagnostic tool that can be used to determine the width of
available bone. Dies are made on the diagnostic cast for the implant
and neighbouring areas, such that the area through the centre of the
proposed implant site can be sectioned and removed.
An acrylic template is fabricated to cover the edentulous area and
adjacent teeth with equally spaced holes placed along the centre of the
edentulous space extending buccally and lingually (Fig. 49.55A). An
endodontic file with a stopper is used to pierce the gingiva till it
touches the bone (Fig. 49.55B). This will provide the width of the
gingivae in that point. The procedure is performed on the crest of the
ridge and a few points buccally and lingually. The width is
simultaneously marked in the sectioned die corresponding to the
point in the mouth (Fig. 49.55C). Joining the points will demarcate the
thickness of gingiva in the implant site and the width of available
bone (Fig. 49.55D).
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FIGURE 49.55 (A) Acrylic template with holes. (B)
Endodontic file with stopper is used to pierce the mucosa
through each hole and the thickness is marked. (C) The
endodontic file measurement is marked on the same spot in
the sectioned cast gingival depth. (D) Each measured point in
the mouth is transferred to the corresponding area in the cast
and joining the points gives an indication of available bone
width and gingival thickness.
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Treatment planning
• Single-tooth replacement
• Partially edentulous
• Completely edentulous
Single-tooth replacement
The single-tooth replacement by an implant-supported prosthesis
requires a planned execution of treatment to achieve aesthetics,
mastication and phonation.
Depending on the location of the tooth to be replaced in the anterior
(aesthetic) region or posterior (nonaesthetic) area, the treatment plans
vary.
Treatment plan for single-tooth replacement in aesthetic zone

Treatment planning for replacement of anterior tooth is governed by
presence or loss of bone as in FP1 and FP2 cases, and the thickness of
the mucosa. The requirements are
1. Emergence profile
2. Diameter of the implant
3. Gingival papilla – contour
4. Gingival zenith
5. Need for augmentation
6. Selection of abutments
1. Emergence profile
The emergence profile can be defined as the position and relationship
of the crowns to the underlying mucoperiosteal layer and bone, which
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give the illusion, of the crown emerging from the gingival as seen in
the natural tooth (Fig. 49.56). This is primarily dependent on the
location of the head of the implant and the permucosal extension of
the abutment. The permucosal extension is dependent on the height of
placement of implant, diameter of the implant, and quality and
quantity of the mucoperiosteal layer or the gingiva.
FIGURE 49.56 Emergence profile of implant prosthesis.
2. Diameter of the implant

The diameter of the implant plays a major role in aesthetics and the
selection is depended on the available mesiodistal width of the
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edentulous area. The most important criterion in selection is that there
should be a clear gap of 2 mm between the implant and the adjacent
natural tooth abutment roots. The implant diameter will also have
adverse effect on the emergence profile; therefore, optimum diameter
should be selected.
3. Gingival papilla and contour

If the gingival papilla is present, it should be preserved (Fig. 49.57).
The papilla can be preserved by altering the surgical incision to avoid
the architecture of the papilla (Fig. 49.58). In cases where the papilla is
absent (Fig. 49.59), it can be developed using multiple and sequential
use of acrylic prosthesis (Fig. 49.60). Normally, the gingiva forms in 3–
4 weeks. This is also an important aspect in immediate implantation
cases.
FIGURE 49.57 Presence of papilla.
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FIGURE 49.58 Incision lines preserving papilla.
FIGURE 49.59 Absence of papilla.
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FIGURE 49.60 Custom acrylic provisional can be used
sequentially to push the gingiva and develop the papilla.
4. Gingival zenith
The gingival zenith is formed by the cervical one-third contour of the
crown. It is also dependent on the gingival biotype. The typical zenith
for anterior teeth is shown in Fig. 49.61. Bone loss and bulky ceramic
labial buildup will result in unacceptable zenith.
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FIGURE 49.61 Gingival zenith for maxillary anteriors.
5. Need for augmentation

There are clinical situations where there will be deficient bone to place
implants in the desired position. The deficiency may be either
horizontal (Fig. 49.62) or vertical (Fig. 49.63). The horizontal defects
can be augmented with bone grafts (allografts and autogenous) and
expansion procedures like ridge split (Fig. 49.64), whereas the vertical
augmentation can be done using autogenous block grafts (Fig. 49.65)
and by distraction osteogenesis.
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FIGURE 49.62 Horizontal defects where the width of bone is
insufficient.
FIGURE 49.63 Vertical defects where the height is

inadequate.
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FIGURE 49.64 Ridge splitting and expansion to place
implants in a horizontal defect.
FIGURE 49.65 Autogenous block graft to augment a vertical

defect.
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6. Selection of abutments
Abutments can be made of metal or zirconium. The specific use of
these combinations will depend on the aesthetic requirements of the
patients and the gingival biotype. In general, metal abutments are
used in thick biotype cases whereas the zirconium abutments are used
in thin biotype.
Treatment plan for single-tooth replacement in nonaesthetic zone

Replacement of posterior teeth is primarily executed to restore the
masticatory function of the patient. Since mastication is directly
governed by the occlusal contacts and thereby the teeth, the position
of the replaced teeth will guide the location of the implant. Hence,
occlusion is an important consideration. The other factors that are
involved in the treatment planning for posterior zone are
1. Number and diameter of implants
2. Interocclusal distance
3. Sinus elevation and augmentation
4. Immediate implantation
1. Number and diameter of implants

If the mesiodistal length of the edentulous area is very large, the large
diameter implant cannot be accommodated due to the buccolingual
anatomical deficiency. It will be a prudent plan to incorporate two
smaller diameter implants and give two prosthetic bicuspids rather
than a molar (Fig. 49.66).
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FIGURE 49.66 Two implants placed to replace one molar.
2. Interocclusal distance
Ideally the distance between the ridge and the occlusal plane of the
antagonistic teeth should be 8 mm. If this distance is less, screw-
retained prosthesis can be used to offer low-profile retention and if the
distance is more it could be managed with onlay grafts (Fig. 49.67).
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FIGURE 49.67 Interocclusal distance.
3. Sinus lift and grafting

Augmentation in posterior region is more relevant to maxillary situa
tions, due to the presence and pneumatization of the maxillary
sinuses. Maxillary sinus lift with grafting can be performed to increase
the available bone height, either by direct technique or by indirect
technique. Direct technique would involve a Caldwel-Luc surgical
exposure of the sinus, followed by gentle elevation of the lining
membrane and placement of the graft material. The graft material
should be allowed to consolidate and mineralize for a period of at
least 6–8 months, before placing the implants. Alternatively, the
implants can be placed along with the graft in select situations (Figs
49.68–49.70). In the indirect method, the sinus floor is elevated
through the osteotomy site and grafting done along with placement of
implants. Refer to Table 49.2 for the treatment planning.
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FIGURE 49.68 Lateral window created to expose the sinus
membrane.
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FIGURE 49.69 Sinus floor is elevated (sinus lift).
FIGURE 49.70 Sinus grafting with placement of implant.
Table 49.2
Treatment plans for posterior edentulous maxilla
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Courtesy: Misch CE. Contemporary Implant Dentistry, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby,
2008, p. 396.
4. Immediate implantation
The implant is placed immediately following the extraction of the
teeth (Figs 49.71–49.73).
FIGURE 49.71 Fractured maxillary lateral incisor.
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FIGURE 49.72 Atraumatic extraction with bone preservation.
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FIGURE 49.73 Implant placed immediately following
extraction of teeth.
Advantages
• Reduced surgical visits and treatment time
• Ideal orientation of implant
• Preservation of bone at extraction site
• Optimal soft tissue aesthetics
The teeth should be removed with least trauma. It is not

recommended in the presence of infection and if the buccal cortical
plate is thin or fractured. Primary stability of implant should be at
least 35 N.
Partially edentulous
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In the partially edentulous situation, fixed prostheses are indicated
with implants. The prostheses may be of the following types:
• Independent crowns supported by implants with/without splinting

(Fig. 49.74A).
• Fixed partial dentures supported by implants.
• Fixed partial dentures supported by natural teeth and implants (Fig.

49.74B).
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FIGURE 49.74 (A) Class III partially edentulous space
restored with implant-supported crowns (Courtesy: Dr D
Arunachalam). (B) Class II partially edentulous space
restored with fixed partial denture using implant and natural
tooth for support.
The treatment plan depends on the location of the edentulous space,

available bone, bone density and patient affordability.
The ‘available bone volume’ classification developed by Misch and
Judy (described previously) is integrated on the four classes of partial
edentulism described in the Kennedy–Applegate system.
Hence, all four Kennedy’s classifications (class I–IV) in mandible
and maxilla can have divisions (A–D); type of bones and treatment
plan are as follows.
Mandible – classes I, II, III (posterior)

The main anatomical concern in the posterior mandible is the inferior
alveolar canal and mental foramen. Available bone volume should be
2 mm above the canal.
Division A
The following types of restorations are indicated:
• Implants with diameter greater than 4 mm are indicated.
• Independent implant-supported fixed prosthesis (separate crowns)

– (Fig. 49.75A).
• Two implants to support a three-unit FPD with a central pontic (Fig.

49.75B).
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• A mesial cantilever is also indicated (Fig. 49.75C).
• The greater the number of missing teeth, the larger the size and/or
number of implants required.
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FIGURE 49.75 (A) Division A treatment plan – three implants
with separate independent crowns. (B) Second option – two
implants with a central pontic. (C) Third option – two implants
with a mesial cantilever.
Division B
• Endosteal small diameter implants (less than 4 mm diameter) may

be placed.
• The smaller diameter suggests the use of one implant for every
missing tooth root with splinting (Fig. 49.76).
• No cantilever.
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FIGURE 49.76 Division B.
Division C
Subperiosteal implants – unilateral or bilateral are indicated (Fig.
49.13). If endosteal implants are to be used, then nerve repositioning
and/or bone augmentation may be necessary.
Division D
Require bone augmentation and bone grafting before implants can be
placed. After grafting, they will be considered as divisions A or B
depending on the available bone.
Mandibular class III (anterior) and class IV

It is similar to classes I and II. Since it involves the anterior regions,
division B bone may also require augmentation if patient desires a FP1
type of prostheses to enhance aesthetics, crown contour and
maintenance. Endosteal implants can be placed in division C type of
bone by osteoplasty (reducing the crest, thereby increasing the width),
if aesthetics is not a major concern, as bone density will be good and
masticatory dynamics is not a problem – FP2 type of prostheses can be
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placed.
Maxilla
Classes I, II and III (posterior)

The main anatomical concern in the posterior maxilla is the maxillary
sinus. Misch (1987) classified bone volume in the sinus area into four
types depending on the height of available bone – SA 1–4 (subantral
augmentation).
The classification and treatment plan for each type are given in
Table 49.2.
Depending on the amount of bone available, division A or B
treatment plan is implemented.
Class III (anterior) and class IV

Bone density (quality) is poorer compared to mandible. Hence,
division B type of bone may also need to be augmented to be
converted to division A following which endosteal implants are
placed. Division A treatment is as described previously.
Connecting implants to natural teeth

The difference in movement of a natural tooth (surrounded by
periodontal ligament) and implant (ankylosed to bone) was sited as a
reason for not connecting implants to natural teeth – using natural
tooth as abutment on one side and implant abutment on the other side
to support a fixed partial denture. Intrusion of natural tooth and
screw loosening in implant abutment were common problems. The
reason for this was use of temporary cement to lute the implant and
natural tooth retainer and use of nonrigid connectors.
Currently, connecting implants to natural tooth is no longer
considered taboo and the same is indicated provided the natural tooth
exhibits:
• No mobility
• Good retentive form
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• Adequate crown height
• Minimum 1:1 crown root ratio
• Free of caries
• Good endodontic status
The implant retainer may be cemented by using a

temporary/provisional cement but the natural tooth retainer should be
luted with a definitive cement.
Indication
• Classes I, II and posterior class III (Fig. 49.74B).
Contraindication
• Anterior teeth replacement, as heavy lateral forces are involved.
Cement-retained and screw-retained restorations

Fixed prosthesis is indicated in partially edentulous arches and single-
tooth replacements with implants. As previously discussed, these
fixed restorations can be attached to the implant abutment using
cement or screws. Each of these is assessed below, which will aid in
their selection:
Cement-retained restorations (fig. 49.32a)
• This is most commonly and routinely used.
• Loss of cementation is rare compared to screw loosening from the

prostheses.
• Fit is passive, no tightening with screws.
• No need to provide space for a screw on the occlusal surface, which

has the following advantages:
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○ More axial loading as occlusal table can be made
narrow.
○ Aesthetics and hygiene better.
○ Less occlusal material fracture.
○ No fatigue failure.
• Progressive loading can be commenced with provisional
restorations.
• Sealed abutment-crown crevice.
• Less cost and time.
Screw-retained restorations (fig. 49.32b)
• Retrievability – if there is any problem, the restoration can be easily

removed by just unscrewing.
• Low profile retention.
• Indicated in limited interarch space.
• No cement in sulcus problem.
Completely edentulous
Both fixed and removable dentures can be planned for the completely
edentulous patient.
1. Removable prostheses (overdenture)
2. Fixed prostheses
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i. Full arch crowns/bridges (Fig. 49.77)
ii. Fixed-detachable bridge (hybrid denture) (Fig.

49.33)
FIGURE 49.77 Full arch bridge.
The treatment plan will depend on the available bone, bone density
and patient affordability. Misch classified edentulous arches and
integrated the bone volume classification (divisions A–D) into it,
along with treatment plans.
The edentulous arches were divided into three segments (Fig.
49.78):
• Anterior
○ Maxilla – between the I premolar area on either side
○ Mandible – between the mental foramen on either

side
• Right posterior (patient’s right side)
• Left posterior (patient’s left side).
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FIGURE 49.78 Misch classification of completely edentulous
arches.
Type I: Volume of available bone is similar in all three segments.

Type II: Volume of available bone is similar posteriorly but differs
anteriorly.
Type III: Volume of available bone is dissimilar in all three
segments.
• A fully fixed prostheses with implant supported anteriorly and

posteriorly are possible only when division A and/or division B
bone is available in all three segments. A hybrid/overdenture
prosthesis provided better lip support and aesthetics if there is bone
resorption anteriorly.
• A hybrid prosthesis is possible when there is deficient bone

posteriorly, but anteriorly there should be division A/division B
bone.
• An overdenture is possible when there is division A/division

B/division C and sometimes even division D bone anteriorly, but
deficient bone posteriorly. Maxillary overdentures will require
more implants (minimum of four) while mandibular overdenture
can be planned with two implants.
• A deficient posterior region can be augmented by bone grafting.
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Then fixed prosthesis is possible.
Overdentures
These are a cost-effective removable treatment option for the
completely edentulous individual.
Advantages over conventional complete dentures
• Better retention, stability and support.
• Improved chewing speech.
• Reduced prosthesis size.
• Reduced anterior bone loss.
Advantages of overdentures compared to fixed implant

prostheses
• Fewer implants
• Improved aesthetics
• Better hygiene and maintenance
• Less cost
• Less specific placement
Disadvantages
• Psychological (need for fixed teeth)
• Space (interarch) required for attachments (Table 49.1)
• Long-term maintenance due to continued posterior bone loss
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• Food impaction
• Movement of denture
Overdenture movement
Carl Misch classified the degree or range of movement of an
overdenture into five types. It was termed as ‘prosthesis movement
(PM)’.
1. PM0: No movement, denture is rigid.
2. PM2: Movement in two planes, having hinge movement.
3. PM3: Apical and hinge movement.
4. PM4: Movement in four planes – mesial, distal, facial and lingual.

This is generally featured in an overdenture using magnetic
attachments.
5. PM6: Movement in all planes. The movement is dependent on:
i. Number of implants and position
ii. Type of attachment

Overdenture treatment options
Mandibular implant overdentures are more common because of the
better quality of bone in the mandibular anterior region and patients
generally have more problems with the mandibular conventional
complete dentures. The location of the implant for mandibular
overdentures should be anterior and symmetric to midline.
Anterior placement is considered due to:
• Minimal anatomical concerns.
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• Optimal dentistry.
• Advantages in retention and stability.
The number of implants depends on the following:
• Desired degree of retention and comfort.
• Curve of ridge.
• Patients’ age.
• Cost.
The location is determined by mapping the mandibular anterior

edentulous region into five regions – A, B, C, D and E (Fig. 49.79). A
and E are positioned 5 mm anterior to the mental foramen, while C is
in the centre. B and D are located midway between AC and CE,
respectively.
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FIGURE 49.79 The anterior mandible is divided into five
equal columns of bone between the mental foramen A, B, C,
D, and E.
The treatment options are shown in Fig. 49.80A–F and summarized

in Table 49.3.
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FIGURE 49.80 (A) OD1 – implants in band D position,
overdenture using stud attachments. (B) Implants in B and D
position connected by a bar attachment. (C) OD3A – implants
placed in A, C, E positions connected by a bar. (D) OD3B –
implants placed in B, C and D positions connected by bar. (E)
OD4 – implants in A, B, D, E positions connected by bar,
distal cantilever 10 mm. (F) OD5 – implants in A, B, C, D, E
positions distal cantilever 15 mm.
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Table 49.3
Mandibular overdenture treatment options (RP5)
Option Implant position Indication and description

OD-1 Implants in the B and D positions are independent of Ideal anterior and posterior ridge
each other (Fig. 49.80A) formWhen cost is major factor
Retention only, PM6
OD-2 Implants in the B and D position rigidly joined by a Ideal posterior ridge formIdeal denture
bar (Fig. 49.80B) When cost is a major factor
Retention and minor stability, PM3 to PM6
OD-3A Implants in the A, C, and E position, rigidly joined Ideal posterior ridge formIdeal denture
by a bar if posterior ridge form is good (Fig. 49.80C)Retention and moderate stability, PM2 to PM6
(two-legged chair)
OD-3B Implants in the B, C, and D positions, joined by a bar Division C-h has anterior bone volumePoor
when posterior ridge form is poor (Fig. 49.80D) posterior ridge form
Retention and minor stability, PM3 to PM6
OD-4 Implants in A, B, D, and E positions, rigidly joined Patient desires greater retention, major
by a bar cantilevered distally about 10 mm (Fig. stability and support, PM2 to PM6 (three-
49.80E) legged chair)
OD-5 Implants in the A, B, C, D, and E positions, rigidly Patient has high demands or
joined by a bar cantilevered distally about 15 mm desiresRetention, stability, support, PM0
(Fig. 49.80F) (four-legged chair)
Courtesy: Misch CE. Contemporary Implant Dentistry, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby,
2008, p. 301.
Maxillary implant overdentures require a minimum of four implants
splinted with a bar attachment. This is due to the poor bone quality
and the lateral forces involved in that region. Cantilevered bars are
also not advocated. Implants can be placed in the canine and central
incisor regions.
Surgical phase
Armamentarium
1. Physiodispenser (fig. 49.81)
Physiodispenser is a device designed for implant surgical operations
with speed and torque controls. The microprocessor constantly
controls the flow of physiological solution in millilitres per minute. To
achieve primary stability the minimum torque required is 25 N·cm, it
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may be increased to 35 N·cm for dense bone. The speed controls range
from 800–1200 rpm for implant placement.
FIGURE 49.81 Parts of a typical physiodispenser 1. Display

& controls 2. Foot pedal 3. Micromotor 4. Handpiece stand 5.
Stand for normal saline 6. Irrigation set 7. Reduction gear
handpiece.
The physiodispensor is the specified equipment for osteotomy,

which drives the implant into the osteotomized site. These motors are
capable of running at different speeds and with different torques. As
in case of osteotomy of anterior mandible, the bone in this site will be
very dense, so the speed should be adjusted. If by slowing the motor
stops to prevent this, the torque has to be increased. If torque is
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increased the resistance will also increase resulting in heat generation.
So this equipment has adjustable coolant control also.
2. Handpiece
A reduction gear handpiece which is normally indicated for surgical
use, reduces the speed of rotation at the delivery point, with high
torque. Handpiece should provide precision, safety and flexibility for
surgical procedure. High efficiency reduction gears provide safety by
reducing the clearance of bur chuck and minimizes bur run out.
Double water injection maximizes the cooling effect. Central and
external water injections ensure reliable delivery to treatment area.
3. Implant kit
Implant kit consists of the following (Fig. 49.82):
• Surgical drills of various sizes specific to the implant system to

perform osteotomy.
• Hex driver to drive the implant and implant components.
• Drill extender – used in situations, where the implant site is located

deep in relation to the adjacent natural teeth and head of the
handpiece encounters a mechanical interference due to this.
• Torque wrench to hold driver and torque the implant and implant
component manually. It is also termed as ratchet.
• Paralleling pins to check the implant angle when multiple implants

are placed.
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FIGURE 49.82 (A) Surgical drills in increasing diameters and
the black markings show the different lengths. (B) Hex driver.
(C) Drill extender. (D) Paralleling pins with depth markings.
Implant placement
• Preoperative care
• Sterilization
• Prevention of excess of heat generation
• Anaesthesia and flap design
• Preparing the osteotomy site – flattening the site, first starting with
round bur and sequentially enlarging
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• Placing the implant (one and two stage)
• Suturing
• Postoperative care
Sterilization
Sterile environment is important for the success of any surgical
procedure. Patients should rinse mouth with chlorhexidine gluconate
for 30 s before the procedure.
Surgical suit should be similar to an operating room setting with
cap, mask, sterile instruments, gloves, gown and drape.
Prevention of excess of heat generation

Excessive heat generation on implant site is avoided by using:
1. High speed motor not exceeding 2000 rpm and low speed not
exceeding 40–50 rpm.
2. Sterile water irrigation either internally cools the bur or externally

where the assistant irrigates the bur and bone when the surgeon is
drilling the bone.
Anaesthesia and flap design

Adequate exposure of the surgical site but not at the expense of
excessive stripping of the periosteum and compromise of the blood
supply necessary for the implant and surgical wound healing. The
flap design should allow for primary closure without tension of the
flap.
Flap design and incision

• A crestal incision made bisecting the existing keratinized tissues
(Fig. 49.83A).
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• Vertical incision may be needed one or both the ends.
• Facial and lingual flaps in posterior areas should be carefully

thinned before reflection to minimize the soft tissue thickness.
• The soft tissue is not thinned in anterior or other aesthetic areas of

the mouth to prevent the metal collar exposure.
• Full thickness flaps are elevated facially and lingually (Fig. 49.83B).
FIGURE 49.83 (A) Crestal incision. (B) Full thickness flap

raised.
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Preparing the osteotomy site
The crestal bone is flattened with straight fissure bur if needed. The
surgical guide/template is placed to guide the implant placement in
the planned position. A round bur may be used to mark the location
on the bone and to penetrate the cortical plate (Fig. 49.84A and B). A 2
mm pilot drill is the first drill to be used in most implant systems (Fig.
49.84C and D). The osteotomy is prepared to the planned length and
an RVG taken at this point with the drill or paralleling pin in place
will give an indication regarding the implant angulation and its
proximity to vital structures (Fig. 49.44A). Any changes can then be
incorporated with the subsequent drilling. Subsequently, larger drills
are used to enlarge the osteotomy site. The final drill should not
exceed the implant width and its dimensions depend on the quality of
bone (Fig. 49.84E and F).
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FIGURE 49.84 (A) Round bur used to mark the osteotomy
site. (B) Osteotomy site following drilling with round bur. (C) 2
mm Pilot drill used to prepare the site. (D) Site following pilot
drilling. (E) Final drill in use. (F) Enlarged osteotomy site
following final drilling. (G) Implant placed using a torque
wrench or ratchet. (H) Implant can also be placed using
handpiece under slow speed. (I) Implant completely driven
into the prepared osteotomy site. (J) Cover screw placed with
driver. (K) Submerged implant – flap is completely closed
over the implant and sutured.
Placing the implant (one and two stage)

• Submerged implants are not exposed to the oral cavity following the
first surgery to place the implant. A second surgery is performed to
expose them and proceed with the impression making. Hence, they
are termed as two-stage implants.
• Nonsubmerged implants are left exposed after the first surgery, so a

second surgery is avoided. Hence, they are called one-stage
implants.
• Threaded implants are driven into the prepared osteotomy site with
a ratchet or with a handpiece using slow speed (Fig. 49.84G–I).
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Nonthreaded implants are tapped into the site. The minimum
required torque to ensure primary stability is 35 N. Following
implant placement, a cover screw is fixed onto the implant (Fig.
49.84J). For submerged implants, the flap is completely closed over
the implant and sutured (Fig. 49.84K). For nonsubmerged implants,
the flap is sutured around the implant leaving the cover screw
exposed.
Suturing
Closure of flap
A combination of inverted mattress and interrupted sutures produce
the desired result. Closure of flap without tension is the most
important aspect of flap management.
Postoperative care
• Antibiotics (amoxicillin 500 mg and metronidazole 400 mg BD TID)
can be started the previous night of surgery and continued for 5
days.
• Analgesics: Paracetamol (650–100 mg) BD is sufficient usually for 2–

3 days. In case of extensive surgery ibuprofen may be added.
• Ice packs are applied to avoid swelling.
• Chlorhexidine mouth rinses should be used twice daily.
• Liquid or semiliquid diet is maintained for at least first few days

and tobacco and alcohol should be restrained for at least 1–2 weeks.
Second-stage surgery
This is applicable only to submerged implants. After the healing
period of 3–4 months depending on bone quality, the implant is
exposed by raising a flap. The aim is to basically expose the coronal
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portion of the implant. The coronal portion can also be exposed
without raising a flap by using punch blades, electrocautery or laser.
The cover screw is removed from the top of the implant and a gingiva
former is screwed onto the implant. If a flap has been raised, it is
sutured around the gingiva former, leaving it exposed to the oral
cavity. The impression procedures are commenced after a healing
period of 1–2 weeks.
The objectives of second-stage surgery are
• To expose the submerged implant without damaging the

surrounding bone.
• To control the thickness of the soft tissue surrounding the bone.
• To preserve or create attached keratinized tissue around the

implant.
• To facilitate oral hygiene.
• To insure proper abutment seating.
Prosthetic phase
Impressions
Two methods can be used for making impressions:
1. Similar to tooth-supported fixed partial dentures

In this method, following implant healing, the abutment is fixed to the
fixture in the mouth. Any modification of the abutment is made
intraorally and impression is made similar to tooth-supported fixed
partial dentures and a cast is poured. The prosthesis is fabricated on
the cast and then fixed intraorally (Fig. 49.85). As the prosthesis is
being constructed, a provisional restoration is placed on the
abutments intraorally and progressive loading can be initiated. This
method is not recommended.
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FIGURE 49.85 (A) Abutment fixed to the implant. (B)
Abutment prepared in patient’s mouth and impression made.
(C) Crown luted to the abutment.
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Indications
• Solid abutments and one piece implants.
• Implant is placed in ideal position and only minimal abutment (two

piece) modification is necessary.
• Cement-retained prosthesis.
Disadvantages
• All abutment modifications have to be done intraorally, where heat

transfer to implant is a concern while grinding the abutment.
• Obtaining parallelism with multiple implants is difficult.
• Cannot be used with screw-retained restorations and overdentures.
2. Transfer impressions
In this method, the position of the implant is transferred to the cast.
Abutment is fitted and modified in the cast and prosthesis is also
fabricated. The abutment and prosthesis is sent to the dentist and the
same is then fixed intraorally. The purpose is to capture the coronal
architecture of the implant fixture, as it exists in the oral cavity to be
transferred to the cast using impression coping and the implant
analogue.
This is the most common method of impression making for fixed
(cementable and screw retained) and removable implant restorations.
Disadvantage
• Impression technique is complex and requires additional

components
Transfer impression involves two accessory prosthetic components:
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• Impression coping
• Implant analogue
Two methods are used:
• Open tray transfer
• Closed tray transfer
i. Open tray
• Following healing, a full arch impression is made where implant is

placed and a custom tray is fabricated.
• A hole is made in the custom tray corresponding to the implant (Fig.

49.86A). Alternately, a plastic stock tray can also be used so that a
hole can be created (Fig. 49.86B).
• During final impression making, the cover screw or gingiva former

is removed and the impression coping is attached to the implant
fixture with impression screw (Fig. 49.86C).
• The tray is checked to ensure that the screw is accessible from the
opening made in the custom tray (Fig. 49.86D). Normally the
impression coping used for this kind of impression is different, with
multiple deep undercuts and the screw used is longer and
protrudes beyond the superior limit of the impression
coping/transfer.
• A rigid impression material like polyether is preferable for making

the impression. It is syringed around the impression coping and
simultaneously loaded in the tray and inserted in the mouth. The
opening in the tray allows the material to be wiped off to expose the
impression screw (Fig. 49.86E).
• After the material sets, the exposed impression screw is loosened
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with a driver and removed (Fig. 49.86F). The impression is removed
from the mouth, and as the impression coping has been detached
from the implant, it will be retained in the impression (Fig. 49.86G).
• The implant analogue is now attached to the impression coping

with the impression screw and a cast is poured (Fig. 49.86H–J).
• Once the stone sets, the impression screw is loosened to detach the
coping from the analogue and the cast is separated from the
impression (Fig. 49.86K and L). Thus, the position of implant is
transferred to the cast. The abutments or attachments are fixed to
the analogue and prosthesis is fabricated.
• The abutment and prosthesis is sent to the dentist and the same is
then fixed intraorally (Fig. 49.86M).
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FIGURE 49.86 (A) Custom tray fabricated with area over the
implant exposed. (B) Stock tray with a hole on top of implant.
(C) Impression coping attached to implant fixture with
impression screw. (D) Tray verified to ensure screw is
accessible through the hole. (E) Impression made exposing
the tip of the impression screw. (F) The screw is removed with
a driver. (G) Impression coping retained in impression
following removal of impression. (H) Implant analogue is
attached to the impression coping (without removing the
coping from impression) using a driver. (I) A gingival mask is
poured around the junction of the impression coping and
analogue to create a soft tissue emergence. (J) A cast is
poured in stone. (K) Impression screw loosened. (L) Cast
showing implant position replicated by implant analogue and
the gingival mask providing the emergence profile. (M)
Abutment is now fixed on the analogue and the crown is
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fabricated on this.
In this technique, impression coping is retained in impression, so

less chance of inaccuracy. It is indicated with multiple implants and
when there is lack of implant parallelism.
ii. Closed tray

This can be done using stock trays and custom trays. There is no
opening in tray to detach the impression coping, hence when the
impression is removed, the coping is still attached to implant fixture
(Fig. 49.87A and B). The coping is then removed from the implant,
fixed to analogue and then relocated in the impression and a cast is
poured (Fig. 49.87C–E). This method has more chances for inaccuracy
and is indicated for single-implant restorations.
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FIGURE 49.87 (A) Impression made with a stock tray without
any hole on top of implant. (B) Impression coping remains
attached to implant after removal of impression. (C) The
impression coping is screwed to the implant analogue. (D)
The coping with attached analogue is relocated in the
impression. (E) On separating the impression from cast,
coping will remain in cast. It is unscrewed from the analogue,
abutment is fixed and prosthesis is fabricated (as for open
tray technique).
Loading
Definition: The process of placing axial or tangential force on a dental
implant usually associated with the intentional exposure of the dental
implant either at the time of initial surgical placement of the dental
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implant or subsequent surgical exposure. Such forces may come from
a variety of sources including intentional or/and unintentional
occlusal loading, unintentional forces from the tongue or other oral
tissues, food bolus, as well as alveolar/osseous deformation. Generally
application of intentional occlusal forces may be termed immediate
loading, progressive loading or delayed loading (GPT8).
Generally loading is associated with fixing prosthesis to the implant
and functional use of the implant for chewing, etc. The various types
can be classified as:
1. Delayed loading
Procedures for fabrication of prosthesis commence only after 3–6
months of implant placement. Three months for mandible and 4–6
months for maxilla. The definitive prosthesis is inserted following this
healing period.
2. Progressive loading
It was proposed by Carl Misch. A gradual or progressive bone loading
was proposed during prosthetic phase. Following healing of implants
(3–6 months), a transitional (provisional) restoration is attached to the
implant, which is gradually put into occlusion. Only soft diet is
advised during this period. After a few weeks (the time is dependent
on bone quality) the definitive prosthesis is inserted and normal diet
is advised.
3. Immediate loading
The prosthesis is inserted immediately following placement of the
implant. The prosthesis is inserted immediately following placement
of the implant. It is indicated when the bone quality and quantity is
good and a good primary stability of at least 35 N is achieved during
implant placement. Splinting of prostheses with use of longer and
wider threaded implants is recommended.
Occlusion
Two important considerations differentiate an implant from a natural
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tooth with regard to occlusion.
1. The implant is effectively ankylosed and hence will not move under
occlusal contact when compared to a natural tooth.
2. Lack of proprioception can produce higher bite force in an implant.
This should be taken into consideration while designing the

occlusal scheme for implant restorations.
Single-tooth restorations
• In initial occlusal contact, the implant restoration should be in

enough contact to lightly mark occlusal indicator paper but should
not hold shim stock. As the patient exerts pressure, the implant
restoration can come to hold shim stock.
• The dimension of the occlusal table should be reduced.
• The forces should be centralized along the long axis of the implant
and there should be no excursive contacts.
Partially edentulous – fixed prostheses
• All of the above.
• Group function or mutually protective occlusion.
Completely edentulous
Removable prostheses (overdentures) – bilateral balanced or
lingualized occlusion.
Fixed full arch bridges – some authors advocate group function and
one school of thought also suggests canine protected occlusion.
Selection of occlusal scheme depends on the bone density and the
number of implants used to support the prosthesis.
Hygiene and maintenance of implants
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Following implant placement if oral hygiene measures are inadequate,
there is a high chance of plaque accumulation, which facilitates the
bacterial growth. This may in long term lead to inflammation of
periodontium and peri-implantitis. So it is very important to maintain
the gingival health for the success of the implants.
1. Patient role: Patients should follow their routine oral hygiene

measures meticulously. They are advised to use interdental brushes
(hand and motorized). Dipping brushes in 0.12% chlorhexidine,
flosses, yarns and tapes dipped in chlorhexidine at night help in
maintenance.
2. Dentist’s role: Patient is recalled every 3–4 months, and

radiographs are made every 12–18 months. Dentist should check for
plaque and inflammatory changes. If these are present supragingival
scaling should be done. Also loose suprastructure, broken screws and
sore spots should to be noted and rectified. If implants need repair,
degranulate, detoxify and graft with bone regeneration. All the details
of the procedures should be documented.
Failures in implants
Following are the causes of implant failures:
1. Surgical failure
Surgically related problems can be subdivided into failure related to
stage I surgery and period between the osseointegration and stage II
surgery.
Stage I
Failures that can occur at this period are due to the surgical procedure
carried with the risk of bleeding, infection, swelling and ecchymosis.
Period between osseointegration and stage

Ulcerations can be produced by the rough and sharp flanges of the
denture. This can be avoided by applying soft liner or tissue
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conditioners. Soft liners should replace in every 4–5 weeks.
Dehiscence of cover screw of the implant through mucosal covering
may occur. Meticulous care to keep the site clean and antibacterial
rinse are advised to the patient.
2. Osseous healing failures

Failure occurs from the time of implant placement and
osseointegration. It happens during the healing phase to stage II
surgery. Causes of the failure are trauma, heat produced during the
surgery, micromotion and infection.
3. Early loading failure

An early loading of an implant failure occurs during the first year of
prosthetic loading. It may be due to the overload of the transitional
prosthesis or the bacterial infection.
4. Intermediate implant failure

Implant failure occurs after first year of loading to 5 years of function
is classified as intermediate implant failure.
5. Late implant failure

Failures occur after 5 years to 10 years of function.
6. Long-term failure
Failure occurs after 10 years in function.
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Implant materials
Biologic classification (flowchart 49.1)
Biotolerant materials
These materials are not necessarily rejected when implanted into the
living tissues. These may or may not induce bone formation.
FLOWCHART 49.1 Classification of implant materials.
Examples:
1. Metals: Gold, stainless steel, zirconium
2. Polymers: Polyethylene, ceramics, polyamide
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Bioinert materials
These materials allow the bone formation on their surfaces resulting in
a chemical bond along the interface without undergoing any
degradation in the tissues.
Examples:
1. Metals: CP titanium, titanium alloys
2. Ceramics: Aluminium and zirconium oxides
Bioactive materials
These materials allow the bone formation onto their surfaces and later
may or may not undergo degradation in the tissues.
Examples: Hydroxyapatite, tricalcium phosphate, florapatite, etc.
Bioactive and bioinert materials are also known as osteoconductive
material. Most of the implants are constructed from metals or alloys.
The major groups of materials available are titanium and alloys,
cobalt–chromium alloys, austenitic Fe–Cr–Ni–Mo alloys, tantalum,
niobium and zirconium alloys, precious metals, ceramics and
polymeric materials.
The most widely used nonmetallic implants are oxidic, carbonitic or
graphitic oxide–like materials.
1. Commercially pure (cp) titanium and titanium-6 aluminium-4

vanadium alloy
• This group forms tenacious oxides in air or oxygenated solutions.
• Titanium oxidizes upon contact with room temperature air and

normal tissue fluids. It has also got the capability of deoxidation
when scratched or abraded during placement.
• Corrosion of titanium and alloys in the tissue fluids results in

accumulation of particles in the peri-implant zone which are known
as black particles.
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• The modulus of elasticity of titanium is five times greater than that
of compact bone and this property emphasizes the importance of
design in the proper distribution of mechanical stress transfer.
• The ductility of titanium is more than its alloys; hence, it is more

favourable to use titanium as an endosteal implant.
• If the implant abutment is bent at the time of implantation, the metal

is strained locally at the neck region. This is one reason, why reuse
of titanium implants is not recommended.
2. Cobalt–chromium–molybdenum-based alloys
• They are often used as cast or cast and annealed metallurgic

condition that permits the fabrication of custom design implants
such as subperiosteal frames.
• Cobalt has continuous phase for basic properties.
• Chromium has corrosion resistance through the oxide surface.
• Molybdenum has strength and bulk corrosion resistance.
• Also includes minor concentrations of nickel, manganese and

carbon. Nickel has been identified in biocorrosion products. Carbon
must be precisely controlled to maintain mechanical properties such
as ductility.
• In general, the cast cobalt alloys are least ductile of the alloy systems
and bending of the finished implants should be avoided.
3. Iron–chromium–nickel-based alloys
• They are used in wrought and heat treated metallurgic conditions

which result in a high strength and high ductile alloy.
• Example: Ramus blade, ramus frame, stabilizer pins and mucosal
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inserts.
• This alloy is most subject to crevice and pitting biocorrosion and

care must be taken to use and retain the oxidized surface condition.
• This alloy contains nickel as a major element, so use in patients

allergic or hypersensitive to nickel should be avoided.
• However, these alloys when used properly can function without

significant in vivo breakdown.
4. Ceramics and carbon

These are inorganic, nonmetallic, nonpolymeric materials
manufactured by compacting and sintering at elevated temperatures.
These can be divided into metallic oxides or other compounds. These
have been used in bulk form and more recently as coatings on metals
and alloys.
SUMMARY
Implants have established themselves as the treatment of choice for
majority of the partially and totally edentulous situations. If all the
governing factors of implant treatment such as the underlying bone
quality and quantity, occlusion and arch space are favourable then
this treatment modality is most often predictable. The selection of
implant fixture, where one has to consider both macro and micro
anatomy, plays a major role in osseointegration. The materials and
metals used should also be taken into consideration. The selection of
patients, with uncontrolled systemic diseases is contraindicated even
if other anatomical factors are favourable. Surgical placement of the
fixture should be performed with minimal trauma to the tissues.
Occlusion also plays a pivotal role in the prognosis.
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CHAPTER
50
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Maxillofacial Prosthetics
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 772
Classification of maxillofacial defects 772
Embryology 773
Development of upper lip 773
Development of palate 773
Maxillary defects 773
Congenital maxillary defects 773
Acquired maxillary defects 775
Hollow bulb obturator 785
Types of hollow bulb obturator 787
Prosthetic rehabilitation of edentulous
maxillectomy defects 787
Mandibular defects 787
Classification of mandibular defects 787
Retention in maxillofacial prostheses 790
Intraoral retention 790
Extraoral retention 790
Benefits of the implant-retained prostheses 792
Treatment prosthesis 792
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Radiation appliances 792
Extraoral prosthesis 792
Eye prosthesis 792
Ear prosthesis 792
Nasal prosthesis 793
Nasal stents 793
Materials used in maxillofacial prosthesis 794
Materials available 794
Summary 796
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Introduction
Maxillofacial prosthesis is the art and science of anatomic, functional
or cosmetic reconstruction by means of nonliving substitutes in the
regions of maxilla, mandible and face that are missing or defective
because of surgical intervention, trauma, pathology or congenital
malformation. Despite remarkable advances in surgical management
of oral and facial defects, these reconstructive surgical procedures
cannot satisfactorily rehabilitate the defect. Extensive research and
developments in the field of materials have made it possible for
restoration of aesthetics in the patient with gross defects of the face
and the head. The increasing life span of the affected individuals, and
also the increased awareness of health care services have made
maxillofacial prosthetics a challenge in the field of dentistry.
The most important objectives of the maxillofacial prosthesis and
rehabilitation include:
1. Restoration of aesthetic and cosmetic appearance of the patient.
2. Restoration of function.
3. Protection of tissues.
4. Therapeutic or healing effect.
5. Psychologic therapy.
6. Improving the quality of life.
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Classification of maxillofacial defects
Maxillofacial defects can be classified according to aetiology, residual
defect, incidence and location into the following types:
1. Intraoral defects
i. Congenital
▪ Cleft lip and palate
□ Adult
□ Infant/toddler
ii. Acquired
▪ Trauma – maxilla and mandible
▪ Tumour – maxilla, mandible, tongue

2. Extraoral defects
i. Congenital
▪ Auricular defects
▪ Ocular defects
▪ Syndromatic defects
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ii. Acquired
▪ Trauma – ocular, orbital, nasal, auricular defects
▪ Tumour – ocular, orbital, nasal, auricular defects

The classification of maxillofacial prosthesis is shown in Flowchart
50.1.
FLOWCHART 50.1 Classification of maxillofacial prosthesis
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Embryology
Development of upper lip
Each maxillary process grows medially and fuses, first with the lateral
nasal process and then with medial nasal process (Fig. 50.1).
FIGURE 50.1 Development of upper lip. (1) Nasal process,

(2) eye (3) two maxillary process (4) mandible.
Development of palate
The palate is formed from three components:
• The two palatal processes (Fig. 50.2A).
• The primitive palate formed from the frontonasal process.
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FIGURE 50.2 Development of palate. (A) Two lateral palatal
process (PP) and frontal process (FP). (B) Fusion of anterior
part of the PP with FP. (C) Fusion of posterior part of PP.
The definitive palate is formed by the fusion of these three parts as

follows:
• Each palatal process fuses with the posterior margin of the primitive
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palate (Fig. 50.2B).
• The two palatal processes fuse with each other in the midline
anteriorly backwards (Fig. 50.2C).
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Maxillary defects
Defects that are either acquired or congenital in nature in the
midfacial (maxillary) region are referred to as maxillary defects. They
are classified as follows:
1. Congenital maxillary defects
2. Acquired maxillary defects
Congenital maxillary defects

Congenital maxillary defects include the cleft lip and cleft palate.
Other defects are submucous cleft palate, Pierre Robin syndrome and
hemifacial microsomia
Developmental anomalies
Cleft lip
This defect is formed when one or both maxillary processes do not
fuse with the medial nasal process. If there is a failure on one side, the
patient suffers a unilateral defect and if on both the sides, the
individual suffers a bilateral defect (Fig. 50.3).
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FIGURE 50.3 Cleft lip. (A) Unilateral. (B) Bilateral.
The defective development of lower part of the frontal process may

give rise to a midline defect of the upper lip. This condition is
encountered less often.
The common aetiology for these could be infections, drug induced
or due to hormonal imbalance and may also be genetically inherited.
Cleft palate
• Defective fusion of various components of palate gives rise to clefts

in the palate. The defect may be from a simple cleft of the alveolus,
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to an extensive defect involving the soft and hard palate. The
alveolar cleft may occur unilaterally or bilaterally also. Many a
times the palatal clefts are also associated with the cleft lip.
However, the cleft lip can also occur as an individual defect.
There are many classifications of the defects and a comprehensive

and simple classification of both the defects is the Veau’s
classification, which is as follows:
Veau’s classification of cleft palate
• Class I: Isolated soft palate cleft (Fig. 50.4A).
• Class II: Isolated hard and soft palate (Fig. 50.4B).
• Class III: Unilateral cleft lip and palate (Fig. 50.4C).
• Class IV: Bilateral cleft lip and palate (Fig. 50.4D).
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FIGURE 50.4 A–D Veau’s classification of clef palate class I
to class IV. L, lip; HP, hard palate; SP, soft palate.
Prosthetic rehabilitation of congenital cleft lip and

palate
The rehabilitation of congenital cleft lip and palate starts soon after the
child is born. It is so challenging, that it involves a team of dedicated
specialists, and the timing of the treatment is of paramount
importance.
Role of team members for management of cleft lip and palate are
1. Paedodontist: Involved in fabrication of feeding plate and obturator

and assists in planning the feeding techniques that are best suited for
children.
2. Paediatrician: Responsible for overall maintenance of health.
3. Orthodontist: Identifies the problem, predicts growth and provides

comprehensive orthodontic care.
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4. Plastic or oral surgeon: Responsible for surgery when needed.
5. Speech pathologist: Monitors speech and offers therapy.
6. ENT surgeon: Performs test to identify any hearing difficulties, as

parents would not be able to recognize the problem.
7. Psychiatrist: Evaluates emotional, social and behavioural and social

development. Emphasis is placed on the patient’s ability to cope with
emotional and physical stresses created by cleft defect.
8. Social worker: Acts as the patient’s advocate and aids in

psychological assessment. Helps the parents in guiding the doctor and
provides medical care. Table 50.1 explains the protocol for
management of cleft lip and palate.
9. Maxillofacial prosthodontist: Plays an important role in fabrication

of surgical, interim and definitive prostheses, which have to be
monitored at regular intervals and changed if needed. He is also
responsible for designing and fabrication of definitive prosthesis as
explained in Table 50.2.
Table 50.1
Protocol for management of cleft lip and palate
Duration Management
Prenatal Diagnosis and parental counselling
0–6 months General assessment of associated anomaliesENT evaluation – feeding, swallowing,
hearing
Presurgical orthopaedics (0–3 months)
Primary lip repair (3–4 months)
6 months to 2 years Speech and oral motor sensory assessment Primary palate repair (9–12 months)
Preschool: 3–5 years Dental careSpeech assessment and therapy
Assess need for lip revision
Childhood: 6–12 Correction of velopharyngeal dysfunction Orthodontic treatment
years Alveolar cleft repair (8–11 years)
Adolescence: 13–18 Orthodontic correction – phase-II Orthognathic surgery (14–16 years – female and 8–
years 11 years – male)
Revision cheilorhinoplasty
Replacement of missing teeth
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Table 50.2
Role of prosthodontist in cleft lip and palate rehabilitation
Phase Prosthodontic intervention

1. Neonates born with cleft lip and A feeding plate (Fig. 50.5)
palate
2. Presurgical phase Palatal surgical obturator
3. Postsurgical phase Immediate postsurgical obturator
4. Postsurgical fistula Palatal obturator
5. Speech problem Palatal obturator is fabricated with a speech bulb in soft palatal
region
6. Rehabilitation Palatal obturator with replacement of teeth
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FIGURE 50.5 Feeding plate.
Acquired maxillary defects

Most acquired defects occur due to surgical resection of tumours.
Common tumours of this region include epidermoid carcinoma,
salivary gland tumours, malignant mesenchymal tumours, benign
mesenchymal tumours, etc.
The resection of a maxillary tumour requires a medical and
rehabilitation team composed of a surgeon, maxillofacial
prosthodontist, radiologist, radiation oncologist, medical oncologist,
nutritionist, psychologist, nursing staff, laboratory technician and
social worker, to obtain an optimal treatment outcome. A
maxillofacial prosthodontist should be consulted prior to performing
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the surgery, if the patient needs to be rehabilitated with obturator
prosthesis. It is the responsibility of the prosthodontist to suggest
various treatment plans to the surgeons regarding prosthodontic
requirements for restoring maxillectomy defects. Thus, a proper
diagnosis, consultation and good planning are of prime importance
prior to treatment.
Surgical considerations for optimal prosthetic

outcome
An overall successful treatment depends on complete elimination of
the tumour and functional rehabilitation. This can be achieved by
good presurgical and postsurgical planning. The role of the
maxillofacial surgeon is not only in complete elimination of the
tumour but also in providing a favourable postsurgical foundation
which would enhance the prosthetic prognosis and improve patient’s
quality of life. The surgical factors to be considered are as follows.
Remaining hard palate and teeth

Good bone support of the palatal area as well as the proximal alveolar
bone of the tooth adjacent to defect is crucial for the obturator
prosthesis. Palatal bone functions as a supportive structure to transfer
the forces of occlusion through the denture base and the remaining
teeth of the arch will aid in retention of the obturator. Therefore,
preservation of as much of dentition and palatal bone possible
without compromising a tumour free margin should be considered.
Soft tissue around the defect
1. Skin graft on the defect wall: On the lateral wall of the defect, a
split thickness skin graft can be placed to prevent the vertical
displacement. Another advantage is the ability to withstand the
masticatory loads and prevent tissue irritation during insertion and
removal of the obturator. This skin graft can be obtained from forearm
or the thigh area.
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2. Keratinized tissue over the bony area: The medial wall of the hard
palate area should be covered with adjacent keratinized palatal
mucosa and sutured onto the periosteum. This keratinized tissue will
help in absorbing the masticatory load and prevent trauma during
insertion and removal of the maxillary obturator.
3. Structures related to the nasal cavity: The presence of nasal

turbinates will prevent the desired extension of the obturator bulb into
the defect, thereby, affecting its stability and may traumatize the
patient during insertion and removal of the prosthesis.
4. Soft palate consideration: The maxillary obturator can extend

above the remaining soft palate to gain retention and resistance to
displacement. The soft palate should be spared as it provides the
posterior palatal seal and defines the limit for the posterior extension
of the obturator. In cases of defects extending up to or beyond the
middle third of the soft palate the entire soft palate should be
removed. Failure to do so may result in a thick fibrous inactive band
of tissue that limits the extension of the obturator.
Surgical procedures
The understanding of the resection terminology is essential for
communication with the surgical team as well as for preparing the
patient undergoing surgical resection. The maxilla is composed of two
halves fused along the midline forming the midpalatine suture.
Previously terminologies such as hemimaxillectomy,
semimaxillectomy and/or partial maxillectomy were used to describe
the resection of the maxilla without specifically identifying the precise
location. To make it more logical, terms such as left/right, partial/total,
anterior/posterior in combination with the word ‘maxillectomy’ can be
used for better communication between health care practitioners. For
example, since the maxillary bone is divided into separate halves, it
should be called the left or right maxilla. Thus, if the left maxilla is
being resected, it should be termed as left maxillectomy that identifies
the left side of the maxillary bone. Furthermore, if the entire left
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maxillary bone is being resected, it should be known as left total
maxillectomy. On the other hand, if a portion of left maxillary bone is
being resected, it should be called partial left maxillectomy. However,
it must further indicate the specific location as the anterior or
posterior portion that is being resected. Therefore, if an anterior
portion is being resected, then a specific additional location must be
included, such as an anterior partial left maxillectomy. The resultant
acquired palatal defects are classified on the basis of surgical
extension of the defect (Spiro and Shah), incidence and prosthetic
planning (Aramany classification).
The Aramany’s classification is divided into six different groups based on
the relationship of the defect area to the remaining abutment teeth (Fig.
50.6A–F).
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FIGURE 50.6 (A) Class I: Midline resection. (B) Class II:
Unilateral resection. (C) Class III: Central resection. (D) Class
IV: Bilateral anteroposterior resection. (E) Class V: Posterior
resection. (F) Class VI: Anterior resection.
Class I
The resection in this group is performed along the midline of the
maxilla; the teeth are maintained on one side of the arch. This is the
most frequent maxillary defect, and most patients fall into this
category (Fig. 50.6A).
Class II
The defect in this group is unilateral, retaining the anterior teeth on
the contralateral side. The recommended design is similar to the
design of a class II Kennedy removable partial denture (RPD) (Fig.
50.6B).
Class III
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The palatal defect occurs in the central portion of the hard palate and
may involve part of the soft palate. The design for these patients is
simple and retention, stabilization and reciprocation can be effectively
planned (Fig. 50.6C).
Class IV
The defect crosses the midline and involves both sides of the maxillae.
There are few teeth remaining which lie in a straight line (Fig. 50.6D).
Class V
The surgical defect in this situation is bilateral and lies posterior to the
remaining abutment teeth (Fig. 50.6E).
Class VI
It is rare to have an acquired maxillary defect anterior to the
remaining abutment teeth. This occurs mostly in trauma or it is
congenital (Fig. 50.6F).
Although this classification is comprehensive and well accepted, it
still suffers a drawback of not defining and explaining the vertical
extension of the defect.
Acquired soft palate defects

Acquired soft palate defects are among the most difficult deformities
to rehabilitate. When there is tumour resection of a soft palate, the
problem faced mostly is speech intelligibility. The soft palate is
divided into three parts – anterior, middle and posterior, the muscles
of the soft palate is involved in swallowing and speech. The soft palate
is a crucial part of the velopharyngeal mechanism; to function
properly, in all its complexity, is primarily constriction of the lateral
and posterior pharyngeal walls to form a ‘velum’. The degree of
speech intelligibility depends on the remaining portion of the soft
palate after resection. However, all five muscles comprising the soft
palate work integrally to allow movements, depending on whether
speech or swallowing actions are being performed. Velopharyngeal
inadequacy (VPI) is a malfunction of a velopharyngeal mechanism.
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Velopharyngeal insufficiency: The inability of the velopharyngeal
sphincter to sufficiently separate the nasal cavity from the oral cavity
during speech.
Velopharyngeal incompetency: When the soft palate and the
lateral/posterior pharyngeal walls fail to separate the oral cavity from
the nasal cavity during speech.
Prosthetic rehabilitation of acquired maxillary

defects
The treatment can be dealt under two categories namely treatment for
soft palate defects and treatment for hard palate defects.
Treatment of soft palate defects
Palatal lift prosthesis

A palatal lift prosthesis addresses velopharyngeal incompetence by
physically displacing the dysfunctional soft palate in the hope of
closing the velopharyngeal port, enough to mitigate hypernasal
speech and/or prevent nasopharyngeal regurgitation of liquids or
solids during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing. A palatal lift
prosthesis consists of an oral component that stabilizes and secures
the prosthesis and an oropharyngeal extension that superiorly and
posteriorly displaces the impaired soft palate. Palatal lift prostheses
are classified as interim or definitive prostheses (Fig. 50.7A).
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FIGURE 50.7 (A) Palatal lift prosthesis. (B) Speech bulb
prosthesis.
Speech aid prosthesis

In a total soft palate resection (velopharyngeal insufficiency), speech
aid prosthesis can be used for rehabilitation of the defect. Proper
speech aid prosthesis must have extension into the velopharyngeal
space which occupies the nasopharyngeal space at the level of the
atlas and axis. The anatomical band at the posterior portion of the
posterior pharyngeal wall is known as ‘torus tuberius’ or in some
patients such as in congenital cleft patients the muscle of the posterior
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pharyngeal wall forms an exaggerated roll of muscle called
‘Passavant’s ridge or Passavant’s pad’ (Fig. 50.7B).
To rehabilitate the acquired soft palate defect, proper extension
must allow the remaining structures, lateral and posterior pharyngeal
muscles to constrict and contact the bulb portion of the speech aid
prosthesis. Therefore, functional moulding is required. The long
cantilever of the bulb into the velum space in edentulous patients
makes it quite difficult to achieve adequate retention when compared
to conventional complete dentures due to the lack of the posterior
palatal seal and the cantilever of the bulb. Osseointegrated implants
can be used to obtain more retention and also improve mastication.
However, the anteroposterior (AP) spread of the implant positions
must be considered for treatment planning to assure a favourable
prognosis for the speech aid prosthesis.
Treatment of hard palate defects

The surgical procedures as explained are normally well planned and
the role of prosthodontist starts in planning the surgery. Most often
the surgical defects are covered by a prosthesis called obturators.
Obturators
An obturator is defined as ‘prosthesis used to close a congenital or
acquired tissue opening primarily of the hard palate and/or
contiguous alveolar structures’.
Prosthetic restoration of the defect often includes use of surgical
obturator, interim obturator and definitive obturator (Fig. 50.8).
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FIGURE 50.8 Types of obturators.
Surgical obturator
It is inserted at the time of surgery (immediate surgical obturator) or
sometimes due to the unavailability of services or due to the type of
tumour the surgery would be carried on and after 1–2 weeks
postmaxillectomy this obturator can be inserted (delayed surgical
obturator). It can be either for partially edentulous or for completely
edentulous, but no teeth will be present on the obturator. Reduces oral
and nasal contamination and permits deglutition and reduces
hospitalization.
This prosthesis will eliminate the need of nasogastric tube, which
collectively reduces psychological trauma. The presurgical models are
fabricated from the impression before the surgery (Fig. 50.9).The
models are discussed with the surgeon for the extent of the surgery
and marked. The prosthodontist will perform the simulated surgery
in the model. This model is used for fabrication of surgical obturator
(Fig. 50.10A). The prosthesis is made up of 2 mm thick acrylic plate
with heat-cured clear polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Should have
retentive tags on the tissue side of the defect to retain the surgical
pack that supports the split thickness skin graft on the lateral wall of
the defect. This prosthesis will invariably have to be altered with
tissue conditioning material in the operating table. Teeth and bulb are
not present (Fig. 50.10B).
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FIGURE 50.9 Maxillary cast showing the defect.
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FIGURE 50.10 (A) Cast showing surgical extension and
proposed resection of the defect and the remaining abutment
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teeth for support. (B) Surgical obturator polished—palatal
surface
The success of a surgical obturator may depend on the number and

health of the remaining teeth. These teeth govern the retention of the
prosthesis. In the absence of the teeth, the obturator is wired with the
bone.
Advantages
1. Provides a matrix on which the surgical packing can be placed.
2. It ensures close adaptation of the skin graft to the raw surface of the
cheek flap.
3. Reduces oral contamination of the wound and thus may reduce the
incidence of local infection.
4. Enables the patient to speak more effectively postoperatively by

reproducing normal palatal contours and by covering the defect.
5. Permits deglutition, thus eliminating the need for a nasogastric

tube.
6. Lessens the psychological impact of surgery by making the

postoperative closure easier to bear with.
7. May reduce the period of hospitalization.
Interim obturator
It is inserted after 3–4 weeks postsurgery to ensure the wound
contraction is minimized. It can be modified from ISO (immediate
surgical obturator), teeth and a bulb can be added, but this bulb
should be relined with tissue conditioner. This lining material should
be changed once a week for 4–5 weeks. This is commonly termed as
immediate interim obturator.
This improves speech, deglutition, function and sometimes if the
patient undergoes radiation therapy, this can be used to maintain the
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defect and provide adequate function. Therefore, quality of life of the
patient is elevated. This may serve for several months or even
indefinite periods as well. When such procedures have to be carried
out the interim prosthesis is fabricated again at a later date and often
is termed as delayed interim obturator.
The interim obturator is fabricated with clear or pink-coloured
PMMA and light wire clasping may be incorporated to enhance
retention (Fig. 50.11). Teeth have to be given in anterior segments to
give aesthetic acceptability. Posterior teeth and posterior occlusion
should be avoided to reduce the abutment stress.
FIGURE 50.11 Interim prosthesis with light wire clasping –

tissue surface.
Definitive obturator
This type of prosthesis is given when the surgical wound is fully
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healed. The response of individual patients to surgery, radiation
therapy, nutritional status and a host of reasons will determine when
the definitive obturator (Fig. 50.12) should be considered. At this
stage, all carious teeth should be restored and prognostically poor
teeth should be indicated for extraction. Care should be executed
during surgical extraction in patients who have undergone pre- or
postsurgical radiation therapy. Normally, it is fabricated using cast
metals; however, acrylic definitive obturators can also be used. The
patients may be partially edentulous, or fully edentulous along with
the maxillectomy defect. The treatment options and plan will vary
accordingly.
FIGURE 50.12 Definitive obturator.
Prosthetic rehabilitation of partially edentulous

maxillectomy defects
Principles of designing obturator prosthesis for partially edentulous
situations:
The general principles of RPD design apply to obturator prosthesis
design as well. Relevant among these are
1. Rigid major connector.
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2. Guide planes and other components that facilitate stability and
bracing.
3. Rests that place supporting forces along the long axis of the
abutment tooth.
4. Direct retainers that are passive at rest and provide adequate

resistance to dislodgment without overloading the abutment teeth.
5. Control of the occlusal plane that opposes the defect.
In addition, other considerations involved in the design are
1. Location and size of the defect, especially as it relates to the

remaining teeth.
2. Importance of the abutment tooth adjacent to the defect, which is

critical to the support and retention of the obturator prosthesis.
3. Usefulness of the lateral scar band, which flexes to allow insertion

of the prosthesis but tends to resist its displacement.
4. Use of the surveyor to examine the defect for the purpose of

locating and preserving useful undercuts or eliminating undesirable
undercuts.
The prognosis of the obturator will improve with:
1. The size (amount remaining after surgery) and curvature of the

arch.
2. Quality of the tissue covering the ridge and lining the defect.
3. Abutment alignment that is curved instead of linear.
4. Availability of teeth on the defect side for support and retention.
5. Periodontal health of the abutment teeth.
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Types and design of obturator prosthesis for
partially edentulous
Maxillectomy defects
The definitive obturator for a partially edentulous patient can be of
the following type:
1. Wrought wire-retained full acrylic prosthesis, with or without bulb

depending upon the vertical extent of the defect.
2. Cast metal clasp-retained prosthesis, with or without bulb

depending upon the vertical extent of the defect.
3. Attachment-retained prosthesis, with or without bulb depending

upon the vertical extent of the defect.
The various designs of cast metal-retained obturator for different

classes of acquired maxillary defect are as follows.
Class I (fig. 50.13A)
Support
• Rigid major connector – distributes functional load as equally as

possible.
• Support is gained by
○ Rests
○ Guide planes
○ Indirect retainers
• Rests are placed on the most anterior abutment (closest to the
defect) with mesio-occlusal posterior rest and disto-occlusal rest.
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• Guide planes have predictable retention and greater degree of
stability.
• Indirect retainer is located perpendicular to the fulcrum line (which

connects the most anterior and most posterior rests) which is
usually a canine or first premolar.
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FIGURE 50.13 (A) Class I defect and its prosthesis design.
S, support; R, retention; B:, bracing; G, guiding plane; IR,
indirect retention. (B) Class II defect and its prosthesis
design. Defect: curvilinear. Prosthetic design: tripodal. S,
support; R, retention; B, bracing; G, guiding plane. (C) Class
III defect and its prosthesis design. Class III design:
quadrilateral. S, support; R, retention; B, bracing. (D) Class IV
defect and its prosthesis design. Class IV design: linear. S:
support, R: retention, B: bracing, G: guiding plane. (E) Class
V defect and its prosthesis design. Class V design: tripodal.
S, support; R, retention; B, bracing; G, guiding plane; IR,
indirect retention. (F) Class VI defect and its prosthesis
design. Class VI design: quadrilateral. S, support; R,
retention; B, bracing; G, guiding plane.
Retention
• It is gained by using direct retainers.
• Anterior retainer – wrought wire clasp with ‘I-bar’ design is used to

engage on the midlabial undercut of abutment.
• Posterior retainer – cast circumferential clasp using the buccal

surface undercut.
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Class II (fig. 50.13B)
Support
• Similar to class I with rest involving the palate.
• Double rests are used between adjacent posterior teeth.
• Guide-plane similar to the class I situation with full use of the

palatal surfaces of the posterior teeth.
• Indirect retainer located on the canine or first premolar.
Retention
• Similar to that in the class I design. The abutment tooth closest to the
defect is engaged with a direct retainer that resists downward
displacement.
• A cast circumferential clasp or an I-bar clasp is used.
• Occlusion on the defect side can be destructive; so occlusal scheme

with fewer, smaller teeth is desirable.
Class III (fig. 50.13C)
Support
• Rests widely separated and bilaterally located.
• The canines and molars used for quadrilateral configuration.
• Little or no support is expected from the palate or the defect.
• Short guide planes from the palatal surfaces of the posterior teeth.
• Indirect retention is not required because each terminus is

supported by a direct retainer.
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Retention
• Cast retainers using undercuts on the facial surfaces of the teeth.
• They may be circumferential retainers, I-bars or modified T-bars.
• Combination-type retainers can be used in the aesthetic zones.
Class IV (fig. 50.13D)
Support
• Rests located centrally on all of the remaining teeth.
• Multiple mesio-occlusal and disto-occlusal rests designed.
Retention
• Retention is problematic.
• Mixture of buccal retention on the premolars and palatal retention

on the molars is used similar to the class I linear design.
Class V (fig. 50.13E)
Support
• Rest is located on the mesio-occlusal surface of the most posterior

abutment.
• If adjacent posterior teeth are involved, double rests are used.
• Stabilization and bracing is by broad palatal coverage.
• Indirect retention is by rests located on the central incisors.
Retention
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• The I-bar retainer is located in midbuccal surface undercut.
• A swing-lock type of prosthesis is advised.
Class VI (fig. 50.13F)
Support
• Rests located on disto-occlusal surfaces of the most anterior

abutment teeth.
• Double rests are used when adjacent posterior teeth are involved.
• The remaining natural teeth provide all of the support.
• Guide planes are located on the proximal surfaces adjacent to the

defect.
Retention
• Cast retainers using facial undercut.
• I-bar located on the anterior abutment in a midfacial undercut.
• Other modification – meatus obturator, it is a special kind of

obturator that extends up to the nasal aperture. It establishes
closure with the nasal structures and separates the oral and the
nasal cavity.
Attachment-retained cast obturator

The unsightly exposure of metal clasp in class I, II and IV and also the
deleterious forces exerted on the week anterior abutment have
necessitated an opportunity to use the attachment for use in obturator
prosthesis. Depending on the horizontal and vertical extension of the
surgical excision, two or three teeth adjacent to the defect may be
prepared to receive full veneer crowns. The cast crowns are normally
splinted together to gain additional stability. The male component of
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the attachment will be cast to the crown and the female is
incorporated in the removable obturator prosthesis (Fig. 50.14–50.17).
FIGURE 50.14 Intraoral picture of the extensive defect.
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FIGURE 50.15 Splinted crown with extracoronal attachment
cemented.
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FIGURE 50.16 Obturator prosthesis with female
incorporated.
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FIGURE 50.17 Prosthesis in the oral cavity.
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Hollow bulb obturator
Palatal defect causes various problems in speech, mastication,
deglutition and aesthetics. Palatal obturator is the only substitute that
covers this defect and aids in normal speech production with
elimination of hypernasality (Figs 50.18–50.22). The vertical extent of
the defect will govern the choice of use of hollow bulb obturators.
FIGURE 50.18 Defect with only one molar present.
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FIGURE 50.19 Hollow bulb made of acrylic.
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FIGURE 50.20 Acrylic denture without palate.
FIGURE 50.21 Acrylic denture and hollow bulb assembly

retained with magnets.
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FIGURE 50.22 Denture assembly in the oral cavity.
Advantages of Hollow Bulb Design
• Easy to fabricate.
• Increased speech intelligibility
• Lighter in weight.
• More hygienic.
• Aid speech resonance.
Types of hollow bulb obturator
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1. Type 1
i. Open – unhygienic, foul smelling and unpleasant

for the patient.
ii. Closed – prevents fluid and food collection,

reduces air space.
2. Type 2
i. Single piece – less comfortable and has reduced

extensions.
ii. Two piece – more hygienic and easy to handle.

Most often the obturator prosthesis should be changed periodically.
Prosthetic rehabilitation of edentulous

maxillectomy defects
Prosthetic restorations are the preferred method for the rehabilitation
of complex midfacial defects like the bilateral maxillectomy. Prosthetic
prognosis is poor due to lack of a stable supportive hard tissue for
stability and retention of the prosthesis. Prosthetic reconstruction in
these patients depends on the size of the defect, availability of hard
and soft tissues in the defect area to provide support, proximity of
vital structures, patient attitude and systemic conditions.
Various treatment options include:
• Closed or open hollow bulb obturator.
• Hollow bulb obturator connected to complete denture with magnet.
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• Implant-retained maxillary obturator (Fig. 50.23).
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FIGURE 50.23 (A) Maxillary defect in totally edentulous
situation. (B) Open type hollow bulb fabricated with soft liner.
(C) Implant in the anterior maxilla to help retention. (D) Hollow
bulb in the oral cavity. Note the magnet at the distobuccal
end. (E) Finished prosthesis with the magnet attached to the
hollow bulb.
Despite all the efforts, the success of the obturator prosthesis is
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always guarded. It may be attributed to the psychological influence of
the patients to a large extent.
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Mandibular defects
Congenital mandibular defects
Common congenital mandibular defects include micrognathia,
mandibulofacial dysostosis, ankylosis of the TMJ, etc. Most often the
role of the maxillofacial prosthodontist is limited.
Acquired mandibular defects

Neoplastic resections are the most common cause for an acquired
mandibular defect. Resection of the mandible may often lead to
speech and swallowing dysfunction due to deviation of the mandible,
and also the poor equilibrium of muscles on either side of the
mandible.
Classification of mandibular defects

Based on the amount of resection or bone loss
Continuity defect
The superior portion of the mandible is resected and lower border is
left intact. These defects do not show any deviation and are easy to
restore.
Discontinuity defect
Entire segment of the mandible is resected. There are no connections
between the remaining parts of the mandible resulting in the midline
deviation of the mandible due to movement of the bone.
Chalian classification (1985)

Class I: Resection of the ipsilateral condyle.
Class II: Resection of the ipsilateral condyle and ascending ramus.
Class III: Resection of the ipsilateral condyle and body to
midsymphysis.
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Class IV: Resection of the ipsilateral condyle to the contralateral
body.
Class V: Total mandibulectomy.
Class VI: Resection of the midsypmphysis.
Class VII: Segmental resection of the body.
Class VIII: Marginal or coronal resection of the body.
Cantor and curtis classification of mandibular defects
1. Class I: Mandibular resection involving alveolar resection and

preservation of mandibular continuity (Fig. 50.24A).
2. Class II: Loss of continuity distal to the canine area (Fig. 50.24B).
3. Class III: Mandibular resection involving a minimum of midline

loss of continuity (Fig. 50.24C).
4. Class IV: Resection of lateral portion of the mandible with

subsequent augmentation (Fig. 50.24D) to restore form and function.
5. Class V: Midline resection with subsequent augmentation (Fig.

50.24E) to restore form and function.
6. Class VI: Similar to class V but there is no augmentation following

resection (Fig. 50.24F).
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FIGURE 50.24 (A) Class I. (B) Class II. (C) Class III. (D)
Class IV. (E) Class V. (F) Class VI.
Prosthetic rehabilitation of completely edentulous mandibular

defects
To improve the prognosis the following procedures can be followed:
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• Vestibuloplasty to create vestibule.
• Mandibular guidance flange to guide the mandibular movements.
• Lip bumpers are given to support the lower lip.
• Neutrocentric occlusion with nonanatomic teeth to distribute the

occlusal forces. Implants are a boon to these patients, as it will help
in the retention of the prosthesis. However, care and caution should
be taken to make sure that the patient has undergone any radiation
therapy.
Mandibular guidance flange
• It is indicated for mandibulectomy patients.
• The appliance consists of an RPD with a metal flange/acrylic ramps.
• For patients with severe deviation and poor occlusion, wax ramps
can be used.
Prosthetic rehabilitation of partially edentulous mandibular

defects
• For marginal mandibular resection – mandibular guidance flange

prosthesis (Fig. 50.25A) or palatal ramp prosthesis (Fig 50.25B) can
be fabricated. This prosthesis is instituted immediately or as soon as
possible after the surgery to prevent deviation of the mandible. The
ramp or the flange will prevent the mandible from deviation
towards the resected side.
• For segmental midline defect – magnet-retained snap-on prosthesis

or a bar-supported overdenture or an implant-supported prosthesis
can be given.
• Maxillary guidance ramp or palatal ramp is an interim appliance

used in the correction of mandibular deviation.
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FIGURE 50.25 (A) Mandibular guide flange. (B) Palatal ramp
to guide deviated mandible.
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Retention in maxillofacial prostheses
The retention of the prosthesis is a prime factor in gauging the
outcome of the treatment. The prosthesis whether intraoral or
extraoral should be very retentive. Obtaining a good retention is
always difficult in most situations due to the extent of the defect and
the positioning and health of the remaining teeth.
Retention of maxillofacial prosthesis is classified into the following:
1. Intraoral retention
○ Anatomic and tissue retained
○ Tooth retained
○ Implant retained
○ Combination
2. Extraoral retention
○ Anatomic retention
○ Mechanical retention
○ Adhesive retention
○ Craniofacial implants
○ Combination
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Intraoral retention
1. Anatomic retention: Retention depends on the size and location of
the anatomical undercut areas in the surgical site.
2. Retention from the dentition: It is gained by providing effective

clasping to the remaining dentition.
Conventional cast clasp

The properly designed and fabricated clasp (Fig. 50.26) will provide
stability, splinting, bilateral bracing and reciprocation as well as
retention.
FIGURE 50.26 Conventional cast clasp.
Types of extracoronal retainers

Most frequently used are the clasps because of their reliability, ease of
fabrication and adaptability. They are mainly indicated in tooth-
supported prostheses.
1. Cast wrought combination circumferential clasp
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• It substitutes a contoured wrought wire (Fig. 50.27A) for the cast
clasp that has great ability to flex in any direction but more likely to
fracture after repeated usage.
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FIGURE 50.27 (A) Contoured wrought wire in the place of
cast clasp. (B) T-bar cast circumferential clasp (netcervical
approach). (C) Telescopic crown in overlay denture
prosthesis. (D) Intraoral implants to aid retention. (E)
Extraoral implants to enhance retention.
2. T-bar cast circumferential combination
• It provides a cervical approach (Fig. 50.27B) to the tooth surface and

utilizes the existing distobuccal undercut.
3. Ring clasp
• This also uses an undercut adjacent to the edentulous area but

reaches it by circumnavigating (Fig. 50.27C) the tooth.
• It is used on long standing molar abutments distal to the edentulous

space.
4. Prefabricated precision attachments
• They are placed into cast crowns for the aesthetic and mechanical
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retention.
• They are useful in rehabilitating cleft lip and cleft palate cases.
5. Telescopic crown
• They are used in overlay denture prostheses (Fig 50.27C).
• It is indicated when major change in the vertical or centric

dimension is indicated as in cleft lip and cleft palate cases and
resected mandible.
6. Intermaxillary springs
• They are preformed and can be inserted into upper and lower
dentures to help stabilize them on the ridges during function. It is
not being used often.
7. Auxiliary retention devices
• These include buccal and lingual continuous clasp, valve seal,

Fauchard wing device for clefts, guide planes, surface adhesion
devices.
8. Intraoral implants
• These help in retention and to some extent in the support of the

prosthesis (Fig. 50.27D).
Extraoral retention
Anatomic retention
Both hard and soft tissues of the head and neck area can be used for
retention of the prostheses.
Mechanical retention
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It is mostly needed in cases such as large defects involving half of the
face or heavily radiated tissues.
Adhesives
Adhesives used are different kinds of medical adhesives and double-
coated polyethylene tapes that enhance retention by increasing
adhesive and cohesive properties.
Magnets
Magnets have generated great interest within the field of dentistry
and they have numerous applications. Due to their small size and
strong attractive forces, they can be placed within prosthesis without
being obtrusive.
Advantages
• Ease of cleaning
• Ease of placement
• Automatic reseating
• Constant retention
Despite the numerous advantages, reluctance to use magnets has

arisen in the past because of the corrosive potential of the magnet
component and lack of the breakaway strength that results in reduced
patient comfort.
Newer generation magnets and associated abutments (magna cap
component) have been successfully used in a variety of patients. The
newer design of magnets provides a larger surface area that can
provide pull force per magnet in excess of 900 g which nearly doubles
retention and decreases the potential lateral displacement.
Magnetic attachments are applied in various types of prostheses
more recently. The increase in denture stability with magnets has
varied with the method of use and with the energy products of the
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magnets. The newer iron–neodymium–boron magnets are used as a
substitute for conventional prostheses and have a good prognosis,
provided they are encapsulated to prevent corrosion from oral
environment.
These magnets transmit minimal lateral forces to the implants,
require no exact paralleling technique and have nondiminishing
retentive properties when compared to other mechanical attachments.
Facial implants
Often incorporated in treatment plan to enhance retention of
prosthesis (Fig. 50.27E).
The standard technique for the retention of facial prostheses has
been through the use of adhesives. The concepts of surface area, force
and stress distribution are of significant concern with the implant
retained and supported facial prostheses. Bone stock in the temporal,
orbital and midface regions is seldom adequate for implants designed
for intraoral use. To compensate for this, extraoral implants are 3–5
mm short in length and possess a peripheral flange. This flange
increases the implant surface area in contact with bone.
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Benefits of the implant-retained
prostheses
• Improved retention and stability of the prostheses.
• Elimination of occasional skin reactions to adhesives.
• Ease and enhanced accuracy of prosthesis placement.
• Improved skin hygiene and patient comfort.
• Decreased daily maintenance associated with removal and

reapplication of skin adhesives.
• Increased life span of facial restoration.
• When skin adhesives are used for retention, they must be removed
and reapplied each day, leading to loss of colourants at the margin
of the prostheses and eventually rendering the prosthesis
unacceptable.
• Enhanced aesthetics at the lines of junction between the prosthesis

and skin. When an implant-borne prosthesis is fabricated, its
margins can be made thinner.
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Treatment prosthesis
Treatment prosthesis can be defined as ‘a prosthetic appliance used
for the purpose of treating or conditioning the tissues that are called
upon to support and retain it’.
Radiation appliances
• These include stents, splints, shields, carriers or positioners. They
are used to optimize the delivery of radiation while reducing
associated morbidity.
• Positioning stents can be oral or peroral cone that is used to

rearrange tissues within the radiation field and to displace normal
tissues outside the radiation field.
• Radiation shields are metallic screens made up of Cerrobend alloy

that prevents unwanted exposure of normal tissues.
• Radiation carriers administer radiation to confined areas, by holding

the radiation source securely in position during the entire period of
treatment.
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Extraoral prosthesis
Extraoral prosthesis is also called the facial prosthesis. Ideal properties
of facial prostheses must include:
• Tissue compatibility
• Durability
• Lightness in weight
• Flexibility
• Translucency
• Easily processed
• Easily duplicated
• Easily cleaned
• Nonconducive and readily available
Currently facial prostheses are fabricated of silicones, acrylic resins

and polyurethanes. The bulk of the prostheses may be fabricated with
silicone, whereas, acrylic resins are incorporated to provide strength
and rigidity. Polyurethane may be applied as a backing to provide a
thin transparent junction with the skin.
Some of the extraoral prostheses are as follows.
Eye prosthesis
The surgical or trauma residual defect of the eye can be of one of the
following types. It may be enucleation which involves only the
removal of the eye ball. It may be evisceration where the eyeball and
the extraocular muscles are removed. Exenteration will involve the
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removal of the entire content of the orbit. Depending upon the defect
an eye prosthesis can either be (i) ocular (Fig. 50 28A) (ii) orbital (Fig.
50.28B).
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FIGURE 50.28 (A) Ocular prosthesis. (B) Orbital prosthesis.
Ocular: it replaces only the eyeball following an enucleation or

evisceration.
Orbital: it replaces not only eyeball but also eyelids and
surrounding structures.
Impressions are made with irreversible hydrocolloid/elastomers
and prosthesis is fabricated in acrylic or silicone. Retention of this
prosthesis is through glass frames, adhesives or implants.
Ear prosthesis
This is also known as auricular prosthesis. Impressions are made with
irreversible hydrocolloid/elastomers and prosthesis is fabricated in
acrylic or silicone. Retention of this prosthesis is through glass frames,
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adhesives, hair bands (Fig. 50.29A) or implants (Fig. 50.29B).
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FIGURE 50.29 (A) Ear prosthesis with hair band. (B)
Implants to retain the ear prosthesis. (C) Implants to retain the
ear prosthesis.
Nasal prosthesis
Nasal defects resulting from neoplasm, congenital malformations or
trauma can be restored with nasal prosthesis. Impression procedures
and prosthesis fabrication are similar to ear prosthesis.
Retention is achieved with anatomic undercuts, adhesives,
eyeglasses and attachment to maxillary obturator and implants.
Nasal stents
It improves nasal symmetry in unilateral cleft patients by neonatal
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nasoalveolar moulding. The congenital or acquired strictures of the
nasal openings are corrected by nasal stents (Fig. 50.30).
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FIGURE 50.30 (A) Nasal stent. (B) Stent in place.
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Materials used in maxillofacial
prosthesis
Advances in polymer chemistry renewed the interest of developing
new materials for facial prosthesis.
Prostheses are composed of the following:
1. Silicones – used to fabricate bulk of the prosthesis.
2. Acrylic resins – incorporated to provide strength and rigidity.
3. Polyurethanes – provide a thin transparent junction with the skin.
An ideal material for the fabrication of facial prosthesis should have

the following features:
• Excellent tissue receptivity.
• Nontoxic and nonallergic.
• Accurate forming, retention of fine details and without introduction

of obvious parting lines.
• A degree of translucency is required.
• The material must be essentially colourless so that it can be tinted to

simulate pastel skin tones.
• It must be durable and should have resistance to outdoor

weathering.
• Should remain flexible over a range of ambient temperatures.
• Must adhere securely and comfortable and exhibit a fine line

marginal contact.
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Materials available
Materials are broadly classified into metals and nonmetals.
1. Metals
Usually Co–Cr is used in the fabrication of framework

of the definitive prosthesis.
2. Nonmetals
○ Acrylic resin and copolymers.
○ Polyvinyl chloride and copolymer derivatives –

realistic, mediplast, prototype II.
○ Silicone elastomers:
i. HTV silicones
a. Silastics 370, 372, 373, 4-4514, 4-4515
b. PDM siloxane
c. Q4635, Q7-4650, Q7-4735, SE-4524
ii. RTV silicones
a. Silastic 382, 389
b. MDX 4-4210
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c. SILASTIC 891
d. Cosmesil
e. A-2186
Acrylic resins
• These are used in the fabrication of both intraoral and extraoral
prostheses.
• Facial prosthesis made of this material remains serviceable for up to

2 years.
• Successfully employed for specific types of facial defects (e.g.

fabrication of orbital prosthesis).
• Intrinsic and extrinsic colouration can be utilized.
• Compatible with most adhesive systems.
• Heat polymerizing methyl methacrylate (Fig. 50.31) is preferred to the

autopolymerizing resin.
• Colour stability is better.
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FIGURE 50.31 Heat-cure acrylic resin – Triplex SR (courtesy
Ivoclar-Vivadent).
Disadvantages of hard acrylic prosthesis
• Rigid.
• Trauma to the defect area.
• Inferior aesthetic result due to lack of reproduction of skin.
Vinyl polymers and copolymers

They are copolymers of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate.
Polyvinyl chloride
• Clear hard resin, tasteless and odourless.
• Hardens when exposed to ultraviolet light and heat.
• Requires heat and light stabilization to prevent discolouration
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during fabrication and use.
Polyvinyl acetate
• Stable to light and heat.
• Abnormally low softening point (35–40°C)
• Flexible
• Adapt to intrinsic and extrinsic colouration
• Present an acceptable clinical appearance
Disadvantages
• Discolouration and hardening of prosthesis particularly at the

margins.
• Edges tear easily if thin and require reinforcement with nylon fibres.
• Easily stained and degrade when exposed to ultraviolet light,

peroxides and ozone.
• Lack life like appearance.
• Metal moulds are required for curing.
• Can be used from 1 to 6 months.
Chlorinated polyethylene
The processing involves high heat curing of pigmented sheets of the
thermoplastic polymer in metal moulds.
• Colouration using oil soluble dyes and repeated moulding is

possible.
• CPE 726/19-15, as a potential maxillofacial material.
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Polyurethane elastomers
They serve a variety of commercial and medical uses but only one of
them (epithane 3) is available for use in facial restorations. It has
urethane linkages.
They possess a number of excellent properties:
• Elastic, not compromising edge strength.
• Flexibility which can be used in defects with movable tissue beds.
Coloured both intrinsically and extrinsically.
Silicones
They were introduced in 1946 and they exhibit good weathering
properties. They also maintain good physical properties over wide
range of temperatures.
Advantages
• Soft and comfortable to the patients.
• Allow good colour matches to be achieved.
Silicones are a combination of organic and inorganic compounds.

Most rubbery forms of silicones are compounded with fillers that
provide additional strength. Additives are used to provide colour.
Antioxidants and vulcanizing agents are used to transform the raw
mass form plastic to rubbery resin during processing.
The process of cross-linking the polymer is referred to as
vulcanization. Vulcanization occurs both with and without heat and
depends on the catalytic or cross-linking agents utilized.
Types
1. Heat temperature vulcanization silicones (HTV)
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2. Room temperature vulcanization silicones (RTV)
HTV silicones
A white opaque material with highly viscous, putty-like consistency;
it is available as 1 component or 2 component putty.
Properties
• Exhibit excellent thermal stability.
• Colour stable when exposed to ultraviolet light.
• Do not posses sufficient elasticity to function in movable tissue beds.
Disadvantages of HTV
• Opaque and lifeless appearance.
• Do not readily accept extrinsic colouration, the internal colourants

must be incorporated into the gum stock with a milling device.
• Because high temperatures are required for vulcanization, metal

moulds are necessary.
• Examples: Silastic 370, 372, 373, 4-4514, 4515.
RTV silicones (fig. 50.32)

The properties RTV silicones are similar to the HTV types:
• Colour stable.
• Retain their physical and chemical properties at wide temperature

ranges.
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• Clear solutions are available that enable the fabrication of
translucent prostheses.
FIGURE 50.32 RTV silicone base is dispensed in a white

paper pad and liquid catalyst added according to
manufacturer’s specification.
The RTVs are much easier to process than heat-cured forms.

Moulds of dental stone can be used.
Disadvantages
• Poor edge strength.l
Difficult to colour.
• The cosmetic appearances of these materials are much lesser than

acrylics, polyurethanes and polyvinyl chlorides.
• Examples:
○ Silastic 382, 399
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○ MDX 4-4210
○ Silastic 891
○ Cosmesil
○ Siphenylenes
Newer materials
Silicone block copolymers
These are new materials under development to improve some of the
weakness of silicone elastomers, such as low tear strength, low per
cent elongation, more tear resistance.
Primers
Primers used for promotion of bonding between silicone and other
maxillofacial prosthetic materials.
Adhesives
They are commonly classified by the method in which they are
dispensed – pastes, liquid emulsions, spray on and double sided tapes
(Fig. 50.33).
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FIGURE 50.33 The liquid emulsion adhesive is applied on
the tissue surface of the ear prosthesis.
Removers
These are used to clean the adhesive form the skin. The various
adhesive removers available are
• 1:1 Trichloroethane
• Acetone
• Kryolan medical sprit gum remover
Disadvantages
• Sebum acts as a barrier between skin and adhesive.
• Moisture reduces adhesive nature of the adhesive.
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• Solvents used to remove adhesive from the skin act as irritants.
• Allergy.
• Trauma to the skin at the time of removal.
Tissue conditioners
It consists of ethoxyethyl acid copolymer ethyl acetate. It provides an
elastic protective barrier that prevents skin damage.
SUMMARY
Prosthetic rehabilitation of maxillofacial defects is most challenging.
Very often the surgical team and the prosthetic team do not work
hand in hand. This results in a very poor outcome of the prosthesis
which will eventually affect the self-esteem of the patient and the
quality of life of such patients drastically reduce. It is prudent to be
proactive for a prosthodontist to get involved in the surgery for a
favourable prognosis. The advent of material science has paved way
for improved quality of prosthetic service. Till date none of the
materials satisfy all the requirements of the ideal material. Each
material has its own advantages and disadvantages.
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CHAPTER
51
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Smile Design
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction 797
Components of smile aesthetics 797
Facial aesthetics 797
Gingival aesthetics 798
Macroaesthetics 798
Microaesthetics 801
Proportion in smile design 802
Golden proportion 802
Facial proportion 802
Dental proportion 803
Golden percentage 803
Absolute and conversational aesthetics 803
Summary 803
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Introduction
The art and science of beauty is known as aesthetics. A successful
prosthodontic treatment is one that provides the patient with long-
term function and also an attractive smile. The factors that make a
smile appear beautiful differ from culture to culture. A smile is
considered attractive and youthful when it shows the complete
outline of the maxillary anterior teeth and teeth posterior to the first
molar also. In the elderly, the smile shows less of maxillary incisors
and more mandibular incisors. The smile considered most attractive is
the one in which the incisal edges of maxillary teeth are parallel to the
lower lip.
While smiling, a person typically displays the maxillary anterior
and premolar teeth, and frequently maxillary first molars also. This
zone of exposure during smile is called the ‘appearance zone’ (Fig.
51.1). The zone varies from person to person depending on mouth
size, smile width, tooth length, lip size and tightness, and also the
person’s self-image.
FIGURE 51.1 Ideal exposure of teeth while smiling –

appearance zone.
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In order to achieve a good appearance and smile with prosthesis, it
is essential that we learn about the anatomy of smile, components of
smile aesthetics and its principles, so as to incorporate the same
during treatment.
The anatomy of smile includes upper and lower lip frame which
displays zone of the smile. Within this framework or composition, the
components of smile are teeth and gingival scaffold. The soft-tissue
determinants of the display zone are lip thickness, intercommissure
width, interlabial gap, smile index (width/height) and gingival
architecture.
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Components of smile aesthetics
The overall impact of a smile can be divided into four specific
components namely:
• Facial aesthetics
• Gingival aesthetics
• Macroaesthetics
• Microaesthetics
The treatment planning during designing of a smile will also follow

the same order. Planning of typical smile design begins with the
following:
• Initial patient visit knowing the expectation of the patient.
• Medical and dental history.
• This is followed by static (photographic) and dynamic (video)

record.
• Clinical examination of existing components of smile.
• Treatment planning.
Facial aesthetics
Facial features in smile design include facial height, facial shape, facial
profile, gender and age. In addition personality, hair colour, skin tone
also affect in designing the smile. Facial and muscular considerations
vary from person to person and are studied through visual and
photographic analysis.
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Gingival aesthetics
The health, symmetry and architecture of gingiva are the next
essential elements in smile design. The gingival components include
the colour, contour, texture and height of the gingivae.
Health
Healthy gingival tissues are pale pink and can vary in degree of
vascularity, epithelial keratinization, pigmentation and in the
thickness of the epithelium. The texture of the tissues should be
stippled (orange peel–like appearance) in most cases (Fig. 51.2). In
younger females, the tissue is more finely textured and has a finer
stippling when compared with that of males.
FIGURE 51.2 Orange-peel appearance showing healthy

gingivae with stippling.
Architecture
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The architecture has a positive radicular shape, forming a scalloped
appearance that is symmetric on both sides of the midline. The
marginal contour of the gingiva should be sloped coronally to the end
in a thin edge.
Symmetry
The gingival contours should be symmetric, even in the cases of teeth
not being aligned properly (Fig. 51.3). The marginal gingival tissues of
the maxillary anterior teeth should be located along a horizontal line
extending from cuspid to cuspid. Ideally, the laterals reach slightly
short of that line (Fig. 51.4).
FIGURE 51.3 (A) Gingival symmetry in normally aligned

teeth. (B) Gingival symmetry in malaligned teeth.
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FIGURE 51.4 Location of gingiva. Note lateral incisor slightly
short of the rest.
The gingival zenith point is the most apical point of the gingival
tissues along the long axis of the tooth. This most apical point is
located distal to the long axis on the maxillary centrals and cuspids.
The zenith point of the maxillary laterals and the mandibular incisors
is coincident with the long axis of these teeth (Fig. 51.5).
FIGURE 51.5 Gingival zenith and its relationship to the long

axis of the teeth.
Macroaesthetics
This refers to the composition consisting of the lips, its relationship
with each other, anterior set of teeth and its dynamic quotient with the
lip activity.
Lip analysis
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Lips form an important role such that, they create the boundaries of
the smile design’s influence. Understanding lip morphology and lip
mobility can often be helpful in meeting patients’ expectations and
determining the criteria for success. The upper and lower lips should
be analysed separately and independent of one another.
Lip morphology
Three aspects of the lip morphology that should be considered are
width, fullness and symmetry.
• A smile that is at least half the width of the face is considered

aesthetic.
• The fullness of the lip or lip volume can be categorized as full,

average or thin and this is arbitrary.
• Lip symmetry involves the mirror image appearance of each lip

when smiling (Fig. 51.6).
FIGURE 51.6 Lip symmetry during smile. Figure shows

distance from midline equal on both sides.
Lip mobility
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The position of the lips in the rest position should be evaluated for lip
contact as well as for the range of lip mobility when smiling. These
two determinants establish how much tooth structure and gingival
tissue are revealed when comparing the repose and full smile
positions.
Smile line
The smile line or incisal curve is made up of the incisal edges of the
maxillary anterior teeth and parallels the inner curve of the lower lip
(Fig. 51.7). It is parallel with the interpupillary axis and perpendicular
to the midline of the face (Fig. 51.8). Nearly 80% of young subjects
display the entire length of the maxillary anterior teeth. With the
upper lip at rest, women show approximately twice as much
maxillary central incisor as men (3.4:1.9 mm). Men are 2.4 times more
likely to have a low smile line than women.
FIGURE 51.7 Smile line – maxillary incisal edge parallel to

inner curve of lower lip.
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FIGURE 51.8 Midline of the face coincides with dental
midline.
Midline
The midline is the focal point of the smile. It is centred on the face
perpendicular to the interpupillary axis. Facial and incisal midlines
need to coincide as in Fig. 51.8. This coincidence is important when
planning orthodontic treatment and when planning treatment for
prosthodontics.
Perfect symmetry is rare, and in case compromises have to be made,
the midline of the smile should correspond to the features nearest to
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it, like the columella of the nose or the philtrum (Fig. 51.9).
FIGURE 51.9 When facial midline does not coincide with

dental midline philtrum can be used as reference line.
Balance
Balance, including the location of the midline is aesthetically
important. The left and the right sides of the mouth should balance
out, if not to match precisely. Even if the teeth are malformed or
malaligned there should be a symmetry between the right and the left
side. A balanced arrangement implies stability and permanence
besides being aesthetically satisfying.
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Length of incisors
The length of maxillary incisors is important since they play an
important role in phonetics and anterior guidance. So aesthetics alone
cannot establish the length.
• When the patient utters the letter ‘f’ the incisal edges of maxillary
incisors with the correct length will be placed against the inner edge
of the vermilion border (the wet dry line) of the lower lip (Fig.
51.10).
• The sounds ‘m’ and ‘e’ also determine the incisal length.
• The ‘f’/’v’ sound determines both incisal length and incisal profile.
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FIGURE 51.10 The position of maxillary central incisors for ‘f’
sound in vermilion border.
The incisal edges of mandibular incisors are established both by

occlusal contact with the maxillary incisors and by their position 1.0
mm behind and 1.0 mm below the edges of the maxillary teeth when
pronouncing the letter ‘s’. In young people below the age of 30 years,
very little is seen of the mandibular central incisors. As the age
progresses and tissues around the mouth sag, the length of maxillary
incisors which are exposed diminishes and the amount of mandibular
incisors which are seen increases. At the age of 60 while nearly 3.0 mm
of the mandibular incisors are exposed, the length of maxillary central
incisors showing below the upper lip is 0.0 mm.
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Incisor angulation
Studies of subjects with normal occlusion that have not received any
orthodontic treatment reveal the following:
• The crowns of teeth are angled so that the incisal portions of the
long axes of the crowns were more mesial than the gingival
segments (Fig. 51.11).
• Also, there is a lingual inclination of the incisal or occlusal segment

of the facial surfaces of canines, premolars and especially molars
(Fig. 51.12).
FIGURE 51.11 The gingival one-third more mesial than

incisal third.
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FIGURE 51.12 Lingual inclination of canine.
So to achieve an aesthetic effect, biplanar facial reduction is

required in tooth preparations for all-ceramic or metal-ceramic crowns
on anterior or posterior teeth.
Radiating symmetry
If teeth have different shapes but left and right sides are mirror
images of each other, it is called radiating symmetry. Introducing
slight variations on each side produces a more natural appearance.
Incisal embrasure form

Incisal embrasure is an open space that is formed between the
proximal surfaces of incisal edges from the contact points.
• The incisal edges of the maxillary central incisors and the cusp tips
of the canines should be on the same gently curved horizontal line,
with the lateral incisors nearly 1.0 mm above the line.
• Beginning with the mesial of the central incisors, the interproximal

contacts of the maxillary anterior teeth are situated successively
more gingivally, all the way to the distal of the canines.
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• As the contacts become located farther gingivally, the incisal
embrasures become progressively larger, creating a more dynamic
and youthful smile (Fig. 51.13).
• With age and increased wear, the incisal embrasures become

minimal.
FIGURE 51.13 Incisal embrasure becoming progressively

larger in posterior teeth.
Buccal corridor
The area between the corners of the mouth during smile formation
and the buccal surfaces of the maxillary teeth (particularly the
bicuspids and molars) form a space known as the buccal corridor (Fig.
51.14).
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FIGURE 51.14 Buccal corridor space.
A full and symmetric buccal corridor is an important element of an

aesthetic smile. The buccal corridor should not be completely
eliminated because a hint of negative space imparts a suggestion of
depth to the smile. Several factors influence the appearance of the
buccal corridor.
• Width of the smile and the maxillary arch.
• Tonicity of facial muscles.
• Individual smiling characteristics.
• Position of the labial surfaces of the maxillary bicuspids.
• Predominance of the cuspids, particularly at the distal facial line

angle.
• Any discrepancy between the value of the bicuspids and the six
anterior teeth.
Microaesthetics
The ideal restoration is one with qualities closely resembling those of
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natural teeth. Specific incisal translucency patterns, characterization,
lobe development and incisal haloing all are components of the
microaesthetics of each tooth.
Specific tooth form

The different tooth forms can be correlated invariably to sex or
personality and specific age which have been explained in dentogenic
concept.
Shade matching
When observing the natural dentition, a significant difference in
colour can be seen between the teeth in both the arches. Also, the
colour of the tooth depends on the thickness of the enamel and the
level of saturation of the dentine.
• The maxillary central incisors are the lightest teeth in the mouth.
• In most individuals, the lateral incisors appear to be of the same hue

as the central incisors but slightly less intense, therefore, they look
less bright.
• The canines both maxillary and mandibular often show a much

more intense chroma, sometimes appearing much darker than the
teeth adjacent to them (Fig. 51.15).
• The premolars are of a similar colour to the lateral incisors,

therefore, distinguishing themselves from the canines.
• In the cervical area, the reduced thickness of the enamel makes the
colour of the dentine more evident, producing greater chromatic
saturation. Thicker enamel on the other hand produces a marked
translucency in the incisal third.
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FIGURE 51.15 Canines exhibit an increased chroma when
compared to central incisors.
When restoring anterior teeth, due consideration must be given to

recreating a natural colour progression and the colour obtained in this
way will represent the new point of reference for the restorative
therapy.
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Proportion in smile design
Golden proportion
Beauty is a matter of having the right proportions. The ‘golden
proportion’ found in many aspects of the natural world is presented
in a mathematical progression called the Fibonacci series, in which each
number is the sum of the two immediately preceding it (i.e. 1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, and so on). The ratio between succeeding terms
is approximately 1:1.618 and is known as the golden proportion or divine
proportion. Concept of golden proportion to dentistry was first
mentioned by Lombardi and later developed by Levin. When a line is
bisected in the golden proportion, the ratio of the smaller section to
the larger section is the same as the ratio of the larger section to the
whole line (Fig. 51.16). The golden proportion exists in natural
dentitions in the ratio of the widths of incisors and canines as seen
from the front.
FIGURE 51.16 A typical example of a golden proportion.
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In nature, golden proportion exists in almost every entity that is
appealing, i.e. for example wings of a butterfly, flowers, peacock
feather, molluscan shells, Greek architecture, Egyptian pyramids and
DNA molecule (Fig. 51.17).
FIGURE 51.17 A flower exhibiting golden proportion ratio.
Levin (1978) demonstrates that the three anterior teeth (central,

lateral, canine) and sometimes the premolars are in golden proportion
to the width of the smile.
• Levin observed that widths of maxillary anterior teeth when viewed

from front, lie in golden proportion, i.e.
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○ Central incisor × 0.618 = width of lateral incisor.
○ Or 62% of central incisor width = width of lateral

incisor.
○ 62% of lateral incisor width = canine, and so on.

• Special calipers that extend to the golden proportion are helpful in
designing a well-proportioned prosthesis.
• Maxillary central incisors are the most prominent and are positioned
at the middle of the smile. They have the widest crowns of the
anterior teeth. Canines are the next widest, lateral incisors are the
narrowest.
From a frontal view even though the width of teeth varies, the
apparent sizes of teeth should get progressively smaller from the
midline distally. This reduction in size should be in proportion to the
golden ratio (1:1.618). This means that starting from the midline, each
of the anterior teeth should be slightly less than 40% narrower than
the tooth immediately mesial to it (Fig. 51.18).
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FIGURE 51.18 Golden proportions in smile from frontal view.
Facial proportion
The rule of thirds divides the face vertically into approximately three
equal segments – the superior border of the face is the trichion (ideal
hairline), the junction between the upper and middle thirds is the
nasion, the junction of the middle and lower third is subnasale, and
the inferior border is the menton. If the lower third of the face
subsequently is subdivided into thirds, the ideal position of the incisal
plane is at the junction of the upper and middle thirds.
Dental proportion
It has been stated throughout dental literature that the height of the
central incisor should be one-sixteenth of the height of the face from
ideal hairline to the chin and that the width of the ideal central incisor
should be one-sixteenth of the interzygomatic width. Another
common rule of smile design is that the widths of the anterior six teeth
as viewed from the frontal should be in golden proportion to the
intercommissural width.
Golden percentage
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Snow considered a bilateral analysis of apparent individual tooth
width as a percentage of the total apparent width of the six anterior
teeth. He proposed the golden percentage wherein the proportional
width of each tooth should be central 25%, lateral 15% and canine 10%
of the total distance across the anterior segment in order to achieve an
aesthetically pleasing smile.
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Absolute and conversational aesthetics
• ‘Absolute aesthetics’ require that no metal be visible even if one was
to look carefully. If metal is visible when the lip is retracted and a
strong light shone is in the mouth, the restoration or replacement
does not meet the requirement of ‘absolute aesthetics’.
• ‘Conversational aesthetics’ require that surface metal be not visible

in normal conversation.
• The patient is the ultimate judge and satisfaction of the patient is

most important. It is best to discuss the aesthetic requirements with
the patient in front of a wall mirror and not with a hand mirror
under a dental unit.
SUMMARY
To contribute to a pleasing facial appearance, designing of smile is
one of the key factors which should be applied in restoration of both
partially and completely edentulous patients. This requires an
analysis of the face, lips, gingiva, tooth contour, size, incisal plane,
incisal edges and midline all of which must be in harmony. For
optimum stability, comfort and function; the anterior teeth must be in
harmony with the neutral zone, lips, phonetics, centric relation and
envelope of function. This results in reproduction of face with the
most natural aesthetics.
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Appendices
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Questions
Chapter 1 Introduction
Essay
1. Discuss in detail the effects of ageing in a completely edentulous
patient.
2. Describe aetiology, pathology and clinical manifestations of RRR

and prosthetic management of same.
Short notes
1. Residual ridge resorption
2. Nutrition guidelines for prosthetic patients
3. Surfaces of a complete denture
4. Component parts of a complete denture.
Chapter 2 diagnosis and treatment planning
Essay
1. What do you understand by the term ‘examination of the patient’?
Name the objectives of examination of patient. Discuss in detail the
clinical significance of anatomical landmarks of edentulous maxilla
and mandible.
2. A patient forty-years-old suffering from diabetes comes to you for

complete denture. Give your outline of the treatment with special
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reference to impression procedure.
3. Role of saliva in success of complete denture prosthodontics.
Short notes
1. Gagging
2. Mental attitudes of patients
3. House’s classification
4. Importance of counselling for complete denture wearer
5. Maxillary torus
6. Psychological evaluation of edentulous patients
7. Pre-extraction records
8. Diagnostic casts
9. Prosthodontic Diagnostic Index
10. Classification of soft palate
11. Residual alveolar ridge
12. Saliva.
Chapter 3 mouth preparation
Essay
1. Discuss the sequelae of wearing complete dentures.
2. Discuss in detail mouth preparation for complete denture patient.
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Short notes
1. Preprosthetic surgery
2. Denture stomatitis
3. Denture sore mouth
4. Denture hyperplasia
5. Epulis fissuratum
6. Flabby ridge
7. Combination syndrome
8. Burning mouth syndrome
9. Gagging
10. Angular cheilitis
11. Tori
12. Vestibuloplasty
13. Ridge augmentation.
Chapter 4 impressions and casts
Essay
1. Write in detail about the anatomical landmarks of maxillary and
mandibular edentulous arches in relation to complete denture
construction.
2. Give a short summary of the applied anatomy regarding denture
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foundation area for complete denture.
3. Define impressions in complete dentures. Write in detail the

principles, objectives and theories of impressions.
4. Define retention, stability and support. Write in detail about the

factors influencing the retention, stability and support in complete
denture.
5. Mention the objectives of impression making and discuss the

procedures of merits and demerits of different impression techniques
for complete denture patients.
6. Define and discuss various impression theories and techniques in

complete denture fabrication.
7. Define posterior palatal seal and mention its importance. Discuss in

detail, its boundaries and methods of recording it for complete
denture patient.
8. Explain how impression surface and periphery of the maxillary

complete denture contribute to retention of denture.
9. Define and explain the need for border moulding procedure.

Describe the various impression techniques in complete denture.
10. Define retention. Enumerate and discuss various factors

responsible for retention in complete denture.
Short notes
1. Primary stress-bearing area in maxilla and mandible
2. Buccal shelf area
3. Relief areas in complete denture
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4. Stress-bearing areas
5. Retromolar pad
6. Significance of hamular notch
7. Clinical consideration of microscopic anatomy of complete denture

foundation
8. Maxillary tuberosity
9. Alveolingual sulcus
10. Macroscopic anatomy of supporting and limiting structures of

maxilla
11. Muscles of soft palate
12. Mucostatic vs mucocompressive impression techniques
13. Interfacial surface tension
14. Retention and stability
15. Vibrating line of palate and its importance in
16. Fabrication of custom tray for completely edentulous arches
17. Selective pressure impression technique in complete denture

patients
18. Retention in complete dentures
19. Significance of peripheral seal in complete denture
20. Fluid wax impression
21. Posterior palatal seal
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22. Mucostatic impression
23. Advantages of special trays for complete denture
24. Mechanism of complete denture support
25. Impression technique for flabby ridge
26. Pascal’s law
27. Functions of posterior palatal seal
28. Important anatomical landmarks in complete denture construction
29. Mouth temperature fluid wax
30. Vibrating line
31. Cast indexing.
Chapter 5 record bases and occlusal rims
Short notes
1. Occlusal rims for construction of complete denture
2. Advantages of metallic denture bases
3. Chrome cobalt complete denture base
4. Guidelines for occlusal rims
Chapter 6 maxillomandibular relations
Essay
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1. Discuss in detail mandibular movements.
2. What are jaw relations? Discuss its biological significance during

complete denture preparation.
3. Write the importance of centric relation in complete denture

treatment. Write in brief the methods to record centric relation in
complete dentures.
4. Define centric relation. Enumerate the various methods of recording

centric jaw relation for a complete denture. Describe any one method
in detail. Add a note on difficulties encountered while recording
centric relation.
5. Write about the maxillomandibular relations and concepts of

occlusion for complete denture.
6. What is jaw relation? Classify jaw relations. Enumerate various

methods of recording different jaw relations. Discuss in detail any one
method of recording vertical jaw relation.
7. Define jaw relation. Mention the significance of physiological rest

position. Discuss the effects of increased and decreased vertical jaw
relation.
8. Mention the jaw relations to be transferred from patient to the

articulator. Describe the methods to record vertical dimension of
occlusion.
9. Define rest position of the mandible. Classify the methods of

recording vertical relations for complete denture.
10. Define and classify facebows. Describe briefly a facebow used for
complete denture.
11. Define centric relation. Mention the various methods of recording

centric relation. Describe in detail the extraoral method of gothic arch
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tracing.
Short notes
1. Posselt’s envelope of motion
2. Hinge axis
3. Physiological rest position
4. Arbitrary facebow
5. Parts of a facebow
6. Christenseon’s phenomenon
7. Significance of centric relation
8. Gothic arch tracing
9. Vertical jaw relations
10. Niswonger’s method
11. Needles–House chew-in technique
12. Nick and notch method
14. Physiological methods of determining vertical dimension
15. Vertical jaw relation
16. Centric relation and centric occlusion
17. Ill effects of altered vertical dimensions
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19. Silverman’s speaking space
20. Methods of retruding the mandible
21. Functional method of registering centric relation
22. Bennett movement
23. Freeway space
24. Significance of rest position of the mandible
25. Interocclusal check records
26. Boos bimeter.
Chapter 7 articulation
Essay
1. Define and classify articulators. Add a note on the uses of an
articulator.
2. List the steps in the procedure for mounting upper and lower casts
on mean value articulator.
Short notes
1. Semi-adjustable articulators
2. Average movement articluators
3. Articulators and its uses
4. Three point articulator
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5. Arcon articulators
6. Requirements of articulators
7. Spherical theory
8. Bonwill theory
9. Conical theory.
Chapter 8 occlusion
Essay
1. Classify various complete denture occlusions. Discuss in detail
balanced occlusion.
2. What is balanced occlusion. How do you establish it while

fabricating a complete denture.
3. Define balanced occlusion. Explain in detail, the various factors of

balanced occlusion.
4. Mention the importance of occlusion in complete dentures. Write in

brief the factors governing balanced articulation.
5. Define balanced occlusion. Explain in detail, the importance of five

cardinal factors while fabricating complete denture for an edentulous
patient.
Short notes
1. Law of balanced occlusion
2. Non balanced concept of occlusion
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3. Advantages of balanced occlusion
4. Monoplane occlusal scheme
5. Lingualized occlusion
6. Rationale of balanced occlusion
7. Balanced occlusion
8. Hanau’s quint
9. Compensating curves.
Chapter 9 selection of artificial teeth
Essay
1. Discuss selection of teeth for a completely edentulous patient.
2. Describe in brief the various posterior tooth forms for denture.
Short notes
1. Hardy’s tooth form
2. Non-anatomic teeth
3. Leon William’s contribution to selection of teeth
4. Selection of anterior teeth for complete denture patient
5. Non-anatomic posterior tooth form
6. Selection and arrangement of anterior teeth
7. Colour of teeth in complete denture fabrication
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8. Selection of teeth for geriatric patient
9. SPA factor in complete denture
10. Incorporation of SPA factor in selection and positioning of artificial

teeth
12. Realeff.
Chapter 10 teeth arrangement
Short notes
1. Anatomical landmarks influencing teeth arrangement
2. Vertical and horizontal overlaps
3. Key of occlusion
4. Setting principles of upper anterior teeth
5. Setting principles of lower anterior teeth
6. Neutral zone.
Chapter 11 try-in
Essay
1. Define denture aesthetics. Give in detail the aesthetic requirements
of complete denture.
2. Describe step-by-step procedures for try-in.
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Short notes
1. Phonetics in complete denture
2. Try-in.
Chapter 12 processing and remounting
Short notes
1. Waxing and carving
2. Remounting
3. Selective grinding
4. Abrasives and polishing agents for dental prosthesis
5. Finishing and polishing of resin prosthesis.
Chapter 13 denture insertion
Short notes
1. Postinsertion instruction to the patients wearing dentures
2. Hygiene of complete denture
3. Denture cleansers
4. Denture adhesive
5. Pressure indicating paste
6. Remount cast.
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Chapter 14 post-insertion problems
Essay
1. Enumerate various postinsertion problems in complete denture
wearers. Write in detail about their causes and management. Add a
note on laboratory remounting.
Short notes
1. Problems associated with complete denture use
2. Causes of midline fracture of maxillary denture
3. Speech problems
4. Porosities in complete denture.
Chapter 15 refitting and repair
Short notes
1. Indications for relining and rebasing
2. Relining and rebasing
3. Tissue conditioners
4. Treatment of abused tissues
5. Resilient liners
6. Soft liners
7. Reline jig.
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Chapter 16 single complete denture
Short notes
1. Single complete dentures
2. Mouth preparation for single complete dentures
3. Combination syndrome.
Chapter 17 immediate dentures
Essay
1. Describe in detail the indications, contraindications and steps
involved in fabrication of immediate dentures.
Short notes
1. Immediate denture
2. Surgical template for immediate dentures
3. Follow up care for immediate dentures
4. Instructions following insertion of immediate denture
5. Advantages and disadvantages of immediate denture
6. Interim immediate dentures.
Chapter 18 introduction
Short notes
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1. Indications of removable partial dentures.
2. Steps in the fabrication of a cast removable partial denture.
Chapter 19 sequelae of partial edentulism
Essay
1. Discuss in detail the sequelae of tooth loss or partial edentulism.
Short notes
1. Classify supraerupted teeth.
Chapter 20 classification of partially edentulous

arches
Essay
1. Explain the modes of classification of removable partial denture
with diagram. Discuss the importance of such classification.
Short notes
1. Kennedy’s classification
2. Need for classification of partial edentulous system
3. Applegate’s rules for Kennedy’s classification
4. Applegate–Kennedy classification
5. ACP classification
6. Demerits of Kennedy’s classification.
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Chapter 21 component parts
Essay
1. Define major connectors in removable partial denture. Discuss with
diagrams different mandibular major connectors.
2. What is a major connector? Describe the different types of maxillary

and mandibular major connectors.
3. Write the components of removable partial dentures and discuss

major connectors.
4. Classify ‘rests’ in removable partial denture. Describe the function

and topography of occlusal rest, illustrating with diagram the occlusal
rest seat.
5. Enumerate the various component of a removable partial denture

and discuss in detail about maxillary major connectors.
6. Discuss the requirement of major connectors, explain the indication,

contraindication, advantages, disadvantages and design features of
mandibular major connectors.
7. Write the components of cast partial denture and write in detail

about direct retainers.
8. Write in detail about various modifications of circumferential clasps

and add a note on intracoronal direct retainers.
9. Write an essay on minor connector.
10. Define, classify and describe the commonly used clasps in RPD.
11. Define and classify direct retainers. List the differences between
occlusal approaching and gingival approaching clasps. Explain in
detail combination clasps.
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12. Define a clasp. Describe the parts of clasps. Illustrate with diagram
about the various configurations of clasps and their relevance to
survey lines.
Short notes
1. Kennedy’s bar
2. Role of indirect retainers and types used
3. Reciprocal arm
4. Linguoplate
5. Lingual bar
6. Bar clasp/gingivally approaching clasp
7. Embrasure clasps
8. Combination clasps
9. I-bar clasps
10. Indirect retainer
11. Compare retentive and reciprocal arm in removable partial

dentures
12. Selection of mandibular major connector
13. Functions of occlusal rest
14. Requirements of major connector
15. Rest and rest seat
16. Disadvantages of clasp retained partial denture
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17. Form and location of minor connector
18. Minor connector
19. Cast clasp vs wrought clasp
20. Rules for using ring clasp
21. Clasp assembly
22. Akers’ clasp with diagram
23. Minor connector
24. Occlusally approaching clasp
25. Direct retainers
26. Types of bar clasps
27. Canine rests
28. Occlusal rest
29. Types of dentures bases for removable partial dentures
30. Artificial teeth for removable partial dentures
31. Tube teeth.
Essay
1. Discuss diagnosis and treatment planning for cast removable partial
dentures.
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Short notes
1. Treatment planning of removable partial denture.
Chapter 23 surveying
Essay
1. Define surveyor. What are the principles of surveying. Draw the
diagram of surveyor and list out its uses.
2. Discuss in detail how surveyor is utilized in selecting the path of

insertion and removable of RPD. Add a note on tripoding.
3. Write in brief the importance of dental cast surveyor in designing

biologically acceptable removable partial denture.
4. Define surveyor. Write parts and explain the uses of surveyor.
5. What is a surveyor? Mention its uses and describe step-by-step

procedure of surveying a diagnostic cast.
Short notes
1. Path of insertion in RPD
2. Guide planes
3. Factors influencing the path of insertion on removable prosthesis
4. Survey lines
5. Undercut gauge and their application in surveying
6. Surveyor
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7. Surveyor draw figure and mark parts
8. Tripodisation
9. Block out
10. Near zone and far zone.
Chapter 24 principles and design
Essay
1. Discuss the indications for RPD. Discuss the advantages,
disadvantages and principles in designing an RPD.
2. Discuss in detail the principles and philosophies of designing a cast

partial denture.
3. Discuss direct and indirect retention in RPD.
4. Define direct retainer. Write the various principles of designing a

clasp. Add a note on various types of clasps.
5. Discuss the various biomechanical considerations in designing a

RPD.
Short notes
1. Problems of Kennedy class I and class II partial dentures.
2. Principles of indirect retention.
3. Compare between direct versus indirect retention in RPD.
4. Factors affecting support in distal extension situation.
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5. Fulcrum axis and its importance in RPD design.
6. Requirements of clasp design.
7. Stress breakers.
8. Design philosophies.
Chapter 25 mouth preparation
Essay
1. Discuss mouth preparation in removable partial denture.
2. Describe the importance of mouth preparation in designing of

partial dentures.
Short notes
1. Mouth preparation prior to RPD surveying.
2. Importance of mouth preparation in partial denture treatment.
3. Rest seat preparation.
Chapter 26 secondary impressions and master

cast
Essay
1. Describe the impression methods of registering support in distal
extension base prosthesis.
2. Classify impression techniques. Describe the impression technique

for distal extended RPD.
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Short notes
1. Impression procedure in cast RPD
2. Pick-up impressions
3. Impression in distal extension partial denture
4. Mclean’s physiological impression
5. Functional relining technique
6. Altered cast technique
7. Comparison of McLean and Hindels’ impression technique
8. Classification of RPD impression techniques
9. Ridge correction technique
10. Fluid wax impression technique.
Chapter 27 fabrication of removable partial

denture
Short notes
1. Distal extension denture base in removable partial denture
construction
2. Denture base materials for RPD
3. Selection of prosthetic replacement teeth for RPD
4. Denture base for cast RPD
5. Occlusal registration in removable partial denture
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6. Phosphate bonded investments
7. Block out
8. Refractory cast
9. Duplication
10. Beading.
Chapter 28 denture insertion
Short notes
1. Postinsertion problems in cast RPDs
2. Adjusting clasps in RPD.
Chapter 29 refitting and repair
Short notes
1. Rebasing of removal partial denture
2. Repair of RPD.
Chapter 30 forms of removable partial dentures
Short notes
1. Indication, advantages, disadvantages of Swing–Lock denture
2. Every denture
3. Spoon denture
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4. Disjunct denture
5. Sectional dentures
6. I-bar RPDs
7. RPI denture
8. RPA denture
9. Guide plane dentures
10. Unilateral dentures
11. Interim RPD
12. Transitional RPD.
Chapter 31 introduction
Short notes
1. Contraindication for FPDs
2. Indications for FPDs
3. Classifications of FPDs
4. Spring cantilever bridges
5. Fixed removable bridges
6. Tensofrictional resistance.
Chapter 32 component parts
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Essay
1. Define pontic. Explain various types of pontic used in FPD.
2. Name various types of bridges. Diagrammatically name the parts of

bridge. Classify retainers. Discuss in detail about radicular retainers.
3. Describe the component parts of FPD.
4. Describe the method of classifying fixed bridge. Explain the various

design of pontics and their indications in bridges.
5. Classify bridge pontics. Give the biomechanical requirements in

design and fabrication of pontic.
6. Discuss the component parts of FPD. Describe in detail retainers

and their selection.
Short notes
1. Selection of retainers in FPD
2. Non-rigid connectors
3. Semi-rigid connector
4. Hygienic pontic
5. Connectors in FPD
6. Ovate pontic
7. Residual ridge in partially edentulous patient
8. Extracoronal retainers in FPD
9. Types of connectors used in FPD
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10. Pontic in fixed partial denture
11. Ridge lap pontics
12. Pontic design
13. Sanitary pontic.
Essay
1. Define abutment. Discuss selection of an abutment teeth for fixed
partial denture.
2. What are the requirements of ideal abutment for fixed partial

denture.
3. Define fixed partial denture. Enumerate the indications and

contraindications for its use and give an account of the factors
affecting the selection of abutment teeth.
Short notes
1. Criteria for good abutment selection
2. Importance of radiographs in FPD
3. Ideal abutment
4. Evaluation of abutment teeth
5. Diagnostic cast and its importance in FPDs
6. Pier abutment and its significance
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7. Cantilever bridge
8. Tilted molar abutment
9. Telescopic crown
10. Double abutments
11. Ante’s law and its significance.
Chapter 34 occlusion
Essay
1. Discuss in detail mandibular movements and occlusal contact in
natural dentition.
Short notes
1. Concepts of occlusion in FPDs
2. Interocclusal check records
3. Mutually protected occlusion
4. Unilateral balanced occlusion
5. Canine guided occlusion
6. Pathogenic occlusion
7. Interferences and correction
8. Ideal occlusion.
Chapter 35 tooth preparation
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Essay
1. Classify retainers used in fixed partial denture. Enumerate the steps
in preparation of full ceramic crown for 21. Add a note on advantages
and disadvantages of the same.
2. Describe the biomechanical consideration of tooth preparation for

fixed partial denture.
3. Mention the principles of tooth preparation and discuss how you

obtain retention and resistance form.
4. Discuss biomechanical principles of tooth preparation for fixed

partial denture.
5. Explain the indication, contraindication steps to be followed in

tooth preparation of partial veneer crown.
6. Mention indication and contraindication for metal ceramic crown.

Describe the step-by-step procedure in preparation of molar tooth for
metal ceramic crown.
7. Discuss tooth preparation for metal ceramic restoration in maxillary

central incisors.
8. Discuss various marginal preparations on abutments in crown and

bridge restoration. Give the indication, significance, merits and
demerits of each.
9. Discuss in detail about partial veneer crown. Mention their

advantages, disadvantages over other types of retainers.
10. Define partial veneer crown. Write in detail step-by-step

preparation of maxillary canine to receive ¾ crown.
11. Describe in detail the procedure of preparing vital teeth to receive

a metal ceramic retainer.
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12. Enumerate the principles of tooth preparation. Explain in detail the
evaluation of abutment teeth for fixed partial denture.
Short notes
1. Finishing lines of prepared teeth
2. Marginal integrity
3. Taper
4. Conservation of tooth structure
5. Structural durability
6. Path of insertion in FPDs
7. Gingival finish lines
8. Partial veneer restorations
9. Resistance and retention form in tooth preparation
10. Cervical finish lines in tooth preparation
11. Porcelain jacket crown (all ceramic crown)
12. Partial veneer crown
13. Axioproximal groove
14. Principles of tooth preparation
15. Proximal grooves in partial veneer crown
16. Biological considerations on tooth preparation for crown and

bridge
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17. Depth orienting groove
18. Facial veneers in full crown
19. Preparation of jacket crown on central incisor
20. Biomechanical principles of tooth reduction
21. Resistance form
22. Comparison between full veneer and partial veneer crown
23. Types of partial crowns
24. Advantages of porcelain fused to metal crown
25. Functional cusp bevel
26. Occlusal offset.
Chapter 36 fluid control and gingival displacement
Essay
1. Describe the methods to control saliva and soft tissue management
for fixed partial denture procedure.
2. Define gingival retraction. What are the various methods of gingival

retraction followed in fixed partial denture work.
3. Describe in detail the various isolation and gingival retraction

techniques in FPD impression making.
Short notes
1. Chemical methods of gingival retraction
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2. Retraction cords
3. Gingival sulcus dilatation
4. Fluid control
5. Gingival retraction techniques
6. Tissue management in FPD
7. Gingettage
8. Electrosurgery and gingival retraction.
Chapter 37 impression making
Essay
1. What are the objectives of impression and classify and discuss the
technique of recording impression of fixed partial denture.
Short notes
1. Impression techniques for FPD
2. Double mix double impression technique in crown and bridge
3. Rubber base impression materials
4. Triple trays
5. Disinfection of impressions
6. Agar agar.
Chapter 38 provisional restoration
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Essay
1. What is a provisional restoration? What are the requirements of
provisional restoration? Write an account on various types of
provisional restoration.
Short notes
1. Material for provisional restoration
2. Classification of provisional restorations
3. Temporary protection of prepared abutment
4. Need for provisional restoration
5. Temporary crowns/provisional crown
6. Preformed crowns
7. Direct-indirect technique.
Chapter 39 shade selection and lab

communication
Short notes
1. Shade guides
2. Shade selection guidelines for FPDs
3. Metamerism.
Chapter 40 lab procedures
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Essay
1. Define ‘die’. Describe any one technique of making separable dies
for fixed partial prosthesis.
Short notes
1. Foundation restoration
2. Bonding between metal and porcelain
3. Die lock trays
4. Dowel pin
5. Pindex
6. Die spacer
7. Die materials
8. Separable die
9. Gold alloys in FPDs
10. Sprue
11. Crucible former
12. Ring liners
13. Casting rings
14. Casting machines
15. Soldering techniques
16. Soldering index
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17. Investment material
18. Casting defects
19. Casting failures
20. Divestment
21. Electroformed dies.
Chapter 41 try-in and cementation
Essay
1. Discuss various luting agents used in crown and bridge cementing.
Describe the procedure and care to be taken to cement metal-ceramic
crown.
2. Discuss in detail the steps involved in try-in of a fixed partial

denture.
Short notes
1. Cements used in crown and bridge
2. Resin cements.
Chapter 42 failures in fixed partial dentures
Essay
1. Classify and discuss in detail the fixed partial denture failures.
Short notes
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1. Abutment failures
2. Crown removers
3. Biologic failures in FPDs
4. Mechanical failures in FPDs
5. Aesthetic failures if FPDs
6. All ceramic failure.
Chapter 43 metal free ceramic restorations
Essay
1. Discuss various luting agents used in crown and bridge cementing.
Describe the procedure and care to be taken to cement all-ceramic
crown.
Short notes
1. Metal free ceramic
2. Indications for all ceramic crown
3. Preparation for anterior all – ceramic crown
4. Adhesive cementation
5. Mechanisms of strengthening ceramics
6. Zirconia
7. All ceramic bridges.
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Chapter 44 resin bonded fixed partial dentures
Essay
1. Classify resin-bonded bridges. Discuss in detail the tooth
preparation for an anterior bridge.
Short notes
1. Resin bonded fixed partial dentures
2. Advantages and disadvantages of resin-bonded bridges
3. Indications and contraindications of resin-bonded bridges
4. Adhesive bridge
5. Maryland bridge
6. Acid-etch bridge
7. Rochette bridge
8. Virginia bridge.
Chapter 45 restoration of endodontically treated

teeth
Essay
1. Classify retainers. Discuss in detail about radicular retainers.
Short notes
1. Ferrule
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2. Retention form for postretained crown
3. Post and core crown
4. Management of mutilated teeth
5. Radicular retainers
6. Richmond crown
7. Classification of posts
8. Cores
9. Rationale for use of posts
10. Cementation of posts.
Chapter 46 ceramic laminate veneers
Short notes
1. Indications, contraindications of ceramic laminate veneers.
2. Cementation of ceramic laminate veneer.
Chapter 47 attachment retained dentures
Short notes
1. Classification of attachments in prosthodontics
2. Intracoronal attachment
3. Extracoronal attachment
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4. Precision attachments
5. Semi-precision attachments
6. Advantages of attachment retained partial dentures.
Chapter 48 overdentures
Essay
1. Define overdentures. Describe advantages, disadvantages and
treatment planning of tooth supported overdenture.
Short notes
1. Tooth supported over dentures
2. Classification of tooth supported overdentures
3. Overdentures
4. Rationale for overdenture
5. Abutment selection for tooth-supported overdentures
6. Stud attachments
7. Hader bar
8. Dolder bar
9. Proprioception.
Chapter 49 oral implantology
Short notes
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1. Indication, contraindication and advantages of dental implants
2. Classification of dental implants
3. Component parts of implant restoration
4. Implant denture
5. Osseointegration
6. Implant fixture
7. Implant biomaterials
8. Endosseous implant system
9. Indications for subperiosteal implants
10. Fixture design
11. Implant failures.
Chapter 50 maxillofacial prosthetics
Short notes
1. Classification and advantages of obturators
2. Cleft palate prosthesis
3. Palatal speech prosthesis
4. Obturators
5. Write in brief the treatment planning for maxillary obturator

prosthesis
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6. Hollow bulb obturator
7. Surgical obturator
8. Retention in maxillofacial prosthodontics
9. Mandibular resection devices.
Chapter 51 smile design
Short notes
1. Golden proportion.
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Suggested readings
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Section I Complete dentures
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patients.Dent Clin North Am ;1996;40:53.
2. Alfano, SG Leupold, RJ.Using the neutral zone to obtain
maxillomandibular relationship records for complete denture
patients.J Prosthet Dent ;2001;85(6):621-623.
3. Anusavice, KJ.Phillip’s Science of Dental Materials.11th ed.
St.Louis : Saunders; 2003.
4. Atwood, DA.Reduction of residual alveolar ridges: a major oral
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5. Barco, MT Dembert, ML.Cast aluminum denture base.J Prosthet
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6. Barone, JV.Diagnosis and prognosis in complete denture
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7. Baseheart, JR.Non-verbal communication in the dentist-patient
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8. Becker, CM Kaiser, DA.Evolution of occlusion and occlusal
instruments.J Prosthodont ;1993;2:33-43.
9. Beresin, VE Schiesser, FJ.The Neutral Zone in Complete and
Partial Denture.2nd ed. St. Louis : Mosby; 1978.
10. Bissasu, MJ.Use of a patient’s old complete denture to determine
vertical dimension of occlusion.J Prosthet Dent ;2001;85(4):413-414.
11. Boone, M.Analysis of soluble and insoluble denture adhesives and
their relationship to tissue irritation and bone resorption.Compend
Contin Educ Dent ;1984;(Suppl 4):S22-S25.
12. Brunello, DL Mandikos, MN.Construction faults, age, gender,
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complete denture patients.J Prosthet Dent ;1998;79(5):545-554.
13. Celeza, FV.An analysis of articulators.Dent Clin North Am
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14. Clapp, GW.How the science of esthetic tooth form selection was
made easy.J Prosthet Dent ;1955;5:596.
15. Cleary, TJ Hutter, L Blunt-Emerson, M Hutton, JE.The effect of
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diet on the bearing mucosa during adjustment to new complete
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16. Dervis, E.Clinical assessment of common complaints with complete
dentures.Eur J Prosthodont Resto Dent ;2002;10(3):113-117.
17. Desjardins, RP Tolman, DE.Etiology and management of
hypermobile mucosa overlying the residual ridge.J Prosthet Dent
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18. DeVan, MM.Basic principles of impression making.J Prosthet Dent
;1952;2:26-35.
19. Edwards, LF.The edentulous mandible.J Prosthet Dent
;1954;4(2):222-231.
20. Engelmeier, RL Belles, DM Starcke, EN.The history of
articulators: the contributions of Rudolph L. Hanau and his
company—part I.J Prosthodont ;2010;19(5):409-418.
21. Engelmeier, RL Phoenix, RD.Patient evaluation and treatment
planning for complete denture therapy.Dent Clin North Am
;1996;40(1):1-18.
22. Esposito, SJ.Esthetics for denture patients.J Prosthet Dent
;1980;44(6):608.
23. Frank, RP.Controlling pressures during complete denture
impressions.Dent Clin North Am ;1970;14(3):453-470.
24. Fredrickson, EJ.Comparison of posterior teeth.J Am Dent Assoc
;1976;92:561.
25. Friedman, N Landesman, HM Wexler, M.The influence of fear,
anxiety, and depression on the patient’s adaptive response to
complete dentures, Part I.J Prosthet Dent ;1987;58(6):687.
26. Friedman, N Landesman, HM Wexler, M.The influence of fear,
anxiety, and depression on the patient’s adaptive response to
complete dentures, Part II.J Prosthet Dent ;1988;59(2):169.
27. Frush, JP Fisher, RD.Dentogenics: its practical application.J
Prosthet Dent ;1959;9:914-921.
28. Frush, JP Fisher, RD.How dentogenic restorations interpret the
sex factor.J Prosthet. Dent ;1956;6:160.
29. Frush, JP Fisher, RD.The dynesthetic interpretation of dentogenic
concept.J Prosthet Dent ;1958;8:558-581.
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30. Goiato, MC Filho, HG.Insertion and follow-up of complete
dentures: a literature review.Gerodontology ;2011;28(3):197-204.
31. Gomes, VL Gonclaves, LC do, PradoCJ, et al.Correlation
between facial measurements and mesiodistal width of the anterior
teeth.J Esthet Restor Dent ;2006;18:196.
32. Grasso, JE Rendell, J Gay, T.Effect of denture adhesive on the
retention and stability of maxillary dentures.J Prosthet Dent
;1994;72(4):399.
33. Harvey, WL, et al.Large edentulous ridges – are they better for
dentures than small ridges.J Prosthet Dent ;1982;47:595.
34. Hasanreisoglu, U, et al.An analysis of maxillary anterior teeth:
facial and dental proportions.J Prosthet Dent ;2005;94(6):530-538.
35. Heartwell, CM Rahn, AO.Syllabus of Complete Dentures.4th ed.
Philadelphia : Lea and Febiger; 1984.
36. Helft, M, et al.Combining final impressions with
maxillomandibular relation records in stabilized record bases.J
Prosthet Dent ;1978;39(2):135.
37. House MM: Relationship of oral examination to dental
diagnosis. J Prosthet Dent 8:208–19, l958.
38. Jani, RM Bhargava, K.A histologic comparison of palatal mucosa
before and after wearing complete denture.J Prosthet Dent
;1976;36:254-260.
39. Joffe, E.Establishing the horizontal plane for positioning of the
plane of occlusion.N Y State Dent J ;1993;59(1):29-231.
40. Jooste, CH Thomas, CJ.Complete mandibular denture stability
when posterior teeth are placed over a basal tissue incline.J Oral
Rehabil ;1992;19:441.
41. Kawano, F Nagao, K Inoue, S Matsumoto, N.Influence of the
buccolingual position of artificial posterior teeth on the pressure
distribution on the supporting tissue under a complete denture.J
Oral Rehabil ;1996;23:456.
42. Kelly, E.Changes caused by a mandibular removable partial
denture opposing a maxillary complete denture.J Prosthet Dent
;1972;27(2):140-150.
43. Khan, Z Jaggers, J Shay, J.Impressions of unsupported movable
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tissues.J Am Dent Assoc ;1981;103(4):590-592.
44. Koper, A.The initial interview with complete denture patients: its
structure and strategy.J Prosthet Dent ;1970;23(6):590-597.
45. Koper, A.Why dentures fail.Dent Clin North Am ;1964;8:721-734.
46. Koran, A.Impression materials for recording the denture-bearing
mucosa.Dent Clin N Am ;1980;24(1):97-111.
47. Laney, WRGonzalez.The maxillary denture, its palatal seal.J Am
Dent Assoc ;1967;75(5):1182-1188.
48. Lang, BR.Complete denture occlusion.Dent Clin North Am
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49. Levin, B.Current concepts of lingual flange design.J Prosthet Dent
;1981;45(3):242-252.
50. Levin, B.Impressions for Complete Denture. Chicago :
Quintessence; 1984.
51. MacGregor, AR.Fenn, Liddelow and Gimson’s Clinical Dental
Prosthetics.3rd ed. Oxford : Butterworth; 1989.
52. McArthur, DR.Management of the mucolabial fold when
developing impressions for complete dentures.J Prosthet Dent
;1985;53(1):62-67.
53. McCord, JF Grant, AA.Prosthetics: identification of complete
denture problems: a summary.British Dental Journal ;2000;189:128.
54. Mitchell, DL Wilkie, ND.Articulators through the years. Part I:
Up to 1940.J Prosthet Dent ;1978;39(3):330-338.
55. Mitchell, DL Wilkie, ND.Articulators through the years. Part II:
From 1940.J Prosthet Dent ;1978;39(4):451-458.
56. Mohamed, SE Schmidt, JR Harrison, JD.Articulators in dental
education and practice.J Prosthet Dent ;1976;36(3):319-325.
57. Morrow, RM Rudd, KD Eissmann, HF.Dental Laboratory
Procedures. St.Louis : Mosby; 1986.
58. Neill, DJ Nairn, RI.Complete Denture Prosthetics.3rd ed.
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59. Payne, S.The trial denture.Dent Clin North Am ;1977;21(2):321.
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61. Rittani, A.Classification of articulators.J Prosthet Dent
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;1980;43(3):344-347.
62. Sanders, RM Martin, JO Cinotti, WR.The wax try-in and
characterization of the complete denture set-up.Clin Prev Dent
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63. Schlosser, RO.Advantages of closed mouth muscle action for
certain steps of impression taking.J Am Dent Assoc ;1931;18:100.
64. Sears, VH.Selection of anterior tooth for artificial dentures.J Am
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65. Sharry, JJ.Complete Denture Prosthodontics. New York :
McGraw-Hill; 1962.
66. Sicher, H.Oral Anatomy.7th ed. St.Louis : Mosby; 1980.
67. Smith, D.Does one articulator meet the needs of both fixed and
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68. Smutko, GE.Making edentulous impressions.Dent Clin North Am
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69. Starcke, EN Engelmeier, RL.The history of articulators: the
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70. Starcke, EN.The history of articulators: from facebows to the
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75. Tucker, KM.Accurate record bases for jaw relation procedures.J
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78. Weinberg, LA.An evaluation of basic articulators and their
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79. Weinberg, LA.An evaluation of basic articulators and their
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80. Winkler, S.Essentials of Complete Denture Prosthodontics.2nd ed.
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Section II Removable partial dentures
1. Akaltan, F Kaynak, D.An evaluation of the effects of two distal
extension removable partial denture designs on tooth stabilization
and periodontal health.J Oral Rehabil ;2005;32(11):823-829.
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partial denture.J Prosthet Dent ;1960;10:112-123.
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dentures with I-bar retainers. Part I.J Prosthet Dent ;1979;41:246.
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for distal extension removable partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent
;1988;60(3):342-344.
14. Berg, T.I-bar: myth and countermyth.Dent Clin North Am
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15. Berg, TA Caputo, AA.Anterior rests for maxillary removable
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16. Bergman, B Hugoson, A Olsson, CO.A 25 year longitudinal
study of patients treated with removable partial dentures.J Oral
Rehabil ;1995;22(8):595-599.
17. Bergman, B.Periodontal reactions related to removable partial
dentures: a literature review.J Prosthet Dent ;1987;58(4):454-458.
18. Boero, E Forbes, WG.Considerations in design of removable
prosthetic devices with no posterior abutments.J Prosthet Dent
;1972;28(3):253-263.
19. Boitel, RH.The parallelometer. A precision instrument for the
prosthetic laboratory.J Prosthet Dent ;1962;12:732-736.
20. Brown, DT Desjardins, RP Chao, EY.Fatigue failure in acrylic
resin retaining minor connections.J Prosthet Dent ;1987;58(3):329-
335.
21. Brudvik, JS Wormley, JH.Construction techniques for wrought
wire retentive clasp arms as related to clasp flexibility.J Prosthet
Dent ;1973;30(5):769-774.
22. Cameron, SM Torres, GT Lefler, TB Parker, MH.The
dimensions of mandibular lingual tissues relative to the placement of
a lingual bar major connector.J Prosthodont ;2002;11(2):74-780.
23. Campbell, LD.Subjective reactions to major connector designs for
removable partial denture.J Prosthet Dent ;1977;37(5):507-516.
24. Cecconi, BT Asgar, K Dootz, E.The effect of partial denture clasp
design on abutment tooth movement.J Prosthet Dent ;1971;25:44.
25. Cecconi, BT.Effect of rest design on transmission of forces to
abutment teeth.J Prosthet Dent ;1974;32:141.
26. Chou, TM Caputo, AA Moore, DJ Xiao, B.Photoelastic analysis
and comparison of force-transmission characteristics of intracoronal
attachments with clasp distal-extension removable partial dentures.J
27. Colman, AJ.Occlusal requirements for removable partial dentures.J
28. Costa, E.Simplified system for identifying partially edentulous
dental arches.J Prosthet Dent ;1974;32(2):639-645.
29. Coy, RE Arnold, PD.Survey and design of diagnostic casts for
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removable partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1974;32(1):103-106.
30. Curtis, DA Curtis, TA Wagnild, GW, et al.Incidence of various
classes of removable partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1992;67:664.
31. Davenport, J Hawmdeh, K Harington, F, et al.Clasp retention
and composites: an abrasion study.J Dent ;1990;18(4):198-202.
32. Davenport, JC, et al.Indirect retention.Br Dent J
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33. Davenportet, JC, et al.Retention.Br Dent J ;2000;189(12):646-
657.
34. Demer, WJ.An analysis of mesial rest-I-bar clasp designs.J Prosthet
Dent ;1976;36:243.
35. Devan, MM.The nature of the partial denture foundation:
Suggestions for its preservation.J Prosthet Dent ;1951;2:210.
36. Dibai, N Mechanic, E.Prosthodontic treatment for the complex
mandibular Class I partially edentulous patient.J Dent Que
;1980;17:63-65.
37. Dunham, D, et al.A clinical investigation of the fit of removable
partial dental prosthesis clasp assemblies.J Prosthet Dent
;2006;95:323.
38. Dunny, JA King, GE.Minor connector designs for anterior acrylic
resin bases: a preliminary study.J Prosthet Dent ;1975;34:496.
39. Eliason, CM.RPA clasp design for distal-extension removable
40. Feit, DB.The altered cast technique revisited.J Am Dent Assoc
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41. Fenner, W Gerber, A Muhlemann, HR.Tooth mobility changes
during treatment with partial denture prosthesis.J Prosthet Dent
;1956;6:520-525.
42. Firtell, DN Jacobson, TE.RPDs with rotational paths of insertion:
problem analysis.J Prosthet Dent ;1983;50(1):8-15.
43. Frank, RP Brudvik, JS Nicholls, JI.A comparison of the flexibility
of wrought wire and cast circumferential clasps.J Prosthet Dent
;1983;49:471.
44. Frank, RP Brudvik, JS Noonan, CJ.Clinical outcome of the altered
cast impression procedure compared with use of a one-piece cast.J
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Prosthet Dent ;2004;91(5):468-476.
45. Frank, RP Nicholls, JI.An investigation of the effectiveness of
indirect retainers.J Prosthet Dent ;1976;38:494.
46. Frank, RP.Direct retainers for distal extension removable partial
dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1986;56:562.
47. Frechette, AR.Influences of partial denture design on distribution
of forces on abutment teeth 1956.J Prosthet Dent ;2001;85(6):527-
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48. Friedman, J.The ABC classification of partial denture segments.J
49. Godfrey, RJ.Classification and selection of attachments.J Prosthet
Dent ;1951;18:5.
50. Grasso, JE Miller, E.Removable Partial Prosthodontics.3rd ed. St.
Louis : Mosby Year Book Inc; 1991.
51. Grasso, JE.A new removable partial denture clasp assembly.J
52. Hamrick, JE.A comparison of the retention of various denture base
materials.J Prosthet Dent ;1962;12:66.
53. Hansen, CA Campbell, DJ.Clinical comparison of two
mandibular major connector designs: the sublingual bar and the
lingual plate.J Prosthet Dent ;1985;54:805.
54. Henderson, D Seward, TE.Design and force distribution with
removable partial dentures: a progress report.J Prosthet Dent
;1967;17:350.
55. Henderson, D.Major connectors for removable partial dentures:
design and function.J Prosthet Dent ;1973;30:532-548.
56. Holmes, JB.Influence of impression procedures and occlusal
loading on partial denture movement.J Prosthet Dent ;1965;15:474.
57. Jepson, NJA Thompson, JM Steele, JG.The influence of denture
design on patient acceptance of partial dentures.Br Dent J
;1995;178:296.
58. Jones, RM Goodacre, CJ Brown, DT Munoz, CA Rake,
PC.Dentin exposure and decay incidence when removable partial
denture rest seats are prepared in tooth structure.Int J Prosthodont
;1992;5(3):227.
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59. Kaires, A.Effect of partial denture design on bilateral force
distribution.J Prosthet Dent ;1956;6:373.
60. Kapur, KK, et al.A randomized clinical trial of two basic RPD
designs. Part I: Comparisons of five-year success rates and
periodontal health.J Prosthet Dent ;1994;72:268.
61. Kapur, KK Soman, SD.Masticatory performance and efficiency in
denture wearers.J Prosthet Dent ;2004;92:107.
62. Kelly, E.Changes caused by a mandibular removable partial
denture opposing a maxillary complete denture.J Prosthet Dent
;1972;27:140.
63. King, GE.Dual path design for removable partial dentures.J
64. Kotowicz, WE Fisher, RL Reed, RA Jaslow, C.The combination
clasp and distal extension removable partial denture.Dent Clin
North Am ;1973;17(4):651-660.
65. Kratochvil, FJ.Removable Partial Prosthodontics. Philadelphia :
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66. Kratochvil, FJ Caputo, AA.A Photoelastic analysis of pressure on
teeth and bone supporting removable partial dentures.J Prosthet
Dent ;1974;32(1):52-61.
67. Kratochvil, FJ.Influence of occlusal rest position and clasp design
on movement of abutment teeth.J Prosthet Dent ;1963;13:114.
68. Krol, AJ.Clasp design for extension-base removable partial
69. Krol, J.Removable Partial Denture Design: Outline Syllabus.2nd
ed : San Francisco University of the Pacific School of Dentistry;
1976.
70. Laney, WR Desjardins, RP.Surgical preparation of the partially
edentulous patient.Dent Clin North Am ;1973;17:611.
71. Lavere, AM Freda, AL.A simplified procedure for survey and
design of diagnostic casts.J Prosthet Dent ;1977;37(6):680-683.
72. Leupold, RJ Flinton, RJ Pfeifer, DL.Comparison of vertical
movement occurring during loading of distal extension removable
partial denture bases made by three impression techniques.J Prosthet
Dent ;1992;68(2):290.
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73. Leupold, RJ Kratochvil, FJ.An altered-cast procedure to improve
support for removable partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent
;1965;15:672.
74. MaukEK.Classification of mutilated dental arches requiring
treatment by removable partial dentures.J Am Dent Assoc
;1942;29:2121.
75. McArthur, DR.Canines as removable partial denture abutments.
Part II. Rest and undercut location for retainers.J Prosthet Dent
;1986;56(4):445-450.
76. McGivney, GP Castleberry, DJ.McCracken’s Removable Partial
Prosthodontics.9th ed. St. Louis : Mosby; 1995.
77. Mehta, JD Joglekar, AP.Vertical jaw relations as a factor in partial
78. Miller, EL.Systems for classifying dentulous arches.J Prosthet Dent
;1970;1:25.
79. Ogata, A Igarashi, Y Shibano, J.In vivo assessment of occlusal
stress distribution in free-end saddle removable partial dentures.
Part 1. Stress distribution in various removable partial denture.
(Japanese)J Jpn Prosthodont Soc ;1997;41:423.
80. Ogata, A.In vivo assessment of occlusal stress distribution in free-
end saddle removable partial dentures. Part 2. Connecting rigidity
affecting the stress distribution in free-end saddle removable partial
denture (Japanese).J Jpn Prosthodont Soc ;1998;42:393.
81. Ogata, K Ishii, A Shimizu, K Watanabe, N.Longitudinal studies
on occlusal force distribution in lower distal-extension removable
partial dentures with conus crown telescopic system.J Oral Rehabil
;1993;20(4):385-392.
82. PhoenixCagnaDeFreest.Stewart’s Clinical Removable Partial
Prosthodontics.3rd ed. Chicago : Quintessence; 2003.
83. Reitz, PV Sanders, JL Caputo, AA.A photoelastic study of a split
palatal major connector.J Prosthet Dent ;1984;51:19.
84. Renner, RP Boucher, LJ.Removable Partial Dentures. Chicago :
Quintessence; 1987.
85. Sansom, BP Flinton, RJ Parks, VJ Pelleu, GBJr Kingman,
A.Rest seat designs for inclined posterior abutments: a photoelastic
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comparison.J Prosthet Dent ;1987;58(1):57-62.
86. Saunders, TR Gillis, REJr Desjardins, RP.The maxillary complete
denture opposing the mandibular bilateral distalextension partial
denture: Treatment considerations.J Prosthet Dent ;1979;41:124.
87. Schulte, JK Smith, DE.Clinical evaluation of swing-lock removable
partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1980;44:595.
88. SchwartzMunchison.Design variations of the rotational path
RPD.J Prosthet Dent ;1983;58:8.
89. Skinner, CN.A classification of removable partial dentures based
on the principles of anatomy and physiology.J Prosthet Dent
;1959;9:240-246.
90. Stern, AM Brudvick, JS Frank, RP.Clinical evaluation of
removable partial denture rest seat adaptation.J Prosthet Dent
;1985;3:658.
91. Stern, WJ.Guiding planes in clasp reciprocations and retention.J
92. Stratton, RV Wiebelt, FJ.An Atlas of Removable Partial Denture
Design. Chicago : Quintessence; 1988.
93. Swenson, MG Terkla, LG.Partial Dentures. St. Louis : Mosby
1955;215.
94. Tebrock, OC Rohen, RM Fenster, RK.The effect of various
clasping systems on the mobility of abutment teeth for
distalextension removable dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1979;41:511.
95. Tietge, J Dixon, D Breedmg, L, et al.Invitro investigation of the
wear of resin composite materials and cast direct retainers during
removable partial denture placement and removal.Int J Prosthod
;1992;5:145.
96. Toth, RW Fiebiger, GE Mackert, JR Goldman, BM.Shear
strength of lingual rest seats preparation bonded composite.J
97. Vermeulen, AH Keltjens, HM van’t, HofMA Kayser, AF.Ten-
year evaluation of removable partial dentures: survival rates based
on retreatment, not wearing and replacement.J Prosthet Dent
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98. Wagner, AG Forgue, EG.A study of four methods of recording the
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path of insertion of removable partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent
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99. Wagner, AG Traweek, FC.Comparison of major connectors for
removable partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1982;47:242.
100. Walter, JD.Partial denture technique. 5 – Connectors.Br Dent J
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101. Weinberg, LA.Atlas of Removable Partial Denture
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102. White, JT.Visualization of stress and strain related to removable
partial denture abutments.J Prosthet Dent ;1978;40:143.
103. Willarson, KL.Removable partial denture prosthesis for the
periodontal patient. The current status—an option.Dent Clin North
Am ;1969;13:263.
104. Zarb, GA Mackay, HF.The partially edentulous patient. I. The
biologic price of prosthodontic intervention.Aust Dent J
;1980;25:63-68.
105. Zarb, GA Mackay, HF.Cosmetics and removable partial
dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1981;46:360.
106. Zavanelli, RA Hartmann, R Zavanelli, AC Carvalho,
JRH.Dimensions of major connector of removable partial denture
and its relation with gingival tissue.Rev Odontol UNESP
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Section III Fixed partial dentures
1. Antonoff, SJ.The Paradoxes of Fixed Prosthodontics.J Prosthet
Dent ;1975;34(2):164-169.
2. Anusavice, KJ Shen, C Vermost, B, et al.Strengthening of
porcelain by ion exchange subsequent to thermal tempering.Dent
Mater ;1992;8(3):149-152.
4. Ash, M Ramfjord, S.Occlusion.4th ed. Philadelphia :
Saunders; 1995.
5. Bader, JD Rozier, RG McFall, WTJr, et al.Effect of crown
margins on periodontal conditions in regularly attending patients.J
Prosthet Dent ;1991;65(1):75-79.
6. Barone, JV.Diagnosis and prognosis in complete denture
prosthesis.J Prosthet Dent ;1964;14:207-213.
7. Barreto, MT.Failures in ceramometal fixed restorations.J Prosthet
Dent ;1984;51(2):186-189.
8. Baseheart, JR.Non-verbal communication in the dentist-patient
relationship.J Prosthet Dent ;1975;34(1):4-10.
9. Becker, CM Kaldahl, B.Current theories of crown contour,
gingival placement and pontic design.J Prosthet Dent ;1981;45:268.
10. Behrend, DA.Ceramometal restorations with supragingival
margins.J Prosthet Dent ;1982;47(6):625-632.
11. Bergman, M Bergman, B Soremark, R.Tissue accumulation of
nickel released due to electrochemical corrosion of non-precious
dental casting alloys.J Oral Rehabil ;1980;7:325-330.
12. Binkley, TK Binkley, CJ.A practical approach to full mouth
rehabilitation.J Prosthet Dent ;1987;57(3):261-266.
13. Bowley, JF Stockstill, JW Attanasio, R.A preliminary diagnostic
and treatment protocol.Dent Clin North Am ;1992;36(3):551-568.
14. Brehm, TW.Diagnosis and treatment planning for fixed
prosthodontics.J Prosthet Dent ;1973;30(6):876-881.
15. Brown, MH.Causes and prevention of fixed prosthodontic failure.J
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16. Burch, JG.Ten rules for developing crown contours in
restorations.Dent Clin North Am ;1971;15(3):611-618.
17. Cheung W: A review of the management of endodontically
treated teeth. Post, core and the final restoration. J Am Dent
Assoc 136(5): 611–9.
18. Chou, T Pameijer, CH.The Application of Microdentistry in Fixed
Prosthodontics.4th ed. Philadelphia : Saunders; 1986.
19. Clayton, JA Green, E.Roughness of pontic materials and dental
plaque.J Prosthet Dent ;1970;23(4):407-411.
20. Collet, HA.Protection of the dental pulp in construction of fixed
partial denture prosthesis.J Prosthet Dent ;1974;31:637.
21. Compagni, R Faucher, RR Yuodelis, RA.Effects of sprue design,
casting machine, and heat source on casting porosity.J Prosthet Dent
;1984;52:41.
22. Conny, DJ Tedesco, LA Brewer, JD, et al.Changes of attitude in
fixed prosthodontic patients.J Prosthet Dent ;1985;53(4):451-454.
23. Craig, RG el-Ebrashi, MK Peyton, FA.Experimental stress
analysis of dental restoration: Part II: Two dimensional photoelastic
stress analysis of crowns.J Prosthet Dent ;1967;17(3):292-302.
24. Crispin, BJ Watson, JF Shay, K.Margin placement of esthetic
veneer crowns. Part IV: Postoperative patient attitudes.J Prosthet
Dent ;1985;53(2):165-167.
25. Dahl, BL Dymbe, B Valderhaug, J.Bonding properties and
dimensional stability of hydrocolloid impression systems in fixed
prosthodontics.J Prosthet Dent ;1985;53:796.
26. Dawson, P.Evaluation, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Occlusal
Problems.2nd ed. St Louis : Mosby; 1989.
27. DiPietro, G Moergeli, JR.Significance of the Frankfurt-
mandibular plane angle to prosthodontics.J Prosthet Dent
;1976;36:624.
28. Dodge, WW Weed, RM Baez, RJ, et al.The effects of convergence
angle on retention and resistance form.Quintessence Int
;1985;16(3):191-194.
29. Donovan, T Prince, J.An analysis of margin configurations for
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metal-ceramic crowns.J Prosthet Dent ;1985;53(2):153-157.
30. Dykema, RW, et al.Johnston’s Modern Practice in Fixed
Prosthodontics.4th ed. Philadelphia : Saunders; 1986.
31. Ehrlich, J Yaffe, A Weisgold, AS.Faciolingual width before and
after tooth restoration: A comparative study.J Prosthet Dent
;1981;46:153.
32. Eissmann, HF Radke, RA Noble, WH.Physiologic design criteria
for fixed dental restorations.Dent Clin North Am ;1971;15(3):543-
568.
33. el-Ebrashi, KM Craig, RG Peyton, FA.Experimental stress
analysis of dental restoration Part IV: The concept of parallelism of
axial walls.J Prosthet Dent ;1969;22(3):346-353.
34. el-Ebrashi, KM Craig, RG Peyton, FA.Experimental stress
analysis of dental restoration Part V: The concept of occlusal
reduction and pins.J Prosthet Dent ;1969;22(5):565-577.
35. Fairhurst, CW Lockwood, PE Ringle, RD, et al.The effect of
glaze on porcelain strength.Dent Mater ;1992;8(3):203-207.
36. Faucher, RR Nicholls, JI.Distortion related to margin design in
porcelain-fused-to- metal restorations.J Prosthet Dent ;1980;43:149.
37. Fehling, AW Hesby, RA Pelleu, GB.Dimensional stability of
autopolymerizing acrylic resin impression trays.J Prosthet Dent
;1986;55:592.
38. Felton, DA Kanoy, BE Bayne, SC, et al.Effect of in vivo crown
margin discrepancies on periodontal health.J Prosthet Dent
;1991;65(3):357-364.
39. Ferencz, JL.Maintaining and enhancing gingival architecture in
fixed prosthodontics.J Prosthet Dent ;1991;65:567.
40. Fisher, RM Moore, BK Swartz, ML, et al.The effects of enamel
wear on the metal-porcelain interface.J Prosthet Dent
;1983;50(5):627-631.
41. Galun, EA Goodacre, CJ Dykema, RW.The contribution of a pin
hole to the retention and resistance form of veneer crowns.J Prosthet
Dent ;1986;56:292.
42. Garber, DA Rosenberg, ES.The edentulous ridge in fixed
prosthodontics.Compend Contin Educ Dent ;1981;2(4):212-223.
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43. Gargiulo, AW Wentz, FM Orban, B.Dimensions and relations of
the dentogingival junction in humans.J Periodontol ;1961;32:261-
267.
44. Gerrow, JD Schneider, RL.A comparison of the compatibility of
elastomeric impression materials, type IV dental stones, and liquid
media.J Prosthet Dent ;1987;57:292.
45. Gilboe, DB Teteruck, WR.Fundamentals of extracoronal tooth
preparation. Part I. Retention and resistance form.J Prosthet Dent
;1974;32:651.
46. Goldenberg, BS Hart, JK Sakumura, JS.The loss of occlusion and
its effect on mandibular immediate side shift.J Prosthet Dent
;1990;63(2):163-166.
47. Goodacre, CJ Campagni, WV Aquilino, SA.Tooth preparation
for complete crowns: an art form based on scientific principles.J
Prost Dent ;2001;85(4):363-376.
48. Goodacre, CJ.Gingival esthetics.J Prosthet Dent ;1990;64(1):1-12.
49. Grajower, R Lewinstein, I.A mathematical treatise on the fit of
crown casting.J Prosthet Dent ;1983;49(5):663-674.
50. Grant, BE Tjan, AH.Tensile and peel bond strengths of tray
adhesives.J Prosthet Dent ;1988;59:165.
51. Gunther, G Welsa, SL.Evaluation of a rubber base impression
material.J Prosthet Dent ;1978;39(1):95-99.
52. Guyer, SE.Multiple preparations for fixed prosthodontics.J Prosthet
Dent ;1970;23(5):529-553.
53. Hayasaki, H Nakata, S Nishijima, N, et al.A calculation method
for the range of occluding phase at the lower incisal point during
chewing movements using the curved mesh diagram of mandibular
excursion (CMDME).J Oral Rehabil ;1999;26(3):236-242.
54. Hegenbarth, EA.Procera alumina oxide ceramics: a new way to
achieve stability, precision, and esthetics in all-ceramic
restorations.Quintessence Dent Technol ;1996;19:21.
55. Henry, PJ Johnston, JF Mitchell, DF.Tissue changes beneath fixed
partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1966;16:937.
56. Hinman, RW Tesk, JA Parry, EE, et al.Improving the casting
accuracy of fixed partial dentures.J Prosthet Dent ;1985;53(4):466-
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471.
57. Hobo, S Shillingburg, HTJr.Porcelain fused to metal: tooth
preparation and coping design.J Prosthet Dent ;1973;30(1):28-36.
58. Höland, W Schweiger, M Frank, M, et al.A comparison of the
microstructure and properties of the IPS Empress 2 and the IPS
Empress glass-ceramics.J Biomed Mater Res ;2000;53(4):297-303.
59. Hood, JA.Stress and deflection of three different pontic designs.J
60. House MM: Relationship of oral examination to dental
diagnosis. J Prosthet Dent 8:208, l958.
61. Howell, PG.Incisal relationships during speech.J Prosthet Dent
;1986;56:93.
62. Hunter AJ, Hunter AR: Gingival margins for crowns: a review
and discussion. Part II: discrepancies and configurations. J
Prosthet Dent 64(6): 636–42.
63. Hunter, AJ Hunter, AR.Gingival margins for crowns: a review
and discussion. Part I: terminology and widths.J Prosthet Dent
;1990;64(5):548-552.
64. Hurzeler, MB Sturb, JR.Combined therapy for teeth with furcation
involvement used as abutments for fixed restorations.Int J
Prosthodont ;1990;3(5):470-476.
65. Johansen, RE Stackhouse, JA.Dimensional changes of elastomers
during cold sterilization.J Prosthet Dent ;1987;57:233.
66. Jorgensen, KD.The relation between retention and convergence
angle in cemented veneer crowns.Acta Odontol Scand
;1955;13(1):35-40.
67. Kaldahl, WB Becker, CM Wentz, FW.Periodontal surgical
preparation for specific problems in restorative dentistry.J Prosthet
Dent ;1984;51:36.
68. Kelly, JR, et al.Ceramics in dentistry: historical roots and current
perspectives.J Prosthet Dent ;1996;75:18.
69. Kelly, RJ Rose, TC.Nonprecious alloys for use in fixed
prosthodontics: A literature review.J Prosthet Dent ;1983;49:363.
70. Kelly, RJ.Dental ceramics, what is the stuff anyway.J Am Dent
Assoc ;2008;(139 Suppl):4S-7S.
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71. Kent, WA.Taper of clinical preparations for cast
restorations.Quintessence Int ;1988;19(5):339-345.
72. Kishimoto M, Shillingburg HT, Duncanson MG: Infl uence of
preparation features on retention and resistance. Part II:
threequarter crowns. J Prosthet Dent 49(2): 188–92.
73. Kishimoto, M Shillingburg, HT Duncanson, MG.Influence of
preparation features on retention and resistance. Part I: MOD
onlays.J Prosthet Dent ;1983;49(1):35-39.
74. Lautenschlager, EP Monagan, P.Titanium and titanium alloys as
dental materials.Int Dent J ;1993;43:245.
75. Linkow, L.Contact areas in natural dentitions and fixed
prosthodontics.J Prosthet Dent ;1962;12:132.
76. Lorey, R Myers, G.The retentive qualities of bridge retainers.J Am
Dent Assoc ;1968;76(3):568-572.
77. Lundeen, HC Gibbs, CH.Advances in Occlusion. Boston : John
Wright PSG; 1982.
78. Malone, WFP, et al.Tylman’s Theory and Practice of Fixed
Prosthodontics.8th ed. St.Louis : Ishiyaku EuroAmerica; 1997.
79. Marcum, JS.The effect of crown marginal depth upon gingival
tissue.J Prosthet Dent ;1967;17(5):479-487.
80. Matthews, MF.The effect of connector design on cement retention
in an implant and natural tooth-supported fixed partial denture.J
81. McLean, JW Hughes, TH.The reinforcement of dental porcelain
with ceramic oxides.Br Dent J ;1965;119:251.
82. Moffa, JP Guckes, AD Okawa, MT, et al.An evaluation of non-
precious alloys for use with porcelain veneers. Part II: industrial
safety and biocompatibility.J Prosthet Dent ;1973;20:432.
83. Morgan, DW Comella, MC Staffanou, RS.A diagnostic wax-up
technique.J Prosthet Dent ;1975;33(2):169-177.
84. Morrow, RM Rudd, KD Eissmann, HF.Dental Laboratory
Procedures. St. Louis : Mosby; 1980.
85. Morton, TH Natkin, E.Hyperostosis and fixed partial denture
pontics: Report of 16 patients and a review of the literature.J
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86. Munoz, CA Goodacre, CJ Schnell, RJ, et al.Laboratory and
clinical study of a visible-light-polymerized elastomeric impression
material.Int J Prosthodont ;1988;1:59.
87. Naert, I, et al.Precision fit and clinical evaluation of all-ceramic
full restorations followed between 0.5 and 5 years.J Oral Rehabil
;2005;32:51.
88. Newcomb, GM.The relationship between the location of
subgingival crown margins and gingival inflammation.J Periodontol
;1974;45:151.
89. Nichols, CF Woelfel, JB.Improving reversible hydrocolloid
impressions of subgingival areas.J Prosthet Dent ;1987;57(1):11-14.
90. Nyman, S Lindhe, J.A longitudinal study of combined periodontal
and prosthetic treatment of patients with advanced periodontal
disease.J Periodontal ;1979;50:163.
91. Ogawa, T Koyano, K Umemoto, G.Inclination of the occlusal
plane and occlusal guidance as contributing factors in mastication.J
Dent ;1998;26(8):641-647.
92. Ogawa, T Ogimoto, T Koyano, K.Pattern of occlusal contacts in
lateral positions: canine protection and group function validity in
classifying guidance patterns.J Prosthet Dent ;1998;80(1):67-74.
93. Owen, CP.Retention and resistance in preparations for
extracoronal restoration. Part II: practical and clinical studies.J
94. Pardo, GI.A full cast restoration design offering superior marginal
characteristics.J Prosthet Dent ;1982;48:539.
95. Parker, MH Malone, KH Trier, AC, et al.Evaluation of resistance
form for prepared teeth.J Prosthet Dent ;1991;66:730.
96. Parkinson, CF Schaberg, TV.Pontic design of posterior fixed
partial prosthesis: Is it a microbial misadventure?.J Prosthet Dent
;1984;51:51.
97. Pascoe, DF.Analysis of the geometry of finishing lines for full
crown restorations.J Prosthet Dent ;1978;40:157.
98. Pelletier, LB Campbell, SD.Evaluation of the relationship between
anterior and posterior functionally disclusive angles. 11. Study of a
population.J Prosthet Dent ;1990;63:536.
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99. Perel, ML.A modified sanitary pontic.J Prosthet Dent
;1972;28(6):589-592.
100. Perel, ML.Axial crown contours.J Prosthet Dent ;1971;25(6):642-
649.
101. Perlitsh, MJ.A systemic approach to the interpretation of tooth-
mobility and its clinical implications.Dent Clin North Am
;1980;24(2):177-193.
102. Porter, CBJr.Anterior pontic design: a logical progression.J
Prosthet Dent ;1984;51(6):774-776.
103. Pratten, DH Craig, RG.Wettability of a hydrophilic addition
silicone impression material.J Prosthet Dent ;1989;61:197.
104. Probster, L Diehl, J.Slip-casting alumina ceramics for crown and
bridge restorations.Quintessence Int ;1992;23(1):25-31.
105. Pruden, K.Abutments and attachments in fixed partial dentures.J
106. Reynolds, JM.Abutment selection for fixed prosthodontics.J
Prosthet Dent ;1968;19(5):483-488.
107. Rissin, L Feldman, RS Kapur, KK, et al.Six year report of the
periodontal health of fixed and removable partial denture abutment
teeth.J Prosthet Dent ;1985;54(4):461-467.
108. Rivera-Morales, WC Mohl, ND.Variability of closest speaking
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56. Dolder, EJ.The bar joint mandibular denture.J Prosthet Dent
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84. King, GE Gay, WD.Application of various removable partial
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85. Kurer, PF.A press stud retainer.Brit Dent J ;1979;146:119.
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90. Lazzara, RJ.Immediate implant placement into extraction sites:
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Index
A
A nozzle, 391
A-P spread, 747
Abrasion resistance, 593
Abrasion, 224, 227, 593
Absolute aesthetics, 803
Abutment, 257, 439
Accessory ligaments, 100
Acetone, 796
Achromatic, result, 584
Ackermann and CM bar, 722
Acrylic partial dentures, 255
Acrylic resin with amalgam stops, 241
Acrylic retainers, 449
Acrylic stones, 206f, 423–424
Acrylic, resin, 323, 324, 593
Active and passive, posts, 671
Active method, 71, 121–122
Adaptation, 208
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Addition silicones, 557t
Adhesion, 36–37, 358
Adhesive bridge, 663, 665
Adhesive cementation, 654, 660
Aesthetic failures, 650
Aesthetics, 40, 252, 339, 496–498, 637, 797
Agar, 391–393, 555
Agar agar, 555
Agar hydrocolloid, 393, 555
AI Hinge, 703, 705f
Akers’ clasp, 312
All ceramic, connector, 444
All ceramic fracture, 649–650
All ceramic retainers, 449
All metal retainers, 448
Allegra attachment, 703
Alloy pellets, 399
Altered cast technique, 388–389
Alumina, 654
Aluminium chloride, 546, 550
Aluminium, 571
Aluminium oxide, 400
Aluminium oxide coral, 619
Aluminous porcelain, 652
Alveolar resorption, 234
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Alveololingual sulcus, 53–54
Amalgam, 685
Anaemia, 328
Analysing rod, 338
Anatomic impressions, 382–383
Anatomic teeth, 159–160
Angled abutment, 736f
Angular cheilitis, 29f, 120
Anterior determinants, 489
Anterior vibrating line, 46–47
Anteroposterior curve, 148
Anteroposterior palatal strap, 289
Anteroposterior, palatal bar, 289
Anti-Monson curve, 149
Anticholinergic drugs—atropine, 544
Antiflux, 623
Antihypertensives, 544
Antisialogogues, 544
Appearance zone, 797
Appliance, 257
Approach arm, 316
Approach arm minor connector, 298
Aqueous colloidal silica, 593
Aqueous solutions of sodium silicate, 196
Aramany classification, 777
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Arbitrary block out, 352
Arbitrary facebows, 108–109
Arbitrary scraping of master cast, 48
Arch form, 15
Arch size, 15
Arcon, articulator design, 134
Aromatic ester, 224
Art portion indexing, 348–350
Arthritis, 328
Articular capsule, 100
Articular disc, 98, 100
Articular eminence, 100
Articulating paper, 203, 209, 628
Articulation, 484
Articulator equilibration, 242
Articulators, 133–138
Artificial saliva substitutes, 219
Asbestos, 612
ASC 52, 705
Asthma, 544
Astringent, 546
At rest, 107
Atlas and axis, 778
Atmospheric pressure, 38, 358
Atropine, 219
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Attachments, 701, 714–723
Attachment retained cast obturator, 785
Attachment retained partials, 256
Attachment retained, 419
Auricular defects, 772
Auricular prosthesis, 792
Autopolymerizing acrylic resin, 422–423
Auxiliary occlusal rest, 322
Auxiliary sprue, 397, 709
Avitaminosis, 225
B
B2 and folic acid, 219
B12, 219
Back action clasp, 315f
Balanced occlusion, 146–150, 184, 188
Balancing side, 104
Bandage, 245
Bar attachment, 719–722
Bar clasp, 316–318
Bar joints, 719
Bar units, 719
Bare root surface, 360, 713–714
Barn door hinge, 134
Bars, 737
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Basic movements, of mandible, 485
Bead, 299–300
Beading, 80–82, 288–289, 390
Beeswax, 394f
Bench cure, 199–200
Bench press, 199–200
Benign mesenchymal tumours, 775
Bennett angle, 104
Bennett movement, 104
Beyeler attachment, 706f
Bilabial sounds, 190f
Bilateral balanced occlusion, 490
Bilateral configuration, 359
Bioactive materials, 770
Bioinert materials, 770
Biointegration, 733
Biologic failure, 637–643
Biotolerant materials, 770
Bis-acryl composites, 572
Bis-GMA, 572
Blade dental implants, 728
Blanching, 566
Blandness, 583
Blebs, 412, 628
Block grafts, 752
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Blockout, 295, 390
Bobby pin, 595
Body, 308, 733
Bonding, 697–699
Bone mapping, 750
Bonwill articulator, 136
Bonwill theory, 135–136
Bony prominence, 221
Bony protuberances, 412
Border moulding in open mouth technique, 216
Border moulding, 71–77
Border movements, 105, 487
Boucher’s technique, 240–241
Boxing, 80–82
Braided cords, 546f
Brazing, 623
Breakage, 414
Bridges, 439
Broad stress distribution, 365
Bruce technique, 239–240
Bruxers, 234
Bruxism, 213, 488, 583
Buccal bevel, 528
Buccal corridor, 801
Buccal flange, 8, 72
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Buccal frenum, 45, 52–53
Buccal frenum area, 72f
Buccal shelf, 52
Buccal vestibule, 43, 45, 50
Bull’s eye, 409
BULL rule, 204
Burning mouth syndrome, 27–28
Burnishing, 601
Burnout, 398–399, 614–615
C
CAD–CAM, 654
CAD–CAM abutments, 736
Calcium alginate, 196
Calcium oleate, 196
Calgon, 213
Camper’s line, 94
Candelilla wax, 600
Candidiasis, 14
Canine extension from occlusal rest, 322
Canine guided occlusion, 487f
Canine prominence, 192
Canine protected, 405
Canine rests, 322
Cantilever abutment, 442
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Cantilever FPD, 258, 482f
Cantor and Curtis classification, 787
Capillarity, 38
Carbon, 770
Carbon marker, 338
Cardiac pacemaker, 551
Cardiovascular disease, 328
Caries, 476, 637
Carnauba wax, 600
Carvings, 191
Cast, 61–63, 80, 257
Cast circumferential clasp, 312–316, 359–360
Cast core, 685
Cast mesh fixed partial denture, 665
Cast post, 671
Castable abutments, 736
Castable ceramics, 655
Casting rings, 612
Ceka attachment, 705
Ceka, 715
Cellophane sheet, 199
Cellulose lacquers, 196
Cellulose, 612
Cement retained restoration, 757
Cementation, 635–636
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Central bearing device, 117–118, 126
Central bearing plate, 126
Centric interference, 491
Centric occlusion (CO), 120, 484–485
Centric record, 128f
Centric relation, 107, 120, 484–485
Ceramic veneering, 620–621
Ceramics, 771
Cerec, 652
Ceresin, 600
Cerestore, 652
Cervical contour, 592
Chairside reline, 415
Chalian, classification, 787
Chamfer, 496
Chamois wheel and gold rouge, 207
Channel tooth, 161
Characterization of dentures, 189
Check records, 210
Chemical (molecular) bonding, 631
Chewing cycle, 106
Chlorinated polyethylene, 795
Chloroform, 623
Chlorpromazine, 219
Chopping block, 163
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Christensen’s phenomenon, 103
Chroma, 586
Chromascop, 588f
Cielab colour system, 586
Cingulum rest, 302–305
Circumferential clasp, 312–316
Clamp, 197
Clasp, 307, 316
Clasp assembly—minor connector, 298
Clasp bridge, 428
Clasp repair, 417
Clasps, characteristics, 307–312
Classic or conventional type of laminate veneer preparation, 690
Classification, major connectors, 285–296
Clattering of teeth, 223
Clear acrylic surgical guide, 249
Clear slurry water, 195
Cleft lip, 773–774
Clenching, 488
Clinical remounting, 202, 210–211
Closed horseshoe palatal strap, 289
Closed mouth, impressions, 41
Closed-tray, impressions, 765
Closest speaking space, 117
‘Coarse’ diamonds, 504f
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Coarse to fine stone, 400
Cobalt–chromium–molybdenum based alloys, 770–771
Coe masticators, 164
Cohesion, 37, 358
Cold mould seal, 196
Colour coding, 366
Colour description, 586–587
Colour wheel, 584
Colour, shade selection, 584
Colourimeters, 589
Combination of metal–acrylic, 323
Combination syndrome, 26, 242, 267
Combined units, 708
Compensating curves, 148–149
Complementary colour, 584
Complete crowns, 505–523
Complete palate, 289
Component parts of complete dentures, 7–9
Composite resin, 160
Computed tomography (CT), 743–745
Condensation silicone, 555
Condylar elements, 203
Condylar guidance, 146–147
Condylar guide inclination, 146–147
Congenital maxillary defects, 773
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Congestive cardiac failure, 544
Conical pontic, 452
Conical theory, 136
Connecting units, 708–709
Connector failure, 644
Connectors, 439f, 457
Conservative retainers, 448
Contact lens type, laminate veneer preparation, 690t
Continuity defect, 787
Continuous bar retainers and linguoplates, 322
Contour of palatal vault, 421
Contrabevel, 673
Control of fluids, 542
Conventional abutment, 442
Conventional immediate denture, 245
Conversational aesthetics, 803
Copper, 593
Copper band, 545, 566f
Copy milling, 659
Cores, 685
Coronal attachment, 706, 707
Cosmesil, 796
Cosmic rays, 584
Cotton rolls, 542f
Cover screw, 741
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Crack bridging, 653
Crack tip interactions, 653
Crack tip shielding, 653
Crest module, 734–735
Cross arch stabilization, 257
Cross pin and wing connectors, 460
Crossblades, 163f
Crown, 373, 439–440
Crown remover, 583, 650–651
Crucible former, 611–612
Curing cycle, 200
Curing, 200–201
Curve of Monson, 149
Curve of Spee, 148, 489
Curve of Wilson, 149
Cusp angle, 149
Cusp teeth, 159
Cuspal inclination, 149
Cuspal interference, 223
Cuspid line, 97
Cuspless teeth, 160
Custom trays, 63–70, 71–77, 382, 558
Custom-made abutments, 736
Custom-made and prefabricated posts, 671–672
Custom-made post, 674
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Cutter-bars, 164
Cyanide, 593
Cyanoacrylate, 593, 597f
Cylinders, 729
D
Dakometer, 115
Dalbo attachment, 703
Dawson’s bimanual palpation, 121
Dearticulated cast, 194–195
Deep labial notch, 234
Definitive (hard) cements, 632
Definitive cast, 80–85, 444
Definitive obturator, 781
Deflasker, 201–202
Deflasking, 201–202
Deflective occlusal contacts, 266
Delayed aesthetic failure, 650
Delayed loading, 769
Dental floss, 583
Dental history, 329
Dentine and enamel, 620
Dentogenic concept, 155–156
Denture adhesives, 39, 214–215
Denture base minor connector, 298–300
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Denture base repairs, 416
Denture border, 8
Denture flange, 7–8
Denture foundation area, 227
Denture insertion, 208–215
Denture inspection, 208
Denture packing, 191
Denture processing, 191
Denture retention element, 722
Denture stomatitis, 24–25
Denture teeth, 8–9
Depth cutter, 691
Design transfer, 390, 394
Detergent, 198f
Determinants of mandibular movements, 488–489
Detrusion, 104
Developmental lobes, 589–590
Devesting machine, 400
Dewaxing, 196, 198
Di-Lok trays, 599
Diabetes, 12, 219, 327
Diagnosis, 327
complete dentures, 11
fixed partial dentures, 439
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removable partial dentures, 328
Diagnostic casts, 13, 330, 335–336
Diagnostic impression, 40, 331–336
Diagonal survey line, 351
Diameter, sprue, 610
Diamond stones, 504
Diatorics, 198
Dicor, 652
Dicyclomine, 544
Die, 592–600
Die lubricant, 601
Die pins, 594
Die spacer, 599–600
Die stone, 593
Die trimming, 599
Digital radiographs/radiovisiography (RVG), 743
Dimensional accuracy, 554
Dimensional stability, 554
Dimpling, 376–377
Direct retainers, 306–318
Direct-indirect retention, 323
Discomfort, 216
Discontinuity defect, 787
Disjunct denture, 436
Distal extension base RPD, 257
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Distobuccal flange, 186
Distobuccal undercut, 360
Distraction osteogenesis, 752
Disuse atrophy, 4
Dithiocarbamates, 556–557
Divestment, 593
Divided major connectors, 364
Divine proportion, 802
3D-Master, 588–589
Dolder bar, 722
Dome-shaped copings, 714
Double cord technique, 549
Double lingual bar, 295
Double mix, 558
Double palatal bar, 289
Dough forming time, 199
Dough method, 68–69
Dowel pins, 594
Drifting and tilting, 264
Drill extender, 760–761
Dual impression, 246
Duplicating flask, 391
Duplication, 391
Duplicator, 391
Dyes, 600
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Dynamic quotient, 798
Dyscrasias, 246
E
Earpiece type, 108
Eccentric check records, 184
Eccentric relations, 107
Electric shock, 551
Electric waxing instruments, 601
Electrical waves, 584
Electrode, 551
Electroformed dies, 593
Electronic shade taking devices, 589
Electroplating, 593
Electrosurgery, 550–553
Embrasure, 559
Emergence profile, 751
Emulsions, 796
Enameloplasty, 266, 372
Encirclement, 311
Endodontic dental implant, 728
Endodontic failure of abutment, 640–641
Endosteal dental implants, 728–729
Entrapment of air bubbles, 196–197
Enucleation, 792
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Envelope of motion, 105, 487
Ephedrine, 219
Epidermoid carcinoma, 775
Epilepsy, 328
Epimine, 556
Epithelial keratinization, 798
Eposteal dental implant (subperiosteal), 730–731
Epoxy resin, 593
Epulis fissuratum, 243
Equigingival margins, 495
Ethyl alcohol, 556
Ethyl chloride, 551
Evisceration, 792
Examination, clinical, 327, 329–330
fixed partial dentures, 462

removable partial dentures, 328
Excursive movements, 102–104, 485–486
Exothermic heat, 572
Expasyl, 550
Expensive, bis-acryl composites, 572
External connections, 729, 735
External finish line, 300, 396f
Extracoronal attachments, 708–709
Extracoronal direct retainers, 307–318
Extracoronal restoration, 439–440
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Extracoronal retainers, 448
Extracoronal, RPD, 256
Extraoral tracing, 126
Extraradicular attachments, 715
F
Face form, 13
Facebow, 108–115, 462–463
Facia type, 109
Facial aesthetics, 797–798
Facial midline, 188
Facial paralysis, 214
Facial profile, 13
Facial prostheses, 792
Facings, 325
Fauchard wing, 790
Feeder sprues, 611
Felt wheels, 400
Ferric sulphate, 546
Ferrule, 673
Festooned, gingival margin, 577
Festooning, defined, 191, 194
Fibroepithelial polyp, 26
Fibro-osseous integration, 731–732
Final impression, 70–80
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Final polishing, 619
Fine diamonds, 504
Finish line, knife-edge, 495
Finishing, 191, 205–206
Fish hook or hairpin clasp, 315
Fissuratum, epulis, 25–26
Fit checker, 628
Fixed dental prosthesis, 419
Fixed partial denture, 439
Fixed prosthodontics, 439
Fixed splinting, 360–361
Fixed-detachable prostheses, 737
Fixed-fixed, connector, 442
Fixed-movable, connector, 442
Fixed-removable, connector, 442–443
Flabby ridges, 26, 238
Flabby tissue, 16–17
Flame-shaped diamond, 520
Flash, 199–200
Flasking, 191, 195f
Flat-end tapering diamond, 505
Flippers, 255
Fluid wax, 384, 386–388
Fluid wax technique, 48–49
Fluorescent light, 587
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Flux, 623
Food entrapment, 216
Forearm, skin graft, 776
Fovea palatinae, 46
Fox plane, 95
Frenal relief, 206
Frictional control, 358
Frictional resistance, 421, 445
Fulcrum, 354
Full veneer crown, 439–440
Full veneer retainers, 447
Fully adjustable, articulator, 134
Functional chew in technique, 242
Functional cusp bevel, 503, 507
Functional movements, 105–106, 487–488
Functional reline technique, 386
Functional scraping technique, 186
Functions, minor connectors, 298–301
Furnace, 398
G
Gagging, 18, 28, 223, 413
Galvanism, 29
Gamma rays, 584
Gas-oxygen, 615, 623
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Gates Glidden drills, 673
Gauge, 394–395
Gelation, 224, 555
Generated path, 242
Genial tubercles, 55
Gingival aesthetics, 797
Gingival architecture, 797
Gingival carving, 192
Gingival displacement, 542–553
Gingival former, 741
Gingival recession, 255
Gingival retraction, 544–553
Gingival zenith, 751–752
Gingivally approaching clasp, 316
Glass ceramics, 654–655
Glass ionomer cement, 633–634, 685
Glaucoma, 544
Glazed, restoration, 621
Glenoid fossa, 99
Gold occlusals, 241
Gold-based solders, 622
Golden proportion, 802
Gothic arch tracing, 125
Grafting, 753–754
Grainy material, 199–200
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Graphite, 623
Gravity, 38
Grittman articulator, 135
Groove indexing, 84
Grooves, 502
Grounding plate, 552
Guide plane denture, 427
Guiding planes, 340, 374–376
Gum dammar, 600
Gum fit denture, 346
Gum strippers, 255
Gypsum bonded investments, 393, 614
Gysi crossbite teeth, 161
Gysi simplex, 135
H
H and H technique, 566
Hader bar, 721–722
Haemostasis, 546
Haemostatic artery forceps, 583
Half and half clasp, 316
Hall articulator, 136
Hamular notch, 45, 194
Hanau’s quint, 150
Handle, 69–70
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Handpiece, 760
Hannes anchor plunger, 706
Hard palate, 17f, 44
Heat cure acrylic resin, 423
Heat pressed processing technique, 654
Heat-activated resins, 200
Heat-soaking, 399
Heavy body, 557
Heavy chamfer, 496f
Heel of casts, 216
Height of contour, 376
Hemimaxillectomy, 777
Hex driver, 760
High coefficient of thermal expansion, 600
High density current, 551
High fusing, firing temperature, 654
High labial frenum, 234
High lip line, 96
High speed lathe, 400
High survey line, 351
High vacuum suction, 543
High-fusing alloys, 593
Hindels’ technique, 385–386
Hinge articulator, 134
Hinges, 709
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Hollow (two-piece) abutments, 735–736
Hollow bulb obturator, 787
Hollow plastic sprues, 610
Hooper’s duplicator, 233
Horizontal condylar guidance, 143–144
Horizontal fulcrum line, 355
Horizontal overlap, 489
Horizontal relation, 107, 187
Horseshoe shaped, major connector, 289
House articulator, 136
HTV silicones, 794
HTV, 795
Hue, 586
Hybrid dentures, 737
Hydraulic and hydrophobic technique, 566
Hydrogen peroxide, 552
Hydrophobic, condensation silicone, 555
Hydrostatic pressure, 229
Hyperplasia, 224
Hypersensitivity, 544
Hypertrophic frenum, 30
Hypertrophy, 224
I
I-bar, 428–432
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I-clasp, 317
Ideal occlusion, 490–491
Imbibition, 555
Immediate aesthetic failure, 650
Immediate dentures, 245
Immediate implantation, 754–755
Immediate interim obturator, 781
Immediate loading, 769
Immediate partial dentures, 426–427
Implant abutment, 735–737
Implant analogue, 742
Implant fixture, 733–735
Implant kit, 760–761
Implant retained maxillary obturator, 787
Implant stents, 748–750
Implant supported, overdenture, 711
Implant supported, RPD, 419
Impression, 7, 8, 40, 41
Impression and cast, 35
Impression compound, 42, 59
Impression coping, 742
Impression plaster, 42
Impression surface, 7
Impression wax, 42, 229
In-ceram, 652
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Incandescent light, 587
Incisal bevel, 533
Incisal guidance, 147–148
Incisal guide angle, 148
Incisal offset, 533
Incisal overjet, 221
Incisal rests, 305
Incisal table, 203
Incisive papilla, 50, 118, 153f, 221
Inclination of articular eminence, 488
Inclusions in denture, 234
Index guides, 195
Indexing, cast, 84–85
Indirect restoration, 418, 554
Indirect retainer or auxiliary rest minor connector, 298
Indirect retainers, 319–323, 361
Induction casting, 399
Infrared, above visible spectrum, 584
Inlays, 380
Insulin pump, 551
Intaglio surface, 7, 36, 407, 631
Intelligibility, speech, 777
Intercommissure width, 797
Intercondylar distance, 489
Interfacial surface tension, 37
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Interference, 339, 408
Interim and transitional, restoration, 570
Interim denture, 256
Interim immediate denture, 245
Interim obturator and definitive obturator, 779
Interim obturator, 780–781
Interim partial denture, 419–424
Interlabial gap, 797
Internal attachments, 701
Internal connections, 729, 735
Internal finish line, 300f
Interocclusal check records, 123
Interpupillary line, 95f
Interzygomatic width, 803
Intracoronal attachments, 306–307, 708
Intracoronal direct retainer, 306–307
Intracoronal retainers, 448
Intracoronal, RPD, 256
Intraoral tracer, 126
Intraradicular attachments, 715–716
Inverted cusp tooth, 163f
Investing, 398
Investing flasks, 398
Iowa wax, 387
IPN resin, 241
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IPS Empress, 652–653
Ipsilateral condyle, 787
Iron oxide (rouge), 623
Iron-neodymium-boron, 791–792
Irradiation, 219
Irreversible hydrocolloid, 58–59, 61
J
Jelenko surveyor, 337
Jig method, 232–233
Junction, transparent with skin, 792
K
Karaya, vegetable gum, 214
Keeper, magnetic attachment, 722
Keratinized palatal mucosa, 776
Key and keyway attachments, 701
Kinematic, facebow, 108
Kneading, 199
Knife-edge, prosthesis, 408
Knitted cords, 546
Korrecta wax, 387
Kryolan, 796
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Labial bar, 296
Labial flange, 8f, 71–72, 72f
Labial frenum, 45, 52
Labial plate, 408
Labial vestibule, 45, 52
Labiodental sounds, 190
Laboratory prescription form, 591t
Laboratory remount, 202
Lack of seal, 217
Laminate veneer, 440
Laminating, 689
Large acrylic stones, 206f
Large bur, 205f
Laser, 623
Lateral cephalogram, 743
Lateral condylar guidance, angle, 144
Lateral excursion, 203–204, 486
Lateral records, 131
Lateral relations, 130
Lateral throat form, 18
Laterotrusion, 104
Laterotrusive or working contact, 486
Latticework construction, 299
Latticework design, 395
Leaching of wax, 198
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Lead dioxide, 555–556
Lecron carver, 192
Lengthening, 551
Lentulo spiral, 568
Leucite, 653
Lever, 354
Light body or wash or syringe material, 557
Light, 584–587
Liners, 612
Lingual bar, 293
Lingual extension, 184–185
Lingual flange, 8f
Lingual frenum, 53, 184–185
Lingual plate, 293–294
Lingual pouch, 184–185
Lingual rest, 302–305
Lingual tilting, 185
Lingual tori, 344
Lingualized occlusion, 151, 484–492
Lip analysis, 798–799
Lip biting, 221
Lip form, 189
Lip morphology, 798–799
Lip thickness, 797
Liquid disclosing media, 400
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Lithium disilicate, 653–654
Loading, 769
Local anaesthetic, 544
Long span, length, FPD, 445
Long thin tapering diamond, 505
Long-term temporary, FPD, 445, 571
Looseness of denture, 216–221
Loss of retention, 643–644
Lost wax casting method, 256
Low fusing impression compound, 71
Low fusing, firing temperature, 654
Low lip line, 96
Low solubility, 583
Low survey line, 351
Low thermal conductivity, 600
Lubricant, 225
Luting, 632, 699
M
Machined restorations, 658–659
Macroaesthetics, 797
Magic foamcord, 545
Magnetic attachment, 706, 722–723
Magnets, 737, 786f
Maintenance failure, 643
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Major connector, 285–296, 363
Malignant mesenchymal tumours, 775
Mandibular deviation, 266
Mandibular guidance flange, 787
Mandibular major connectors, 292–296
Mandibular movements, 100–107
Mandibulofacial dysostosis, 787
Margin integrity, 495–498, 627, 629
Marginal adaptation, 583
Maryland bridge, 664
Masticatory efficiency, 266
Matrix, 701, 715
Matrix impression system, 566–567
Maxillary major connectors, 288–292
Maxillary tuberosity interference, 32
Maxillary tuberosity, 44–45
Maxillectomy, 777
Maxillofacial prosthetics, 772
Maxillofacial prosthodontist, 775
Maxillomandibular instrument, 135
Maxillomandibular relationship record, 99
Maxillomandibular relationship, 99
Maximal intercuspal position (MI), 99, 219–220, 484
Mclean’s technique, 384
MDX 4-4210, 794, 796
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Mean value articulator, 138–140
Mechanical failure, 637
Mechanical–chemical, methods of gingival displacement, 546–549
Medical oncologist, 775–776
Mediolateral curves, 148
Mediotrusion, 104
Mediotrusive, 486
Medium fusing ceramics, 654
Medium or regular body, 557
Medium survey line, 350–351
Menopause, 11, 219
Mental attitude, 11
Mental foramen, 54
Mercaptan, 555–556
Mesh construction, 299
Mesial migration/tilting, 404–405
Mesiobuccal undercut, 360
Metal caliper, 507, 508, 619
Metal ceramic, 444
Metal ceramic retainers, 449
Metal denture base, 324
Metal pontic, 326
Metal repair, 417
Metal with ceramic facing, 444
Metal with complete ceramic coverage, 444
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Metal with resin facings, 444
Metal-ceramic fracture, 645–649
Metamerism, 587
Meyer’s method, 125
Microaesthetics, 797
Micrognathia, 787
Micromechanical bonding, 631
Microretention, 445
Microwaves, 584
Midpalatine suture, 50
Minor connector, 298–301, 363
Model, 257
Modelling liquid, 620
Modified bis-GMA cement, 665
Modified posteriors, 162
Modified ridge lap, 451
Modified sanitary pontic/perelpontic/arc-shaped FPD, 453
Modified T-clasp, 317
Molloplast B, 227
Monomethylmethacrylate, monomer, 198–199
Monoplane occlusion, 145–151
Motor neuron disorders, 219
Mould and shade selection, 404
Mouth preparation, 370–381
Mouth temperature wax, 415
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Mucocompressive impression technique, 41
Mucosal implant, 731
Mucostatic impression technique, 40–41
Mucous membrane, 43
Multiple circlet clasp, 313
Multiple sprues, 397
Munsell colour, 586
Mutually protected occlusion, 405, 490
Mylar strip, 187–188, 409, 628
Mylohyoid ridge, 54, 408
N
Nasal stents, 793–794
Nasal turbinates, 776
Nasiolabial angle, 93
Nasogastric tube, 780
Nasolabial sulcus, 94
Nasopharyngeal space, 778
Nausea, 223
Needles–House method, 125
Neuromuscular control, 217, 242, 358
Neutral zone, 185
Neutrocentric occlusion, 788
Ney surveyor, 337
Nick and notch method, 123
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Niswonger’s method, 116–117
Nodules, 208
Non anatomic teeth, 160
Non arcon teeth, 134
Non-rigid post, 670–671
Non-working interferences, 491
Nonadhesive luting, 631
Nonadjustable, articulator, 134
Nonaesthetic posts, 671
Nonlock teeth, 163f
Nonprosthodontic mouth, preparation, 370–372
Nonsubmerged (one-stage surgery), 731
Nonthreaded, implants root forms, 729f
Nonworking contacts, 486
Notch indexing, 84
Nutrition, 5–6
Nutritional deficiencies, 29
O
O-ring, 716f
Obtundency, 583
Obturators, 778–781
Occlusal contact, 187–188
Occlusal discrepancy, 209
Occlusal equilibration, 202
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Occlusal errors, 202–203
Occlusal harmony, 209
Occlusal interference, 400, 491–492
Occlusal offset, 527–528
Occlusal plane, 39, 94–95, 148, 186, 195–196, 489
Occlusal prematurities, 412
Occlusal problems, 642–643
Occlusal radiograph, 743
Occlusal rest, 302
Occlusal rims, 91–93
Occlusal surface, 7
Occlusal trauma, 266
Occlusal wax, 209
Occlusal wear, 644–645
Occlusion, 133, 362–363, 461, 627, 769
Ocular defects, 772
One-piece, implants root forms, 729
Onlay clasp, 315
Onlay, 373
Opaque porcelain, 620
Open mouth impressions, 41
Open tray, 765
Open-mouth technique, 228
Opening movement, 485
Oral examination, 329
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Oral malignancy, 328
Orbital pointer, 111
Orbital trauma, 772
Orientation position, 216
Orientation relations, 107
Orofacial dyskinesia, 214
ORS-OD, 715
Orthodontist, 774
Orthopantomogram (OPG), 743
Oscillator or radio transmitter, 551
Osseointegration, 732–733
Outer strut, 395
Ovate pontic, 451–452
Ovate, 591t
Oven soldering, 623
Over adjustment, 217
Over postdamming, 49
Overcontouring, 630
Overdentures, 758
Overextended margins, 629
Overextension, 49, 184, 208–209, 411–412
Overimpression, 385
Overlapping, 189, 404–405
Overlay denture, 711
Overlay prosthesis, 711
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Overpacking, 198
Oxyacetylene blow torch, 400
Oxygen-inhibited layer, 572
P
Packing, 191, 198–200
Paediatrician, 774
Paedodontist, 774
Palatal bar, 289f
Palatal strap, 289
Palatal torus, 345
Palladium, 556–557
Panoramic radiograph, 282
Pantograph, 129, 138
Pantographic tracing (pantogram), 129
Paraffin wax, 600
Parafunctional movements, 106, 488
Parallel block out, 352
Parallel, shape, post, 670
Paralleling pins, 761
Parotid duct, 542
Partial edentulism, 264
Partial maxillectomy, 777
Partial veneer crown, 439–440, 524–541
Partial veneer retainers, 448
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‘Passavant’s, ridge/pad, 778
Passive method, 71
Passivity, 311–312
Path of insertion, 500
Path of placement, 342–348, 500
Pathogenic occlusion, 492
Patrix, 701
PDM siloxane, 794
Peeso reamers, 673
Perforated metal trays, 332
Periapical radiograph, 743
Permanent bases, 86
Personality, 10
Petroleum jelly, 211
Phenothiazine, 219
Philtrum, 94
Phonetics, 116, 117, 190
Phosphate bonded investments, 393, 612, 614
Physiodispenser, 760
Physiologic basing, 364–365
Physiologic rest position, 99
Pick-up impression, 384–386
Pickling, 617
Pilocarpine hydrochloride, 219
Pin holes, 502, 538
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Pindex, 597–598
Pinledge, 534
PKT instruments, 601f
Plaque accumulation, 583
Plaster index, 563
Plaster knife, 205
Plastic disposable trays, 332
Plastic or oral surgeon, 774
Plasticine, 211
Plasticized acrylics, 227
Pleasure curve, 149
Plier No. 139, 409–410
Plier No. 200, 411f
Plungers, 709
Pneumatic crown remover, 651f
Point articulator, 138
Polished surface, 7, 39, 208
Polishing, compounds, 206, 400
Poly-R methacrylates, 572
Poly(ethylmethacrylate), 224
Polycarbonate, 571
Polyether, 556
Polymerization shrinkage, 198–199, 557, 593
Polymerization, 196
Polymethylmethacrylate polymer, 198–199
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Polymethylmethacrylates, 572
Polysiloxane, 556
Polysulphide rubber, 555–556
Polyurethane elastomers, 593
Polyvinyl acetate, 795
Polyvinyl chloride, 795
Polyvinyl methyl ether maleate, 214
Polyvinyl siloxanes, 542, 556–557
Pontic, 439
Poor appearance, 216
Poor fit, 234
Porcelain fracture, 645–650
Porcelain jar, 160, 198–199, 324
Porcelain laminate veneer, 689
Porcelain release agent, 621
Porcelain teeth, 240
Position, 18
Post, 669–685
Post crown, 685
Postceramic soldering, 625
Posterior determinants, 488–489
Posterior palatal seal, 46–50, 72, 186, 208–209
Posterior vibrating line, 47
Postinsertion problems, 216–223
Postpalatal seal, 47
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Powder slurry, 654
Powdered sprays, 400
Power point, 118
Pre-extraction records, 13, 157
Preceramic soldering, 625
Precision attachments, 702
Prefabricated abutments, 735–736
Prefabricated mesh wax, 395
Prefabricated pontics, 455
Preformed crowns, 574
Preformed occlusal rims, 93
Preformed, provisional restoration, 571
Preliminary cast, 61
Preliminary impression, 40
Prematurities, 203f
Preservation, 238
Pressable ceramics, 655
Pressure indicating paste, 208, 408
Pressure spot, 208
Pressure-free impression, 382
Primary and secondary colours, 584
Primary cast, 238
Procera, 653
Progressive loading, 769
Projection units, 708
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Prominent mylohyoid ridge, 31
Propantheline, 544
Prophy cup, 206f
Prosthesis movement (PM), 758
Prosthodontic diagnostic index (PDI), 20–23
Protrusion, 102–103, 103f, 203–204, 485–486
Protrusive condylar guidance angle, 103
Protrusive interference, 491–492
Protrusive records, 130–131
Protrusive relations, 130
Provisional (soft) cements, 632
Provisional abutments, 736–737
Provisional restoration, 444
Proximal boxes, 502
Proximal contact, 627
Proximal groove, 526–527
Proximal plate, 429–431
Pry bars, 201
Psychiatrist, 774
Psychogenic causes, 28, 223, 637
Psychogenic failure, 650
Pterygomaxillary seal, 47
Pulpal degeneration, 639–640
Pure silver, 593
Putty cutter, 561
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Putty, 557
Q
Quadrilateral configuration, 358–359
Quality of life, 772
R
Racemic epinephrine, 546
Radial shoulder, 497
Radiation oncologist, 775–776
Radiation therapy, 788
Radicular retained restorations, 440
Radicular retainers, 448
Radicular, combined units, 709
Radio waves, 584
Radiographic examination, 330
Radiographic stent/template, 748–749
Rag, 400
Rag wheel, 206
Realeff, 209
Rebase, 227
Rebasing, 415–416
Recall appointments, 216
Reciprocal arm, 308–309
Reciprocation, 311
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Reconstruction, 416
Record bases, 86–91
Recording plate, 127
Refitting, 224–233
Refractory cast, 261
Refractory material, 390–391
Reinforced acrylic pontics, 325
Reinforcing shellac, 89
Relief, 234, 289, 353
Relief areas, 50
Relief holes, 387
Reline, 227
Relining, 414–415
Remargination, 606–607
Remodelling, 245
Remount cast, 211
Remount procedures, 409
Remounting jig, 211
Removable partial denture, 255
Removable partial overdentures, 432–433
Removable prosthodontics, 255
Removable splinting, 361
Repair, 416–418
Requirements, of major connectors, 285–288
Reservoir, 396
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Reservoir ring, 391
Residual ridge resorption (RRR), 3–5
Residual ridge, 15, 44, 330
Resilient liners, 226–227
Resilient, rigid attachments, 703
Resin cements, 635, 685
Resin modified glass ionomer cements, 634
Resin teeth, 160
Resin veneering, 621–622
Resin-bonded restorations, 440
Resistance form, 502–503
Rest seats, functions, 301–305
Rests, functions, 301–305
Resurface, 227
Retainer, 257, 439, 447–450
Retention beads, 622
Retention form, 499–502
Retention, 36–39, 209, 257, 310
Retentive anchor, 715
Retentive arm, 308
Retentive terminal, 308
Retripoding master cast, 352
Retromolar pad, 53f, 185
Retromylohyoid space, 54f
Retrusion, 103, 104, 486
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Reverse circlet clasp, 313, 360f
Reverse curve, 149
Reversible hydrocolloids, 555
Richmond crown, 685
Ridge augmentation, 33
Ridge contour, 16
Ridge correction technique, 386–388
Ridge lap, 450–451
Ridge split, 752
Ridge undercuts, 30–31
Rigid connectors, 458
Rigid post, 671
Rim-lock trays, 332
Ring clasp, 313–315
Ringless investing flask, 398
Roach clasp, 316
Rocatec system, 665
Rochette bridge, 663–664
Root caries, 639
Root forms, 728–729
Root fracture, 645
Root treated tooth, 706f
Rotary curettage (gingettage), 550
Rotation, 101, 485
Round bur, 205, 515, 691
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Round-end tapering diamond, 505
RPA concept, 431–432
RPI concept, 431
RTV silicones, 794
Rubber base, 555–556
Rubber dam, 542, 545
Rubber points, 206
Rubbery, 199–200
Rudd’s technique, 242
Rugae, 44
Runner bar, 611
S
Saddle pontic, 450–451
Saddles, 278
Sag, 578, 625
Sagittal fulcrum line, 355–356
Saliva ejector, 543, 543f
Saliva, 5, 19
Sandblasting, 400
Sandpaper, 206
Sandy material, 199–200
Sanitary/hygienic pontic, 452
Saturation, 585f
Scissor bite teeth, 161
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Score-PD, 703
Screw-retained restorations, 757
Screws, 709
Sebum, 796
Secondary caries, 637–639
Secondary sprues, 397
Sectional denture, 435
Selective grinding, 191, 203–205, 239
Selective pressure impressions, 387–388
Selective pressure, 41
Semi-adjustable articulators, 134
Semi-anatomic teeth, 159
Semimaxillectomy, 777
Semiprecision attachments, 703
Sensitizer, 556
Separating medium, 191, 196–197, 564
Serrated posts, 671
Shade distribution chart, 589–590
Shade guide, 587–590
Shade selection, 590–591
Shaped block out, 353
Sharry technique, 164
Shear-cusp tooth, 164
Shell blaster, 205
Shellac bases, 87–89
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Shim stock, 628
Short span, length, FPD, 445
Short term temporary, 571
Shoulder with bevel, 497
Shoulder, 308, 496–497
Shrinkage, 216
Sialolithiasis, 219
Sibilant, 190
Side shift, 489
Significance of mandibular movements, 107
Silica–alumina, 612
Silicone, 556
Silicone putty, 59, 61
Silicones, 795–796
Siloxane polymers, 227
Silver based solders, 623
Simple circlet cast, 359
Simple circlet clasp, 313, 316
Single bar, 719
Single complete denture, 238–244
Single impression, 558
Single mix, 558
Single sprue, 397
Single step, border moulding, 74
Sinus lift, 753–754
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Siphenylenes, 796
Size, tongue, 18
Skeletal class II, 220
Skin graft, 776
Slab articulators, 134
Sleeves, 719
Slip-casting, 652
Sluiceways, 624
Slurry of pumice, 206
Smile design, 797–804
Smile index (width/height), 797
Smooth posts, 671
Smoothening, 400
Sneezing and coughing, 213
Snowshoe effect, 40
Soaps and starches, 196
Social worker, 774–775
Sodium alginate solution, 196
Sodium hypochlorite, 213, 405
Soft blue casting wax, 395
Soft liners, 226
Soft palate, 17
Sol state, 391
Solder, 622
Soldering index, 623–624
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Soldering, 622
Solid abutments, 735
Soluble resin solutions, 593
Sonic cleaners, 213
SPA concept, 156
Spacer, 65
Spectrophotometers, 589
Speech pathologist, 774
Sphenomandibular ligament, 100
Spinel, 654
Spiral and tripod implants, 728
Splinting, 360–361
Split pontic connector, 458–460
Split remounting plates, 84–85
Spoon denture, 434–435
Spring cantilever, 442
Spring loaded abutment, 650
Sprinkle-on method, 68
Sprue former, 396
Spruing, 396–398
Stability, 209
Stabilized bases, 86
Stansbury’s technique, 242
Static and functional methods, 228
Stereograph, 138
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Stereographic record, 138
Sticky wax, 612
Stiff material, 199
Stiffness, 554
Stippled texture, 798
Stippling, 194, 207, 589–590
Stock trays, 332, 558
Stomatognathic system, 267
Stops, 65, 247f
Straight abutments, 736f
Straight fissure bur, 206
Stress breakers, 363–364
Stress equalization, 363–364
Stresses induced, 234
Striations, 589–590
Stringy material, 199–200
Structural durability, 503–504
Stud attachments, 705, 715
Studs, 737
Stylomandibular ligament, 100
Stylus, 126
Subgingival margins, 495–496
Submerged (two-stage) surgery, 731
Subnasale, 802–803
Subpontic inflammation, 642
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Suction chambers and discs, 39
Suction cups, 225
Sulphur, 555–556
Sunken-in apperance, 264
Superbond, 665
Superimposed prosthesis, 711
Support, 257, 311
Supraerupted teeth, 266
Supraeruption, 243, 405
Supragingival, margins, 495
Surfaces of complete dentures, 106
Surfactant, 556
Surgical drills, 760
Surgical guides, 749–750
Surgical obturator, 779
Surtrusion, 104
Survey lines, 350–351
Survey, 259
Surveying, 261
Surveying platform, 337
Surveying table, 337–338
Surveying tools, 338
Surveyor, 337–340
Svedopter, 543–544
Swenson’s technique, 239
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Swing–lock denture, 427–428
Syneresis, 555
Synovial cavity, 100
Synthetic waxes, 600
T
Tachycardia, 546
Taper, 499
Tapered cylinders, 729
Tapered posts, 670
Telescopic crown, 478
Telescopic, overdenture attachment, 737
Template, 240f
Temporary bases, 86
Temporary denture bases, 405
Temporary obturator, 225
Temporary removable partial dentures, 419–426
Temporary, restoration, 570
Tenon-mortise connector, 458
Thermoformed template, 580
Thigh, skin graft, 776
Thimble-shaped copings, 714
Thiokol rubber, 555–556
Thixotropic, properties, 557
Threaded posts, 671
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Threaded, root forms, 728–729
Thumbscrew, 201
Tilting, 341–342
Tin foil substitutes, 196
Tin foil, 196
Tin–silver, 571
Tipped molars, 264–265
Tissue conditioners, 224–226
Tissue conditioning, 425
Tissue dilation, 544
Tissue irritation, 583
Tissue rest, 213
Tissue stop, 300f, 395
Tissue surface indexing, 348
Titanium-6 aluminium-4 vanadium, 770
Titanium, 770
TMJ articulator, 138
TMJ problems, 216, 748
Toddler, 772
Tongue space, 185
Tongue, 18, 74, 158f, 181
Tooth perforation, 642
Tooth replacements, 324–326
Tooth visibility, 189
Tooth-supported overdentures, 711
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Torch, 623
Tori, 19, 32
Torpedo diamond, 506
Torque wrench, 761
Torus mandibularis, 50
Torus palatinus, 32
Torus tuberius, 778
Tracing device, 126
Transfer impressions, 765
Transitional denture, 256
Transitional partial denture, 425
Translation, 101–102, 485
Translucency, 589
Transosteal dental implants, 730
Trauma, 224, 772
Tray adhesives, 558
Treatment, partial denture, 425–426
Trial closure, 199–200
Triangular markings, 194
Trichion, 802–803
Trichloroethane, 796
Triple trays, 558
Tripod configuration, 359
Tripoding, 339, 348–350
Trubyte teeth, 161
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True-kusp teeth, 163
Try-in, 184
Tube teeth, 325
Tuberosity, 408
Tumour, 772
Tungsten carbide burs, 504
Turpentine, 623
Twist drills, 504
Twisted cords, 547f
Two part denture, 435–436
Two-piece abutment connection, 729
Type II inlay wax, 600
Type IV gypsum, 593
Types of denture bases, 323–324
U
U-shaped connector, 290
Ulceration, 224
Ultra low fusing temperature, 654
Ultraviolet, visible light spectrum, 584
Under postdamming, 49
Undercut gauges, 338
Undercuts, 38, 217, 339, 346–347
Underextended borders, 217
Underextended margin, 629
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Underextension, 49
Unilateral balanced occlusion, 490
Unilateral dentures, 428
Unmodulated alternating current, 551
V
Vacuum formed template, 578–580
Valsalva manoeuvre, 46, 48
Value, 586
Vaseline, 195
Veau’s classificaiton, 774
Velopharyngeal inadequacy, 777
Velopharyngeal insufficiency, 777
Velum, 777
Veneer, 699
Vertical fulcrum line, 356
Vertical overlap, 489
Vertical projection, 316
Vertical relation, 107
Vestibuloplasty, 33
Vibrating line, 46
Vig’s technique, 242
Vinyl polymers and copolymers, 794–795
Virginia bridge, 664–665
Visible light spectrum, 584
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Visualization, 268
Vita 3D master, 588–589
Vita lumin vacuum, 588
Vitamin deficiency (vitamin A), 219
‘VO’ (vitallium occlusal), 163
Vulcanite burs, 408, 423–424
Vulcanization, 795
W
Warpage, 216, 234
Water-soluble alginate solutions, 196
Wax boxing, 80–81
Wax cut back, 608
Wax distortion, 600
Wax patterns, 600–608
Waxing, 184, 191–194
Waxing instruments, 601
Waxing the framework, 394–396
Welding, 623
White vinegar, 213–214
Widening of central fossae, 204
Williams surveyor, 337
Willis gauge, 115
Willis guide, 116
Wing, 517f
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Wire or nail head construction, 299
Wooden hammer, 201–202
Working casts, 592
Working interferences, 491
Working side, 205
Working time, 199
Wrap-around or ¾th type, 690
Wrenching action, 429
Wrought wire connectors, 364
X
X-rays, 584
Xerostomia, 6, 214
Y
Y-clasp, 317
Yurkstas technique, 239
Z
Zero degree teeth, 160
Zeroing of articulator, 113, 141f, 468–473
Zest attachments, 716
Zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) impression paste, 42
Zinc phosphate cement, 632–633, 685
Zinc polycarboxylate cement, 633
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Zinc stearate, 606
Zirconia, 654
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Textbook of Prosthodontics

Preface to the second edition

Preface to the first edition

Sequelae of wearing complete dentures

4. Impressions and casts

Principles and objectives of impression making

Anatomic and denture landmarks

Definitive (final) cast

5. Record bases and occlusal rims

Clinical contouring of occlusal rims

Maxillomandibular relations and records

Difference between natural and complete denture occlusion

Requirements of complete denture occlusion

Types of complete denture occlusion

9. Selection of artificial teeth

Selection of anterior teeth

Selection of posterior teeth

Posterior tooth forms

10. Teeth arrangement

Factors influencing teeth arrangement

Evaluation of mandibular trial denture

Evaluation of maxillary trial denture

Evaluating both dentures together

12. Processing and remounting

Selective grinding or occlusal reshaping

Recovering denture from the cast

13. Denture insertion

Recall and maintenance

14. Postinsertion problems

15. Refitting and repair

16. Single complete denture

Maxillary single complete denture

Mandibular single complete denture

17. Immediate dentures

Definition and types

Conventional immediate denture

Interim immediate dentures

Comparison of conventional and interim immediate dentures

SECTION 2. Removable Partial Dentures

Indications and contraindications

Steps in fabrication of a clasp-retained cast removable partial denture

Component parts of removable partial denture

19. Sequelae of partial edentulism

Sequelae of partial edentulism

20. Classification of partially edentulous arches

Need for classification

21. Component parts

Rests and rest seats

22. Diagnosis and treatment planning

Diagnostic impressions and casts

24. Principles and design

25. Mouth preparation

26. Secondary impressions and master cast

27. Fabrication of removable partial denture

Record bases and occlusal rims

Selection of teeth and denture base

Arrangement of artificial teeth and occlusion

Waxing and processing the denture base

28. Denture insertion